ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY

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E-Mail: shs@addu.edu.ph * www.addu.edu.ph

In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL - CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE

LEARNING PLAN: GRADE 12

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS (Part 2)

INTRODUCTION
In the last session, we discussed the intermolecular forces present in any substance. In
this topic, we will study the different properties of liquids and solids and how intermolecular
forces affect these properties. Take note however that these properties of liquids and solids are
often the results of many or combined forces. We will also try to unravel the anomalous
properties of water that make water essential to our existence. in this module, we will discuss
the following lessons:

o Lesson 1: Properties of Liquids

o Lesson 2: Types and Properties of Solids

Lesson 1: Properties of Liquids

The physical properties of matter like boiling point and melting point, surface tension,
viscosity, and capillarity, as well as its physical state, are attributed to the intermolecular forces
of attraction between any particles like molecules, atoms, or ions.

The different physical properties of liquids can be explained by the strength of their IMFA
and the kinetic energy that liquid particles have.

1.1 Surface Tension

Liquids especially water tend to form droplets on

a surface, water strider can walk on water, and a paper
clip can float on water, all of these are due to water’s
surface tension.

What is surface tension?

Surface tension is a property of a liquid that

allows its surface to resist an external force. It is the force
that causes the surface of a liquid to contract or which
makes the surface of a liquid form like a membrane. This
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 property is caused by strong cohesion or cohesive force
at the surface of liquids. The cohesive force is an
intermolecular attractive force that binds similar
molecules to one another that is; the force(s) among the
molecules of the liquid.

Liquid molecules interact with each

other. However, molecules at the surface of
the liquid experience an imbalance of
attractive forces (see figure on the left). Since
there are only fewer molecules above them
that they can interact with and there are also
no attractive forces, the attraction for
surface molecules will be limited to the side
and inner molecules only and as a result, they
are pulled inwardly causing their surface to
reduce. On the contrary, inner molecules do not experience surface tension because it is
surrounded and attracted to other molecules in all directions. These forces cancel out.

The surface tension of a liquid is directly proportional to the strength of its intermolecular
force. In other words, surface tension increases with stronger intermolecular forces however it
decreases with increasing temperature.

Of the common liquids, water shows a distinctly high surface tension because of the
strong hydrogen bonding between its molecules. This results in water having a tough surface that
can resist considerable force without breaking. It is for this reason that a paper clip will float when
carefully placed on the water while some insects, like the water strider, can walk on the surface
of the water. On the other hand, water “beads up” on some surfaces, for instance, on the waxed
surface because the water’s cohesive force is greater than the attractive force between water
and the waxed surface. This intermolecular attractive force between different types of molecules
such as water and the waxed surface or between any liquid molecules and their container or
another surface is called adhesion or adhesive force.

Both adhesive and cohesive forces

are taken into consideration when we
compare the shape of the meniscus of
liquids, for instance, the meniscus of water
and mercury. Suppose we put both liquids
in a separate glass tube. We can see that
the meniscus of mercury (right) is curved
downward (dome-shaped; convex) while
that of water (left) is curved upward (U-
shaped; concave).

The difference in the shape of their meniscus lies in the differences between their
adhesive and cohesive forces. Both liquids have strong cohesive forces. In water, the adhesive
force is greater than its cohesive force. In other words, the attraction between water molecules
and the surface molecules of the glass forms a stronger H-bonding than the H-bonding between
water molecules. As a result, water creeps up the sides of the glass tube, or is said to “wet” the
glass, forming a meniscus with a concave shape. This is also the cause of capillary action (- the
spontaneous rise of a liquid in narrow tubes).
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 On the contrary, the meniscus of mercury is curved downward because the cohesive force
between mercury atoms is stronger than the adhesive force between mercury atoms and the
molecules of the glass. Mercury does not wet a glass tube thus capillarity does not occur in
mercury.

In addition, water in nonpolar plastic graduated cylinders forms a flat meniscus because
neither adhesive nor cohesive forces are strong enough to wet the plastic cylinder or form a
convex meniscus respectively.

1.2 Viscosity

We have discussed in Liquids and Solids Part

1 that one of the properties of liquids is their
ability to flow and for this, they easily take up the
shape of their container. However, not all liquids
have the same ease at which they flow. Water, for
example, can flow easily but honey does not. This
property of liquid which is related to the ease
with which individual molecules of the liquid can
move with respect to one another is called
viscosity. It is a measure of the resistance of a
liquid to flow and is opposite to fluidity.

For liquids, the stronger the intermolecular

forces of attraction, the greater its viscosity and the
more slowly the liquid flows. However, viscosity is
inversely proportional to temperature, that is, as
temperature increases viscosity decreases this is
due to the increase in KE which overcomes the
forces that hold liquid molecules together.

Sample Exercise #1.

Predict which is more viscous, glycerol or ethanol.

Ans. Both molecules exhibit hydrogen bonding however glycerol molecule has more sites
for H-bonding compared to ethanol. Thus, glycerol is more viscous than ethanol.

Chemistry Input:

Why is viscosity important in engine oils?

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 At colder temperatures, you may find it difficult to get your engine start quickly this is
because colder temperatures cause lubricants to thicken and this would require more energy
to circulate due to reduced flow. However, when the weather is warmer, the oil becomes
thinner and easier to circulate.

Engine oil is the blood of your vehicle. It keeps the car functioning to its maximum
capacity. Engine oil lubricates the engine parts (which are in constant friction), helps reduce
friction in engines, and helps engines start quickly. Hence, viscosity is the most important
property of oil when considering engine protection.

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a numerical code system for
grading motor oils according to their viscosity characteristics. For example, you would see
something like this in engine oil labels, SAE 5W-30. Engine oil viscosity is classified according to
the numerical code “XW-XX” where W stands for winter. The number before the “W” describes
the viscosity of the oil at low temperatures. The lower the number, the less the oil thickens in
cold weather. The numbers after the “W” indicate hot weather viscosity and represent the oil’s
resistance to thinning at high temperatures. The higher the number, the thicker the oil at a
specified operating temperature.

1.3 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in

equilibrium with a solid or a liquid at a given temperature. An
equilibrium condition refers to a condition in which two opposite
processes take place at the same rate: for example, heating a liquid in
a closed container. Equilibrium is said to occur when evaporation
occurs as fast as condensation and vice versa. And since both processes
are occurring at equal rates there is no net change in the amount of
vapor in a closed container because the number of particles entering
the vapor state is in proportion with the number of particles returning
to the liquid state.

Vapor pressure is also a measure of the escaping tendency of a liquid or solid to its vapor
state. Thus, substances with high vapor pressure readily evaporate and are said to be volatile.
Different substances have different vapor pressure depending on the strength of attractive forces
that operate on the substance and the temperature. The greater the attractive force the lesser
will be the escaping tendency of the molecules to evaporate and the lower will be its vapor
pressure. In contrast, increasing the temperature increases the KE which overcomes the
attractive forces of the liquid thereby increasing its tendency to form a gas thus, VP increases.

When the vapor pressure of a liquid equals to that of the atmospheric pressure, the liquid
will boil, or when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the external pressure acting on the
surface of that liquid. The corresponding temperature is the boiling point of the liquid. Liquids
that have weak attractive forces have high vapor pressure and boil at a lower temperature.
Consequently, those with strong attractive forces boils at a higher temperature.

The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which a liquid boil under a
pressure of 760 mm Hg or one atmosphere.

It is important to note that, the temperature of a liquid remains constant at its boiling
point (recall the heating curve for water) because the heat energy added will be used to
overcome the cohesive forces in the liquid to change it into a vapor. Thus, there is no significant
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difference with the food being cooked in boiling water with the stove set at low heat or high heat
because water will not get hotter at its boiling point (provided all other factors are kept constant)

Sample Exercise #2:

Predict the order of increasing boiling points for the following: H2S; H2O; CH4; H2; KBr

(Hint: To answer, first determine the polarity and size of each substance to determine the
kinds (or strengths) of intermolecular forces that are present. In general, the stronger the
intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point of the substance.)

Answer: H2 , CH4 , H2S , H2O , KBr

Both CH4 and H2 are nonpolar but the CH4 molecule is larger and is more easily polarized than
the very small H2 molecule, so dispersion forces are stronger in CH4. Thus, CH4 boils at a higher
temperature compared to H2. Whereas H2S and H2O are both polar, H2O exhibits strong H-
bonding and boils at a higher temperature than H2S which exhibits dipole-dipole interaction,
so it boils at a lower temperature compared to H2O. KBr will boil at the highest temperature
since it is ionic.

1.4 Molar Heat of Vaporization

The heat of vaporization is the

amount of heat required to vaporize a
specific amount of liquid at its boiling
point with no change in temperature. In
other words, it is the amount of energy
(heat) needed to change a liquid into a
vapor.

The heat of vaporization depends on the strength of the attractive forces in liquids.
Liquids with stronger intermolecular forces of attraction will have a higher heat of vaporization.
And a higher value of heat of vaporization means a lot of heat is required to vaporize a liquid.
This is the reason why a burn caused by steam is more damaging to the skin/tissues than a burn
from boiling water even though both steam and boiling water are at the same temperature.
When steam hits the skin, a lot of energy will be released as it condenses into a liquid. This energy
is absorbed by our skin.

Practice Task 1.1

1. Which of the following pairs will have a higher boiling point? Explain.

a.) NH3 and CH4

b.) Cl2 and F2

2. The vapor pressure at 20 OC for the following substances is:

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 Methyl alcohol 96 torr

Water 17.5 torr

Mercury 0.0012 torr

a.) Arrange these substances in order of increasing rate of evaporation.

b.) Which substance listed has the highest boiling point? The lowest?

1.5 Structure and Properties of Water

Water constitutes 75% of the earth’s entire surface and is an important component of all
living things. Our body is essentially an aqueous system consisting of water about 70% of total
body mass. In fact, water is more important than food for we can survive much longer without
food but not without water. Also, water is a colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid with a high boiling
point and low melting point at 100 OC and 0 OC, respectively. The anomalous characteristics of
water are largely due to its strong hydrogen bond. Some of the unusual properties of water are
as follows:

1. Solid water is less dense than liquid water. Water has a maximum density of 1.000 g/mL
at 4 OC. It expands as it is cooled from 4 OC to 0 OC. Water molecules in the solid state are
more widespread thus, the separation of molecules in ice is
greater than in liquid water which is why ice floats.

This phenomenon is of biological importance because ice on

surface lakes, for instance, will serve as insulators of the liquid
water underneath allowing fish and other organisms to live
during winter by maintaining a temperature adequate for
survival.

2. Water has a high surface tension and exhibits capillary

action. The roots of plants exhibit a strong attraction for
water molecules (adhesive force). Through capillary action,
the roots take up water and dissolved nutrients from the soil
and distribute them to other parts of the plant.

3. Water has a high heat of vaporization. Water requires a

large amount of energy to transform into a vapor (endothermic process) and thereby
breaking its hydrogen bonds. During evaporation, there is a consequent decrease in the
temperature of a liquid because surface molecules with high KE escape forming a vapor;
those liquid molecules left behind will have lower KE which will result in a lowering of the
temperature of the liquid. This explains why evaporation is accompanied by a cooling
effect. In fact, our body feels cooler after perspiring because perspiration lowers our body
temperature.

In the same manner, evaporation removes heat from the environment and water plays an
important role in keeping the temperature almost constant. Because water has a high
heat of vaporization, it must take away a large amount of energy in the form of heat from
the environment for it to vaporize.

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 4. Water is a good solvent. The structure of water is bent with a bond angle of 105O. Water’s
high polarity owes to its bent structure. Since water is highly polar, it can dissolve more
substances compared to other solvents thus, it is often referred to as the universal solvent.

Lesson 2: Types and Properties of Solids

Solids are usually characterized as having definite shape and volume with molecules being
packed very close together such that it is virtually incompressible, their motion is restricted to
vibration at fixed points only, and with increased molecular order.

Solids have strong intermolecular forces of attraction. Depending on the degree or

strength of its attraction, some melt when heated or vaporizes right away. Some solids when
dissolved in water conduct electricity, while others do not.

2.1 Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

When we talk about solids, we look at how the particles are arranged in fixed positions in
space more important than their motion. Here, we will talk about two distinguishing features
that characterize the different types of solids: the arrangement of their particles and melting
points.

Solid particles can form a regular three-dimensional pattern of an arrangement called a

crystal lattice or they can form without particular order (irregular shape). Moreover, the presence
or absence of long-range order in the structure of solids results in the difference in their behavior
when heated. Long-range order refers to the repetition of a regular pattern of arrangement of
particles over the entire crystal or the repetition of structural units of the substance over long
atomic distances. Solids with long-range orders have specific melting points because they have
the same repeating units which are at the same distance from each other and thus, they
experience the same type and strength of attractive forces. These attractive forces require the
same amount of energy to break. Whereas other solids melt over a wide range of temperatures
because they have no particular structural order. Their number of neighboring units and their
distance from each other varies thus different amounts of energy are needed to break these
attractive forces. This causes some parts of the solid to melt ahead of other parts.

Generally, solids can be classified as amorphous or crystalline. Crystalline solids often

called crystals are considered true solids, their particles are arranged in an orderly way. They are
formed when a liquid is solidified slowly allowing their atoms, ions, or molecules to form an
orderly geometric pattern called a crystal lattice. They have well-defined sharp melting points
and usually have flat surfaces and sharp angles. In contrast, amorphous solids (from the Greek
word ámorphos, meaning “shapeless”) do not have a well-defined geometrical structure. They
are considered super-cooled liquids where their particles are arranged randomly like that of the
liquid state. They do not have a sharp melting point and melt over a wide range of temperatures.
Amorphous solids are formed when a liquid is cooled rapidly such that the particles are solidified
in a partially disordered condition.

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 More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially prepared solids are crystalline solids.
Metals, ionic compounds, gems, ice, and sugar naturally form ordered, crystalline solids while
glass and most polymers like plastics, rubber, and candle waxes are amorphous solids composed
of large hydrocarbon molecules.

There is only one type of amorphous solid but there are four different types of crystalline
solids, depending on the identity of the units that comprise the crystal.

2.2 Types of Crystals

The crystalline solids are classified based on their unit particles: atoms, molecules, and
ions.

Ionic Solids

Ionic solids or crystals are composed of ions (monatomic or

polyatomic). The particles for this type of solid are held together by
attractive forces between oppositely charged ions (electrostatic
attraction). They have a strong attractive force which causes them to
have very high melting points, for example, NaCl melts at 800 OC.
These solids are relatively hard and brittle and have poor thermal and
electrical conductivity. They do conduct electricity, however, when
molten or dissolved because their ions are then free to move
(mobile).

Covalent Network Solids

These solids are composed of a network of nonmetallic atoms or molecules held together
by covalent bonds. Some covalent solids form molecules but others that are considered giant
molecules form a network of covalently bonded atoms in the solid crystal. Generally, they are
very hard, have very high melting points, and have poor thermal and electrical conductivity. For
example, diamond is one of the hardest substances and can only be broken when heated to 3500
°C and above. The figure below shows diamond (left) and graphite (right) and the arrangement
of their carbon atoms. Diamond is three-dimensional while graphite is two-dimensional.

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Molecular Solids

Particles of molecular crystals are either atoms of monatomic elements or molecules that
are held together by weak intermolecular forces like London dispersion, dipole-dipole or H-
bonding, or any combination of these forces. These solids have fairly strong attractive forces if
their molecules are polar. Most molecular solids, however, have low to moderate melting points,
are soft, and have poor thermal and electrical conductivity. The figures below show the molecular
arrangement of ice cubes.

Metallic Solids

These solids are composed of metallic atoms joined by a metallic bonding. The bonding
involves the attraction between the metal ions and their mobile electrons often described as
positive ions in a sea or cloud of electrons. Since the electrons are free to move from one atom
to another, metallic solids are said to be good conductors of electricity. The strength of the bond
depends on the type of metal and its property, thus a metallic solid can be soft or hard, while its
melting point ranges from low to high. They are also good thermal conductors, malleable and
ductile. The figures below show the arrangement of the atoms of metallic copper (left) and the
atomic representation of the movement of electrons within the solid (right)

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REFLECTION
Matter exists in different forms and has different properties. Understanding the force that
lies within enables us to understand their nature, and behavior and apply them for the benefit of
many. In life, how do you deal with people with different perspectives and backgrounds?

REFERENCES
Supplementary Videos:
Why does ice float in water? - George Zaidan and Charles Morton
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UukRgqzk-KE)

Properties of Water (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jwAGWky98c)

Types of Solids (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VH9cRxXUNRA)

Simulations:
cK-12 Exploration Series
(https://interactives.ck12.org/simulations/chemistry/intermolecular-
forces/app/index.html?screen=sandbox&lang=en&referrer=ck12Launcher&backUrl=http
s://interactives.ck12.org/simulations/chemistry.html)

References:
Baguio, S. S. M. (2017). Breaking through general chemistry for senior high school 2. C & E
Publishing, Inc.

Ball, D. W. (2014, September 16). Introductory Chemistry – 1st Canadian Edition – Simple
Book Production. Pressbooks. https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/

Bauer, R. C., Birk, J. P., & Marks, P. S. (2016). General Chemistry (Books I and II) (4th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

De Borja, R., & Ayson, M. (2016). General Chemistry 2. Vibal Group Inc.

Hein, M., Best, L. R., & et. al. (2007). General, organic, and biochemistry (8th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

http://philschatz.com/chemistry-book/contents/m51078.html

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Prince_Georges_Community_College/Chemistry_2000
%3A_Chemistry_for_Engineers_(Sinex)/Unit_3%3A_States_of_Matter/Chapter_8%
3A_Solids/Chapter_12.01%3A_Crystalline_and_Amorphous_Solids

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3
A_Chemistry_-
_Atoms_First_(OpenSTAX)/10%3A_Liquids_and_Solids/10.2%3A_Properties_of_Liq
uids

Jauco, M. C., Jerusalem, V. L., & et. al. (2017). General Chemistry 2 (Second Semester) (1st
ed.). Mindshapers Co. Inc.

Whitten, K. W., & et. al. (2005). General Chemistry (7th ed.). Brooks/Cole.

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