Energies 16 01494

energies
Review
Current Scenario of Solar Energy Applications in Bangladesh:
Techno-Economic Perspective, Policy Implementation, and
Possibility of the Integration of Artificial Intelligence
Monirul Islam Miskat 1 , Protap Sarker 2 , Hemal Chowdhury 2 , Tamal Chowdhury 1, *, Md Salman Rahman 3 ,
Nazia Hossain 4 , Piyal Chowdhury 5 and Sadiq M. Sait 6
1 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology,
Chattogram 4349, Bangladesh
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology,
Chattogram 4349, Bangladesh
3 School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley,
Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
4 School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
5 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Science & Technology Chittagong (USTC),
Foy’s Lake, Zakir Hossain Road, Chattogram 4202, Bangladesh
6 Computer Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: tamalshanto@gmail.com
Abstract: Bangladesh is blessed with abundant solar resources. Solar power is considered the most
desirable energy source to mitigate the high energy demand of this densely populated country.
Although various articles deal with solar energy applications in Bangladesh, no detailed review can
be found in the literature. Therefore, in this study, we report on the current scenario of renewable
energy in Bangladesh and the most significant potential of solar energy’s contribution among multi-
Citation: Miskat, M.I.; Sarker, P.; ple renewable energy resources in mitigating energy demand. One main objective of this analysis
Chowdhury, H.; Chowdhury, T.; was to outline the overall view of solar energy applications in Bangladesh to date, as well as the
Rahman, M.S.; Hossain, N.; ongoing development of such projects. The technical and theoretical solar energy potential and the
Chowdhury, P.; Sait, S.M. Current
technologies available to harvest solar energy were also investigated. A detailed techno-economic
Scenario of Solar Energy
design of solar power applications for the garment industry was also simulated to determine the
Applications in Bangladesh:
potential of solar energy for this specific scenario. Additionally, renewable energy policies applied in
Techno-Economic Perspective, Policy
Bangladesh to date are discussed comprehensively, with an emphasis on various ongoing projects
Implementation, and Possibility of
the Integration of Artificial
undertaken by the government. Moreover, we elaborate global insight into solar power applications
Intelligence. Energies 2023, 16, 1494. and compare Bangladesh’s current solar power scenario with that of other regions worldwide. Fur-
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031494 thermore, the potential of artificial intelligence to accelerate solar energy enhancement is delineated
comprehensively. Therefore, in this study, we determined the national scenarios of solar power
Academic Editor: Ted Soubdhan
implementation in Bangladesh and projected the most promising approaches for large-scale solar
Received: 18 December 2022 energy applications using artificial intelligence approaches.
Revised: 17 January 2023
Accepted: 26 January 2023 Keywords: solar energy; Bangladesh; techno-economic analysis; artificial intelligence
Published: 2 February 2023
1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Energy is the ultimate indicator to evaluate a nation economically and socially [1–3].
This article is an open access article To eradicate poverty or to bring about sustainable development for future generations, it is
distributed under the terms and necessary to ensure the availability of energy resources at all stages of society [4,5]. Global
conditions of the Creative Commons energy demand has been rapidly increasing, putting a strain on existing resources such as
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// coal and oil. Global energy consumption decreased by 4.5% in 2020 before increasing by 5%
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ in 2021. The use of energy in Russia rose by 9% in 2021, followed by 5.2% in China, 4.7% in
4.0/). India, 4.7% in the United States, and 4.5% in the European Union (EU) [6]. Demand for oil
Energies 2023, 16, 1494. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031494 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 1494 2 of 27
products and natural gas also showed growth in 2021. Due to the easing of lockdowns and
increase in mobility, demand for oil products increased by 5% in 2021, and global natural gas
consumption increased by 4.8% in the same year [6]. The United States and China were the
most significant contributors to this increase in oil consumption. Because of the economic
recovery and high gas prices in Western countries, coal consumption has also increased
significantly. Global coal consumption increased by 5.7%, and the United States was the
leading contributor to this sector. These resources have been extensively used to produce
electricity [7]. According to the IEA, 60% of electricity produced globally is generated using
fossil fuels [8]. Fossil fuels release a large amount of CO2 and other pollutants into the
atmosphere. Industrial activities and fossil fuel combustion for transportation or electricity
generation have also released a large amount of CO2 , contributing to an increase in the
greenhouse effect. These greenhouse gas emissions can increase the Earth’s temperature
and lead to climate instability [9], with dramatic consequences for the future of humanity,
especially in underdeveloped rural areas, where people are affected by droughts and
floods [10,11]. The current energy crisis, the unavailability of fossil fuels, and greenhouse
gas emissions from these limited resources have made people think about finding suitable
alternatives. Over the last decade, the enthusiasm for utilization of renewable energy has
been renewed. The term ‘renewable energy’ is applied to all energy sources that will not
be exhausted or change significantly in millions of years [12]. In 2021, the total amount of
renewable electricity produced exceeded 8000 TWh, an all-time high, which is 500 TWh
higher than in 2020 [8]. Moreover, most of this electricity is produced by solar and wind
resources. Solar power provided 5% of the world’s electricity by the end of 2021. Table 1
shows the leading countries in terms of production of solar power in 2021 [13].
Table 1. Solar energy capacity by the leading solar-power-implementing countries [13].
Country Capacity (MW)

China 306,973
United States 95,209
Japan 74,191
Germany 58,461
India 49,684
Italy 22,698
Australia 19,076
South Korea 18,161
Vietnam 16,660
Spain 15,952
In Bangladesh, primary energy consumption was reported to be 1.57 quadrillion

British thermal units (Btu) in 2019. Bangladesh’s primary energy consumption increased
significantly between 2000 and 2019, from 0.51 to 1.57 quadrillion Btu, with an annual rate
of increase that peaked in 2015 at 10.65% before declining to 0.86% in 2019 [14]. Natural
gas demand in Bangladesh has also increased in the power generation sector, and almost
65% of the total production is supplied to power plants [15], placing massive pressure
on natural gas reserves. The current natural gas reserve is 7.25 trillion cubic feet (Tcf),
which is expected to be depleted in a decade [16]. Additionally, there is an immense gap
between demand and generation. In 2019, the maximum production was 12,893 MW, while
the demand was 14,796 MW [17]. This large gap between demand and production is a
barrier to the country’s economic development. The government of Bangladesh has taken
a few initiatives to mitigate the country’s dependency on petroleum products and adopt
sustainable power sources. Several private and public organizations are working hand in
hand to generate electricity from renewable sources.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 3 of 27
Due to the favorable geographical location and direct sunlight year-round, research on
solar energy implementation in Bangladesh is highly lucrative. Different power industries
have developed efficient solar panels and commercialized them on a pilot or large scale
in Bangladesh. Besides experimental and case studies on solar panels [18–20], several
prospective/review studies have reported on solar energy targets and constraints. A pre-
vious study on the solar home system in Bangladesh reported on the general prospective
and feasibility of solar panel installation for home applications, as well as possible con-
straints [21]. Another study presented a general survey of solar energy projects and targets
for upcoming projects [22]. A review study on solar energy implementation presented the
solar energy scenario, investigating different projects and their feasibility [23]. Although
a general perspective on solar energy implementation and feasibility in Bangladesh has
been explored, no review study has been conducted on the correlation of past and current
scenarios of solar energy, comprehensive mapping, in-depth techno-economic perspectives,
and integration with niche technology implementing artificial intelligence (AI) in the near
future. Therefore, the aim of this review study is to showcase the progress and latest
developments with respect to solar energy implementation by various projects run by
government/non-government organizations in Bangladesh, as well as a detailed techno-
economic analysis and investigation of the pioneering concept of AI integration with solar
systems to elevate solar panel technology. The novelty of this study lies on the in-depth
analysis of the techno-economic prospective of solar energy implementation based on the
current energy scenario in Bangladesh and integration of Al technology in the overall
process to elevate technological advancement in this sector.
1.1. Energy Scenario of Bangladesh

An electrical power system has three major components, i.e., generation, transmission,
and distribution. In the generation subsector, electricity is produced from primary fuel.
The transmission network carries power produced by the generation subsector to the major
load centers, and finally, the distribution system interfaces with the end clients, for example,
retail clients. As an economically viable utility-scale electricity storage system is yet to be
developed, demand created in the distribution system must be met instantaneously by
producing power at power generation stations and transmitted through the transmission
network, which bridges generation and distribution. The journey of modern power utilities
in Bangladesh started in 1962 with the creation of WAPDA and the installation of the 80 MW
Karnafuli Hydropower plant. Established on 1 May 1972, BPDB began with a production
capacity of 200 MW. Since then, the generation capacity has expanded, and in 2022, the total
installed capacity (by fuel type) increased to 22,612 MW (as of August 2022), although the
maximum power generation was only 13,525 MW (up to January 2022) [24]. Of the total net
generation, the private sector generated the most energy (47.39%), followed by the public
sector (40.02%) and joint venture (4.10%). The remaining energy (8.50%) is imported from
foreign countries [24]. Figure 1 depicts the installed capacity by fuel type [25]. As shown
in Figure 1, it is clear that Bangladesh is heavily dependent on natural gas. As previously
stated, 65% of natural gas in Bangladesh is used to generate electricity. However, this
amount was reduced to 42% in 2022 due to the gas shortage, as presented in Figure 2 [26].
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 29
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14000
14000 11476
12000
12000 11476
10000
10000
8000
6329
8000
6000
6329
6000
4000
40001768 1290
2000 1160
1768 230 269
2000 1290 1160
0
Coal Natural gas Diesel Hydro 230 Power Renewable
Furnace oil 269
0 import energy
Coal Natural gas Diesel Furnace oil Hydro Power Renewable
import energy
Figure 1. Electricity generation scenario of Bangladesh in 2022 (MW) [25].
3% 1%
3% 1%
6%
Power
6%
18% 42% Residential
Power
Captive
18% 42% Residential
Industrial
Captive
Fertilizer
Industrial
17%
CNG Fertilizer
17% Commercial
13% CNG and tea estate
13% Commercial and tea estate
Figure 2. Employment of natural gas in various segments of Bangladesh [26].
Bangladesh’s power division has been affected by gas accessibility issues and the
Figure 2. Employment of natural gas in various segments of Bangladesh [26].
push for strong economic growth. There is currently a gap due to fuel shortages, resulting
in frequent
Figure power cuts
2. Employment [27]. gas
Furthermore, faults in the transmission
[26]. system also act as
Bangladesh’s power of natural
division hasinbeen
various segments
affected by of gasBangladesh
accessibility issues and the
a barrier to supplying energy to people [28]. Total system losses in transmission and
push for strong economic growth. There is currently a gap due to fuel shortages, resulting
distribution
Bangladesh’s of electricity were reduced
power division has been to 9.54%
affected in by
2021–22 (up to January
gas accessibility issues2022)
andfrom
the
in frequent power cuts [27]. Furthermore, faults in the transmission system also act as a
14.73%
push forin 2010–11
strong [24]. Although
economic much is
growth. There improvement
currently a gap has due
beentomade in reducing
fuel shortages, this loss,
resulting
barrier to supplying energy to people [28]. Total system losses in transmission and distri-
inthere is stillpower
frequent much room for improvement.
cuts [27]. Furthermore, Energy
faults indemand is also increasing
the transmission systematalso
an alarming
act as a
butionrate of electricity were The
reduced to demand
9.54% in in 2021–22 (up toisJanuary 2022) from33,708
14.73%
barrier to supplying energy to people [28]. Total system losses in transmission and MW
in Bangladesh. energy Bangladesh expected to reach by
distri-
in 2010–11
2030 [24]. To
[25]. Although
overcome much
this improvement
challenge, has been is
Bangladesh made
now ininvesting
reducinginthis loss, there
renewable energy.
bution of electricity were reduced to 9.54% in 2021–22 (up to January 2022) from 14.73%
is still much room for improvement. Energy demand is also increasing at an alarming rate
in 2010–11 [24]. Although much improvement has been made in reducing this loss, there
in Bangladesh.
1.2. Current TheStatus
energy demand inEnergy
of Renewable Bangladesh is expected
Implementation to reach 33,708 MW by 2030
in Bangladesh
is still much room for improvement. Energy demand is also increasing at an alarming rate
[25]. To overcome
Bangladesh this has
challenge, Bangladesh
been demand
blessed with is now investing
abundant biomass in renewable
resources. energy.
in Bangladesh. The energy in Bangladesh is expected to reachBiomass
33,708 MWresources
by 2030are
not only used for cooking purposes but also for electricity generation.
[25]. To overcome this challenge, Bangladesh is now investing in renewable energy. Solar energy also
1.2. Current Statusanofattractive
represents Renewablesolution
Energy Implementation
to meet energyinneeds Bangladesh
due to the country’s geographical
Bangladesh
1.2. Current Status of Renewable Energy Implementation in BangladeshBiomass
location, has
which been blessed
enables the with
proper abundant
utilization biomass
of solar resources.
resources. Therefore, resources
solar energy
are not hasonly used popular
become for cooking purposes
in off-grid andbut also
hill forareas.
tract electricity
Likegeneration. Solar energy
solar and biomass, wind and
Bangladesh has been blessed with abundant biomass resources. Biomass resources
also represents
hydropower an attractive solution toinmeet
are not widespread energy needs
the country. due to the
Flat surfaces andcountry’s geograph-(water)
a lack of available
are not only used for cooking purposes but also for electricity generation. Solar energy
ical location,
heads have which enables
restricted the properdevelopment
hydropower utilization ofinsolar resources.
this country [29].Therefore, solar
Owing to inadequate
also represents an attractive solution to meet energy needs due to the country’s geograph-
information, wind power cannot be assessed successfully [30]. Table 2 shows the present
ical location, which enables the proper utilization of solar resources. Therefore, solar
status of sustainable power capacity from various sources in Bangladesh.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 5 of 27
Table 2. Current status of installed renewable energy capacity (MW) from different sources in
Bangladesh [31].
Off-Grid On-Grid Total

Technology
(MW) (MW) (MW)
Solar 356.35 359.16 715.51
Wind 2 0.9 2.9
Hydro - 230 230
Biogas to Electricity 0.69 - 0.69
Biomass to Electricity 0.40 - 0.40
Total 359.44 590.06 949.5
Bangladesh was not able to accomplish the goal of “5% of the power from sustainable
sources” by 2015, as the share of non-conventional sources of power generation was
3.5%. The availability of natural gas and its low electricity cost is the main reason for this.
However, the administration is trying very hard to accomplish the next goal of “10% of
power generation from inexhaustible sources by 2020” [32]. To accomplish this objective,
the government of Bangladesh (GoB) is searching for alternatives that could be ideal as
sustainable power sources. The government recently initiated the “500 MW Solar Power
Mission” to advance the utilization of sustainable power sources to fulfill the expanding
power needs presented in Tables 3 and 4 [33]. The government has also aimed to produce
4190 MW of electricity from different sustainable energy sources, as shown in Table 5 [22].
Tables 3 and 4 show the expected solar projects completed by the private and public sectors.
Table 5 lists the government’s yearly goals to produce electricity from different renewable
energy sources.
Table 3. Expected projects to be implemented by the private sector as part of the 500 MW solar
program [33].
Project Capacity (MW)

Solar Mini Grid 25
Solar Irrigation Pump 150
Solar Rooftop (residential, commercial, and industrial) 30
Solar Park 135
Total 340 MW
Table 4. Expected projects to be implemented by the public sector as part of the 500 MW solar
program [33].
Project Capacity (MW)

Solar electrification at religious establishments 12
Solar electrification in health centers 50
Solar electrification at union e-centers 7
Solar electrification in remote educational institutions 40
Solar electrification at remote railway stations 10
Solar PV systems in government and semi-government offices 41
Total 160
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 6 of 27
Table 5. Government’s yearly plan to generate electricity from renewable energy [22].
Others
Year Solar Wind Hydro Biomass Biogas Total
(Tidal, Wave)
Until 2018 350 2.9 230 0 1.08 0 583.98
2019 84 0 0 0 1 0 85
2020 100 38 0 0 2 0 140
2021 120 80 0 15 3 0 218
2022 150 120 0 15 4 0 289
2023 165 170 0 15 4 0 354
2024 165 170 0 15 4 0 354
2025 165 170 0 15 4 2 356
2026 165 170 0 15 4 4 358
2027 165 170 0 15 4 6 360
2028 165 170 0 15 4 8 362
2029 165 170 0 15 5 10 365
2030 165 170 0 15 5 10 365
Total 2124 1600.9 230 150 45.08 40 4189.98
2. Methodology
A methodology built on an extensive literature review across multiple data sources
was employed to find helpful content. Two main types of content were searched to prepare
this review study: (i) websites and databases, such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed,
IEEE Explore, and ResearchGate, were accessed for the literature search; and (ii) data
gathered from numerous technical papers and documentation on Bangladesh’s energy
scenarios, policies, and guidelines served as the second information source. Based on
the collected data and information related to solar energy implementation, in this study,
we determined past and current energy scenarios, as well as the current status of solar
energy implementation for various applications, conducted a techno-economic analysis,
and verified the feasibility of the integration of AI in existing solar systems to upgrade the
overall solar technology.
2.1. Techno-Economic Analysis

In this study, we present a techno-economic analysis of a garment building in Dhaka,
rgies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Bangladesh, to demonstrate the economic benefit of solar energy. Annual7energy
of 29 consump-
tion data are collected and presented in Figure 3 [34]. The annual energy demand of the
garment building is 3596 kWh/day.
Energy Consumption of a Germant Building
Other appliances Lights

17% 13%
Electrical
motors
70%
Lights Electrical motors Other appliances
Figure
Figure 3. Energy 3. Energy consumption
consumption data of
data of a garment a garment
building building
in Dhaka in Dhaka [34].
[34].
2.1.1. Panel Generation Factor (PGF)

PGF is a pivotal element in determining the size of the PV power plants based on the
total peak rating, differing depending on the location [35,36]. PGF can be calculated as
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 7 of 27
2.1.1. Panel Generation Factor (PGF)

PGF is a pivotal element in determining the size of the PV power plants based on the
total peak rating, differing depending on the location [35,36]. PGF can be calculated as
described in [37]. For Dhaka, the average daily solar radiation is 4.65 kWh/m2 . According
to the equation presented in [37], the value of PGF is 4.65.
2.1.2. Total Energy Required

The total energy required from PV modules will is the daily energy demand of the
garment building plus system losses, which are generally considered to be 30%. The total
energy is calculated by multiplying energy demand by the system loss compensation factor.
Accordingly, the energy demand of the garment factory is 4674.905 kWh/day.
2.1.3. Watt Peak Rating for PV Modules

The total watt peak rating for PV modules is calculated to identify system sizing,
which depends on the energy required from modules and the panel generation factor [38].
It can be determined by dividing the energy required by modules by the PGF.
2.1.4. Number of Modules

The total number of modules required for the proposed plant depends on the peak
rating of the modules, which is based on temperature variations at the location, and can be
calculated by dividing the total watt peak rating by the PV module peak-rated output. PV
module specifications are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Characteristics of PV modules [36].
Parameter Value
Maximum Power 215 Watt
Maximum Power Voltage 42 Volt
Maximum Power Current 5.13 Amp
Open-Circuit Voltage 51.6 Volt
Short-Circuit Current 5.61 Amp
2.1.5. Inverter Rating

The size of the inverter needed for the plant depends upon the peak watt requirement,
which is 1005 kW in the case of the considered garment factory. The inverter must be large
enough to handle the peak requirement in watts. The inverter should be able to handle
25–30% more than the total watt requirement [39] and can be determined according to
Equation (1).
Inverter size = Peak watt requirement × 1.3 (1)
2.1.6. Inverter Sizing

A cost-effective Solectria PVI 82 kW Grid Tied Inverter 480 VAC PVI-82 kW (Solectria)
with a cost of USD 36,306 was selected for the system, with 82 kW rated power and a
max open-circuit voltage of 600 VDC integrated with PV maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) [40]. The number of inverters required for the SPV plant depends on the inverter
size and can be determined according to Equation (2).
Inverter size
Number of inverters = (2)
Rated power of an inverter
2.1.7. Battery Sizing

Batteries are required to store the excess electricity generated in the PV panel. The total
number of cells required depends on the capacity of each battery. In the present analysis,
a J185E-AC 12V (Trojan, United States) deep cycle battery with a cost of USD 205.5 was
used [40]. Detailed specifications of the battery are provided in Table 7.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 8 of 27
Table 7. Battery specifications [39,40].
Nominal Voltage 48 Volt

Depth of Discharge 40%
Battery Efficiency 90%
Lifetime 4 years
Battery Capacity 175 Ah
The number of batteries and their capacity can be calculated according to Equations
(3) and (4), respectively.
Battery Capacity Required

No. of Batteries = (3)
Single Battery Capacity
Days of Autonomy × Total Watt − hour required
Batter Capacity Required (Ah) = (4)
Nominal Battery Voltage × Battery Efficiency×(1 − DOD)
2.1.8. Module Circuit

The module circuit represents the number of modules to be connected in series, i.e.,
the size of an array and voltage input to the inverter, as well as the total number of arrays
in the solar field.
The size of an array depends on the inverter’s maximum Voc ; the Voc of the module
can be calculated according to Equations (5)–(7) [40].
Maximum Open − Circuit Voltage of Inverter
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Size of an array = 9 of(5)
29
Open Circuit Voltage of each PV Module
The
Energies maximum
2023, voltage
16, x FOR PEER input
REVIEW to the inverter = No. of Modules in Series × Maximum voltage from a module9 of(6) 29
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW No. of Modules 9 of
Total No. of Arrays in the solar field = No. of Modules (7)29
Total No. of Arrays in the solar field No. = of No. of Modules
Modules in an Array (7)
Total No. of Arrays in the solar field = No. of of
Modules in an Array (7)
No. of No. Modules
Modules in an Array
Total No. of Arrays in the solar field = (7)
2.1.9. Land
Land Requirement
Requirement No. of No. of Modules
Modules in an Array
2.1.9. Land Requirement No. of No. of Modules
Modules in an Array
➢ The Total
Thenumber No.
numberof of
ofPV Arrays
PVmodules in the solar
modules required field
required ==4674; =
4674; (7)
2.1.9. Land Requirement No. of Modules in an Array
➢ The number of
Dimensions
Dimensions of PV
onemodules
ofone PV
PVmodule
modulerequired
==1.57
1.57m ××0.798
=m4674; 0.798m;
m;
2.1.9.
➢ The Land
Total Requirement
number
Dimensions
Total width
width ofeach
of
of PV modules
one
each PV arrayrequired
PVmodule
PV array ××0.798
=121.57
== 12 m= 4674;
× =0.798
0.798 =9.576m;
9.576m;m;
2.1.9.
➢ The Land
Total Requirement
number
Dimensions
Length of
width of
of
one
of PV
one
PV
each modules
PV
module
PV module
=
array
Length of one PV module = 1.57 m; required
1.57
= =
12 1.57
m;
× m=
0.798 4674;
× =0.798
9.576m;
m;
➢ TheTotal
Length
Numbernumber
Dimensions
Number of
width
ofof
one ofPV
of
of PVmodule
one
arrays
each
arrays modules
PV
in
inPV module
the
the PV
array
PV required
= m;
field
= 12
= 1.57
field 1.57
==
×390.m= 4674;
390.
0.798 × =0.798
9.576m;
m;
➢ Dimensions
Total
Length
Number width
of one
of of
of one
each
PV
arrays PV
PV
module
in module
the
Number of arrays in a row == 12;array
PV= =
1.57
field
12;=
12 1.57
m;
=× m
0.798
390. × =0.798
9.576m;
m;
➢ Total
Length
Number
Number width
of
Width of of one
of of each
PV
arrays
thearrays in
solar in PV
modulethearray
a row
field PV= =
1.57
field
= 12=××12; 12m;
9.576=× 0.798
390.
9.576==114.912 = 9.576
114.912m; m;m;
➢ Length
Number
Number of
Width of of one
of PV
arrays
thearrays module
in
solarinin
rows the
a row
field
the PV= 1.57
field
= 12=×field
solar 12; m;
9.576= 390.
= =33;
114.912 m;
➢ Number
Number
Width of of
thearrays
of
Pitch distance arrays
solar
rows inin
in athe
field
betweenthe =PV
row
solar
two field
12=arrays
12;
×field
9.576==(including
390.
=33;
114.912 m; the module length of 1.57 m) = 3 m;
Number
Width
Pitch
Length ofofof
the
distancearrays
the solar
rows inin
between
solar a row
field
the
field ===12
solar
two =arrays
33
33 12;
×field
××9.576 =33;
33++=1.57 114.912
(including
1.57 m;
mm==100.57the module
100.57 m;
m; length of 1.57 m) = 3 m;
Width of the solar field = 12 × 9.576 = 114.912 m; 2 m2).
Number
Pitch
Length of
distance
Land required
requiredrows
for in
between
forPV
of the solar the solar
two
field
field
PV ==33
field 3 +×
field
=arrays
100.57
×100.57= 33;
(including
114.912
1.57 =the module
= 11,556.7
m = 100.57
× 114.912 m; m m
11,556.7 = length
22.85 of
acres
= 2.85 1.57 (1m)
(1 acre
acres ==4047
acre 3=m;
4047
m ). Number
2 Pitch
Length ofofthe
Land distance
requiredrows forinPV
between
solar thefield
field solar
two
= 33 field
3 + =1.57
=arrays
×100.57 33;
(including =the
m = 100.57
× 114.912 module
m;
11,556.7 mlength
2 = 2.85 of 1.57(1m)
acres = 3=m;
acre 4047
2.1.10.
m Overall
2). Pitch
Length
Land Techno-Economic
distance
of the
required between
solar
for PVfield two
= 33
field Assessment
=arrays
×100.57 (including
3 + 1.57 =the
m = 100.57
× 114.912 module
m;
11,556.7 mlength
2 = 2.85 of 1.57(1m)
acres = 3=m;
acre 4047
Energy
2.1.10.
m LandPayback
2). Length the
required
Overall Timefor(EPBT)
of Techno-Economic
solar field
PV = 33
field ×100.57
3 + 1.57
= Assessment m = 100.57
× 114.912 m;
= 11,556.7 m2 = 2.85 acres (1 acre = 4047
2). Land
2.1.10.
m required
Overall
The energy for PVtime
Techno-Economic
payback field(EPBT)
= Assessment
100.57 × 114.912
of the = 11,556.7
plant can m2 = as
be defined 2.85
theacres (1 acre
duration = 4047
required
Energy
2.1.10.
m 2 ). Payback
Overall Time (EPBT)
Techno-Economic Assessment
to recuperate the total energy expenditure. Total embodied energy is the summation of
Energy
2.1.10.
energy The Payback
Overall
consumed
energy Time
payback (EPBT)
Techno-Economic
in materials, Assessment
manufacturing,
time (EPBT) of the plant transport, installation,
can be defined and management.
as the duration required
Energy
2.1.10.
EPBT
to The Payback
isOverall
determined
energy
recuperate theTime by(EPBT)
Techno-Economic
payback
total Equations
time (EPBT)
energy Assessment
(8) and
of the
expenditure. (9).plant
Total can be defined
embodied as the
energy duration
is the required
summation of
Energy
to
energy Payback
Theconsumed
energy
recuperate Time
thepayback
total (EPBT)
time (EPBT)
energy
in materials, of the plant
expenditure.
manufacturing, Total can be defined
embodied
transport, as the
energy
installation, duration
is and
the required
summation
management. of
Energy Payback Time (EPBT) Total Embodied Energy of Modules
to
energy
EPBT The
is energy
recuperate
consumedthe
determined
Energy payback
total
inby
Payback time
energy
materials,
Equations
Time (EPBT)
(EPBT of the
expenditure.
manufacturing,
(8)
) =and (9).plant
Total can be defined
embodied
transport, as the
energy
installation, duration
is and
the required
summation
management. of
(8)
to
energy
EPBT The energy
recuperate
isconsumedthepayback
determined total
inby time (EPBT)
energy
materials,
Equations ofAnnual
expenditure. the
manufacturing,
(8) and (9).
electricity
plant
Total can
embodied
transport,
generated
be defined
energy
installation,
from
as the
is and
the
the plant
duration required
summation
management. of
Total Embodied Energy of Modules
to
energy
EPBT Energy
recuperatePayback
isconsumedthe total
determined Time
inby (EPBT)
energy
materials,
Equations =
expenditure.
manufacturing,
(8) and
(EmAnnual (9).
+ Total Total
+ embodied
transport, energy
installation,
Et + generated
Emfelectricity
Embodied + Emg
EiEnergy of
is the
and
)Modules summation
management. (8)
of
EPBT = manufacturing, from the plant (9)
EPBTEnergy
energy Payback
isconsumed
determined Time
inby (EPBT)
materials,
Equations = andTotal
(8) transport,
(9). Embodied
Eg installation,
Energy of and
Modules management. (8)
Annual electricity generated from the plant
EPBTEnergy Payback by
is determined Time (EPBT)
Equations =+ and
(Em(8) Emf (9).
+
Total Et +
EmbodiedEi + Emg)
Energy of Modules
(8)
EPBT = Annual electricity generated from the plant (9)
Energy Payback Time (EPBT) (Em =+Annual
EmfTotal+electricity
Et + Ei +
Embodied Emg) of
Energy Modules
(8)
Eg generated from the plant
EPBT
Energy Payback Time (EPBT) = (Em =+Annual
Emf +electricity
Et + Ei + Emg) from the plant
(9)
(8)
Eg generated
The value for the total=energy consumed
EPBT in materials, manufacturing, transport,(9) in-
(Em + Emf + Eg
Et + Ei + Emg)
The value
stallation, for the
and management total
EPBT = energy
for each consumed
m 2 area in
of materials,
the module manufacturing,
was proposed intransport,
[41]. in-
(9)
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 9 of 27
The value for the total energy consumed in materials, manufacturing, transport,
installation, and management for each m2 area of the module was proposed in [41].
Therefore, (Em + Emf + Et + Ei + Emg) = 1516.59 kWh/m2 of module,
The total area of modules = No. of Modules × Length × Width of Modules

(10)
= 4674 × 1.57 × 0.798 = 5855.87 m2
Total embodied energy = 5855.87 × 1516.59 = 8880.95 MWh;

Number of sunny days = 300;
Annual electricity generated (Eg) = 3596 × 300 = 1078.8 MWh/year;
Electricity production factor (EPF).
The electricity production factor (EPF) is defined as the ratio of the annual energy
output to the input energy, and it predicts the overall performance of the PV module. EPF
can be calculated according to Equation (11).
Eg
EPF = (11)
(Emg + Emgf + Et + Ei + Emg)
Capital Utilization Factor (CUF)

The proportion of the actual energy produced by an SPV plant over a year to the
comparable energy output at that plant’s rated capacity in the same period is known as
the capacity utilization factor (CUF). The energy generation for an SPV project depends on
solar radiation and the number of bright, sunny days. The capital utilization factor (CUF)
is determined by Equation (12).
Annual energy Generated for each kW peak capacity

Capacity utilization factor (CUF) = (12)
8760 h
2.2. Financial Assessment

2.2.1. Cost of PV Modules and Inverters
The cost of each PV module = USD 528.9 [42]. The total cost of all modules can be
determined by Equation (13).
Total Cost of all modules = number o f modules × cost of each PV module (13)
A Solectria PVI 82 kW Grid Tied Inverter 480 VAC PVI-82 kW (Solectria) was consid-
ered for the inverter in this study. The cost of one inverter is USD 36,300 [39]. Total cost of
inverters can be measured by Equation (14).
Total Cost of Inverters = number o f inverters × cost of each inverter (14)
2.2.2. Cost of Batteries

Batteries store energy produced by a given generating source; when this source is
unavailable, this energy can be used by the load. Including storage in any energy-generating
system increases the availability of energy. A Trojan J185E-AC 12 V deep cycle battery with
a cost of USD 205.5 (atbatt.com) was used in this study. The battery life was considered
five years, as no frequent use of batteries is expected, and an annual maintenance contract
will improve the battery’s life. The replacement cost was considered every five years,
considering the applicable discount rate. The total cost of batteries can be measured by
Equation (15).
Total Cost of batteries = number o f batteries × cost of each battery (15)
2.2.3. Miscellaneous Cost

Miscellaneous costs, which consist of operation and maintenance, installation, and
electrical items (such as cables), total nearly USD 0.13/Wp [36]. Thus, the total miscel-
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 10 of 27
laneous cost of the proposed plant = 0.13 × 1005 × 1000 = USD 130,650. An economic
analysis of solar PV is presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Financial assessment of solar PV plants.
Cost Type Cost (USD)

1 Module cost 2,472,078.6
2 Battery cost 1127,646
3 Inverter cost 580,800
4 Miscellaneous cost 130,650
5 Total cost without land cost 4.311 million
The LCOE is the lifetime cost of an electricity plant, divided by the amount of electricity
it is expected to generate over its lifetime. LCOE is an important parameter, as it is the
minimum price at which energy must be sold for an energy project to break even. It
indicates whether a project will be profitable or not.
3. Solar Resources in All Divisions of Bangladesh

Bangladesh
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER has the potential to generate electricity from solar resources due to its
REVIEW 1
geographical location. An ongoing report directed by the Renewable Energy Research
Centre found that Bangladesh receives the most extreme solar radiation during spring
(March–April), with the lowest levels in December–January [43]. The average national solar
Bangladesh: Dhaka, Chattogram, Barisal, Khulna, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and
radiation ranges from 4 to 6.5 kWh/m2 /day [22]. There are eight divisions in Bangladesh:
mensingh. Figure 4 shows the solar radiation data from the eight districts of Bangla
Dhaka, Chattogram, Barisal, Khulna, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Mymensingh. Figure 4
[22].
shows the solar radiation data from the eight districts of Bangladesh [22].
Radiation data for eight divisions

Solar Radiation in kWh/d/m2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna

Mymensingh Rajshahi Rangpur Sylhet
Figure 4. Solar radiation

Figure 4. data
Solarfor the eight
radiation divisions
data for the Bangladesh [22].Bangladesh [22].
eight divisions
3.1. Theoretical Potential
3.1. Theoretical Potential
Theoretical potential was simulated based on land area data and solar radiation. Fig-
ure 5 shows a solarTheoretical potentialdemonstrating
map of Bangladesh, was simulatedthat
based on radiation
solar land areaisdata and solar
in range of ofradiation
4–5 kWh/m2 /day ure 5inshows a solar map
approximately of of
94% Bangladesh,
Bangladeshdemonstrating that solar
[44]. Approximately 6.5 radiation
h of day- is in ran
of 4–5 kWh/m
light is available throughout the day, and the national average solar radiation is 0.2 kW/m2 6.5 h o
2/day in approximately 94% of Bangladesh [44]. Approximately
per year [44]. light is available

Accordingly, thethroughout the day,
nation’s yearly and thesolar
theoretical national average
energy solarisradiation
capacity 70,000 is 0.2 k
per year [44]. Accordingly, the nation’s yearly theoretical solar
terawatt-hours (TWh), surpassing the current power production by 1500 times [30,32]. energy capacity is 7
However, variousterawatt-hours (TWh), surpassing
snags, for example, geologicalthe current
zone, land power production
use, and atmosphere, by have
1500 times [3
However, various snags, for example, geological zone, land use, and atmosphere,
become an integral factor in improving solar energy, and some advancements conce
solar PV technologies are likewise restricted in this nation.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 11 of 27
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

become 12 of 29
an integral factor in improving solar energy, and some advancements concerning
solar PV technologies are likewise restricted in this nation.
Solarmap
Figure5.5.Solar
Figure mapof
ofBangladesh
Bangladesh[45].
[45].
3.2.Technical
3.2. Technical Potential
Potential
The mean yearly power density of solar radiation is 100–300 W/m22 . As a result, an
The mean yearly power density of solar radiation is 100–300 W/m . As a result, an
area of 3 to 10 km2 is needed to produce an average electricity output of 100 MW, which
area of 3 to 10 km2 is needed to produce an average electricity output of 100 MW, which
is approximately 10% of a sizable coal or nuclear power plant, with a solar PV efficiency
is approximately 10% of a sizable coal or nuclear power plant, with a solar PV efficiency
of 10% [46]. The main advantage of sun-oriented innovations is that these advances do
of 10% [46]. The main advantage of sun-oriented innovations is that these advances do
not cause noise or pollution. Therefore, the search for appropriate areas for sun-oriented
not cause noise or pollution. Therefore, the search for appropriate areas for sun-oriented
projects includes unused land and reasonable housetops. An examination found that
projects includes unused land and reasonable housetops. An examination found that
housetops cover 3.2% of the total land area of Bangladesh [47]. Another investigation sug-
gested that to lessen or tackle the interest in the power issue of 3000 kWh/capita/year, 6.8%
of the entire country’s land is required for power production from sunlight-based
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 12 of 27
housetops cover 3.2% of the total land area of Bangladesh [47]. Another investigation
suggested that to lessen or tackle the interest in the power issue of 3000 kWh/capita/year,
6.8% of the entire country’s land is required for power production from sunlight-based
solutions [48]. Approximately 7.86% of land in Dhaka city can be used for PV-based
generation, and it is accepted that considering the accessibility of the grid, 1.7% of the land
area of the entire nation is appropriate for PV-based power generation [49]. Therefore, the
technical potential of a grid-connected solar power plant is assessed to be 50,000 MW [50]. It
was previously determined that four million houses can benefit from SHS in the future [51].
This capacity can increase up to 200 MW if a PV panel of 50 Wp is considered for each
family unit [44]. The financial feasibility of SHS in Bangladesh was assessed in [44], and
the techno-monetary viability of a hybrid system was investigated in [32]. CSP is another
promising innovation that can be used to reap the benefits of solar power; among the eight
divisions of Bangladesh, Rajshahi was found to be the most reasonable area for the use of
this innovation [33], which can provide Bangladesh with approximately 100 MW of power,
as presented in Table 9, which illustrates the solar energy potential of Bangladesh.
Table 9. Solar energy potential of Bangladesh [33].
Technology Potential Power (MW)

SHS 234
CSP 100
Grid-connected PV 50,174
4. Application of Solar Technologies in Bangladesh

4.1. Solar Home System (SHS)
SHS is the most feasible and compelling off-grid power system to fulfill the power
needs of the rural community. Worldwide, SHS has the highest installment rate. Initially,
the SHS project was modeled by PSL but was started by IDCOL. In 2003, the REREDP
project was initiated, and subsequently, SHS programs attracted increasing attention. The
number of SHS projects installed until September 2019 (up to January) was 4.13 M, with
the number expected to increase to 6 M by 2021 [52]. To date, the program has prevented
the use of 1.14 million tons of kerosene. To function, SHS requires a 12 V DC power supply
and consists of one or more crystalline Si solar PV modules (10–120 Wp with a 20-year
warranty), a rechargeable flooded lead–acid battery (12 V dc, 50–130 Ah, DOD 70% at a
discharge rate of 10 h with five years of useful life), and a charge controller (with low-
and high-voltage detection and 90% efficiency) to control and protect against abnormal
conditions among the modules, battery, loads, etc. The loads can be fluorescent lamps (5 W,
45 lum/W), radios, TVs, fans (15 W), etc. Therefore, off-grid solar home system projects
play an essential role in the electrification of Bangladesh’s remote areas.
4.2. Solar Power Plant/Solar Park

As the energy demand in this country is gradually increasing every year, the govern-
ment has planned to generate additional energy from nuclear and fossil-fuel-based power
plants. However, nuclear power plants and fossil-fuel-based power plants emit toxic waste,
which is hazardous to human life and the surroundings. Furthermore, burning fossil fuels
is not a sustainable long-term solution to fulfill future energy demands because fossil fuels
will run out one day. For this reason, solar power plants represent an alternative solution to
fossil-fuel-based power plants in Bangladesh. India has started producing electricity from
solar parks and solar power plants, which costs BDT 3.10/kWh or USD 0.038/kWh [53,54].
In Bangladesh, a 3 MW solar park was set up in Jamalpur, and 22 projects are in the plan-
ning phase [55]. Table 10 depicts the sizes of solar park projects undertaken by various
utilities in Bangladesh.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 13 of 27
Table 10. Capacities of solar park projects undertaken by various utilities in Bangladesh [55].
Utility/Institution/Company Capacity (MW)

Bangladesh Power Development Board 100
Ashuganj Power Company Limited 100
Electricity Generation Company Bangladesh Limited 100
Northwest Power Generation Company Limited 150
Rural Power Company Limited 200
Coal Power Generation Company Limited 50
Total 700
4.3. Solar Transport (School Boats)

Bangladesh floods annually during the monsoon season, with floodwaters covering
up to one-fifth of the country [56]. Solar school boats play a vital role in promoting
education programs among the flood-affected people in Bangladesh. An organization
named ‘Shidhulai Swanirvar Sangstha (SSS)’ designed solar-powered floating schools in
the ‘Chalanbeel’ region in 2002. The aim was to provide education services to affected
children and to improve socioeconomic conditions in the area. Another objective of that
organization is to provide recharge facilities so that affected people can use their solar
lanterns. The length and width of the designed boat are 55 feet and 11 feet, respectively,
and the boat can host 30 children and a teacher [57]. The rooftops of the boat were used for
PV module installations. The modules provide at least 2 kW of power. By 2013, SSS owned
111 boats and provided services to more than 70,000 children and 90,000 families [58].
These boats also contain libraries, health centers, education centers, etc. More than 200 staff
members and 40 boat drivers work in these boats.
4.4. Solar PV for Drinking Water and Irrigation Pumps

People living in the coastal areas of Bangladesh are forced to drink water from ponds,
canals, etc., due to saline intrusion. Furthermore, in the event of a flood, people suffer
from many waterborne diseases. To address this issue, GIZ executed a program named
SED. Under this program, 139 pumps with a capacity to supply 2.18 million liters of
pure drinking water daily have been installed [59]. A total of 112 solar pumps have been
installed in coastal areas to minimize the crisis of pure drinking water. The UN has also
contributed to this sector by supporting 500 water purification units [60]. These units are
manufactured by a Swedish firm named ‘Water Sprint’ and can purify 600 L of water per
hour. In 2015, ‘Water Sprint’ and the ‘Yunus Centre’ jointly distributed ten purification
units across Bangladesh [60].
Agriculture is the most significant labor sector in Bangladesh. Half of the population
depends on agriculture for their livelihood [61]. Approximately 1.28 million diesel pumps
are in operation across the country. The government must import 1.06 million tons of diesel
and spend USD 280 million in annual subsidies to make irrigation more affordable. More-
over, pumps operated via electricity consume a significant amount of energy. Currently,
0.33 million electric pumps are in operation, consuming 1500 MW of electricity [62]. To
reduce dependence on diesel, Bangladesh is now considering shifting to solar irrigation.
Currently, 2787 solar pumps are in operation around the country [62]. IDCOL has also
endorsed solar projects with an aggregate capacity of approximately 7 MW to operate these
pumps [63]. Table 11 shows some major irrigation projects undertaken by IDCOL. Multiple
suppliers supply these pumps; a list of pump providers can be found in Table 12.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 14 of 27
Table 11. Major irrigation projects currently in operation [63].
Water Flow Pump Capacity Pump Head/Lift

Location POs
(m3 /Day) (kW) (m)
Shapahar, Naogaon GS 300 7.50 35.00
Fatiqchari, Chittagong RCNSL 128 3.50 12.80
Sadar, Bogra NUSRA 394 3.50 15.93
Dhamrai, Dhaka NUSRA 381 7.50 17.30
Kaharole, Dinajpur NUSRA 430 3.50 12.20
Shailkupa, Jhenaidah NUSRA 430 7.50 15.30
Kumarkhali, Kushtia NUSRA 383 7.50 17.60
Sadar, Thakurgaon 4SL 468 3.50 12.50
Ranisongkoil, Thakurgaon 4SL 468 3.50 12.20
Baliadangi, Thakurgaon 4SL 468 3.50 12.20
Birgonj, Dinajpur 4SL 504 5.50 13.60
Sadar, Panchagar 4SL 504 5.50 12.60
Autuary, Panchagar 4SL 504 5.50 12.60
Debiganj, Panchagar 4SL 504 5.50 12.60
Tetulia, Panchagar 4SL 504 5.50 12.60
Pirganj, Thakurgaon 4SL 504 5.50 13.20
Haripur, Thakurgaon 4SL 504 5.50 13.30
Gabtali, Bogra GHEL 420 3.50 13.10
Dhunat, Bogra GHEL 443 3.50 12.40
Sonatola, Bogra GHEL 420 3.50 13.00
Pirganj, Rangpur AVA 664 7.50 14.85
Birol, Dinajpur AVA 679 7.50 17.46
BoroBalia, Sadar, Thakurgaon AVA 613 5.50 12.46
Ghagrapara, Sadar, Panchagarh AVA 594 7.50 12.61
Sadullahpur, Gaibandha AVA 588 7.50 13.46
Badarganj, Rangpur GRAM 373 4.00 10.25
Chowgacha, Jessore ARS-BD 709 7.50 12.71
Shibganj, Bogra GHEL 350 3.50 16.50
Sherpur, Bogra GHEL 350 3.50 16.10
Shajahanpur, Bogra GHEL 350 3.50 16.50
Chirirbandor, Dinajpur RREL 645 11.00 14.57
Parbotipur, Dinajpur RREL 576 11.00 18.71
Boda, Panchagar RREL 594 7.50 12.51
Mithapukur, Rangpur RREL 666 7.50 14.47
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 15 of 27
Table 12. List of pump providers [63].
Name of the Supplier Equipment Brand Controller

Pump
Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd. (RREL) Lorentz Lorentz
Energypac Electronics Ltd. (EEL) Grundfos Grundfos
Electro Solar Power Ltd. (ESPL) Schenzhen Solartech Co. Ltd. Shenzhen SolartechCo. Ltd.
JSF Technology Pvt Ltd. (JSF) Duke Plasto Technique Pvt Ltd. Hermes Technologies Pvt Ltd.
Sherpa Power Engineering Ltd. (Sherpa) (Sherpa) (Sherpa)
Samaj Unnayon Palli Sangtha Sherpa Sherpa
Greentek Ltd. (GTL) Sherpa Sherpa
UDDIPAN Energy Ltd. (UEL) Franklin Electric Schneider Electric
Navana Renewable Energy Co. Ltd. (NREL) Grundfos ABB
Greenergy Solutions Ltd. (GSL) HCP Vacon
Solar E Technology (Solar E) Hebei prime pump Setec
Solargao Ltd. (Solargao) HCP, Pedrollo, Lorentz Schneider Electric, Lorentz
Bangla Trac Engineering Ltd. (BTEL) Grundfos Schneider Electric
Karben Solar Energy Ltd. (Karben) Grundfos Grundfos
Sunkoji Power Development Ltd. (Sunkoji) Grundfos Grundfos
MAKS Renewable Energy Company Ltd. (MAKS) Lorentz Lorentz
4.5. Solar Cookers and Solar Aeration

A solar cooker is a device whereby solar radiation is used to cook food. Three different
types of solar cookers are available: (i) box, (ii) panel, and (iii) parabolic reflector. Research
has been ongoing to develop and modify these types of solar cookers. The development and
implementation of solar cookers are still in their primary stages in Bangladesh. The Institute
of Fuel Research and Development (IFRD) has successfully tested and experimented with
various stoves. Two-axis parabolic solar cookers have also been tested by KUET [64]. A
study reported that box-type solar cookers are preferable under the climatic conditions of
Bangladesh, also reporting that solar cookers can be functional for 294 days a year [64].
Another study recommended that the government provide appropriate subsidies and that
industry introduce change agents to motivate rural people to adopt this technology to
efficiently address barriers to its adoption in Bangladesh [65].
Aeration is the artificial process of making close contact between air and water. This
process is used in water treatment plants to improve water quality. Generally, aeration
systems consist of an aerator and a power source. There are different types of aeration
systems available. However, where grid connection is not possible and costly, solar and
wind energy sources can come in handy. A study developed by Prasetyaningsari et al.
reported that solar aeration could be adequate for places not connected to the grid [66].
Based on this study, Chowdhury et al. developed a model using optimization software
named Homer for an off-grid site in Bangladesh called Godagori in Rajshahi. This study
suggested that the cost of electricity is high solar aeration systems because renewable
energy technologies lack penetration in local markets [67].
4.6. Ongoing Projects

The GoB launched a 500 MW solar power mission to mitigate dependency on fossil
fuels and to achieve the goal 10% of power generation from sustainable sources by 2020.
Solar mini grids are a promising solution for coping with the energy crisis. IDCOL, jointly
with BPDB, has undertaken several projects, as depicted in Table 13. IDCOL also plans to
install 50 mini grids by 2025, as presented in Table 14. To mitigate the dependency on diesel
generators in the agricultural sector, IDCOL also has a plan to install 50,000 pumps by 2025,
as presented in Table 15. IDCOL has approved approximately 1429 pumps, of which 1186
are in operation, with a capacity of 26.59 MW [52]. To make the country self-sufficient in
terms of photovoltaic manufacturing, IDCOL has funded two photovoltaic assembly plants
with a total capacity of 10 MW. Moreover, BPDB has focused on grid-tied solar power
plants, and two power plants with a capacity of 3 MW and 8 MW are under construction in
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 16 of 27
Jamalpur and Rangamati, respectively [52]. IDCOL recently funded a PPL solar rooftop
project with a capacity of 723 kW. This solar plant is located in Gazipur, Dhaka. IDCOL also
intends to generate 1000 MW of electricity from the rooftop solar project. It is estimated
that the textile industry’s rooftops can produce 400 MW and that it is possible to create
4000 MW of electricity from industrial and commercial rooftops [52].
Table 13. Mini-grid projects under consideration in Bangladesh [52].
Project Location Capacity (kWp) Project Status

Enam Nahar, Sandwip, Chittagong 100 Operational
Kutubdia, Cox’s Bazar 100 Operational
Bagha, Rajshahi 141 Operational
Paratoli, Raipura, Narshingdi 141 Operational
Narayanpur, Nageshwari, Kurigram 158 Operational
Godagari, Rajshahi 149 Operational
Monpura, Bhola 177 Operational
Nooner Tek, Sonargao, Narayangonj 168 Under construction
Rupsha Char, Sadar, Sirajganj 130 Under construction
Chilmari, Daulatpur, Kushtia 188 Under construction
Munmiar Char, Islampur, Jamalpur 162 Under construction
Baghutia char, Doulatpur, Manikganj 228 Under construction
Nijhum island, Hatiya, Noakhali 200 Under construction
North Channel Union, Sadar, Faridpur 162 Under construction
Char Kajal, Patuakhali 100 Under construction
Char Biswas, Patuakhali 100 Under construction
Ghaschapru, Belkuchi, Sirajganj 218.4 Under construction
Poschim Shalipur, Char Bhadrashan, Faridpur 156 Under construction
Table 14. Number of solar mini grids to be installed by 2025 [52].
Year No. of Solar Mini-Grid Plants

2018 08
2019 12
2020 15
2021 20
2022 25
2023 30
2024 40
2025 50
Table 15. Number of solar irrigation pumps to be installed by 2025 [52].
Year No. of Solar Irrigation Pumps

2018 500
2019 1000
2020 2000
2021 3000
2022 5000
2023 8000
2024 14,000
2025 16,500
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 17 of 27
5. Renewable Energy Policy Implementation in Bangladesh, Techno-Economic

Analysis, and Future Prospective of AI Technology Integration with Solar Systems
The Bangladesh government founded SREDA in 2014 to take advantage of the coun-
try’s substantial renewable energy potential. The GoB has also found a way to expand
global collaboration and is one of IRENA’s initiating agencies. To accomplish the goal of
10% of power generation from sustainable sources by 2020, the Legislature of Bangladesh
has undertaken a few policies, which are discussed below [68].
5.1. Resources, Technology, and Program Development

In this subsection, we address the policies undertaken by the government regarding
different renewable energy technologies and their development.
• SEDA, which is related to the Power Division of the MPEMR, will decide the needs
for sustainable power source innovation, advancement, and program execution.
• SEDA will provide infrastructural and technological facilities to expand and develop
the market for renewable energy electricity in Bangladesh.
• All affiliated government and private utilities will undertake renewable energy expan-
sion programs for applications throughout the country.
• Power utilities will purchase the energy produced by both public and private compa-
nies from renewable sources through corporate compliance.
• Existing transmission and distribution lines may be used to supply electricity to con-
sumers through corporate compliance between sponsors and owners of transmission
and distribution lines. The owners will apply a wheeling charge to sponsors, and
BERC and MPEMR will determine the amount of the charge.
• In addition to power generation, a sustainable power source for sunlight-based heating
and biogas or different methods such as cooking will be created.
• SEDA will energize the advancement of human assets, as well as nearby generation of
sustainable power source equipment and help to set up a quality control lab to test
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW sustainable power source equipment. 9 of 29
• The generation and utilization of biofuel might be empowered on a restricted scale
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW without endangering the current yield. 9 of 29
5.2.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Speculation and Monetary Impetuses No. of Modules 9 of
Total No. of Arrays in the solar field = (7)29
No. of Modules
In this subsection, we discuss the economic policies undertaken by the GoB to promote in an Array
No. of Modules
the advancement
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Total No. of Arrays
renewable in theenergy
solar field technologies
= in Bangladesh. Such policies are
9 of
(7)29
listedLand
2.1.9. below. Requirement No. of Modules in an Array
No. of Modules
➢ The Totalsustainable
number
Existing No.ofofPVArrays
modules
powerin the solar financing
required
source field = offices will be extended so that all public
= 4674; (7)
2.1.9. Landprivate
Requirement No. of Modules in an Array 9 of 29
➢ Dimensions
and of one PV module
contributors = 1.57 m
will receive the× necessary
0.798 m; information
No. of Modules and support.
➢ The Total
number
All the No.ofof
equipment Arrays
PV modules
and in therequired
raw =solar
12 ×field
materials == 9.576
=exempt
4674; from
m; the 15% (7)
2.1.9.
Total
Land
width of
Requirement
each PV array 0.798 No. of Modules in anVAT to promote renew-
Array 9 of 29
➢ Dimensions
able sources.
Length of one ofPVonemodule
PV module = 1.57= m;1.57 m × 0.798 m;
➢ The Total
Number number
A small-scale
width ofmicrocredit
of
of arrays PVin
each modules
PVthearray
PV required
network
= 12=×390.
field will= 4674;
0.798 be= set9.576upNo.to of
m; financially
Modules support rural areas to
2.1.9. LandTotal
➢ Dimensions
purchase
Length Requirement
of No.
one of of
PV Arrays
one
sustainable PV
module in the
module
power = solar
1.57 =
source1.57
m; fieldm =
×
equipment.0.798 m; (7)
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Number of arrays in a row = 12; No. of Modules in an Array 9 of 29
➢ The Total
Number
Width number
Investment
width
of of of
in
of
thearrays PVin
each
solar modules
sustainable
PV
fieldthearray
=PV12 required
energy 12projects
×=9.576
field =×390. = 4674;
0.798
= 114.912 =will be No.
9.576
m; handled by MPEMR, whereas SEDA,
m; of Modules
➢ Dimensions
jointly
Length Total
with
of No.
one of of
PV Arrays
one
other PV
local
module ingovernment
the
module
= solar
1.57 = 1.57
m; fieldm =
× 0.798
offices, m;
will work onandeveloping (7)
sustainable
2.1.9. Number
Land of arrays
rows ininthe
Requirement a row
solar= field
12; = 33; No. of Modules in Array
➢ Total energy
Number
Width programs.
width
of of
Pitch distance of
thearrays each
solar
betweenin PV
field array
thetwo
=PV =
field
12 arrays12
× 9.576 × 0.798
= (including
390. =
= 114.912 m; 9.576 m;
the module length of 1.57 m) = 3 9m;of 29
➢ The SEDA
Length number
will
of one of
provide
PVPV modules
endowments
module = required
1.57 m; to = 4674; for No.
utilities the ofestablishment of sunlight, wind,
2.1.9. Number
Length
Land ofof arrays
rows
the
Requirementsolarin inthea
field row
solar
= =
33 12;
field
× 3 + = 33;
1.57 m = 100.57 m; Modules
➢ Dimensions
Number Total
biomass, No.
and of of Arrays
onein
other PV in the
module solar
sustainable/clean = 1.57 field =
menergy
× 0.798 m;
projects. (7)
Width
Pitch
Land of of
the
distance
requiredarrays
solar
between
for PVfieldthe =PV
two
field field
12=arrays
×100.57
9.576= (including
390.
=× 114.912
114.912 No.m;=of
theModules
module
11,556.7 minlength
2=an Array
2.85 of 1.57(1m)
acres = 3=m;
acre 4047
➢ 2 The Total number
Sustainable
width ofeach
power
of PV modules
source
PV =required
venture
array 33;= m4674;
speculators willm; be exempt from providing corporate
Number
m ). Length ofofthe
arrays
rowssolarinin thea row
field solar
= 33 ×= 312+ ×=1.57
12;
field 0.798 == 100.57
9.576 m;
➢ Dimensions
salary
Length
Width
Pitch charges
of
of one
the
distance of one
for
PV
solar 5 PV
module
betweenfield module
years.=
two =
12This
1.57
× = 1.57
will
m;
9.576
arrays = bem ×
114.912
(including 0.798
applied m; m;
from
theNo. ofthe
module period
Modules of the announcement
2.1.9. Land
Land required
Requirement for PV field = 100.57 × 114.912 = 11,556.7 mlength
2 = 2.85 of 1.57
acres (1m) = 3=m;
acre 4047
➢ 2 Total of Total
this No.
agreement of Arrays
in the in thefield
official solar
journalfield == 9.576
and is expected to (7)
Number
Number
). Length
2.1.10.
m
width
Overall of of
arrayseach in
ofofTechno-Economic
rows
the solar PV
in fieldthe array
the solarPV = 12
field =×
× 3 + =1.57
= 33 Assessment 0.798
390.
33; m =No. m;
of Modules
100.57 m; in an Array intermittently.
be broadened
➢ The Length number
An incentive
ofofone offee
PVPVofinmodules
10% required
or==more will = 4674;
be considered to promote electricity generation
Number
Pitch
Land distance
requiredarraysformodule
betweenPVa field
row
two 1.57
12;
arrays
100.57m; (including
× 114.912 =the module
11,556.7 mlength
2 = 2.85 of 1.57(1m)
acres = 3=m;
acre 4047
➢ 2 Dimensions
from
Number
Width of of
the of
sustainable
arraysone
solar inPV
sources.
fieldthemodule
= PVThis
12 field
× = 1.57
fee
9.576= will
390.
= m be×
114.912 0.798
higher
m; m;than the maximum price of a utility
Energy
2.1.10.
m ).
2.1.9. LengthPayback
Overall
Landwidthof Time
the solar (EPBT)
Techno-Economic
Requirement field = 33 × 3 +
Assessment1.57 m = 100.57 m;
➢ Total buying
Number electricity
of each
of arrays from
PV private
array generators.
= 12 ×= 0.798 = 9.576 m;
Land
The required
energy rows forinin
payback PVthea field
timerow
solar= field
12;
100.57
(EPBT) of 33;
× 114.912
the plant = 11,556.7
can beadvance m2 =as
defined 2.85
theacres (1 acre
duration = 4047
required
➢ 2 The The
Length
Width number
utilization
of
of one
the of PVPV
of
solar modules
power
module
field =and=
12 required
gas
1.57
× will
m;
9.576 = =
be 4674;
lowered
114.912 m; to solar-based water heating,
Energy
2.1.10.
m
to ). Pitch distance
Payback
Overall Time between
(EPBT)
Techno-Economic two arrays
Assessment (including the module length of 1.57 m) = 3 m; of
➢ recuperate
Dimensions
Number
Number
thearrays
with additional
of
of
total
of
rows onein
energy
inPV
advances
thethe PVexpenditure.
module
solar field= 1.57
considered
field ==1.57
390.
33; m Total
× 0.798
subsequently.embodied
m; energy is the summation
Length
The of
energy the solar
payback field
time = 33 ×
(EPBT) 3 + m = 100.57 m;
energy
➢ Totalconsumed
Number
Pitch widthof
distance ofin
arrays
materials,
each
betweenin PV array
a field
row
two = 12of
manufacturing,
=arrays
12;
the plant
×(including
0.798 can m;
= 9.576 be defined
transport, as the and
installation, duration required
management.
Energy
2.1.10.
to
EPBT Land Payback
required
Overall
recuperate
is Time for (EPBT)
Techno-Economic
the
determined totalby PV
energy
Equations 100.57
Assessment
expenditure.
(8) and ×(9).
114.912
Total =the module
11,556.7
embodied m length
2 = 2.85 of
energy is 1.57
acres
the (1m) = 3=m;
acre
summation 4047of
➢ 2 Length
Width
Length of
of
of one
the
the PV module
solar
solar field
field == = 1.57
12
33 ×× 3 m;1.57
9.576
+ = 114.912
m = m;
100.57 m;
m ).
energy Theconsumed
energy paybackin time (EPBT)
materials, of the plant
manufacturing, can be defined
transport, as the and
installation, duration required
management.
➢ Number
Number of
of arrays in the PV=field ==390.×Total Embodied Energy of2.85
Modules
Energy isPayback
Land therows
requiredTime forin the
(EPBT)
PV solar
field field
100.57 33; 114.912 = 11,556.7 m 2=
to
EPBT Energy
recuperate Payback
determined totalTime
by energy(EPBT)
Equations = and
expenditure.
(8) (9).Total embodied energy isacres (1 acre = 4047
the summation (8)of
2.1.10.
m 2 ). Number
Pitch
Overall of
distance arrays
between
Techno-Economicin a row
two = 12;
arraysAnnual
Assessment electricity
(including the generated
module from
length the
of plant
1.57 m) = 3 m;
The energy payback time (EPBT) of the plant can
energy consumed in materials, manufacturing, transport, installation, and management. be defined as the duration required
No. of Modules
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 No. of Modules in an Array 18 of 27

2.1.9. Land Requirement
➢
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW The
Thenumber
loan scheme of PVwill modulesbe updated required and= strengthened
4674; for fruitful usage of sustainable 9 of 29
➢ Dimensions
power sources. of one PV module = 1.57 m × 0.798 m;
➢ TotalTotal
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW widthNo. ofofeach
Arrays PV array
in the =solar12 ×field 0.798== 9.576No. m; of Modules 9 of
(7)29
5.3. Administrative Approach
➢ Length of one PV module = 1.57 m; No. of Modules in an Array
No. of Modules
➢ NumberIn this subsection,
Total ofNo.arrays inwe
of Arrays thein discuss
PVthefield the
solar managerial
= field
390. = policies undertaken by the GoB(7)to
promote
2.1.9.Number renewable
Land Requirement energy development in No.
Bangladesh. of Modules
Such in an Array
policies are listed below.
of arrays in a row = 12; No. of Modules
➢ The Width
BERC Total
of
number
will No.
the ofofPV
solar
provide Arrays
field
modules
power in the
= 12 × solar
9.576field
required
generation =
= 114.912
= licenses
4674; m; sustainable power source projects (7)
2.1.9. Land Requirement No. ofto Modules in an Array
➢ Dimensions
Number
with a plant of rows
of one in PV
capacity theofmodule
solar
5 MW field
= 1.57
or = 33;m if× they
more 0.798want m; to sell electricity.
➢ The Pitch
MPEMR
Total distance
number
width and of between
ofSEDA,
PV modules
each PV two arrays
together
array 12 ×(including
required
=with = 4674;
BERC,
0.798 = will
9.576the modulean
establish
m; length of 1.57 m) =structure
administrative 3 m;
2.1.9. Land Requirement
➢ Dimensions
empowering
Length theofpower
of one solar
onemodule
PV field
PV = 33
module
generation × 3=from
= 1.57 +m; 1.57m
1.57 m× =0.798
100.57
sustainable m;
m;power sources.
➢ The BERC
Total
Land
Number number
will
widthoffavor
required ofeach
of PV
for
arrays anin modules
PVenergy
PV array
field
the =required
PVlevy = 12
100.57
field × =114.912
×390.
0.798 4674;
in =consultation = 9.576 =with m;MPEMR
11,556.7 m2 =or SEDA
2.85 acres according
(1 acre =to the
4047
➢
m ). Dimensions
2 agreement
Length
Number ofofone ofthe
of onemodule
PV
arrays inPV
BERC a rowmodule 12;= m;
Demonstration
==1.57 1.57 m ×2003 0.798 m; limit of sustainable power source
if the
➢ Total Width of the solar field = 12 × 9.576 = 114.912 m; m;offer “green energy” taxes, which
projects
Number is
widthof 5 MW
of each
arrays orin more.
PVthe array
PV Power = 12
field wholesalers
= × 0.798
390. = 9.576 may
➢
2.1.10. give
Number customers
Overall
Length one PV
arrays
rows ainchance
ofofTechno-Economic
module
inthe
a row to==participate
solar Assessment
1.57
12; m;
field = 33; in cofinancing through their power charges.
➢ NumberWidth
Pitch
Despite of
ofbeing
distance arrays
the solar
between
an in the
field two
environmentallyPV field
= 12 arrays = 390.
× 9.576friendly
= 114.912
(including m;the module
technology, if thelength
disposalof 1.57 m) = technol-
of solar 3 m;
Energy Payback
Number Time (EPBT)
ogy is ofofthe
not carried
Length arrays
rows
out
solar ininfield
a row
the
properly, solarit= could
= 33 12;
field
× 3 + =1.57 33; mthe
harm environment
= 100.57 m; once it has reached the end
The
of itsWidth
Pitch
useful
Land energy
of
lifethe
distance
required payback
solar
[69]. between
It has
for PV time
field been
field (EPBT)
= 12
two ×100.57
9.576
=arrays
estimated of(including
the
=×that plant
114.912
114.912 can
m;
=the
33,205.36 be defined
module
tons
11,556.7 of 2 =as
mlength
PV theof
waste
2.85 duration
1.57 m)
will(1be
acres =required
3=m;
generated
acre 4047
to
in ).
m 2 recuperate
Number
Length ofof
Bangladesh the
once
the total
rows solar
solar energy
in field
the expenditure.
solar
= 33 field
technology + =1.57
× 3reaches Total
33; mits= end embodied
100.57 of life energy is the
m; [69,70]. Lead, cadmium, and tin summation of
energy Pitch
are heavy consumed
distance
Land metals
required in materials,
between
generally
for PV field found manufacturing,
two=arraysin solar
100.57 (including
×panels,
114.912andtransport,
=the module
their
11,556.7 installation,
open mlength
2 2.85 of
=dumping and
1.57
acres management.
can(1m) = 3=m;
damage
acre the
4047
EPBT isOverall
environment
2). Length
2.1.10.
m determined
of[71].
the solarby Equations
Hazardous
Techno-Economic field = waste ×(8) and
3 +is
33 Assessment (9).
produced
1.57 m = 100.57 whenm;certain heavy metals are present.
A polycrystalline
Land requiredPV forcellPVhas field a hazardous
= 100.57 ×Total material
114.912 content
= 11,556.7
Embodied Energy of
m20.15=of2.85g/Wacres
Modules [72]. Therefore,
(1 acre = 4047
2). Energy
33,205.36
Energy
2.1.10.
m Payback
tons
Payback
Overall of Time Time
PV cell (EPBT)
Techno-Economic (EPBT)
waste =
of would
Assessment result in 62.26 tons of hazardous materials. Hence, (8)
Annual electricity generated from the plant
it is necessary to ensure proper management of this
The energy payback time (EPBT) of the plant can be defined as the duration required waste. However, in Bangladesh, there
is arecuperate
Energy
2.1.10.
to lack of appropriate
Payback
Overall Time
total(EPBT)
Techno-Economic
the laws addressing
energy (Em + Emf expired
Assessment
expenditure. +Total PV
Et +embodiedEi panels
+ Emg)energy as e-waste. is theAlthough
summation thereof
are some rules and EPBT
policies = regarding e-waste (National 3R Strategy for Waste Manage-(9)
The energy payback time
energy consumed in materials, manufacturing, (EPBT) of the plant can be defined as the
Eg transport, installation, and management. duration required
ment
Energy
to
EPBT (2010),
Payback
recuperate
is E-waste
theTime
determined total
bymanagement
(EPBT)
energy
Equations rules
expenditure.
(8) and (2017),
(9).TotalNational
embodied Environment
energy isPolicy—Bangladesh
the summation of
(2018)),Thenonevalue for the total
considers energycycle
end-of-life consumed PV in materials,
panels as e-waste manufacturing,
[70].asTherefore, transport,
the required
develop- in-
energy Theconsumed
energy payback in materials,time (EPBT) of2 the plant
manufacturing, can be defined
transport, installation, the and
duration
management.
stallation,
ment of and management
appropriate policies for
and each
rules m Total
area
regarding of Embodied
the module Energy
was of Modules
proposed in [41].
to
EPBT Energy
recuperate Payback
the total
is determined Time
by (EPBT)
energy
Equations = and
expenditure.
(8) (9).Totalthis matter are
embodied energy necessary.
is the summation(8)of
Therefore, (Em + Emf + Et + Ei +Annual Emg) =electricity
1516.59 kWh/m generated 2 of module,
from the plant
energy consumed in materials, manufacturing, transport, installation,
Total Embodied Energy of Modules and management.
5.4. Overall Outcome of Techno-Economic Analysis
The
EPBTEnergy total area ofby
Payback
is determined modules
Time (EPBT)
Equations = No.=
(8)
(Em +Annual ofandModules
(9).
Emf +electricity ∗ Length
Et + Ei + ∗ Width of
Emg) from the plant Modules (8)
The number of PV EPBT modules = required to meet the garment generated industry’s demand is 4674. (10)
(9)A
totalEnergy
of 2.85 Payback
acres of land = 4674 ∗ 1.57*.798
Total Eg =
Embodied 5855.87 m
Energy 2
of Modules
Timeare (EPBT)required
(Em =+Annual
to set up these PV modules. The number of inverters
Emf +electricity
Et + Ei + Emg) from the plant (8)
required isembodied
Totalvalue
The calculated
for the to
energy
EPBT be=16,
total and consumed
= 5855.87∗
energy the 1516.59
optimum inverter
in= 8880.95 generated
materials, size
MWh; is 1310 kW. The
manufacturing, number
transport, of
in-
(9)
batteries
Number
stallation, needed to storedays
andofmanagement
sunny the for=excess
eachenergy
300; m2 area is Eg
calculated
of the module to bewas 793,proposed
and the required
in [41]. battery
(Em + Emf + Et + Ei + Emg)
capacityThe
Annualis
Therefore,138,735
value (EmAh.
for
electricitythe
+EPBT
EmfEPBT,
total
generated EtEPF,
+=energy and
+ Ei(Eg)+ Emg)=CUF
consumed 3596 =are×in found
300
1516.59 to be 8.232
materials,
= 1078.8
kWh/m years, 0.1213,
manufacturing,
MWh/year;
2 of module, and 0.1225,
transport, in-
(9)
respectively. Financial analysis clearly shows Egthat USD 4.3 million is required to set up
stallation, and management
Electricity production factor for each (EPF).m area of the module was proposed in [41].
2
a plant The total area

(without landof modules
cost). The= No.cost ofofModules
PV=modules ∗ Length is as ∗ Width
higher than ofthat
Modules
The value
Therefore, for
(Em
electricity the
+ Emftotal+energy
production Et +factor
Ei consumed
+ Emg)
(EPF) in
1516.59
is materials,
defined kWh/m themanufacturing,
2 of of theofannual
module,
ratio inverters
transport, and
energy in-
(10)
batteries.
stallation,
output to LCOE
andinput
the is calculated
management
energy, and to
for =itbe4674
each USD
predicts 2 0.091/kWh.
m∗ 1.57*.798
areathe of the
overall Khatri
= 5855.87
module m
performance designed
2
was proposed of a
the solar
PV PV
inmodule.
[41].plant EPFfor
a girls’ The total area
hostel (GARGI) of modules
at MNIT = No. of Modules
University, ∗ Length
Jaipur city, ∗ Width
and found of Modules
that the LCOE of(10) the
can Therefore,
be calculated
Total embodied(Em +energy
Emf
according + to
Et + Ei
Equation
= 5855.87∗ + Emg) (11).
1516.59= 1516.59
= 8880.95 kWh/m MWh;
2 of module,
proposed plant was USD 0.12/kWh = 4674 [39]. Chandel =et5855.87
∗ 1.57*.798 al. also m designed
2 a solar PV plant for a
Number
Thezonetotalofareasunny days = 300;
of modules = No. of Modules Eg ∗ Length ∗ Width of Modules
garment and found
EPF that
= = the LCOE of the designed plant was INR 14.94/kWh [36]. (11)
(10)
Total
Annual embodied
electricity energy
generated(Emg5855.87∗
(Eg)
+ Emgf=1516.59
3596 + =+
×Et3008880.95 + MWh;
=Ei1078.8Emg) MWh/year;
= 4674 ∗ 1.57*.798 = 5855.87 m2
Number
Electricityof
5.5. Possibility sunny
ofproduction
Artificial days = 300;(EPF).
factor
Intelligence (AI) Integration in the Solar Energy System
Total
Annual embodied
electricity
The electricity energy
generated
production = 5855.87∗ =1516.59
(Eg) (EPF)
factor = 8880.95
3596is× defined
300 asMWh;
= 1078.8 MWh/year;
the ratio of the annual energy
Capital With the industrial
Utilization Factor revolution
(CUF) and population increase, Bangladesh’s energy demand
output Number
Electricity
to the ofproduction
input sunnyenergy,daysfactor= 300;
and it (EPF). the overall performance of the PV module. EPF
predicts
is increasing
The rapidly, but
proportion resources
of generated
the actual are limited
energy to fulfillby
produced thisan demand.
SPV In the
plant overprevious section,
a yearenergy
to the
can Annual
The
be electricity
electricity
calculated production
according to (Eg)
factor
Equation = 3596
(EPF)(11). is× defined
300 = 1078.8 as the MWh/year;
ratio of the annual
we broadly emphasized
comparable energy output theatpotential
that plant’s of solar
rated energy,
capacity atmospheric
in the same conditions,
period is geology,
known as
output Electricity
to the input production
energy, and factor (EPF).
itongoing
predicts projects
the
environmental
the capacity conditions,
utilization factor and (CUF). The Egoverall
energy in performance
Bangladesh.
generation for an
of the PV module.
However,
SPV projectthedependsEPF
current
can The electricity EPF = to Equation
production factor (EPF) is defined as the ratio of the annual energy (11)
planbemay calculated
not assure according
the fulfillment
(Emg + of of (11).
Emgf energy
+ Etsunnydemand
+ Ei days. for this developing country. It
+ Emg)
on
outputsolartoradiation
the input and
energy, the and number it predicts bright,
the overall performance The capital of the utilization
PV module. factor
EPF
must incorporate the ongoing project with artificial Eg intelligence (AI) techniques to tackle
(CUF)
can be is determined
calculated by Equation
EPF
according = to Equation (12). (11). (11)
future energy demands and (Emg challenges + Emgf in which+ Et atmospheric,
+ Ei + Emg)geology, and environmental
Capital Utilization Factor (CUF)
conditions are used as input features, considering Eg the energy policy as a constraint. Artificial
The proportion EPFthe = actual energy produced by an SPV plant over a year to(11)
intelligence (AI) is a of technique (Emgwhereby + Emgfa + computer
Et + Ei can + Emg)explicitly learn from examples the
Capital
comparable Utilization
energy Factor
output (CUF)
at that plant’s rated capacity in the same period is known as
(big data) and is broadly used to support a sustainable energy system by forecasting,
the The
capacity proportion
utilization of the
factor actual
(CUF). energy
The produced
energy
optimization, decision making, policy making, and system recognition [73–75]. AI can now by
generation an SPV for plant
an SPV over a
projectyear to
depends the
Capital
on solarUtilization
comparable energyand
radiation Factor
output the(CUF)at that plant’s
number of bright, ratedsunnycapacity days.in the
Thesame capital period is known
utilization factoras
the
(CUF) The
capacity proportion
utilization
is determined of factor
by the actual
Equation (CUF). energy
(12). The energyproduced by an SPV
generation for plant
an SPV over a year
project to the
depends
comparable
on solar radiation energyand output the at that plant’s
number of bright, ratedsunnycapacity days.in the
Thesame capital period is known
utilization factoras
the
(CUF) capacity utilization
is determined by factor
Equation (CUF). (12).The energy generation for an SPV project depends
on solar radiation and the number of bright, sunny days. The capital utilization factor
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 19 of 27
play a more significant role in modeling, analyzing, and predicting both the weather and the
performance of renewables compared to traditional computer methods [76]. Additionally,
in combination with satellite imagery, AI can detect and predict cloud characteristics, track
aerosol, and utilize numerical weather data to create an efficient solar energy system [77,78].
Modern technology (using appropriate sensors) can be employed to measure several weather
and environmental variables on a large scale. A sustainable energy system can be developed
by employing machine learning (ML) and AI techniques. Various algorithms have been
applied to predict solar resources and model solar energy systems, as summarized in Table 16.
The number of applications of machine learning and artificial neural networks in
the solar cell field has increased rapidly over time [79,80]. Future energy challenges
are expected to be diminished with the use of AI techniques, especially in developing
countries such as Bangladesh, where energy demand proliferates with the increasing
population and the industrial revolution. In addition to increasing efficiency, AI-based solar
systems are expected to reduce the effects of climate change by limiting carbon emissions.
AI can play a role in modeling, analyzing, and predicting solar energy factors such as
radiation, temperature, wind, etc. An AI-based solar system is much more efficient than
traditional computer models. AI can incorporate satellite images to detect and predict
cloud characteristics and track aerosol to improve models of solar systems. AI-based solar
energy systems not only increase the efficiency of renewable energy projects but can also
reduce the effects of climate change and carbon pollution. AI-based solar systems promote
a low-carbon electricity system. Conventional solar models cannot tackle energy challenges
in developing countries such as Bangladesh, where energy demand is increasing rapidly
with the industrial revolution and a rapidly growing population.
5.5.1. Machine Learning in Solar Energy Systems

Machine learning is an emerging technique and can be used to increase the sustain-
ability of energy systems. Machine learning, artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic
algorithms, and hybrid systems can be successfully applied in the solar and renewable
energy sector [81–84]. Figure 6 shows a simple framework of a machine learning system
applied to a renewable energy system. The model must be trained on feature data related
to solar energy to enforce machine learning algorithms such as linear regression, logistic
regression, decision tree, and support vector machine [85]. Based on the data, next, it is
necessary to develop a learning algorithm, followed by hypothesis development. Then,
the hypothesis is tested using the test data. If the interpretation passes the test, the desired
output is yielded. Otherwise, the hypothesis must be updated, followed21 by
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 29
accuracy
checking with the test data.
Figure 6. Simple
Figure 6. Simple framework framework of
of a machine a machineapproach
learning learning approach for solar
for solar and andrenewable
renewable energy systems
energy systems [84].
[84].
5.5.2. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) in Solar Energy Systems

Artificial neural networks can be used in the renewable energy sector to predict and
optimize the effects of several factors on solar energy, such as solar radiation and temper-
ature [86,87]. Prediction and future trends of these meteorological parameters are essential
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 20 of 27
5.5.2. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) in Solar Energy Systems

Artificial neural networks can be used in the renewable energy sector to predict
and optimize the effects of several factors on solar energy, such as solar radiation and
temperature [86,87]. Prediction and future trends of these meteorological parameters are
essential in designing renewable energy systems, primarily because the efficiency of energy
systems largely depends on them. Such predictions can help policymakers make decisions,
ultimately making renewable energy systems more sustainable. Along with a plethora of
positive factors, the ANN approach has shortcomings, such as limited theory to assist the
ANN (theory related to ANN is increasing with time), the requirement of an evenly spaced
dataset, and limited options to rationalize the solution. However, these flaws have limited
opportunities to influence the results of ANNs. The ANN approach for predicting features
such as temperature and solar radiation is discussed below.
5.5.3. ANN for Solar Radiation Estimation

Solar radiation is an essential feature in designing solar energy systems [88]. Infor-
mation about future solar radiation is necessary to develop sustainable and efficient solar
energy systems. Several researchers have used the ANN approach to estimate daily solar
radiation. The aim is to describe a simple method to develop ANN to predict solar radia-
tion [89,90]. Solar radiation is predicted in the form of hourly, daily, monthly, or maximum
solar radiation. For the development of an ANN, the input variables used to predict and
measure solar radiation are humidity, cloud cover, sunshine duration, temperature, latitude,
longitude, altitude, low diffuse radiation, low-beam radiation, daily precipitation, and
length of the day [84]. The backpropagation algorithm can be adapted to train the dataset
of input variables. The training dataset goes through several hidden layers and ultimately
produces the desired output, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. ANN network used for prediction with 1—n neurons in the input layers [74].
Figure 7. ANN network used for prediction with 1—n neurons in the input layers [74].
Maximum Temperature
5.5.4. ANN for the Estimation of Daily Minimum and Maximum Temperature
sector, maximum
Besides the solar energy sector, maximum and and minimum
minimum temperature
temperature prediction is
used in
widely used in other
other sectors.
sectors. However, conventional methods, such as physical physical model
model
development using usingradiation
radiationlaw,law,have
haveseveral
severallimitations, such
limitations, as the
such complexity
as the of pre-
complexity of
predicting
dicting thethe temperature
temperature of the
of the regime
regime andand limited
limited practical
practical applications
applications [91,92].
[91,92]. ThisThis
ap-
approach
proach has has motivated
motivated researcherstotouse
researchers useANNs
ANNsfor fortemperature
temperatureprediction
prediction in
in solar
solar energy
systems. ItIt isisnecessary
necessarytotoinput
inputthe
thevariables
variablesrelated
relatedtoto a temperature,
a temperature, such
such as as visibil-
visibility,
ity,
cloudcloud amount,
amount, weather
weather conditions,
conditions, dry wet
dry and and bulb
wet bulb temperature,
temperature, and atmospheric
and atmospheric pres-
pressure, to develop an ANN model for maximum and minimum temperature
sure, to develop an ANN model for maximum and minimum temperature prediction. The prediction.
relevant weather data related to Bangladesh’s solar and renewable energy system are
available from Bangladesh Meteorological Department. The ANN model is trained by a
backpropagation algorithm, which produces the desired output, as shown in Figure 7.
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 21 of 27
The relevant weather data related to Bangladesh’s solar and renewable energy system are
available from Bangladesh Meteorological Department. The ANN model is trained by a
backpropagation algorithm, which produces the desired output, as shown in Figure 7.
Table 16. Commonly used AI algorithm to predict and design solar energy resources and systems.
Algorithm/Method Application References

ANN Solar radiation prediction [89,90,93,94]
ANN Predicting daily temperature [95–97]
BPNN Predicting solar radiation [98–101]
BPNN Predicting daily temperature [102]
Performance assessment of a
ANN [103–105]
solar water heating system
GA Solar collector design [106–108]
GA Solar tracking [109,110]
GA Solar radiation prediction [111,112]
Besides this, AI can help determine the proper power scheduling optimization method [113], design power
planning and sharing control method [114,115], and design new energy vehicles where solar energy is used [116].
6. Conclusions
The renewable energy utilization scenario in Bangladesh has been increasing at a rock-
eting rate due to financial investments by government/non-governmental organizations.
With an abridgment forecasted to develop at 7–8% per year, the quest for other energy
sources is expected to intensify. Bangladesh ought to understand the tremendous capability
of sustainable power sources. This target is achievable, and it can not only provide green
energy but also business opportunities to many unemployed individuals. Consequently,
the demand for installed power capacity has increased, and the grid-connected renewable
scheme has experienced dramatic growth in the past year. This study represents an attempt
to examine the development of solar photovoltaic energy in Bangladesh. We also reviewed
modern applications and government policies. The potential application of AI to mitigate
the energy crisis was also studied in this research. The realistic application of Al technology
and its impact on efficiency, as well as the feasibility, challenges, and limitations of Al
integration ins solar systems should be further investigated in future studies.
Author Contributions: M.I.M.: Writing—original draft, Resources, Data curation, Method, Vali-
dation; P.S.: Writing-revised draft, responding to reviewers comments, Resources, method; H.C.:
Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—original draft; T.C.: Writing—original draft
and revised draft, Method, Investigation; M.S.R.: Writing—original draft, review & editing; N.H.:
Writing-revised draft, review & editing, Supervision; P.C.: Writing—original draft, Formal analysis,
Data curation; S.M.S.: Writing—review & editing, Project administration. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
ADALINE Adaptive linear neuron
ANFIS Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
ANN Artificial neural network
AI Artificial intelligence
APSCL Ashuganj Power Station Company Limited
ARS-BD Association for Rural Society—Bangladesh
AVA Association of Village Adventure
BAEC Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission
BPNN Backpropagation neural network
BMDF Bangladesh Municipal Development Fund
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 22 of 27
BPRE Bangladesh Policy of Renewable Energy

BTEL Bangla Trac Engineering Ltd.
BPDB Bangladesh Power Development Board
BPRE Bangladesh Policy of Renewable Energy
BERC Bangladesh Energy Regulatory Commission
BUET Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology
BIPV Building-integrated photovoltaic
CES Conventional energy source
CSP Concentrated solar power
DOD Depth of discharge
DUET Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology
EGCB Electricity Generation Company of Bangladesh
ESPL Electro Solar Power Ltd.
EEL Energypac Electronics Ltd.
GA Genetic algorithm
GoB Government of Bangladesh
GHEL Green Housing & Energy Limited
GRAM Global Resource Augmentation and Management Limited
GSL Green Energy Solutions Ltd.
GTL Greentek Ltd.
IDCOL Infrastructural Development Company Limited
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
JU Jahangirnagar University
JSF JSF Technology Private Ltd.
Karben Karben Solar Energy Ltd.
KUET Khulna University of Engineering and Technologies
LGED Local government engineering department
LOE Levelized cost of energy
M Million
MPEMR Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources
MIST Military Institute of Science and Technology
Mtoe Million tons of oil equivalent
MAKS MAKS Renewable Energy Company Limited
NB Naïve Bayes
NBR National Board of Revenue, Bangladesh
NUSRA Network for Universal Services and Rural Advancement
NREL Navana Renewable Energy Co. Limited
NWPGCL North West Power Generation Company Limited
PBS Palli Bidyut Samity
PPL Paragon Poultry Limited
PO Partner organization
PGCB Power Grid Company Bangladesh
PSL Prokaushali Sangsad Limited
PV Photovoltaic
RETs Renewable energy technologies
REREDP Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development Project
RPCL Rural Power Company Limited
RCNSL Rural Communication Network and Service Ltd.
RREL Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Limited
RBFNN Radial basis function neural network
4SL Survior’s Sancred Solar System Limited
Sunkoji Sunkoji Power Development Limited
Solargao Solargao Limited
Solar E Solar E-technology
Sherpa Sherpa Power Engineering Ltd.
SEDA Socioeconomic development alliance
SREDA Sustainable and Renewable Energy Development Authority
Energies 2023, 16, 1494 23 of 27
SED Solar energy development

SHS Solar home system
SVM Support vector machine
toe Tons of oil equivalent
UEL UDDIPAN Energy Ltd.
WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority
WZPDCL West Zone Power Distribution Company Limited
WNN Wavelet neural network
WT Weight
Em Primary energy demand to produce materials comprising PV systems
Emf Primary energy demand to manufacture PV systems
Et Primary energy demand to transport materials used during the life cycle
Ei Primary energy demand to install the system
Emg Primary energy demand for end-of-life management
Eg Annual electricity generation in primary energy terms
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Energies 2023, 16, 1494. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031494 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Table 1. Solar energy capacity by the leading solar-power-implementing countries [13].

Country Capacity (MW)

In Bangladesh, primary energy consumption was reported to be 1.57 quadrillion

1.1. Energy Scenario of Bangladesh

13% Commercial and tea estate

Figure 2. Employment of natural gas in various segments of Bangladesh [26].

Off-Grid On-Grid Total

Project Capacity (MW)

Project Capacity (MW)

2.1. Techno-Economic Analysis

Energy Consumption of a Germant Building

Other appliances Lights

Lights Electrical motors Other appliances

2.1.1. Panel Generation Factor (PGF)

2.1.1. Panel Generation Factor (PGF)

2.1.2. Total Energy Required

2.1.3. Watt Peak Rating for PV Modules

2.1.4. Number of Modules

Table 6. Characteristics of PV modules [36].

2.1.5. Inverter Rating

2.1.6. Inverter Sizing

2.1.7. Battery Sizing

Table 7. Battery specifications [39,40].

Nominal Voltage 48 Volt

Battery Capacity Required

2.1.8. Module Circuit

The total area of modules = No. of Modules × Length × Width of Modules

Total embodied energy = 5855.87 × 1516.59 = 8880.95 MWh;

Capital Utilization Factor (CUF)

Annual energy Generated for each kW peak capacity

2.2. Financial Assessment

Total Cost of Inverters = number o f inverters × cost of each inverter (14)

2.2.2. Cost of Batteries

Total Cost of batteries = number o f batteries × cost of each battery (15)

2.2.3. Miscellaneous Cost

Table 8. Financial assessment of solar PV plants.

Cost Type Cost (USD)

3. Solar Resources in All Divisions of Bangladesh

Radiation data for eight divisions

Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna

Figure 4. Solar radiation

per year [44]. light is available

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Table 9. Solar energy potential of Bangladesh [33].

Technology Potential Power (MW)

4. Application of Solar Technologies in Bangladesh

4.2. Solar Power Plant/Solar Park

Utility/Institution/Company Capacity (MW)

4.3. Solar Transport (School Boats)

4.4. Solar PV for Drinking Water and Irrigation Pumps

Table 11. Major irrigation projects currently in operation [63].

Water Flow Pump Capacity Pump Head/Lift

Table 12. List of pump providers [63].

Name of the Supplier Equipment Brand Controller

4.5. Solar Cookers and Solar Aeration

4.6. Ongoing Projects