TECHNIQUES

OF MODERN

ORCHESTRAL

CONDUCTING
 TECHNIQUES
OF M O D E R N
ORCHESTRAL
CONDUCTING
Second Edition, Revised and Eniarged

Benjamin Grosbayne

Harvard University Press

Cambridge
Massachusetts
1973
© Copyright 1 9 5 6 and 1 9 7 3

By the President and Fellows of Harvard College

All rights reserved

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 7 8 - 1 8 4 1 0 5

SBN 6 7 4 - 8 7 2 2 6 - 6

Printed in the United States of America

To my sister

EVELYN
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T 972

The very pleasant task of citing the m a n y who aided me directly or in-
directly in the present version is difficult because of their n u m b e r . M y
thanks go to Sir Adrian Boult, who has generously shared his long and
vast experience over the years with m e as with so m a n y of his colleagues;
to my former teachers Felix Weingartner, Pierre M o n t e u x , a n d Charles
Koechlin, who p u t u p with a difficult young m a n most patiently; to
the late D e a n Briggs of H a r v a r d College, a very great teacher in whose
English courses I learned m u c h about the art of exposition a n d teaching.
To my former students a n d orchestral players, whose keen queries often
forced m e to reply quickly, succinctly, a n d in simple language, a n d
whom I have long ago forgiven for my chagrin at the time, I owe a
great debt. I also wish to thank Professor Ernest M c C l a i n of Brooklyn
College, who read the original version a n d caught some errors, A. E.
Goloomb, of Kharkov, Russia, whom I have never met, yet who faithfully
relayed to me over the years m u c h valuable d a t a about Russian
music, Dr. Paul Spitzer, former music critic of the Pester Lloyd a n d now
of Paris, whose catholic musical tastes widened one American's parochi-
alism, and Mrs. R u t h Bleecher, C u r a t o r of Music, Boston Public Li-
brary, who is always h a p p y to lighten a reader's and writer's labors.
I remain deeply indebted to the late Walter Toscanini for m u c h -
sought-after permission to attend his father's rehearsals, a n d I thank him,
as well as Arthur M . Fierro, for m u c h rare material about Arturo
Toscanini's career.
Finally, and above all, my wholly i n a d e q u a t e gratitude to my wife,
Mary, whose ability to balance the practical d e m a n d s of everyday life
and those of the spirit m a d e this revision possible.
E.G.

Newtonville, Massachusetts
August 10, 1971
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1956

Each writer in a technical field leans heavily upon the labors of his pred-
ecessors. T h e most recent book in a field serves merely as the temporary
t o p of a p y r a m i d created by the efforts of those who have preceded him.
T h e present writer, therefore, wishes to p a y t r i b u t e to t h e a u t h o r s of
m a n y articles a n d books written in the past which he has consuhed with
pleasure a n d profit.
F e w readers realize the d e b t writers owe to the patience a n d gen-
erous aid of hbrarians. Again, my indebtedness to workers in m a n y music
hbraries here a n d abroad is great. I acknowledge with gratitude the hours
of time a n d drudgery saved by their aid amid unfamiliar routines, which
often Vary confusingly from country to country.
An author's friends are always fair g a m e for intellectual piracy. T h e
roll call includes Miss Marcel Roy, Miss E d n a Yost, Dr. J o s e p h Braun-
stein, M r . R a y m o n d H a l l , a n d M r . H a r r y P a r k e r , whose s h a r p eyes
ferreted out m a n y a t y p o g r a p h i c a l slip. T h a n k s are d u e to M r . Josef
Alexander for composing a n excerpt to illustrate a technical problem,
to M r . Heinrich G e b h a r d for delightful discussions a n d consequent clar-
ification of issues, a n d to M r . Peter H e r m a n Adler for stimulating
wrangling over eternal questions of tempo.
Appreciation is due to M r . Vincent Lagano for drawing the patterns
which depict the motions of the baton, to Dr. Carl A. Rosenthal for the
musical autographs a n d helpful suggestions, a n d to the publishers who
permitted quotations from copyrighted compositions.
M y special t h a n k s to Professor S i e g m u n d Levarie, C h a i r m a n of the
Music D e p a r t m e n t of Brooklyn College, who waded through page proof
despite a very crowded schedule.
In a very large sense, then, those cited above have been colleagues,
a n d I a m h a p p y to acknowledge my debt.
B.C.
Gloucester, Massachusetts
August 31, 1954
 CONTENTS

Foreword, xiii
Illustrations, xvii
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Patterns, xxv
Abbreviations Used in Musical Quotations, xxv

P a r t I: T h e Physical Bases of C o n d u c t i n g
Chapter One: General Considerations, 3
Chapter Two: R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d Experience, 7
Chapter Three: T h e Tools, 12
Chapter Four: P r e p a r a t o r y Exercises, 16
Chapter Five: Two Beats to the Bar, 20
T h e Position of t h e H a n d a n d t h e Body, 2 0 . — M e t h o d of Beat-
ing, 2 2 . — T h e A t t a c k a n d t h e B r e a t h Pause, 25.—Subdivisions,
26.—Two Measures Taken as O n e , 28
Chapter Six: T h r e e Beats to t h e Bar, 30
M e t h o d of Beating, 30.—Subdivisions, 32
Chapter Seven: O n e Beat to the Bar, 36
D u p l e Pulses, 36.—Silent Bars, 38.—Triple Pulses, 38.—Shifted
Accents, 39
Chapter Eight: F o u r Beats to the Bar, 41
M e t h o d of Beating, 41.—Subdivisions, Eight Pulses, 44.—Staccato
a n d Syncopation, 45.—Subdivisions, Twelve Pulses, 46
Chapter Mine: Six Beats to the Bar, 50
M e t h o d of Beating, 5 0 . — S y n c o p a t i o n , 51.—Subdivisions, 52.—
Review of Patterns, 53

CONTENTS ix
Chapter Ten: Attacks, 54
O n the Beat, 54.—Legato a n d Staccato, 56.—"Free" Entrances, 57.
—Within Strokes, 58.—Directly After the Stroke, 62.—Involvlng
Rests, 64.—For Different Instruments, 65.—Review, 66
Chapter Eleven: Combination Pulses, 67
Five Beats to the Bar wlth Different Speeds a n d Accents, 67.—
Seven Beats to the Bar, 72
Chapter Twelve: T h e Left H a n d , 75
Uses and Exerclses, 75.—Culng In, 78
Chapter Thirteen: T h e Hold, 81
O n Entire Measures, 8 2 . — O n Different Strokes, 8 3 . — I n the
Same Directlon, 83.—In Different Directions, 83.—Followed by
the Same Note a n d by Different Notes, 8 5 . — O n Bar Lines a n d
Rests, 8 6 . — I m p l i e d Holds, 8 7 . — T h e C u t - O f f a n d E n d Beats,
87.—Simultaneous Holds, 90.—Breath Pauses and End Beats, 92
Chapter Fourteen: Volume, Accents, Legato a n d Staccato, 97
Volume, 97.—Accents, 100.—Legato a n d Staccato, 101
Chapter Fifteen: Techniques of R h y t h m , 104
Poetry a n d Music, 104.—Prose R h y t h m s , 104.—A Review of
R h y t h m i c Patterns, 106.—Shifdng Rhythms, 107.—Interpolated
Measures, 109.—Rapidly C h a n g i n g R h y t h m s , 113.—A Practice
List of Kaleidoscopic R h y t h m s , 116.—Simplifying Complicated
Time-Signatures, 117
Chapter Sixteen: Combined R h y t h m s , 120
O n e to the Bar, 123.—Two to t h e Bar, 124.—Four to the Bar,
126.—Three to the Bar, 128.—Multiple Bars Taken as One, 130.
— M o r e t h a n Two S i m u l t a n e o u s P a t t e r n s , 134.—Debussy's La
Mer, 134.—Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps, 136

Part II: Style and Interpretation

Chapter Seventeen: Tempo, 141
Fashion and Tradition in Tempo, 141.—Composers' a n d Conduc-
tors' Tempos, 142.—Tempos in Beethoven's F o u r t h S y m p h o n y ,
144.—The Student's A p p r o a c h to Tempo, 145.—Very Slow and
Very Fast Tempos, 146.—Correcting Players W h o H u r r y or
Drag, 149

CONTENTS
Chapter Eighteen: Measure Groupings and Rubato, 151
Measure Groupings, 151:
Brahms's Second Symphony, 152; Berlioz' Roman Carnival
Overture, 154.—
Rests and Silent Beats, 155.—Äufeato, 159:
J o h a n n Strauss's Die Fledermaus Overture, 159; Liszt's Second
Hungarian Rhapsody, 162
Chapter Nineteen: Orchestral Cadenzas and Accompaniment, 166
Orchestral Cadenzas, 166.—Accompaniment, 170:
Mozart's Pianoforte Concerto in A Major (K. 288), 174; Bee-
thoven's Violin Concerto, 176; T h e Allegro Vivace from Schu-
mann's Pianoforte Concerto in A Minor, 178
Chapter Twenty: Recitative, 180
Orchestral Recitative, 180:
Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel, 180; Beethoven's Leonora Overture
No. 3, 181; Rimsky-KorsakofiF's Scheherezade, 181.—
Vocal Recitative, 183:
Verdi's II Trovatore, 185; Bizet's Carmen, 187; Massenet's A/araon,
187; "Jewel Song" from Gounod's Faust, 188; Verdi's "Celeste
Aida," 189; Summary, 190
Chapter Twenty-One: Studying and Analyzing an Orchestral Score, 192
Some Notes on Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, 194
Chapter Twenty-Two: Marking, Correcting, and Editing Scores, 201
Chapter Twenty-Three: Preparing for the Rehearsal, 207
Learning the Score, 208.—Studying and Analyzing the Individ-
ual Parts, 209.—Timing and Scheduling Rehearsals, 210.—Re-
hearsal Halls, 212.—Seating Plans, 212.—Getting the Players'
Point of View, 213
Chapter Twenty-Four: T h e Rehearsal, 216
Gaging the Caliber of the Orchestra, 217.—Pantomimic Signs,
218.—Rehearsal Procedures in General, 219.—Handling Players'
Errors, 220.—Attitüde of the Conductor toward Players,
222.—The Light Touch, 224.—Other Conductors' Rehearsals,
224.—A Poetic Rehearsal, 225.—Discipline and Courtesy,
226.—A Rehearsal Is Not a Concert, 227.—The Ultimate Crea-
tion, 227.
Chapter Twenty-Five: T h e Performance, 229
Emergencies, 230.—Routine Exigencies, 232.—Nervousness,

CONTENTS
 233.—Be Oneself, 234.—Dictates of Good Taste, 234.—The
Press, 235.—The Conductor's Mission, 236
Chapter Twenty-Six: O n Programs, 238
Practical Considerations, 239.—Nationalism and Regionalism,
240.—Programs of Varying Lengths, 241.—Some Principles in
Program-Making, 244
Chapter Twenty-Seven: Programs in Practice, 246
Program Balance, 247.—A Repertory in Depth, 247.—Unity and
Variety, 248.—Number and Length of Pieces, 248.—Responsible
Program-Making, 249
Chapter Twenty-Eight: Bypaths and Bygone Days, 251
T h e Community, the University, and " O l d " Music, 252.—Mod-
ern Use of " O l d " Music, 253.—New Instruments, 254.—Con-
temporary Croups, 254.—Editing, Arranging, and Transcrib-
ing, 257.—Faculty and Community Cooperation, 260

APPENDICES
Appendix I: Working Repertory of Classical and Romantic Symphonies
Analyzed According to the N u m b e r of Strokes to the Bar, 263
Appendix II: Reference Table of Time-Signatures, 273
Appendix III: Unusual Modern Rhythms, 291
Appendix IV: Representative Programs, 312
Bibliographies: General References, 331.—Program Notes, 333.—^Johann
Sebastian Bach, 334.—Ludwig van Beethoven, 334.—^Johannes
Brahms, 335.—Style, Interpretation, Criticism, 335.—Technique,
339.—Orchestration and Instrumentation, 341.—School Orches-
tra, 342.—Score-Reading and Transposition, 343.—Organization,
345
Supplementary Bibliographies: Technique, 346.—Score-Reading, 347.—The
Orchestra and Orchestration, 348.—Program Notes, 348.—By and About
Conductors, 348.—History and Historical Interest, 350.—The Players'
Point of View, 350
Index 351

CONTENTS
 FOREWORD

Everyone concerned w i t h t h e a r t of musical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n comes to the

realization t h a t its s t u d y m u s t be a p p r o a c h e d f r o m two points of view:
t h a t of purely physical techniques a n d t h a t of the creator's message, which
is to be conveyed to t h e auditors. D ü r i n g various epochs in t h e history of
music, i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e gone t h r o u g h periods of stressing one of these
points of view, often at t h e expense of t h e other. T o illustrate tendencies
toward such one-sidedness a n d exaggeration, we need go n o further t h a n
to recall certain styles of c o l o r a t u r a singing, schools of so-called "virtu-
oso" conducting, e r over-romanticized a n d highly subjective instrumen-
tal Performances. T o point out these tendencies, however, is not to deny
technical brilliance its p r o p e r place in music.
Every i n t e r p r e t e r , w h e t h e r s t u d e n t - a p p r e n t i c e or m a t u r e artist, is
faced with a n endless search for t h e true m e a n i n g of the music, which he
seeks to convey to his hearers by m e a n s of technical c o m p e t e n c e on the
one h a n d a n d his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of music on t h e other. A text dealing
with c o n d u c t i n g t e c h n i q u e s m u s t a t t e m p t , t h e n , to present in codified
a n d sequential f o r m w h a t has evolved to meet both these aspects of every
interpreter's problem.
T h e present text has been divided into two m a i n sections, with this
dualism in m i n d . P a r t I deals principally, t h o u g h not exclusively, with
the physical skills involved in such basic techniques as b e a t i n g in single
a n d c o m b i n e d pulses a n d giving attacks, releases, a n d holds, a n d with
such stylistic c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s as legato a n d staccato, all a c h i e v e d with
the two h a n d s completely i n d e p e n d e n t of each other. It deals, in short,
with t h e skills involved in f a s h i o n i n g physical p a t t e r n s so a p p r o p r i a t e
a n d suggestive t h a t a g r o u p of instrumentalists m a y easily, comfortably.

FOREWORD
confidently, a n d without hesitation or doubt of the conductor's Inten-
tion, be brought into obedience to one unifying concept, the conductor's.
T h e other, and indeed the major, side of the conductor's art—Inter-
pretation—cannot be wholly ignored, however, even in the earliest study
of basic techniques. To ignore it would transform what is certainly an
art into a science. Psychological c o m m a n d of a body of fellow interpre-
ters is a major part of the conductor's total assets, a n d it is always present
as he transmits his concept of the music by means of physical skills. Every
technical point studied, every exercise practiced, every motion executed,
every attitude held—all must be learned with the thought of their double
purpose: to help lead a group of players, a n d to do justice to the music
being interpreted.
T h e r e is still another goal, at which some virtuoso conductors have
been known to aim with almost total disregard of the two main purposes.
This third goal, the histrionic effect of physical techniques upon an au-
dience, is, if kept within its proper p a r t of t h e whole frame, a n integral
aspect of the interpreter's appeal. Only when it becomes the too predom-
inant aim of the conductor to impress an audience by such means does this
tendency degrade the music.
We cannot, then, consider the purely manual, physical, or kinetic
bases of the art of conducting in complete Separation from the interpre-
tative demands a n d connotation of the music, or from the effect these
skills will eventually have on the audience. We can, however, simplify
the approach to the conductor's problems by stressing the technical side
of his art first, while temporarily minimizing the interpretative aspects
of the music being studied. Such is our aim in Part I. But the Student
should never lose sight of the final goal: making his physical techniques
per se so automatic that they eventually become spontaneous a n d sub-
servient to his Interpretation.
In Part II of the text the stress is placed principally upon style and
Interpretation, through actual application of the techniques learned in
Part I. Here the Student meets more advanced aspects of a conductor's
techniques, such as tempo, rests, silent or empty beats, rubato, cadenzas,
and recitative. In order to impart to the Student a feeling for context,
I have presented analyses from several points of view of large sections
of some works which represent various categories, and have made a study
of certain aspects of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. T h e final chapters
discuss marking a n d correcting scores a n d some of the problems met
by the conductor at rehearsals.
Since it would be neither desirable nor possible to exclude technique
per se when considering the interpretative aspect of the conductor's art.

xiv FOREWORD
Part II does not a t t e m p t this exclusion. M a n y a technical problem which
does not a p p e a r in the sort of geometric paradigms with which we treat
isolated musical snippets in t h e early study of skills, crops u p in high
and bold relief only when one considers the actual phrases, passages, and
context essential to the study of interpretation.
Hopefully, I anticipate t h a t this book will be used by two types of
readers: teachers and students who meet for regulär classes, a n d conduc-
tors a n d apprentice conductors who must work a n d study far from mu-
sical Centers.
To facilitate classroom use, the text has been planned to provide ma-
terial for two füll semesters' study by classes meeting for three hourly
periods a week. Since classes vary from term to term in size, capabilities,
background, a n d potentialities, the teacher should adjust his use of the
text to the needs of each class. It is a good plan to make, for each class,
a n outline based on the text b u t a d a p t e d to t h e needs of the specific
group. It is well to share this outline with the class.
I n m a k i n g his a d j u s t m e n t s , the t e a c h e r m a y decide to follow the
m a i n order of the text, or to omit certain portions a n d r e t u r n to t h e m
later. H e should stress the points each p a r t i c u l a r class needs, a n d also
choose t h e examples for Illustration a n d practice according to Student
need. T h e text provides sufficicnt material in enough detail to give the
teacher a liberal degree of choice.
In classroom work, it is of great importance that the theory of tech-
nical principles be translated at the earliest possible m o m e n t into prac-
tice. T h e Student conductor must learn to think on his feet. As soon as
he has begun to acquire some ability in securing good attacks, balance
a m o n g the various choirs, reasonably good intonation, a n d the elements
of style, he should practice u p o n a singing g r o u p m a d e u p of members
of the class or u p o n a similarly c o m p o s e d i n s t r u m e n t a l ensemble, no
m a t t e r how small or how heterogeneous. W h e n pianists are in prepon-
derance in a class, some m a y play "second" Instruments or those Instru-
ments most easily learned in their initial stages. Pianists m a y also double
o n percussion; while string, wind, a n d brass players m a y p e r f o r m on
other Instruments in the same family as their m a j o r Instrument. Clar-
inetists may become saxophonists; violinists m a y become violists or even
contrabass players, a n d so on.
I n all this practice, the t e a c h e r should insist that the Student con-
ductor sing out whenever performers falter or stray from pitch. T h e
conductor should be able to solfege instantly any part, with some degree
of imitative facility, in order to show the singers or players w h a t he wants

FOREWORD
t h e m to do. F u r t h e r m o r e , the t e a c h e r m a y well h a v e his students make
their own vocal and instrumental a r r a n g e m e n t s for a n y combinations
w h i c h are possible a n d technically suitable for the class involved. This
exercise will give the Student opportunity to prepare for conditions likely
to confront him later.
T h e conductor or apprentice c o n d u c t o r w h o must work a n d study
a w a y from musical centers will find in this book an exposition of the
theory of the conductor's art. But the problem of obtaining a good work-
ing technique presents a challenge more difficult of Solution for him
than it does for students in musical centers. H e will, however, have broad-
cast and recorded music a v a i l a b l e in e n o u g h profusion to e n a b l e h i m to
progress from acquaintance to intimate friendship with a large repertory
of Standard works. He should also develop every possibility his Commu-
nity offers. H e should practica with local pianists a n d organists, take
a d v a n t a g e of special musical p r o g r a m s in local churches, f o r m small
groups of singers and instrumentalists, and make his own arrangements
for v a r y i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s of performers. In all of these ventures, this
book should guide him.
A s indicated in its title, this book deals literally with the techniques
of orchestral conducting and it is limited to that terrain. C e r t a i n facets
of rehearsal procedure, such as the routining of amateur orchestras, phras-
ings, bowings, balance of different Instruments and choirs of Instruments,
unsatisfactory a n d w e a k notes p r o d u c e d b y some members of the orches-
tral ensemble, a n d the idiosyncrasies of various Instruments, h a v e been
omitted. T h e y h a v e been omitted premeditatively, because some of
them, like the routining of a m a t e u r orchestras, do not lend themselves
to written exposition but must be l e a r n e d in actual practice; a n d be-
cause others, like subtleties in tone balance and the technical knowledge
of orchestral Instruments, have been presented with extreme clarity and
great detail in easily a v a i l a b l e books, e.g., Forsyth's Orchestration and
Scherchen's Handbook of Conducting.
T h i s book offers but one of a n u m b e r of possible approaches to the
art of c o n d u c t i n g . B e h i n d it lie t w o decades of testing in the author's
own classes, under the most v a r y i n g conditions.

FOREWORD
Arturo Toscanini, 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 5 7 (Courtesy of the National Broodcasting C o m p a n y , Inc.)
Otto Klemperer, b. 1 8 8 5 (Photo E.M.I. Records Ltd.)
 p
K

Wilhelm Furtwängler, 1 8 8 6 - 1 9 5 4 (Photograph by Roger Hauert, reprinted by permission of Editions Rene Kister.)
Willem M e n g e l b e r g , 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 5 1 {Courtesy of Associated Press, Berlin.)
Eugene O r m a n d y , b. 1 8 9 9 (Photo b y A d r i a n Siegel, The Philadelphia Orchestra.)
Herbert v o n Karajan, b. 1 9 0 8 (Courtesy of Berliner Philharmonisches Orchester.)
G e o r g Solti, b. 1 9 1 2 (Courtesy of t-he C h i c a g o S y m p h o n y Orchestro.)
Pierre B o u l e z , b. ] 9 2 5 (Photograph by Hostings-WIIIInger & Associates, courtesy of the C l e v e l a n d Orchestra.)
 INTERPRETATION OF

PATTERNS AND

ABBREVIATIONS

INTERPRETATION OF PATTERNS
The Student must not forget that, while motions made during actual
conducting move in three directions, line drawings can be made to rep-
resent only two of these directions. T h e Student must therefore mentally
supply the missing dimension of depth as he studies the patterns.
Streng beats, which usually fall on down strokes although sometimes
also on other strokes or parts of strokes, are shown in the diagrams by
dark lines; weak beats, by lighter lines.
Arrows and numbers show the general direction of strokes; letters
show subdivisions of main strokes.
Dotted lines represent preparatory motions, and, by extension, com-
bined cessation-preparatory motions.
Apostrophes stand for breath pauses.
T h e small half moon with a dot in its center is used in its usual sense,
to signify a hold, the length of which depends upon the context.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN MUSICAL QUOTATIONS

Alto Flute A.F. Füll Orchestra F.O.

Bass Clarinet B.Cl. Oboe Ob.
Bass Drum BD. Piccolo Pic.
Bass Trombone B.Tbn. Snare Drum S.Dr.
Bassoon Bsn. Strings Strgs.
Chorus Che. Timpani Timp.
Clarinet Gl. Trombone Tbn.
Contrabass B. Trumpet Tpt.
Contra Bassoon G.Bsn. Viola Via.
English Horn Eng, Hn. Violin Vln.
Flute Fl. Violoncello Vcl.
French Horn Hn. Wood Wind Ww.

INTERPRETATION AND ABBREVIATIONS

Part One

THE PHYSICAL BASES

OF CONDUCTING
 Chapter One

GENERAL C O N S I D E R A T I O NS

The art of conducting, poetic and rewarding as it appears from a seat in the
audience, presents an altogether different aspect to the aspirant who is
preparing to practica it. He will soon discover that it is the most diffi-
cult, the most profound art in the whole realm of musical Interpretation,
and the one demanding the greatest versatility. So difficult will he find
its demands, in fact, that he is often likely to question whether or not he
possesses the innate qualifications for success in this most inclusive and
exacting of arts.
If, in the midst of his early misgivings, he is subjected to certain ideas
sometimes expressed about conducting, he may find himself wondering
whether it is worth while to hope that study will help him master the
art. A half-truth has long been current and often stated that conductors
are born, not trained, and that the art of conducting cannot be taught.
Anton Seidl, in his essay, " O n Conducting," takes the point of view that
only the specially anointed m a y hope to become conductors a n d that
training is neither necessary nor helpful.
" T h e ability to conduct," he writes, "is a gift of God with which few
have been endowed in füll measure. Those who possess it in abundance
do not wish to write about it, for to them the talent seems so natural a
thing that they cannot see the need of discussing it. This is the kernel of
the whole matter. If you have the divine gift within you, you can con-
duct; if you have not, you will never be able to acquire it. Those who
have been endowed with the gift are conductors; the others are time-
beaters."
If Herr Seidl means that Inspiration, as apart from mere technique,
is a divine gift, no one will dispute his thesis. But that the m a n with in-
born ability to become a successful conductor must also learn from study

GENERAL CONSIDERATtONS
is acknowledged in Herr Seidl's Statement elsewhere that he himself
learned to conduct recitative from H e r m a n n Levi. T h e whole truth is
that conductors are prepared by heredity to be trained; a n d that while
many of the qualities which go into the personality of a conductor, espe-
cially those relating to suggestive a n d hypnotic powers, evade and defy
analysis, other phases of the art do admit of both analysis a n d training
a n d can be studied either in class room groups or alone.
Three main tasks confront the conductor: mastering a score, rehears-
ing a group of performers, a n d interpreting this score before an audi-
ence. Each of these tasks presupposes natural gifts, but gifts upon which
must be superimposed highly speciahzed training. Yet because conduct-
ing is an art a n d not a science, a m a n may have most of the gifts that
are subject to definition or description, plus the specialized training, and
still fail to reveal that indefinable capacity to project lifeless musical
symbols into sounds which convey an emotional message to an audience.
Facets of every art can be taught; mastery of its physical techniques is
possible to many. But the final spark which, in the case of a conductor,
lifts orchestral music from the realm of acoustically acceptable sound
into the realm of living art cannot be generated unless it constantly lives
within the m a n whose task it is to elicit this phenomenon from the
instruments of the players he conducts.
Certain definable gifts must be possessed by the man who would suc-
ceed as a conductor. To master a score he must be endowed with the
ability to hear inwardly each part of that score. He must be able to
metnorize, though inability to conduct by memory does not disqualify a
conductor. To rehearse an orchestra, a m a n must have not only inborn
qualifications for leadership but also the capacity to beat time, a capac-
ity, incidentally, which is not nearly so common as the aspirant may
suppose. " T h e power of beating time," Hector Berlioz has written, "is
difficult to secure and very few people really possess it."
A critical faculty is also essential for success in the conductor's task of
rehearsing his group, as is understanding of the natura a n d compass of
each Instrument in his orchestra. It is not necessary that he be a master
of any particular Instrument—successful conductors have risen from the
ranks of those playing almost every Instrument, including the timpani—
though ability to play one or more of them satisfactorily is an asset. But
it is essential for him to have control of his vocal cords well enough to
sing out or h u m any part of a score, to show his men what he wants when
it is not forthcoming from the instruments.
Yet all these, and other qualifications as well, are not to be confused
with the art of conducting. They are of paramount importance in a con-
ductor's equipment, but in the final analysis they are only preparation

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
 for his art. Possession of them does not necessarily make one a conduc-
tor. The ability to hear inwardly an orchestral score is one possessed by
a fairly large body of musicians. M a n y auditors and orchestral players
know by memory a fair number of orchestral works in the Standard con-
cert repertory, but this feat does not make them conductors. The critical
faculty is possessed in varying degrees by most listeners a n d students.
M a n y a professional critic knows what a conductor should be able to
project, and can write both entertainingly and instructively on the mat-
ter. M a n y a pedagogue or pedagogically talented time-beater can re-
hearse an orchestra efficiently a n d effectively. A conductor must have
all these abilities in some degree of competence, but they are only prep-
aration for his main task: that of interpreting a musical work before an
audience.
So, while it is undoubtedly true that some men are born with innate
gifts for translating musical pulses, phrases, dynamics, and tone balance
into clearly understood and poetic motions, coupled with the gift of mo-
bility of countenance which makes inspiring facial expressions possible,
it cannot be repeated too often that such natural gifts must be carefully
trained and supplemented with musical theory.
To stress the need for study is not to deny the fact that a self-taught
conductor does occasionally emerge, who has overcome his faults through
years of practical experience. Self-taught conductors, nevertheless, are
usually just as effective as self-taught instrumentalists or singers, barring
the rare cases of genius. And usually, even in such a rare case, a tremen-
dous amount of time and labor might have been saved under competent
teachers.
Certain principles of time-beating have evolved over the years and
have been generally accepted throughout the musical world. Conductors
who understand these principles may travel from orchestra to orchestra
and, with a few rehearsals, show their collaborators what they want, de-
spite partial or even complete linguistic barriers. Knowledge of these
principles a n d respect for t h e m do not preclude individuality. O n the
contrary, they permit and encourage it, if the principles are not followed
•too literally.
It is natural for those studying conducting, whether under teachers
or alone, to watch and try to imitate well-known conductors. At any
stage of the learning process, this experience may prove very valuable,
but it is much more likely to be so if the Student has already undergone
study which has developed his discrimination. After such study he will
See and hear prominent conductors with sharpened eyes a n d ears and
with new understanding. To be able to recognize how m u c h of a con-
ductor's success is due to excellent nontechnical abilities, such as emo-

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
tional drive, skill in organizing and program building, scholarship, over-
powering personality, a n d so on, is essential, if the Student is to be able
to distinguish clearly those technical features of the great conductors
which are worth imitating. By all means copy the good facets, but do
not assume a conductor's Performances to be canonical simply because
he is famous.
The Student who watches several well-known conductors of recog-
nized excellence should not expect to find unanimity of technique. The
conscientious conductor makes signs to show his Interpretation of a musi-
cal work with the same infinite care a n d exactness as a string virtuoso
fingers and bows. Just as no two players necessarily finger or bow in the
same way, so do no two conductors necessarily beat alike in all details.
J u s t as there are idiomatic ways of fingering a n d bowing, so there are
idiomatic ways of beating. These vary with the proficiency of the players
a n d singers of each group, with the conductor's familiarity with his
group, and, above all, with his mood. These facts show another reason
why formal study is a good forerunner of or accompaniment to the stu-
dent's independent, personal study of successful conductors. It can bring
clarity where, otherwise, the main end result might be confusion.
The Student will soon discover that the technique of the baton is just
as difRcult as that of an Instrument and will take just as long to master.
Indeed, the Student will probably later recall this assertion as an Under-
statement. When he reads that an aristocrat of the baton like Felix
Weingartner states that it took him years to achieve complete harmony
between heart and hand, the Student need not despair. It must never be
forgotten that the conductor is playing upon living h u m a n beings and
not, as is the instrumentalist, upon an inanimate collection of materials.
The harmony between his own heart and hand, so difficult even for the
most highly gifted, must be the tool, also, for harmony bet.veen himself
and the living h u m a n beings from whom he must evoke his Interpreta-
tion of the music.
At no time in history has there been more demand for capable young
conductors. Motion pictures, broadcasting studios, theater orchestras,
wind Instrument bands, church choirs and ensembles, educational insti-
tutions, and Community orchestras founded away from great musical
Centers—all offer opportunities to the trained Organizer and conductor.
High and ever-rising technical Standards make it imperative that he
secure as carefial training as does the instrumentalist. Conducting, it can-
not be repeated too often, is an art, not a science, and nothing less than
the most serious and concentrated preparation should be contemplated
for this most difficult of the interpretative arts.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Chapter Two

REQUIREMENTS

AND EXPERIENCE

The first query which naturally concerns the Student is w h a t theoretical

knowledge is desirable or necessary for him to acquire before he proceeds
to the study of baton technique. T h e usual reply presents a long and
formidable hst of studies which practicing conductors have mastered to-
ward the height of their careers. T h e Student is here advised to do what
most of these conductors h a v e done: acquire all such knowledge grad-
ually, while gaining practical experience.
T h e conductor, w h e n all is said a n d done, is a n interpreter. H e is
not p r i m a r i l y a p e d a g o g u e , theorist, composer, or critic; although his
art certainly calls upon each of these branches of musical activity to no
little degree, their chief function should be to furnish him with a n un-
derstanding of the musical compositions he must re-create before an au-
dience. Over-stressing theory, criticism, or composition, however important
they m a y be to other musicians, sometimes results in a style of conducting,
easily seen in certain conductors, which exaggerates studies that should
be a less conspicuous means to an end.
It is an open secret that more than one successfiil conductor has been
distinguished by his c o m p a r a t i v e lack rather than by his knowledge of
music theory. S o m e of these men began as pianists, organists, or opera
coaches. B u t they h a v e usually b e e n a b l e to a c q u i r e two f o r m i d a b l e
weapons in the conductor's arsenal: a n intimate knowledge of many items
in the Standard repertory, and a workable baton technique. Such men,
having been knocked about in the rather rough and ready school of ex-
perience, have usually m a n a g e d to obtain a pretty good understanding
of what voices and Instruments can do.

REQUIREMENTS AND EXPERIENCE

 T o speak of the success of these men is not a n attempt to decry, even
b y implication, the i m p o r t a n c e of s o u n d theoretical training. W i t h o u t
underestimating Its s u p r e m e value in other fields of musical endeavor,
however, we must consider it merely as b a c k g r o u n d in a conductor's
e q u i p m e n t — a means to a n end. It is q u i t e surprising to discover how
relatively little theory serves for practical purposes, if t h a t m o d i c u m is
t h o r o u g h l y mastered t h r o u g h the eye a n d ear a n d not on t h e printed
page.
At the other extreme, however, one occasionally encounters pedantic
conductors who, a l t h o u g h very gifted, are o v e r b u r d e n e d with periph-
eral knowledge. Such men have been known to lecture their players on
musical philosophy, aesthetics, a n d history for long periods, a n d embar-
rassing episodes have occurred in protest, as in the case of Willem Men-
gelberg. T h e m a t t e r m a y be s u m m e d u p by pointing out t h a t it is pos-
sible to strike a balance, as did Sir D o n a l d Tovey a n d Felix Weingartner,
who juggled their profound learning very gracefully indeed.
Let US t u r n now to consider w h a t theoretical e q u i p m e n t is practical
for the conductor. Although it m a y seem r e d u n d a n t to insist on a thor-
ough knowledge of r h y t h m , musical notation, solfege, musical architec-
ture, harmony, a n d counterpoint at this time, a careful review often
reveals that students have surprising gaps in early training, which may
prove disconcerting later. Such gaps should be remedied at the earliest
possible m o m e n t , or t h e y will c o m e b a c k to p l a g u e one. T h e Student
should be a b l e to r e a d easily not only the usual bass a n d treble clefs,
b u t also—and this is extremely i m p o r t a n t — t h e C clef on all five lines.
Such clef-reading will be useful not only in reading old manuscripts but
also as a means of transposing Instruments. T h e Student is urged to prac-
tice clef transposition at the piano a n d , more important, with his voice,
so t h a t he will be able to sing a n y passages suddenly to his players. At
his fingers' tips as well as at his tongue's end, he should also have a work-
ing knowledge of the usual instrumental transpositions, ranges, registers,
a n d tone colors, singly a n d in various combinations; a n d he should be
familiar with the technical possibilities of Instruments a n d voices, bow-
ings, fingerings, special effects, a n d b r e a t h i n g s ; t r a d i t i o n a l orchestral
parlance; foreign terminology; phrasing; a n d the mood a n d style of var-
ious epochs, schools, a n d composers. But such collateral study should be
taken slowly a n d diluted with m u c h study of baton technique.
I n addition to studying all this theory, the Student c o n d u c t o r must
c o n t i n u e to develop ceaselessly c e r t a i n specific abilities. T h e first is a
sense o f j u s t Intonation, which means relative pitch: the ability to distin-
guish even slight deviations of one note in relation to another. Absolute

REQUIREMENTS A N D EXPERIENCE
pitch, the ability to n a m e or to sing a note without previous reference
to another, is a n interesting faculty as often possessed by mediocre mu-
sicians as lacked by good ones. To detect a slight Variation in a solo in-
t r u m e n t is one thing; to do this in a n inner part amid m a n y tone colors
is quite a n o t h e r , especially w h e n m o r e t h a n one i n s t r u m e n t share the
same note in forte passages. T h e Student will soon learn that it seems to
be far easier, ironically, to detect such variations from a seat in the au-
ditorium t h a n f r o m the conductor's p o d i u m . This p a r a d o x m a y be ex-
plained partly by the fact t h a t while the hearer is u n h a m p e r e d by the
a c t u a l details of the rehearsal a n d receives a n over-all acoustical and
a u r a l impression by being at a distance f r o m the stage, the conductor,
assailed a n d h a r r i e d by i n n u m e r a b l e v a r i e d sounds at d o s e ränge, is
sometimes likely to become disconcerted. At first, differing nuances a n d
c o m b i n a t i o n s of sounds, t o n e colors, a n d degrees of loudness t e n d to
m u d d l e u p the conductor; b u t practice, experience, a n d concentration
will gradually develop his perception in these matters. M u c h of the in-
itial difficulty is u n d o u b t e d l y psychological, a n d only time will bring
self-assurance.
Detecting a wrong note or deviation m a y be termed a positive aural
ability; singling out the missing note of a chord in a mass of sound,
a negative aural ability. Neither comes easily, a n d conductors differ
amazingly in this regard. A thorough training in solfege, chordal struc-
ture, a n d intervals is the best preparation for these abilities. Experience
will aid the process. H a v e a friendly pianist play series of chords, each
with a wrong or missing note, a n d then try to identify the errors, as part
of the t r a i n i n g process. Pay special a t t e n t i o n to very low notes, which
m a n y musicians find difficult to take a p a r t aurally.
A practical understanding of the possibilities of orchestral Instruments
is indispensable to the conductor. Perhaps the simplest way to acquire
this knowledge is to study one instrument from each representative fam-
ily, i.e., one string, one wood wind, one brass, a n d one percussion. For
the string section, the viola or contrabass is recommended as being easier
t h a n the violin or Violoncello; for t h e single reed, the clarinet, which,
t h o u g h not so easy in some ways as the flute, oboe, or Saxophone, pre-
sents certain acoustical quirks with which the conductor should be fam-
iliar; for the brass, the t u b a or cornet, which will teach the conductor
what he wants to know without forcing him to submit to the appalling
task of trying to play the French horn; for the percussion, the timpani,
both manual and pedal, of course. T h e ability to play the piano or organ
will help, not only in p l a y i n g scores b u t also in t r a i n i n g t h e m i n d to
t h i n k polyphonically. I n a b i l i t y to play o n e of these I n s t r u m e n t s may

REQUIREMENTS A N D EXPERIENCE
prove a Handicap which only intense work can overcome. There is no
doubt of the fact that keyboard players have some initial advantages,
although they also have disadvantages. A list of successful conductors,
who have played all sorts of instruments, proves that it is the man and
not his instrumental background which determines his success.
It is recommended that the Student take a few lessons on each of
these instruments from a teacher who is aware that not technical veloc-
ity or ferocity is the aim, but an understanding of the instrument's pos-
sibilities. T h e Student should also read mentally various beginners'
methods for each instrument and peruse the latest catalogues of manu-
facturers, a process which will bring much practical knowledge in a short
time. All this training definitely improves the student's beat, which he
will often have to vary according to the section he conducts.
It is well to remember that, although score-reading is a necessary
skill, some famous score-readers have been undistinguished as conduc-
tors. Opportunities to hear musical works repeated Over the air, on
phonographs, and in the concert hall are numerous nowadays, so that a
Student has m a n y chances to practice score-reading. If he plays in an
orchestra, so much the better, for then he can learn scores being rehearsed
at first hand, not forgetting that music sounds difFerent in various parts
of the orchestra pit and unlike its effect at the conductor's podium. The
Student should read scores a w a y from the piano as m u c h as possible.
T h e problem of obtaining actual experience in conducting has never
been an easy one to solve. For this is not simply a matter of getting an
instrument to practice upon; one must practice upon a body of men,
a n d quite naturally, no body of men likes to be practiced upon. One
traditional method is to play in the orchestra and to act as the assistant
conductor, another is to coach an opera choir and then Start with back-
stage bits a n d operettas. These methods have obvious advantages: one
goes gradually to more a n d more difficult tasks, and one may consult
with the chief conductor on knotty problems.
T h e Student should enlist the aid of a pianist who can play from
score, preferably section by section, and whom he can "conduct." Four-
h a n d piano arrangements are even better for this purpose. H e should
also follow Performances, either at the concert hall or over the air, by
beating time. If he is at a concert hall, he can do this unobtrusively on
his knee. At the concert he should try to get a seat in front a n d to the
side, where he can watch the conductor's facial expressions a n d left hand.
Even if the composition being played is wholly unfamiliar to him, beat-
ing time simply u p and down and backward and forward will prove of
immense value in establishing a feeling for the translation of tempo and

10 REQUIREMENTS A N D EXPERIENCE
phrases into visible patterns. Incidentally, it is far better for this purpose
to hear one program many times than a half-dozen programs once each.
Finding an orchestra to practice with is largely a matter of ingenuity,
circumstances, and luck. Municipal, educational, and church organiza-
tions frequently offer opportunities. If your orchestra or b a n d is small,
lead with a violin, piano, or b a n d instrument. Make everything count.
Whenever you see a puzzled look on the faces of your men or when-
ever they become unsteady, assume it to be your fault. It often will be.
At any rate, such an attitude will make you strive constantly for greater
clarity in giving your indications. Even when you know your men were
at fault, consider that you yourself might have been so clear that they
could not possibly have gone wrong.
Explain your wishes and m a n n e r of beating to your men when any
confusion arises. Very often some of the more experienced players can
make helpful suggestions in procedure. If accepting their advice seems
to the apprentice conductor to be gratuitously revealing his inexperience,
he may be assured that in any event the routined men will recognize
his qualifications for what they are worth after he has conducted only
a very few measures. Do not forget that some of them have played un-
der many conductors—good, bad, and indifferent. So unless you are pretty
sure of yourself, and few conductors are unless they hold the economic
whip hand or have had m a n y years of experience, do not be diffident
about placing your case frankly before older players. You can do this
without losing your authority. No less a musician than Richard Wagner
did this on occasion.

REOUIREMENTS A N D EXPERIENCE
Chapter Three

THE TOOLS

Not many tools are required to pursue our conducting studies. Access to a
good library of orchestral füll scores is of particular consequence. A pi-
ano or Organ should be available, although scores are learned in one's
head a n d not in one's fingers. A friendly colleague alternating at the
piano helps to make study more interesting, and each Student may thus
derive the benefit of someone eise's reactions. A radio-phonograph may
be most helpful to those living a w a y from musical centers, in hearing
how professional conductors Interpret items in the Standard repertory.
Attentive study of broadcast and reproduced Performances may prepare
the Student for the time when he can perform the works himself A met-
ronome should be part of the student's equipment. Since metronomes
are usually made now to ring only at the beginning of two, three, four,
and six beats to a measure, an ingenious Student might rig up an attach-
ment which would also ring on every five or seven beats. A mirror, tall
enough to reach from the student's waistline to a foot above his head
a n d wide e n o u g h to show the sweep of his arms wholly outstretched,
should adorn the studio. H e should practice within easy reach of the
score-stand, the piano, and the radio-phonograph.
In choosing a baton, avoid the sort often presented by admiring
Choral groups to their directors. These batons may possess definite artis-
tic distinction and give evidence of genuine affection, but they are rarely
practical conducting tools. A good stick may vary in size from that of a
pencil to about fifteen or twenty inches long. Length, weight, and thick-
ness are entirely a matter of personal preference, and the final choice may
take a long time. Some conductors keep changing styles; others hit upon
what they want almost immediately. T h e r e is no hard and fast rule. It
is recommended that the Student try a fairly long and lightweight stick

12 THE TOOLS
at first, one long enough to m a k e a wide sweep with the slightest move-
ment of the wrist, a n d light enough to be used for three hours without
discomfort. T h e color should be light enough to be visible to the watch-
ers, b u t the b a t o n s h o u l d not be glaringly e n a m e l e d . It should t a p e r
f r o m the grasping point to the wrist. S o m e conductors like a swelling
k n o b at t h e g r a s p i n g point; others, whose h a n d s perspire, use a cork
handle. T h e wood should be free from knots a n d not brittle, or a slight
Sharp t a p on the stand m a y cause it to split. Occasional s a n d p a p e r i n g
may improve its aesthetic a p p e a r a n c e . As time brings naturalness, ease,
a n d facility, the student's tastes in this m a t t e r m a y change until he hits
upon one or two styles which seem best to fit his personal requirements.
It is no easy matter to find suitable batons.
T h e r e are conductors, good, b a d , a n d indifferent, who do not use a
b a t o n b u t conduct with e m p t y h a n d s . M u c h might be said a b o u t this
practice. It is more difficult to give exact directions without a baton
t h a n with one. A large body of instrumentalists requires more precise
signals than a small group; a n d a group of instrumentalists requires more
precise signals t h a n a group of singers, because (among other reasons) in-
strumental music is almost invariably more ornate a n d complicated than
vocal music. T h e a t e r , ballet, a n d o p e r a orchestras need m o r e precise
signals t h a n does a concert orchestra, not only because theater pits are
more dimly lighted t h a n the average concert hall, but also because dra-
matic music usually changes t e m p o m o r e often t h a n absolute music.
A newly f o r m e d orchestra needs more precise signals t h a n a b o d y of
players which has functioned as a unit for a long time. A guest conduc-
tor with limited rehearsals must give more precise signals than a resident
conductor who rehearses his forces day in a n d day out.
M a n y Student conductors, not accustomed to handling a baton with
ease, think they can fashion p a t t e r n s in the air better with their empty
h a n d s t h a n with a b a t o n . W i t h negligible exceptions, this assumption
simply is not true; it just seems so to the beginner, especially to one who
has never learned how to handle a bow a n d play a stringed Instrument.
Certainly, f r o m the point of view of the player, it requires m u c h more
attention a n d strain to follow e m p t y h a n d s t h a n a b a t o n ; a n d one fre-
q u e n t result of batonless c o n d u c t i n g is t h a t the conductor is gradually
forced to make wider a n d wider sweeps, which are liable to be ungrace-
ful a n d exaggerated.
T h e Student should remember that u n d e r ideal circumstances, a con-
ductor of authority a n d experience (not necessarily synonymous) m a y
dispense with a baton a n d achieve enviable results. If a Student witnes-
ses such a Performance, he should try to analyze whether the lack of a

THE TOOLS 13
baton or the presence of other qualities is responsible for the good results.
An apprentice conductor, lacking in experience and routine and with a
limited number of rehearsals, is simply adding to his own problems and
to those of his players when he conducts without a baton. In very broad
passages without frequent changes in tempo, where the musical outhne
suggests vocal writing, one may sometimes lay aside the baton for hand
delineations; but in general, it is recommended that the Student use a
baton. If, despite all that has been said, any Student feels that his mes-
sage to the world of music imperatively d e m a n d s that he free himself
from the shackles of the baton, that is his own affair and he may decide
as he wishes. It is suggested, none the less, that he learn first to conduct
with a baton before experimenting without one. After he has acquired
a good baton technique, he will be ready to permit himself on occasion
to direct a bit of expressive legato without a baton. Fashions in this mat-
ter do change. Spohr met astonishment from London audiences in 1820
when he first introduced the baton to that city; Safonoff encountered a
similar reaction there when he conducted without one, early in 1900.
One more matter related to the baton should be considered, that is,
the tendency of some conductors to drop their batons in the midst of a
Performance. This problem is psychological and usually results from one
of two situtations: the conductor's hand becomes so tense that he loses
control of his hand muscles a n d the b a t o n flies off, or he becomes so
absorbed in his task that his hand muscles loosen naturally and the baton
falls away. In either case, over- or under-attention will bring about the
same results: loss of the baton and consequent embarrassment. T h e eure
is to pretend always that the baton is an elongation of the index finger
and thumb, and to think through to the tip of the baton at all times as
if it were living tissue. This will also forestall the picture presented by
some conductors, who hold a baton lifelessly and inertly in their hands
and really conduct with their wrists and cuffs, held rigidly.
T h e question of whether or not to conduct with a baton brings up
a related question, whether or not to conduct with a score. T h e reply to
the latter is simple. Other things being equal, conducting without a
score does not make the slightest difference in a Performance from a
musical point of view, though it often makes a tremendous difference in
an audience's reactions. T h e spectacle of a conductor guiding a large
group of singers or players through a concert without a score (and often
also without a baton) appeals strongly to the Imagination of many un-
tutored auditors, to whom such an exhibition seems nothing short of
conjuring. From the musical point of view, however, a poor Performance

14 THE TOOLS
with or without a baton or score is still poor; a good Performance gains
nothing from the absence of either.
There is an cid saw to the effect that some conductors have their
heads in the score and others have their scores in their heads. Good or-
chestral players look closely at the conductor a n d glance at their music
occasionally through the corners of their eyes. A good conductor has such
a c o m m a n d of his score t h a t it is not a fetter but an aid; such a con-
ductor keeps his eyes upon the players a n d glances occasionally at the
score through the corners of his eyes. T h e sight of a conductor whose
countenance is buried in his music is hardly inspiring, either to the play-
ers or to the auditors. Such conductors are not really conducting an
orchestra; they are conducting a score, merely by beating time, a n d in
extreme cases, they are so wrapped up in their task that they are gazing
inward instead of outward and consequently are conducting no one but
themselves. To conduct players, one must meet their eyes.
If memorizing comes easily, conduct without a score; but remember
that unless you have an established reputation for doing so with ease,
there is liable to be tension in the orchestra a n d audience. Every con-
ductor, even with limited experience, realizes that he must know his
score very well indeed before he ever goes to the first rehearsal. With
such c o m m a n d of the score, he uses it merely as a safeguard and as a
reassurance to his players. T h e contemporary trend toward batonless
and scoreless conducting has been forced upon conductors by what they
think is the pressure of public opinion. Once again, other things being
equal, it does not make the slightest difference musically whether one
conducts with or without a baton or score. All that matters is the musi-
cal result, that is, the justice done to the composer.

THE T O O L S 15
 Chapter Four

PREPARATORY EXERCISES

It is intriguing to inspect diagrams for beating time contrived by early

writers in the field. While admittedly it is almost impossible to get down
on paper in two dimenslons what the conductor actually outlines in three,
a comparison of these early diagrams with the attempts by beginners to
delineate musical speech through gestures will reveal a striking similarity
between them. It looks as if inexperienced conductors of today have to
go through preliminary stages which resemble the mature werk of by-
gone practitioners, before they can develop ease, naturalness, and fluidity.
T h e stark geometric rigidity of the patterns a n d models found in the
writings of theorists up to about 1900 shows how long a time it has taken
to evolve simple, precise, and yet artistic motions in the art of time-beating.
One practical use which the study of these early attempts suggests would
be adapting some of them as setting-up exercises.
At the Start of our studies, most of us find that our wrists are a bit
stiff and that they tend to become tense after prolonged use. T h e reason,
of course, is that our muscles are not sufficiently relaxed. At first our
joints lack pliancy, resilience, and flexibility, and they require some sort
of calisthenic preparation before responding automatically to our wills
as they should.
It is wise to postpone for a bit the actual handling of the baton, in
Order to loosen u p the muscles a n d joints of our hands a n d wrists by
means of a few simple exercises, which are to be practiced daily even
after a good working technique has been acquired. These exercises are
to be done first with each hand alone and then with both hands in sim-
ilar and contrary motion, with variations in rhythm, pattern, style, and
tempo, in the same way that an instrumentalist studies five-finger exer-
cises for limbering up. Do not overdo at the outset; watch carefully for
signs of fatigue and stop when they occur. Increase speed and length of
practice time very gradually.

16 PREPARATORY EXERCISES
 Keep in mind the concept of the baton as a lengthened index finger,
intended as a focus for the attention of the players a n d singers. It be-
comes a lever for your hand to werk through. In your warming-up
exercises, arrange your fingers (first those of your right, then those of
your left hand, and then both together) somewhat like a printer's index
sign. Consider the forefinger the baton. Practice the exercises as follows:
first with the forefinger, then with the part of the hand below the wrist,
then with the a r m below the elbow, finally, with the whole a r m from
the Shoulder down. Reserve the upper joints for broad effects a n d dy-
namic contrasts. It is important to avoid exaggeration of movement at
the very start. T h e smaller the group of performers, the softer the music
to be interpreted, a n d the more delicate the nuance, the more the hand
is used.
At first, to insure that only the wrist and hand move, rest the arm on
Fig. 1
a table letting the h a n d project over the edge so that the wrist is allowed
füll play. W h e n you are able to perform these exercises easily in this
Position with practically no motion of the wrist, discard the table and
continue practicing before a mirror. Practice slowly a n d guard against
fatigue by resting frequently. Later on, when you adapt these exercises
for the left hand, reverse the directions left and right.

Exercise O n e

Keep the palm facing the floor and in a straight line from the Shoul-
Fig. 2
der to the tip of the forefinger. Move the wrist u p a n d down until the
h a n d is as nearly possible at right angles to the arm, in both extreme
positions. Do not force the muscles (Fig. 1).

Exercise T w o

Turn the hand so that the thumbnail is uppermost and let the hand
assume the position of a printer's index sign. Move the hand alternately
toward the left a n d right. Try to raise the h a n d at right angles to the Fig. 3

rest of the arm in both extreme positions without forcing (Fig. 2).

Exercise Three

T u m the hand away from you as far as possible without straining, so

that the palm faces almost to the right. Work the wrist back and forth
toward the right a n d the left. Again try to make the wrist approach a
right angle in the extreme positions (Fig. 3).

Exercise Four

Turn the palm upward and turn the wrist alternately u p w a r d and
downward, following the suggestions of the previous exercises (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4

P R E P A R A T O R Y EXERCISES
 Exercise Five
As a Supplement to the previous exercise, practice similarly upward
a n d d o w n w a r d with the p a l m facing both u p a n d down, first from
southwest to northeast, a n d t h e n f r o m southeast to northwest (Figs. 5
a n d 6).

Exercise Six
Roll the h a n d a r o u n d , first f r o m right to left a n d t h e n f r o m left to
right, with the palm facing both u p w a r d a n d downward. K e e p the wrist
as the pivotal point a n d the a r m motionless (Figs. 7 a n d 8).

Exercise Seven
For f u r t h e r variety, describe simple geometric figures like squares
a n d triangles with the tip of the forefinger e x t e n d e d as a n i m a g i n a r y
pencil. At t h e start, try to e x e c u t e t h e figures as exactly a n d with as
sweeping a motion as possible without moving any part of the a r m above
the wrist. M a k e the angles clean-cut. In the early stages of this exercise,
stop for a m o m e n t at the e n d of each direction to give t h e wrist a n d
p a l m time to turn a n d to adjust before proceeding in the next direction.
As facility a n d litheness gradually increase, the movements will tend to
coalesce (Figs. 9, 10, 11, a n d 12).
After some degree of ease in the execution of these exercises has been
reached with each h a n d , practice t h e m with the a r m to the elbow. T h e
a r m from the elbow to the Shoulder is now to remain motionless, in line
with the side of the body a n d in front of it. At the start, rest the elbow
on a table to insure this position. N o w practice in two ways: first with
Fig.
the wrist t u r n e d t o w a r d each successive position without bending, a n d
then with the wrist bending toward each new direction. Finally, use the
whole a r m from the Shoulder d o w n , first with no bending a t the joints
but simply the wrist a n d p a l m turning toward each direction; then with
bending at both wrist a n d elbow.
These preliminary exercises have been described in some detail with
Fig. 8 a purpose. T h e y are not so simple as they a p p e a r at first sight, a n d their
efFect in making for grace, ease, a n d sustained power, after faithful prac-
tice, will later become more a p p a r e n t t h a n seemed at first credible.

Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12

18 PREPARATORY EXERCISES
Exercise Eight

Set the m e t r o n o m e at a very slow t e m p o a n d do all the foregoing

exercises. Note how m u c h more difficult it is to make slow motions grace-
fully a n d without jerking t h a n rapid ones. See how slowly you can
beat without stopping. Note t h a t as you increase in speed your move-
ments become shorter a n d more precise a n d you have to limit your a r m
more a n d more.

Exercise N i n e

With a phonograph or, better still, a colleague taking turns with you
at the piano, apply these exercises to such comparatively simple technical
music as hymns, folk tunes, Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Tchai-
kovsky's The Seasons, S c h u m a n n ' s Scenesfrom Childhood, a n d the like. Go
on to a collection of overtures by such composers as Suppe, Herold, a n d
Boieldieu, a n d to collections of waltzes by the Strausses, L a n n e r , Waldt-
eufel, Gungl, a n d Ziehrer. Practice the motions without looking at the
music, by using y o u r ears, with each h a n d alone a n d t h e n with both
hands together. Avoid the extremes of beating so m a n y motions that the
eye cannot follow easily, or of going so slowly that your beat stops or be-
comes jerky. Do not look at the time-signatures, or one of the m a i n objects
of this exercise will lose m u c h of its value. This object is to accustom your
h a n d s to a d o p t i n g the correct pulses w h e n all knowledge of the music is
conveyed to you via ears, not eyes.

PREPARATORY EXERCISES 19
 Chapter Five

TWO BEATS TO T H E BAR

THE POSITION OF THE HAND AND THE BODY

Form your right hand somewhat like a printer's fist, the p a l m d o w n ward
a n d the t h u m b in a straight line with the inner lower a r m . Insert the
thick end of the baton into the center of the h a n d so that it gently touches
the middle part of the palm, resting lightly on the first Joint of the middle
finger, poised between the index finger a n d the t h u m b . Close the fingers
Hghtly yet firmly over the b a t o n w i t h o u t m a k i n g any other c h a n g e in
Position. T h e r e should now be a straight Une from the forearm, through
the wrist a n d h a n d , to the tip of the stick. This is one good way to hold
the baton. Another is to hold the thick end of the stick between the t h u m b
a n d the index a n d middle fingers. Some conductors use both positions ac-
c o r d i n g to t h e passage, the f o r m e r for h e a v y a n d forte passages a n d the
latter for lighter, m o r e precise, a n d softer passages. S u c h c h a n g e s in
Position also help to relieve muscular tension in some cases. Experience
will soon show the Student w h a t fits his special h a n d a n d style, a n d he
will learn to m a k e a d j u s t m e n t s a c c o r d i n g to the volume, t e m p o , a n d
mood of the music.
It is well to place your weight on your toes while conducting a n d to
lean slightly forward, in order to establish better physical a n d psycho-
logical contact with your forces. As you stand before your music rack
a n d imaginary orchestra, raise your whole a r m so that your elbow juts
out just a bit to the right, away from your body a n d a little below a straight
line with your Shoulder. If your strokes fall below this line, as is sometimes
the case with short conductors, the performers will have trouble seeing
a n y t h i n g but the top of your strokes unless they keep straining. Also, if
you are short in stature, keep your strokes pretty well above your waist
line, or the b o t t o m of your strokes will give the performers trouble. If

20 TWO BEATS TO THE BAR

you are tall, see t h a t y o u r elbows keep on a line with y o u r Shoulder, or
a g a w k y p i c t u r e m a y result. Unless you a r e i n o r d i n a t e l y tall, c o n d u c t
frort! a platform. If y o u r position is correct, t h e angle formed by the u p p e r
p a r t of y o u r right a r m a n d t h e line f r o m y o u r neck to t h e j u n c t u r e at
t h e Shoulder should be a b o u t 135 degrees, or a right angle a n d a half.
R e t a i n i n g this position for y o u r elbow, raise y o u r h a n d to t h e level
of your eyes, extend it tili t h e j u n c t u r e a t t h e elbow forms a right angle,
a n d t h e n t u r n the p a l m slightly o u t w a r d . N o w bring your left h a n d a n d
a r m to the same position as the right, keeping t h e arms far enough a p a r t
to allow c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d f r e e d o m of action in either h a n d
a n d a r m . It should be possible, in this position, for every m e m b e r of the
playing a n d singing g r o u p to see your face a n d every one of your move-
m e n t s ; a n d for you to look d i r e c t l y into t h e eyes a n d c o u n t e n a n c e of
each of your collaborators.
It is of the utmost i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e r e always be a direct line of
Vision f r o m y o u r eyes t h r o u g h t h e tip of y o u r b a t o n into t h e eyes a n d
c o u n t e n a n c e of each player a n d singer, so t h a t he can lift his eyes from
his music w i t h o u t s q u i r m i n g a n d follow you, a n d so t h a t you c a n t u r n
y o u r o w n h e a d t o w a r d a n y p a r t of t h e pit or stage w i t h o u t straining.
T h e position you now have is a n a t u r a l one, q u i t e simple to demonstrate,
a n d f a r f r o m b e i n g as c o m p l i c a t e d as it m a y seem f r o m this necessarily
detailed written description.
Two observations need to be m a d e before we consider actual patterns
for beating. First, unless otherwise specified, take it for g r a n t e d t h a t you
b e a t mezzo-forte, legato, a n d moderato. Second, while a n a r i t h m e t i c a l
Order of patterns, t h a t is, one, two, three, etc., beats to a b a r , seems to be
the most logical one to learn, it actually is so only from the point of view
of one w h o has a l r e a d y been over t h e whole g r o u n d . Paradoxically, the
easiest r o a d for t h e Student is t h e o r d e r followed h e r e : two, three, one,
four, six, five, a n d seven beats to a b a r . T h e reason for this will be u n d e r -
stood later.
Before considering time-beating in detail, let us present a telegraphic
s u m m a r y of some t e c h n i c a l principles. T h e Student m u s t never forget
t h a t he is playing u p o n t h i n k i n g h u m a n beings, in distinction to the in-
strumentalist, w h o plays u p o n a n i n a n i m a t e object. T h i s Statement has
been m a d e elsewhere a n d will be m a d e a g a i n , because it c o n t a i n s the
reasons for m a n y of t h e principles here stressed. M a n y years of oral tra-
dition a n d theoretical writings h a v e been necessary to evolve these prin-
ciples. T h e y are not accidental or a r b i t r a r y , although they m a y be used
in a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d p e r s o n a l w a y . As in a n y o t h e r art, t h e y conceal
their art. A n d w h e n a t r u e b a l a n c e is achieved between t e c h n i q u e a n d

POSITION OF HAND A N D BODY 21

 i n d i v i d u a l i t y , t h e result is w h a t w e t e r m , for w a n t of a b e t t e r w o r d ,
re-creation.
T h e c o n d u c t o r s h o u l d m a k e e n o u g h m o t i o n s to give his forces some-
t h i n g to h o l d to a t all times in e v e n t h e slowest t e m p o s , a n d y e t n o t too
m a n y to confuse t h e m in t h e most r a p i d ones. H e should o b t a i n m a x i m u m
elfect w i t h m i n i m u m m o t i o n . E v e r y g e s t u r e , pose, b o d i l y a t t i t u d e , a n d
f a c i a l expression m u s t b e s i n c e r e a n d u n a f f e c t e d , a f a i t h f u l t r a n s l a t i o n
of t h e m o o d a n d spirit of t h e m u s i c h e is i n t e r p r e t i n g .
T h e i m p o r t a n t traditional technical principles m a y be summarized
as follows. T h e first pulse of e v e r y m e a s u r e is given d o w n w a r d ; t h e last
pulse is given u p w a r d a t t h e r i g h t of t h e p a t t e r n ; t h e s e c o n d a r y accent,
w h e n t h e r e is one, goes o u t w a r d to t h e r i g h t ; a n d t h e w e a k e r pulses a n d
subdivisions a r e filled i n t o these b r o a d outlines.

METHOD OF BEATING
T h e Student m u s t realize i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t time-signatures do not
n e c e s s a r i l y d e t e r m i n e t h e n u m b e r of s t r o k e s to a m e a s u r e f o r a p a t t e r n .
T h e p r o p e r n u m b e r of beats in a p a t t e r n is d e t e r m i n e d by w h a t is com-
f o r t a b l e to t h e c o n d u c t o r ' s h a n d a n d c l e a r to t h e p e r f o r m e r s , i.e., t h e r e
m u s t b e e n o u g h b e a t s to k e e p t h e m u s i c flowing a n d n o t t o o m a n y to
c o n f u s e t h e w a t c h e r s . T h u s , a passage m a r k e d 2 / 4 m a y b e t a k e n two to
t h e b a r , o n e to t h e b a r , w i t h subdivisions, e r w i t h t w o b a r s as o n e . S t a t e d
b a l d l y , a n y r h y t h m w h i c h c a n b e c o m f o r t a b l y b e a t e n w i t h t w o strokes
to t h e b a r should be so d o n e .
R h y t h m s w h i c h a r e t a k e n t w o to t h e b a r f o r m a fairly large class; they
i n c l u d e s u c h t i m e - s i g n a t u r e s as 2 / 4 , 2 / 8 , 4 / 4 , 4 / 8 , 4 / 1 6 , 6 / 1 6 , 6 / 2 ,
6 / 4 , a n d 6 / 8 . N o t e t h a t this list i n c l u d e s b o t h d u p l e a n d t r i p l e pulses.
Alla breve (<f) also belongs t o this c a t e g o r y a n d , o f t e n , so d o classical works
w r i t t e n in 4 / 4 , allegro or presto. T h i s class even includes v e r y r a p i d q u i n -
t u p l e a n d o t h e r c o m b i n e d pulses. A g r e a t d e a l of t h e most serious music,
as well as a host of salon genres like I n t e r m e z z i a n d caprices, c o m e s u n d e r
this h e a d i n g . I n g e n e r a l , a n y brisk d u p l e ( e i t h e r s i m p l e or C o m p o u n d )
r h y t h m in flowing t e m p o is b e a t e n t w o to t h e b a r .
I n i n t e r p r e t i n g p r i n t e d p a t t e r n s in t h e s e discussions, r e m e m b e r t h a t
t h e tip of t h e b a t o n is b e i n g o u t l i n e d a n d t h a t t h e p r i n t e d p a g e limits
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t w o d i m e n s i o n s . T h e I m a g i n a t i o n of t h e r e a d e r , there-
fore, m u s t a d d t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n . S i m i l a r l y , w h e r e p a r t s of a figure
follow e a c h o t h e r o n t h e p r i n t e d p a g e , t h e r e a d e r m u s t m e n t a l l y super-
impose t h e m .
Fig. 13
F i g u r e 13 will b e f o u n d a p p r o p r i a t e to a large n u m b e r of legato-
moderato cases c a l l i n g for t w o t o t h e b a r . A c c o r d i n g to t h e u s u a l rule,

22 TWO BEATS TO THE BAR

take the first stroke down and the last stroke up. Figure 14 is a suggested
pattern for staccato-marcato passages. In the accompanying musical quo-
tations (Exs. 1-6), wherever the attack begins on part of a measure, beat
out a whole measure as preparation until after we have considered
attacks in detail.
Ex. 1. Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 1

AUegro con brio ( J • 112)

i h - f ) 1—
Fig. 14 2

j.
Im M
Ex. 2. H a y d n : S y m p h o n y N o . 1 1, " M i l i t a r y "

Presto ( J . = 13«)

J'll J I J T I ' M ' I LM J L f "' ' P

S.rgs.l'

Ex. 3 . Schumann: S y m p h o n y N o . 1, " S p r i n g "

•t
l A k / tti I t i g
r f f f

Fof
1 1*' 1* 1* 1*
• • •
r r r- p

P P

Ex. 4 . Bruckner: S y m p h o n y N o . 4 , " R o m a n t i c "

Scherzo, con moto (J = 126)

Ex. 5. M o z a r t : Marriage of Figaro O v e r t u r e

Presto ( J = 132)

M E T H O D OF B E A T I N 6 J3
Ex. 6 . W a g n e r : Flying Dufchman Overture

AUegro con brio («J-= U6)

Strgs.,

/ = Bsns. Hos.

1 marca^o
t
A A A

N o w apply these beating patterns to Examples 1 through 6. The

greatest care should be exercised that the down beat is really down and
does not swerve either to right or left. Orchestral players complain fre-
quently and with justice that without a clear down beat they cannot
count their measures or give a clear entrance, and thus they run the risk
of Coming in wrong in crucial places after long rests. The slightest inde-
cision or raggedness in a down beat will be immediately reflected in the
ensemble, even more in the winds than in the strings. Once the baton
starts its downward course it must continue logically at a regulär pace
and straight down. Players, consciously or subconsciously, develop what
may be termed a "time and space" sense, and they must be able to teil
what is Coming from what has gone before. A wavering or faltering beat,
known among many orchestral players as a "corkscrew" beat, should
not be added to their burdens.
In executing the down beat in two to the bar, keep the palm facing
downward and the down beat vertical until about two-thirds or three-
fourths of the length of the whole stroke has been reached. T h e n turn
the palm away from the body and snap the wrist a bit outward and up-
ward, allowing the lower arm to aid the motion a little. T h e resulting
fairly deep curve will serve to separate the down and up strokes distinctly
and will also prepare for the stroke upward, which is executed by rever-
sing the previous motions: sweeping the palm in ward and downward
until it reaches the bottom of the stroke, and then bringing the baton
back to the top of the stroke with a straight motion, mainly by the wrist.
T h e ascending curve is not quite so deep as the descending one. Note
that in order to make a new down beat for the succeeding measure, one
must turn the wrist back and have the palm face downward once more,
just as the top of the stroke is reached.
In reference again to Figures 13 and 14, note that when the bottom
of the stroke is reached, the wrist makes what is virtually a rebound. As
you will See later, this rebound is of great importance when more mo-
tions are beaten to the measure than in this instance. T h e rebound gives
the beat resilience and allows the muscles to relax; it keeps the baton

24 T W O BEATS T O THE BAR

Ex. 7. Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade (Copyright by M . P. Belaieff Editions. Used by permisslon of sole
agents, Boosey & Hawkes.)

Largo e maestoso (J = 80)

if
P m

a s . Bsns. Hns. Tbna.

moving between strokes in broad tempos which are not broad enough
for subdivisions, and yet where lack of finish in the ensemble might re-
sult if the baton hesitated or waited for even a fraction of a second. It
also prevents an exaggerated up-beat. Not the least function of the re-
b o u n d is to impart visual grace to patterns. In Figure 15, there is the Fig. 15
slight suggestion of a breath pause in the up stroke, marked by an apos-
trophe. Practice this pattern on Example 7.

THE ATTACK AND THE BREATH PAUSE

A moment's reflection will show that every signal given by a guide, a

traffic policeman, or an orchestral conductor cannot be seized and acted
upon at the same instant, a n d that the watchers, no matter how quick
their reflexes, must inevitably come in afterward. This fact, applied to
Our Situation, means that the conductor must signal what is to come next
whenever the baton has stopped. When giving a signal for the orchestra
to begin a passage, he must, therefore, show the exact point of entrance
by giving a preparatory stroke toward the point where the music and
the baton are to function together. T h e simplest case is that in which
the music starts on the down beat. T h e general rule, to be adjusted to
various circumstances, is to give the previous beat as preparation, in the
same style {legato, staccato, etc.), speed, and volume as the beat it is in-
troducing. This preparatory beat is shown in the diagrams by a dotted
line. For a preparation on a legato down beat, use Figure 16. For more Fig. I6 Fig. 1 7

precise attacks, use Figure 17. Note that a breath pause may be made
here, resembling a string player's bowing in such passages.
Now practice attacks on the down beat with Examples 1 through 6.
Start on the first füll measure when necessary.
W h e n the entrance is exactly on the up beat (in this case for two to
the bar, but applicable also to any up beat in any rhythm), the down
beat, adjusted to the context, may be given as preparation. For soft,
legato, a n d moderato passages, have the open palm face the point of en-
trance at the bottom of the beat (Fig. 18); for more precise a n d rapid

AHACK AND BREATH PAUSE 25

 Ex. 8. Haydn: " L a Reine" Symphony

m
AUegreRo (<J « 116)

r
irr r ir
Fig. 1 9
Ex. 9. Beethoven: Symphony N o . 8
Fig.
AUcgto vivace^ ( J - 132)

r/r JJ1J71
Jip Strei.

passages, point the back of the hand toward the bottom of the point of
entrance (Fig. 19). Note that in the latter pattern, again a breath pause
may be made. IVactice on Examples 8 and 9.

SUBDIVISIONS

In executing subdivisions, use the wrist in contrast to the a r m up

to the elbow, and the arm up to the elbow in contrast to the whole arm.
Keep all arm joints flexible, in somewhat the same manner as a swimmer

Ex. 10. Dvoi'ak: S y m p h o n y N o . 5 , " N e w W o r l d " (Used by permission of the O l i v e r Ditson C o m p a n y ,

Copyright owner.}

m
Adagio ( > - 100)
Vcl.

m
PP
Strgs.

Ex. 11. Borodin; S y m p h o n y N o . 2

A n i m a t o assai
(J-92)

Fig. 2 2

26 TWO BEATS TO THE BAR

executes a crawl stroke with his legs: one motion from the hip down but
with the knees and ankles yielding.
Begin practicing subdivisions by beating two to the bar as slowly as
you can. You will soon reach a point where indecision will result unless
extra motions are added, i.e., subdivisions. When the pulses are duple,
one subdivision after each main stroke must be added; when they are
Compound duple, as in slow 6/8, two subdivisions after each main stroke
must be added. T h e chief aim should be to keep the main outlines of
the pattern clear and the subdivisions unobtrusive. T h e wrist is to the
conductor what the fingers are to the pianist. Use it for subdivisions in
contrast to the arm, which beats the main lines of the patterns. The per-
formers must never be in doubt about the main outlines. T h e sight of
a conductor directing a delicate string passage with enough arm motion
to control a huge choir and orchestra is not so infrequent as it should be.
For one subdivision, legato, after a main stroke, use Figure 20 and its
variant, Figure 21, and practice on Example 10; for more precise pas-
sages, use Figure 22 and practice on Example I I .

Ex. 1 2 . Rimsky-KorsakoflF: Scheberezade ( C o p y r i g h t by M . P. BelaiefF Editions. U s e d b y permission of sole

ogents, Boosey & Hawkes.)

ff !IUP i
A l l a r g a n d o assai 108)
Ww.
otrg..
Slrg«. ^ «

Ex. 1 3. T c h a i k o v s k y : Italian Caprice Fig. 2 4

A n d a n t e un p o c o rubato

ff

Ex. 14. W a g n e r : Tannhäuser, " E v e n i n g S t a r "

Andante sostenuto (J> = 60)

rnfespr./-^-

i'tf m

SUBDIVISIONS 27
 T h e excerpt from Borodin's Symphony No. 2 (Ex. 11) illustrates a
place where the baton beats two to the bar for strict t e m p o a n d goes
into two with one subdivision for retards.
For two to the bar with one subdivision some conductors prefer to
use a pattern which avoids two motions in the same direction. If Figures
20 and 21 seem uncomfortable after a reasonable trial, adopt Figure 43.
For two subdivisions after each main beat, in slow tempo, use Figure
23 (Ex. 12). Since the subdivisions proceed in the same direction as the
main strokes, this pattern often proves uncomfortable when the tempo
becomes fluid a n d brisk, as in Example 13. For such cases, Figure 24,
with directions changing after each stroke, is more suitable. For tempos
a n d melodic phrases where the second and fourth pulses are so weak as
to be negligible, as in Example 14, Figure 25 is suggested. Note the breath
pauses.
In some vocal passages, especially operatic, the freedom of the singer's
Interpretation is such that one must be prepared to give any of the pat-
terns above in all sorts of contracted a n d extended forms. Such a case
occurs in Mascagni's Cavalleria Rusticana, when T u r i d d u sings the first
passages of the Performance behind the scenes and adds to the conduc-
tor's Problems by observing holds in certain places. Following a record-
ing of this aria should prove excellent practice for a Student. Usually the
tenor places holds on the high A flat in the 19th bar (counting from the
andante) and on the E natural in the 33rd bar; he gives each of the high
A flats stcntorian attention in the 39th bar, a n d holds the F i n the 40th
bar. T h e aria is usually beaten two to the bar for the first 33 bars and
then six to the bar tili the end. But a conductor can never count
on beating it this way, since tenors often hold those notes which they
think are their best. T h e value of the aria for practice lies in the fact
that one never knows how the tenor will take it.
Another helpful example is the tenor Canio's "Vesti la giubba" from
Leoncavallo's Pagliacci. Although this is taken in two to the bar gener-
ally, one must always watch for elongations calling for subdivisions.
Measures 17 and 18, counting from the adagio, are sung agitato; measures
24 and 25 are beaten with one subdivision after each main stroke; meas-
ure 28 and the second half of measure 31 are beaten with two subdivi-
sions after each main stroke. Again, some tenors seem to delight here in
taxing the ingenuity of the conductor.

TWO MEASURES TAKEN AS ONE

This is a good place to consider an apparent exception to the rule that
each measure should have its own down beat. Sometimes the tempo of

28 TWO BEATS TO THE BAR

Ex. 1 5. Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 5

Pres«. (0.112)

a piece is so rapid that the literal observance of this rule would confuse
the watchers. In other places, especially at the end of some compositions,
measures are grouped in phrases of two, which might easily have been
written as one measure. In t h e o f t - q u o t e d examples f r o m the presto of
Beethoven's Fifth S y m p h o n y (Ex. 15), t h e streng pulses are obviously
on the odd measures. Therefore, give the d o w n beat for the first meas-
ure, the Up beat for the second, a n d so on. M a k e the strokes as in Figure
26, that is, almost horizontal.
T h e beating of two measures as one gives a broader o u t h n e to phrases
a n d will be practiced fairly often. It is useful in m a n y Viennese waltzes
where one feels the r h y t h m to be 6 / 4 r a t h e r t h a n the written 3 / 4 . At the
ends of overtures where/orte chords alternate with silent measures, this
p r o c e d u r e should be followed. Giving strong beats on silent measures
has been known to inveigle u n w a r y players into embarrassing entrances.
T h e conductor should give the chords with vigorous down beats and use
the silent measures as up-beat preparations for the next entrance, a pro-
cedure which will result in obviously less tension.

TWO MEASURES TAKEN AS ONE 29

 Chapter Six

THREE BEATS TO THE BAR

METHOD OF BEATING
Triple rhythms, such as moderate 3 / 2 , 3 / 4 , 3 / 8 , a n d brisk 9 / 8 , i.e, rhythms
which call for t h r e e strokes to t h e m e a s u r e , are c o m m o n l y b e a t e n ac-
cording to Figure 27. Practice on Examples 16 through 20.
In Figure 27 we have the usual down beat on the first stroke a n d u p
b e a t on the last, the t h i r d in this case. T h e second stroke fits into the
pattern by going to the right, which direction immediately differentiates
it from four to the bar, as we will see later. This distinction is most help-
ful w h e n the r h y t h m s shift f r o m t h r e e to four or vice versa, because it
shows the players the change in r h y t h m unmistakably.
Since the down beat has a special strcss which m a y cause a n unwanted
Fig. 2 7 accent or sforzando, a r e b o u n d is r e q u i r e d . This brings the b a t o n back
to the Center of the p a t t e r n a n d f u r t h e r serves to m a k e the second a n d
t h i r d strokes e q u a l , t h o u g h not so long as the d o w n stroke. T h e p a l m
faces d o w n w a r d in the r e b o u n d a n d t u r n s a bit t o w a r d the beat it in-
troduces, just before the center of the m o d e l is r e a c h e d . Note t h a t the
r e b o u n d retraces half of the course of the d o w n stroke t h r o u g h the air.
T h e rebound itself swerves slightly away from the stroke it introduces, in

Ex. 16. Brahms: S y m p h o n y N o . 2

Allegretto grazioso (J = WO)

m
m n m
30 T H R E E B E A T S T O THE B A R
Ex. 1 7. Schubert: " U n f i n i s h e d " S y m p h o n y

Allegro moderato (J = 100)

Cl.
Via.

Ex. 1 8. Haydn: Symphony No. 6, "Surprise"

Minuet Allegro m o l t o ( J » 132)

Fl. Bsne. V l n . I

m rrijjfij
Ex. 1 9. Tchaikovsky: S y m p h o n y N o . 4

Moderato con anima ( J - - 104t)

Ex. 2 0 . M o z a r t : S y m p h o n y in D , " H o f f n e r "

Minuet 0 = 133)

m
Strgs. .

this case going toward the left since the next stroke is going toward the
right. N o t e t h a t t h e r e b o u n d will diminish in length a n d stay nearer
and nearer the bottom of the down beat as the music becomes more a n d
more precise a n d staccato.
In the second a n d third strokes, the p a l m faces the g r o u n d , except
in very legato a n d adagio passages, where it turns slightly toward the di-
rection in which it is proceeding; a n d the curves of these strokes drop

METHOD O F BEATING 31
 deeper a n d deeper below a n imaginary straight line. In such cases, pre-
p a r e the h a n d for the next stroke by connecting the motion gracefully
with wrist turns.
Strive, by slow a n d careful practica, to o b t a i n smooth connections
between the strokes, seeing to it especially that the wrist a n d the palm
do not turn before they should in the direction of the beat you are about
to give. T h e chief d a n g e r in this p a t t e r n is t h a t the wrist muscles may
force the second stroke to b e n d u p w a r d s o m e w h a t , t h u s precipitating
too Short a n u p beat; the short u p b e a t will t h e n m a k e the t h i r d beat
look like a mere preparation for the next down beat, which development
in t u r n causes the players to h u r r y a n d anticipate. O d d l y e n o u g h , this
tendency is far more common in the U n i t e d States t h a n abroad.
If special articulation is wanted on each stroke a n d the tempo is not
q u i t e b r o a d e n o u g h for subdivisions, m a k e a slight b r e a t h pause after
each stroke, restoring the t e m p o by giving a slight p r e p a r a t i o n for the
Fig. 2 8 next stroke, as shown in Figure 28.
I n certain types of compositions, for e x a m p l e , patriotic music a n d
folk dances, the n o r m a l stresses are dislocated so t h a t often the second
or third beats become nearly as strong as the d o w n beat. In some fluid
waltzes, where one to the bar would be too rigid a n d where three to the
b a r as shown in Figure 27 would be too literal, the baton must execute
a p a t t e r n where either the first a n d second beats, or the second a n d third
beats, almost coalesce. I n fairly r a p i d concert waltzes, there is n o time
for a n y t h i n g b u t a sort of c o m b i n e d one-two a n d three. In " T h e Ball"
f r o m Berlioz' " F a n t a s t i c " S y m p h o n y , the beat a p p r o a c h e s more a one
a n d two-three. For f u r t h e r examples of coalescent beats, see mazurkas,
polonaises, a n d the like.

SUBDIVISIONS
I n leisurely tempos calling for one subdivision after each main stroke
Fig. 2 9 in three to the b a r (as in Examples 21 through 23), use Figure 29. This
pattern may be varied by executing d o w n w a r d the first subdivision after
the r e b o u n d of the d o w n beat, r e t u r n i n g at once to the c e n t e r of the

Ex. 21. Beethoven: Leonora Overture N o . 3

Adagio

p dim.
W». ff w

f
32 THREE B E A T S T O THE B A R
Ex. 22. Haydn: Symphony No. 4, " C l o c k "

Adagio ( J = 92)

• ^

m
Slrgs. '
/ = p
iTi

Ex. 23. Beethoven: Symphony No. 4

Adagio

*>
Strgs.p
ig
. « •
gtf
• *
ILT
• •

J J

pattern. Breath pauses may also be observed when the phrasing implies
them.
This is a good place to recall that, musically, beating three beats to
the bar, each with one subdivision, is not the same procedura as beating
two beats to the bar, each with two subdivisions, i.e., that three times
two does not equal two times three musically. One of the best instances to
illustrate this point occurs in the shifting time-signatures of the orchestral
Version of Ravel's Alborado del Gracioso, where the 6/8 is sometimes two
times three and sometimes three times two, and where the interest rhyth-
mically is heightened by the composer's use of 3/8 measures and also
of 9/8 measures with accents on normally weak pulses.
See to it that the subdivisions are made with the wrist when the lower
half of the arm is being used for the main beats, and with the lower half
of the arm when the whole arm is being used for the main beats. There
will otherwise be no contrast between the subdivisions and the main
beats, and the performers may stress subordinate notes and phrases.
Moreover, the whole effect will be hazy upon the eyes and hence the
ears of those people in the audience who get many of their reactions by
watching the conductor, as a sort of emotional guide pointing out to
them what they are to look for.
To outline each main beat with two subdivisions in moderate tempos,
as in 9/4, use Figure 30 (Ex. 24). For fluid tempos, use Figure 31 (Ex.
25). Figure 32 falls between them (Ex. 26).
In very fluid passages, Figure 31 will be found appropriate. The
main strokes and subdivisions pass over each other back and forth in the

SUBDIVISIONS 33
 X0 ä
Ex. 2 4 . W a g n e r : Tannhäuser Overture

Andante maestoso ( J = 80) n

„ Ob. . A A A
J i i . p ' - i n , j Y -

m mm
3 3 3

Strgs. 3 3 3
/
Tb«. 1

5 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Fig. 3 0
Ex. 2 5 . D e b u s s y : L ' A p r e s - m i d i d'un f a u n e (Permission for reprint g r a n t e d b y J e a n Jobert, Paris; Elkan-
V o g e l C o . , Inc., U . S . A . C o p y r i g h t o w n e r s . )

Tres modert (^=92-96)

Ex. 2 6 . D u k a s : The S o r c e r e r ' s Apprentice ( P e r m i s s i o n for reprint g r a n t e d b y D u r a n d et C i e , P a r i s , C o p y -

right o w n e r s ; E l k o n - V o g e l C o . , Inc., o g e n t s f o r U . S . A . )

T
Fig. 3 1
Assezlcnt ( J- - TZ)

"
Strgs.

A l u II J J^ Ä S
•i >

air, and these changes in direction for each stroke, main and subordinate,
make for clarity of pattern. Patterns can easily become confused when
strokes go in the same direction in fairly rapid tempos and fluid phrasing.
Fig. 3 2
Figure 31 minimizes this danger.
In the comparatively rare cases where there are more than two sub-
divisions after a main stroke, simply add the necessary motions within
the framework of the patterns already given. The principle to apply in
such cases is this: where the number of subdivisions is odd (the main
stroke is not being counted now), beat the main stroke and the first sub-
division awaj> from the next main stroke. In Figure 33 (Ex. 27) we have
three subdivisions after the third main stroke. Give the third main stroke
upward, the first and second subdivisions away and down, and the last
subdivision up.

34 THREE B E A T S T O THE B A R
Ex. 2 7 . Beethoven; S y m p h o n y N o . 9

(J>.66)
Vln.l . ^

PP

m 1 o
Fig. 3 3

W h e n t h e n u m b e r of subdivisions is even, a g a i n excluding t h e m a i n

stroke f r o m t h e c o u n t , give t h e first subdivision toward t h e n e x t m a i n
stroke. Such a case occurs in t h e final section of H i n d e m i t h ' s Mathis der
Maler, where eight subdivisions follow the m a i n stroke in four to the bar.
T h i s e x c e r p t will be d e t a i l e d later. Evolve p a t t e r n s a n d p r a c t i c e these
subdivisions w h e n you reach four a n d six to t h e bar.
T h i s device of swerving in t h e p r o p e r direction on t h e first subdivi-
sion, d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e subdivisions total a n odd or even n u m -
ber, will m a k e the h a n d come out in the right place after the subdivisions
so t h a t it is p r e p a r e d to give t h e n e x t m a i n stroke according to t h e proper
pattern. It is also helpful to visualize patterns for three m a i n beats in the
following Order: with one, t h r e e , a n d five subdivisions, a n d t h e n with
two, four, a n d six. Keeping these patterns in mind while practicing t h e m
will finally fix t h e m in t h e h a n d , until they can be beaten automatically.
C o m p l e t e measures with such subdivisions are rare, t h o u g h passages
r e q u i r i n g t h e outline of such subdivisions o n p a r t - m e a s u r e s do c r o p u p
occasionally. Therefore, practice patterns with subdivisions on some m a i n
beats a n d with n o subdivisions on other m a i n beats.

SUBDIVISIONS 35
 Chapter Seven

ONE BEAT TO THE BAR

DUPLE PULSES

Practically any rapid duple or triple rhythm may be taken one to the bar.
The usual rhythms in this category are 2 / 4 and 3 / 4 , though other pulses
may be included. To execute single strokes to the bar neatly and to adapt
them to varying odd and even pulses, changing phrases, syncopation, and
shifting dynamics, are not such common accomplishments as one might
expect from examining the seemlngly simple outlines involved.
Fig. 3 4 Figure 34 shows the common pattern for the duple pulse, one to the
bar (practica on Examples 28 and 29). T h e strokes pass over each other
in the air, of course. Similarity between models for two to the bar and
one to the bar is only apparent, for while the upward stroke in one to
the bar is a preparatory motion for the down beat, the second stroke for
two to the bar is independent. In one to the bar the palm always faces
the ground; in two to the bar the p a l m a n d wrist turn u p w a r d on the
second stroke.
An unusual case for one to the bar occurs in the second movement of
Borodin's Second Symphony (Ex. 30). T h e four notes reiterated on
the horn and the subsequent syncopation (not reproduced here), often

Ex. 2 8 . Glinka: Russfan a n d Ludmilla Overture

Presto ( J = I5Z)
F.O.

^ f f iu—LI
r-1—1— f g i -ur r uir i T r r r pr»=i
F iridis
36 O N E BEAT TO THE BAR
Ex. 29. Brahms: S y m p h o n y N o . 2

m
Presto ma non assai (J = 104)

Slrgs. p

Ex. 30. B o r o d i n : S y m p h o n y N o . 2. S e e a l s o : S t r o v i n s k y , " F i r e b i r d " S u i t e ( 1 9 1 9 Version), " D a n s e infer-

n a l e d u roi KastcheT," the 6 / 4 ot no. 3 3 in the score; S i b e l i u s , S y m p h o n y N o . 5 , S c h e r z o .

Prcstissimo ( o " 106)

w
f1 f 1 M ^ ^1 1 W «1 «1 :

P
Strgs. ^
»»!i 1—T^—i—
y pT ^ '

preceded by a rest at the Start of the measures, m a k e this example very

intriguing. Note that you are conducting two measures as one.
T h e t e m p o of this excerpt is fast enough to beat one to the b a r com-
fortably, a n d the phrasing shows that two measures are grouped as one
successively. To beat each bar at the designated speed a n d as a separate
entity would dissect the line a n d give the phrasing a n edgy staccato. By
beating two bars as one (see Figure 35), the phrasing is expressed better,
a n d the muscles of the a r m a n d h a n d maintain their ease. In Figure 35,
the m a i n strokes r e b o u n d almost to t h e t o p of the p a t t e r n ; b o t h lA's
are at the same point. T h e two motions pass Over the same places in the
air, not as the two-dimensional Hnes of the printed page suggest. M a k e
the odd strokes by mentally stressing the muscles of the h a n d a n d a r m on
the outside, a n d the even strokes by mentally stressing the muscles on the
inside of the h a n d a n d a r m , those dosest to the body. T h e procedure is
akin to changing fingers rapidly on the same note in pianoforte music.
T h e alternation of muscles will make for grace. T h e players need not, of
course, be aware that two bars are being conducted as one. T h e pace is
so brisk a n d t h e strokes are so d o s e t o g e t h e r t h a t p e r f o r m e r s will in-
variably Interpret your beating as one to the bar. This procedure, beat-
ing groups of measures together as units, is of special importance in
giving naturalness to the beat a n d clarity to phrases, a n d is of immense
aid in memorizing.

DUPLE PULSES 37
 Ex. 3 1 . Beethoven: Leonora Overture N o . 2

Presto ( o ' 120)

i I
Mf

* § , p p l J

Note the exciting efFect which Stravinsky obtains toward the end of
the "Danse infernale du roi Kastchei" in the "Firebird" Suite (1919
Version) by writing successively 3 / 4 , 2 / 2 , 6 / 4 , and again 3 / 4 . T h e 3 / 4
a n d 2 / 2 are taken one to the bar, as is the 6 / 4 , and they may even be
taken two bars in one stroke. T h e final eight bars in 4 / 4 of this section
are cut in the concert Version. From no. 37 in the score until the end,
constituting twenty bars, one actually beats two bars to one stroke, or
even two bars on a sweeping wide quasi down stroke and two bars on a
wide sweeping quasi up stroke, making virtually four bars to one sweep.
T h e passage offers a fascinating example of one to the bar with rising
excitement.

SILENT BARS
In rapid tempos, for example at the ends of many overtures where
smashing chords alternate with silent measures, there is always the
danger of inadvertent entrances (Ex. 31). There is no opportunity for
ambiguity if you give two measures as one, giving a strong beat on the
chord and a weak one on the silent measure, with the suggestion that
the latter is a preparatory u p beat for the next chord, i.e., taking two
bars as one.

TRIPLE PULSES
For brisk triple rhythms, one to the bar is also applicable, with cer-
tain differences, however, from the manner in which it is given for duple
rhythms. In triple rhythms, the baton rests on the second pulse and

Ex. 3 2 . Brohms: S y m p h o n y N o . 2

Presto ma non assai ( J • = 104)

Strgs. •

Fig. 3 6

38 O N E BEAT T O THE B A R
Ex. 33. DvoTök: Symphony No. 5, "New World" (By permission of the Oliver Ditson Company, Copy-
right owner.)
Scherzo et vivace ^ J. _ i j 2 )

* -
•
1 tri < 1
i. r
^
r
p-
J
•4M,4 4 4 -
Ex. 34. Smetana: Barfered Bride

Vivo ma non presto C =

ß mm
m
observes a breath pause, giving the third stroke as a preparation for the
next down beat, i.e., as an i n h a l a t i o n for the exhalation which follows
(Fig. 36). Letting the b a t e n r e b o u n d to the top directly, without the
b r e a t h pause, w o u l d cause the orchestra to try to catch the beat and
hurry. Practice on Examples 32 a n d 33.

SHIFTED ACCENTS
In triple pulses with accents shifted a w a y from the bar lines, as in
Example 34, one m a y point u p the accents by observing breath pauses
at the ends of the strokes. This amounts in practice to an adaptation of
Figure 35.
Wahzes in general, and Viennese waltzes in particular, should almost
invariably be taken two bars as one, especially in legato. Staccato waltzes
with accents on the Start of each measure, of course, should be done one
to the b a r literally. H u m , for e x a m p l e , " T h e M e r r y W i d o w W a l t z , "
which might easily h a v e been written as 6/4 instead of 3/4; a n d note
how the first and third bars, etc., have the strong accents, a n d the even
bars, the secondary accents, thus forming two-bar groupings. In such
cases, conduct two bars as one, with a pattern resembling an almost
horizontal "figure 8," which imparts a swinging a n d lilting suggestion.
F i g u r e 37 illustrates the model, with F i g u r e 38 showing more closely Fig. 38
what meets the eye.

SHIFTED ACCENTS 39
 The patterns for beating waltzes vary perhaps more than any other
kind of pattern. The conductor must be prepared to bring out any of the
three pulses, though he is virtually giving only one to the bar. Figure 39
suggests a method of shifting the emphasis to the second pulse, and
Figures 40 and 41 to the third pulse.
Any of the waltzes by Waldteufel, Gungl, Ziehrer, Lehar, a n d the
Strausses furnish many scores of examples of constantly shifting emphases
Fig. 3 9 in three-quarter time taken one to the bar. Practice them assiduously.
For rapid quintuple and even greater numbers of pulses taken one to
the bar, see Chapter 11.

Fig. 4 1
Fig. 4 0

40 ONE BEAT TO THE BAR

 Chapter Eight

FOUR BEATS TO THE BAR

METHOD OF BEATING
Four strokes to the bar is used in m o d e r a t e 4 / 4 or C , brisk 1 2 / 8 , etc.,
w h e r e v e r f o u r pulses m a y b e c o m f o r t a b l y b e a t e n to t h e m e a s u r e (Exs.
35 a n d 36). T h e c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d m o d e l is s h o w n in F i g u r e 42. M a n y
passages in 2 / 4 , t a k e n a t a leisurely p a c e a n d i m p l y i n g subdivision, m a y
b e a p p r o p r i a t e l y t a k e n a c c o r d i n g to F i g u r e 43, a d a p t e d f r o m F i g u r e 42.
M a n y c o n d u c t o r s p r e f e r to use F i g u r e 4 3 in o r d e r to a v o i d t w o motions
in t h e s a m e direction (cf. Figures 20 a n d 21). F i g u r e 4 3 is also especially
useful w h e n going f r o m t w o to f o u r strokes to t h e b a r a n d vice versa. Fig. 4 2

T h i s is t h e first t i m e we h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a p a t t e r n g o i n g in all four

d i r e c t i o n s , d o w n , left, r i g h t , a n d u p . N o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s in this
m o d e l . T h e r e b o u n d swerves slightly away f r o m t h e s t r o k e it p r e c e d e s ,
this t i m e t o w a r d t h e right, since t h e next stroke, t h e second, is to proceed
t o w a r d t h e left. ( R e c a l l t h a t it s w e r v e s t o w a r d t h e left in t h r e e to t h e
b a r . ) T h i s r e b o u n d in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n p r e p a r e s t h e h a n d for t h e
second stroke. All strokes except t h e first d i p u n d e r a n i m a g i n a r y straight
line c o n n e c t i n g t h e e x t r e m e e n d s of t h e strokes. T h e t h i r d s t r o k e dips
u n d e r t h e s e c o n d . T h e first a n d t h i r d s t r o k e s a r e p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l in
l e n g t h , t h e t h i r d b e a t b e i n g slightly s h o r t e r t h a n t h e first; while t h e t w o

Ex. 3 5 . Franck: S y m p h o n y in D M i n o r Fig. 4 3

Unio

SUga.p
mm
M E T H O D OF BEATING 41
Ex. 36. Schubert: Symphony No. 7, " G r e a t "

r
weakest beats, the second and fourth, are almost equal in length to each
other and are each about one half as long as the two strong beats.
The first stroke, as always, is down; the last is up. The third stroke,
requiring underlining as the secondary stress in the rhythm, goes to the
right, thus forcing the attention of tne performers to it. (In former days
it was often the practice to give the third stroke inward to the left, as is
still done occasionally in Europe. Taking the third stroke to the left, how-
ever, weakens its focusing power, especially in the theater pit, where
many of the players find it difficult to see the baton against the body of
the conductor in the usual dim fighting.) The principle of stressing the
secondary accent by executing it to the right applies also with five, six,
and seven beats to the bar. In four to the bar, this method leaves only
one direction for the weak second beat, to the left.
This is an appropiate place to point out that a 4/4 rhythm is not to
be conducted or played as if it were a combination of successive 2/4's. A
4/4 has one strong and one secondary stress for each measure; a 2/4 has
alternating strong and weak stresses. This point may seem too simple to
belabor, yet one occasionally hears the opening of Wagner's Die Meister-
singer Overture with two accents to each bar, as if the time-signature
were 2/4 instead of 4/4.
Beating very slow four to the bar looks easy. In reality, it is no simple
matter to hold together a large group of players in any very slow tempo,
for the baton tends to sag and to lose its power at the ends of beats. In
many passages, subdivisions are not the Solution because they would not
translate the outline of the musical text. It is difficult to maintain vitality
under such circumstances, especially when the tempo becomes almost,

42 FOUR BEATS TO THE BAR

t h o u g h not quite, b r o a d e n o u g h for subdivisions. T h e tendency of the
wrist muscles is to Force the first stroke slightly inward, the second stroke
u p w a r d , the third u p w a r d (veering in the opposite direction, of course),
a n d the last stroke downward, especially when the Student desires a
strong attack on the succeeding down beat. T h e resuhing pattern, by no
means u n c o m m o n , looks something like Figure 44.
To a watcher this succession of motions, when done briskly, seems to
be a l t e r n a t i n g gesticulations almost u p a n d down. W h e n you reahze
that m a n y instrumentaUsts who have long periods of rest count the num-
ber of their silent measures by the n u m b e r of down beats they think they
see, the d a n g e r of a n u n f o r t u n a t e entrance becomes a p p a r e n t . See to it
t h a t a pretty close p l u m b line is m a d e on one, t h a t two a n d three are
practically horizontal, a n d t h a t four ascends directly a f t e r t h e initial
Short curve under the imaginary straight line connecting the extremities
of the stroke. It is far better to exaggerate the geometric outlines of Fig-
ure 42 at the Start, a n d to strive gradually for grace, than to run the risk
of slovenliness. R e m e m b e r t h a t k n o w i n g w h a t you w a n t a n d showing
what you want are two very different matters.
Here are two suggestions for m a i n t a i n i n g a steady pattern in four to
the b a r w h e n no subdivisions are called for. T h e first suggestion is to
m a k e a b r e a t h pause n e a r the e n d of each stroke a n d t h e n to give a
slight preparatory motion for the following stroke, as in Figure 45. This
p a t t e r n is not to be c o n f u s e d with f o u r strokes s u b d i v i d e d , i.e., eight
pulses, where each stroke, main or subordinate, is independent.
T h e second suggestion, for very broad legato, is to give rounded lines
for the strokes with rebounds for each (see Fig. 46). H e r e again the dif-
ficulty is that the baton moves so slowly that it is h a r d for the players to
distinguish the ends of the strokes. T h i s difficulty can be overcome by
observing tiny b r e a t h pauses a n d a r o u n d rebound for each stroke. T h e Fig. 4 6
rebound becomes in effect a preparatory motion for the next stroke.
These b r e a t h pauses are not strictly stops; the players anticipate their
length by means of their time a n d space sense, already oriented by the
general context. To repeat: w h e n the t e m p o is moderate, beating out a
p a t t e r n at the same rate of speed keeps the music going naturally; but
when the baton moves very slowly a n d no subdivisions are justified, tiny
b r e a t h pauses a n d r o u n d e d r e b o u n d - p r e p a r a t o r y motions give the
players something to hold to, which they need. T h e end of the stroke in
such cases is sometimes called the "click," as if the baton were touching
a n imaginary point. This click a n d the occasions when it is appropriate
must be determined by each conductor for himself It varies m u c h with
different texts a n d with individual temperaments.

METHOD O F BEATING 43
 SUBDIVISIONS, EIGHT PULSES
Some conductors take everything too rapidly, others too slowly. Still
others take slow passages too slowly and rapid passages too rapidly.
Sometimes the cause is temperamental; sometimes the transgressor is
attempting to obtain contrast through exaggeration or is incapable of
delicacy and nuance. In the same category are the conductors who
apparently see no difference between ff and fff or between pp and ppp.
Another error is committed by conductors who overbeat by painfully
indicating every unimportant sixteenth and thirty-second note, and who
suggest a fencer in a funk. At the opposite extreme is the conductor who
underbeats by leaving out subdivisions, a sign of mental laziness or un-
developed technique. T h e whole problem is one of knowing where to
indicate subdivisions, so that the performers have guidance in crucial
places, the main line is kept moving, and the clarity of the baton patterns
is maintained.
Go Over the passage you are to conduct; and decide whether it re-
quires subdivisions anywhere to keep the baton moving so that the
players have something to guide them, or whether subdivisions would
confuse the pattern in rapid tempos so that the baton would move too
rapidly for the players to follow. If you use subdivisions, see that they
are given with the wrist and the main strokes with the arm, so that the
pattern does not appear cluttered up.
For precise and pointed eight pulses to the bar, use Figure 47 (Ex.
37). For broad eight pulses, use Figure 48, noting that the first subdivi-
sion is near the center of the pattern (Ex. 38).
When you have flowing passages like Example 39, and when you and
your orchestra know each other well, use as a variant Figure 49, which
gives the first and third main strokes special prominence and relegates
the other pulses to the background.

Ex. 3 7 . W e b e r : Ofaeron Overture

Adagio sostenuto ( J = IIS) . .

iJ*" pp Hne.
i ^ t j j T ftrrfrfr'
.ü'mfr [
Tpts.

Fig. 4 7

44 F O U R B E A T S T O THE B A R
Ex. 38. Brahms: Symphony No. 2. See also: Bach, Suife 1 in D ( " G String Aria"}.

Adagio nonjroppc 84fc-88)

STACCATO AND SYNCOPATION

T h e next p a t t e r n , F i g u r e 50, is s u i t a b l e for staccato a n d s y n c o p a t e d
passages like E x a m p l e 40. It stresses t h e r e b o u n d o n t h e first stroke a n d
t h e subdivisions themselves. To o b t a i n a c l e a r e r outline, lower a bit t h e
m a i n s t r o k e s o n t w o , t h r e e , a n d f o u r ( n o t o n t h e first s t r o k e , s i n c e it
c h a n g e s d i r e c t i o n w i t h its r e b o u n d ) a n d c o m e f o r w a r d on t h e first p a r t
a n d i n w a r d on t h e second p a r t of e a c h stroke. P o i n t t h e wrist in t h e s a m e
direction for e a c h m a i n b e a t a n d subdivisions thereof, to d e m a r c a t e clearly
t h e m a i n pulses a n d their subdivisions.
I n g e n u i n e b e a t i n g of s u b d i v i s i o n s , t h e wrist m o t i o n s a r e n o t t o b e
s k i m p e d as if t h e y w e r e m e r e l y p r e p a r a t o r y u p h o o k s (see F i g u r e 45) for
t h e s u c c e e d i n g m a i n beats. G i v e t h e m w e i g h t a n d b o d y a n d füll value.

Ex. 39. Beethoven; Symphony No. 1

Adagio molto - 88)

Vln.I
j—j»
irr L C i r t o

Ex. 40. Wagner: fiienz/ Overture

Molto sostenuto e maestoso 92)

Fig. 50

STACCATO A N D SYNCOPATION 45
Ex. 4 1 . Stravinsky: " F i r e b i r d " Suite {By permission of J. & W . ehester, Ltd., L o n d o n a n d of G . Schtrmer,
Inc., N e w York.)

y Vcl soroino
•^''^"iV^vf rjjj^j^T rjjj-^-]
pp
B. con^sordino
r'i 1= 1 i,"i, 1 I I f-

b.D,.12 1
1

w la. ron «inroinn

• ^^Mt I L
"''Fl? • l^W fl* " - j uJ-llJtl* l'J -J

n r r n

T h e first subdivision a f t e r t h e m a i n b e a t ' s s h o r t r e b o u n d m a y b e given

n e a r t h e b o t t o m of t h e first stroke a n d h a v e its o w n r e b o u n d ; or it m a y
b e g i v e n n e a r t h e c e n t e r of t h e p a t t e r n a f t e r t h e f ü l l r e b o u n d of t h e
m a i n stroke.

SUBDIVISIONS, TWELVE PULSES

F ü r r h y t h m s r e q u i r i n g t h a t e a c h m a i n b e a t h a v e t w o subdivisions, as
in slow 1 2 / 8 (Ex. 41), use F i g u r e 51. T h e first t w o subdivisions m a y c o m e
a t t h e b o t t o m of t h e s t r o k e or n e a r t h e c e n t e r . T h e y m a y also j u t o u t
f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e p a t t e r n t o w a r d t h e right. If they a r e given a t t h e
b o t t o m of t h e p a t t e r n , e a c h subdivision s h o u l d h a v e its o w n r e b o u n d .
W h e r e t h e t e m p o is fluid b u t n o t q u i t e r a p i d e n o u g h for m a i n beats
only (see E x a m p l e 42), a n d w h e r e m a i n b e a t s a n d subdivisions going in
t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n (as in F i g u r e 51) w o u l d a p p e a r too fast for t h e
w a t c h e r ' s c o m f o r t , F i g u r e 52 offers a n e a t Solution. U s i n g F i g u r e 51 w o u l d
give a n i m p r e s s i o n of d e l i b e r a t i o n n o t s u i t a b l e h e r e . See to it t h a t t h e first
subdivision ( l A ) veers to t h e left, i.e., toward t h e next m a i n b e a t (cf.
F i g u r e 31). It is i m p o r t a n t in this p a t t e r n t h a t t h e m a i n b e a t s s t a n d o u t
in clear relief, a c o n t r a s t w h i c h c a n b e assured by using t h e wrist for t h e
subdivisions a n d t h e h a n d a n d a r m for t h e m a i n beats.

46 FOUR BEATS TO THE BAR

Ex. 4 2 . D e b u s s y : L'Apres-mic/i d'un faune {Permission for reprint g r a n t e d b y J e a n Jobert, Paris; Elkan-
V o g e l C o . , Inc., U . S . A . Copyright owners.)

T r « modere ( i ' - 88-92)

Hiiii.Vlii.I

S o m e t i m e s t h e first subdivision of e a c h m a i n b e a t is so slight a n d

fluid that Figure 53 would translate it into the proper p a t t e r n (cf. Figure
25). S i m p l y leave o u t t h e first subdivision of Figure 52 a n d observe a
b r e a t h pause instead, with t h e second subdivision i m p a r t i n g a feeling of
p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e n e x t m a i n stroke. M u s i c for w h i c h this p a t t e r n is
suitable usually occurs in ritardandi a n d accelerandi. It w o u l d require
e n c y c l o p e d i c s p a c e to illustrate every Variation as we go on f r o m this
point, a n d such detailed Illustration is not needed or wise, for the Student
s h o u l d n o w be a b l e to a p p l y a p r i n c i p l e o n c e it has b e e n considered.
O t h e r good e x a m p l e s in this g e n r e of t i m e - b e a t i n g m a y be seen in
t h e slow m o v e m e n t s of Brahms's Second a n d T h i r d Symphonies a n d at
the Start of Sibelius' S y m p h o n y No. 5.
I n grandioso, allargando, a n d staccatissimo passages, all subdivisions as
well as all m a i n beats m a y be given their o w n r e b o u n d s . It should be
gratuitous to a d d t h a t such extremes a r e to be reserved for special occa-
sions, or eise anticlimaxes will result, especially in the music of composers
like Tchaikovsky a n d Wagner.
In the exceptional cases where m a n y subdivisions occur, a d a p t one
of t h e usual patterns.

Ex. 4 3 . Hindemith: Mathis der Maler (Published by Schott, M a i n z ; u s e d by permission of Associated M u s i c

Publishers, Inc.)
Very siowly and freely, rubato
v i n . v u . vci. . fj;

SUBDIVISIONS, TWELVE PULSES 47

 Our final illustration of twelve pulses (Ex. 43) is taken from
Hindemith's Mathis der Maler, in the "Versuchung des Heiligen Antonius,"
page 38 of the Schott small score. Beat according to Figure 54.
T h e passage is taken four to the bar. T h e down stroke returns at
once to the center of the pattern, where it remains for the hold. At the
right time, the baton executes the short subdivisions (nine in all) as part
of the second stroke. The second note is the same as the first, and tied to
it; hence a stroke to the left suffices to indicate it and the release simul-
taneously. The accent marks on the next eight notes show that the com-
poser wants each note articulated. T h e r e are, then, nine parts to this
second stroke. They are given simply by indicating the release to the lefl
center (after the rebound of the down stroke to the center), the next eighth
a bit to the right, the next a bit to the left, and so on, in orthodox fashion.
Note again that the first stroke goes to the left, to make the hand and
baton come out at the proper place to proceed as usual with the next
stroke, in this case, to the right for the third pulse (see Chapter 6). Split
the second beat in the third bar. T h e passage is reaffirmed on the next
page and is executed similarly; the conductor has the added chore of
bringing in the lower brass and strings by Splitting the third stroke.
Measure 10 is done as was measure 1, except that here the trombones,
Cellos, and basses enter, with a hold of their own on the rebound of the
down stroke, which they release on the last (ninth) subdivision. T h e third
stroke may be split to show the trombones, cellos, and basses where they
enter again. T h e first three pages of the small score offer an unusual
example of practice in free orchestral utterance.

Ex. 4 4 . Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra (Reprinted with the permission of the Copyright owner, C. F.
Peters Corporation, N e w Yorl<.)

Solemnly t J - 69)
tfn flj ~~
Ii"-

J J —1- N y t = 4
1 r Ji bsl i <^* =
Timp.
3 3 3 3
I»-
•TT] » yy T - —
—
F.O.
= ff
sempre p

B. Dr. 3 ^ = ^
^ 1 5 i 3- s'

48 FOUR BEATS TO THE BAR

 T h e r e is perhapis t h e d a n g e r , in t h e necessarily d e t a i l e d . a n d pigeon-
holed r e m a r k s a b o v e , of f o r g e t t i n g t h a t p a t t e r n s a r e to t h e c o n d u c t o r
merely w h a t scales are to the instrumentalist, to be a d a p t e d r a t h e r t h a n
to be a p p l i e d literally. A passage m a y r e q u i r e various c o m b i n a t i o n s of
p a t t e r n s to t r a n s l a t e successfully its m o o d a n d line. T h e m o r e skillful
a n d individual a n I n t e r p r e t e r becomes, t h e m o r e a c c u r a t e l y will he in-
t e r p r e t t h e m o o d of his music, by a p p l y i n g t h e spirit a n d not t h e letter
of these remarks a n d patterns.
T h e Student is to devise his own p a t t e r n s for the excerpt f r o m Strauss's
Also sprach ^arathustra (Ex. 44).

SUBDIVISIONS, TWEIVE PULSES 49

 Chapter Nine

SIX BEATS TO THE BAR

METHOD OF BEATING
Patterns for beating six to the bar are a m o n g the most varied of all rhyth-
mical patterns in practice. T h i s is all to the good, for one pattern will
often fit a p a r t i c u l a r musical text when n o n e other would do quite so
well. Such variants may be thought o f in the same light as are different
fingerings for instrumental passages, which individual Interpreters take ac-
cording to personal taste and training; the agility of their hands; their na-
tionality and tradition; the preceding and succeeding passages; the mood,
nuances, and phrasing of the music; and other qualifying factors.
Six to the b a r , is, in a sense, four to the b a r with weak beats added
after t h e second a n d fourth strokes. T h e first stroke is d o w n ; the last
is up; and the secondary accent (here on four) is to the right. T h e weak
second and fourth beats naturally fit in toward the left, after the initial
rebound, which veers toward the right away from the beat which follows;
while the weak fifth beat fits in toward the right after the strong fourth
beat. Figure 55 illustrates the commonly used pattern for slow legato pas-
sages like E x a m p l e 45.

Ex. 4 5 . Brahms: S y m p h o n y No. 1. S e e also: W a g n e r , Prelude to Parsifal; Delius, O n Hearing fhe First
Cuckoo in Spring.

Uli poco sostenuto ( = 96)

c_c_r
so SIX BEATS T O THE B A R
Ex. 46. Berlioz: "Fantostic" Symphony

Adagio

r P i i I ~ n
pp

W h e n t h e t e m p o p r o c e e d s in a leisurely w a y b u t n o t q u i t e so slowly
as t h e p r e m e d i t a t e d p a c e w h i c h i m p l i e s a s t r o n g füll stroke o n t h e second
b e a t , give t h e s e c o n d b e a t d o w n w a r d w i t h its o w n r e b o u n d . It is often
q u i t e feasible to give t h e first t h r e e strokes all d o w n w a r d , e a c h h a v i n g
its o w n r e b o u n d , in w h i c h case t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d strokes a r e e a c h
h a l f - l e n g t h . E x a m p l e s s u i t a b l e f o r s u c h p r o c e d u r e a r e t o b e f o u n d in
t h e s e c o n d m o v e m e n t of B r a h m s ' s S y m p h o n y N o . 4, in t h e 6 / 8 m o v e -
m e n t of M o z a r t ' s " L i n z " S y m p h o n y ( K . 425), a n d in t h e closing sections
of Strauss's Ein Heldenleben.
A p a t t e r n m u c h u s e d for fluid p a s s a g e s w h e r e o n e a n d f o u r s t a n d
o u t i n b o l d relief a n d t h e o t h e r b e a t s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d , like E x a m p l e
46, is s h o w n in F i g u r e 56.
N o t e t h a t F i g u r e 56 is really a v a r i a n t of F i g u r e 23, a n d is u s e d for
t w o to t h e b a r w i t h t w o subdivisions a f t e r e a c h m a i n b e a t . It is of great
Service in b r i d g i n g a n accelerando f r o m t w o t o six to t h e b a r , a n d vice
versa. M u c h salon m u s i c lends itself to this sort of outline.
W h e n t h e r e a r e b a r s of u n v a r y i n g " n e u t r a l " p h r a s e s , o r b a r s w h e r e
only t h e first a n d last strokes s t a n d o u t a n d yet w h e r e t h e c o u n t should
b e k e p t going, F i g u r e 57 m a y b e u s e d . N o t e a g a i n t h a t in e v e n pulses,
as here, t h e second stroke goes to t h e left; in o d d pulses (five a n d seven),
it goes to t h e right in o r d e r to h a v e t h e h a n d c o m e o u t r i g h t for t h e last
u p b e a t . T h i s p a t t e r n is of special v a l u e in o p e r a t i c b a c k g r o u n d music.

SYNCOPATION
I n b e a t i n g s y n c o p a t i o n , w h e r e t h e a c c e n t s t e m p o r a r i l y c o m e on one,
t h r e e , a n d five i n s t e a d of on t h e n o r m a l o n e a n d f o u r (Ex. 47), use t h e
p a t t e r n s h o w n in F i g u r e 58. N o t e t h a t t h e s t r o n g pulses i n i t i a t e n e w
directions, a n i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e to r e m e m b e r .
I n some passages, such as E x a m p l e 48, t h e second a n d fifth beats a r e
so s u b o r d i n a t e d t h a t it is a d v i s a b l e to elide t h e m in p a t t e r n s . W h i l e this
elision m a y b e d o n e on b o t h u p a n d d o w n beats, it is often a d v i s a b l e to
elide on o n e p a r t of t h e m e a s u r e while b e a t i n g o u t t h e o t h e r p a r t of t h e
m e a s u r e fully, or even, a t times, to go f r o m these e l i d e d p a t t e r n s to two
or six to t h e b a r . Figures 59, 60, a n d 61 illustrate t h e usual c o m b i n a t i o n s
(cf. F i g u r e s 25 a n d 32).

SYNCOPATION 51
 Ex. 47. Debussy: La Mer (Permission for reprint granted by Durand et Cie, Paris, Copyright owners; Ellton-
Vogel Co., Inc., agents for U.S.A.) See also: Strauss, parts of Ein Heldenteben.

TresUnt (J=72-7«

via.
ppf
1»-

'j S\'
i m - j
VJ
n'.Üii i; _ J- iiJ- -'i i f r j , , J||
rr^rr j J JtJ J:
pp
PPP

Fig. 6 0 Timp. •CT- -ö-

B. S B i a s »

Ex. 4 8 . Thomasi Mignon Overture. See also; Offenbach, Orpheus in Hades Overture.

Anchnte (J»52)
Ha.

espr. '
Harp
r 7 H
Strgs. .

m
SUBDIVISIONS
Subdivisions for six to the bar are u n c o m m o n . Example 49 needs
one subdivision, and Figure 62 gives a pattern for it. For two or more
subdivisions, the Student can evolve his own patterns, by applying sug-
gestions given for such cases in four to the bar. T h e chief point to remem-
ber is that the n u m b e r of motions going in the same direction should
be reduced to a minimum.

Ex. 4 9 . Delius: Summer Night an the River (By permission of Oxford University Press. W o r l d Copyright
tronsferred to Oxford University Press, 1930.)

Slowly ( i" = 92)

m i i

Fig. 6 2

Strgs. g . •
—

52 SIX BEATS T O THE B A R

 Fig. 63 Fig. 64 Fig. 65

REVIEW OF PATTERNS

This is a good place for the Student to make a thorough review of all
that has been presented up to this point a n d to fix again in his mind
the principles outlined thus far. T h e Student should have a clear mental
picture of all the patterns presented and of their proper proportions. To
this end, five repräsentative patterns are inscribed within diamonds
(Figs. 63 through 67). They should aid in visualization of what has been
discussed.
The Student should practice beating Example 50, as a further review.
Detailed a n d unmistakable characterization of the note values should
be the constant aim. Be sure that the motions of the baton which delineate
the Start of a new note have more body than other motions. Thus, when
you beat the measure with four q u a r t e r notes, give each motion weight
and body according to the main a n d secondary accents; but when you
beat the measure with a half note between two quarters, give the third
beat less body than the other beats. In the phrase consisting of dotted
eighths followed by sixteenths, make the baton split each stroke so that
the second part of the stroke points up the sixteenths, unlike the almost
even Splitting when eighths succeed each other. T h e Student is here left
to solve the other problems involved in beating patterns for the phrases
in Example 50. He should make many additional examples in skeletal
form, both of his own invention and from Standard works.
Some of the best possible practice in clearly delineating note values
may be obtained by conducting folk songs, hymns, and chorales. Fig. 6 7

REVIEW O F PATTERNS 53
Chapter Ten

ATTACKS

ON THE BEAT
More than one famous conductor has been q u o t e d as saying t h a t the most
difficult part of a conductor's technique is the attack, a n d most students
are inclined to agree with this Statement. It is not too m u c h to say that
a conductor's i n n a t e gift for leadership m a y best be gaged quickly by
the results he achieves on attacks. Every musical work has a beginning,
a n d it is of this beginning t h a t a u d i t o r s are most aware. T h e Student,
therefore, should p a y special attention to this matter of attacks a n d en-
trances, which set the mood for subsequent reactions in both the orchestra
a n d the audience.
It has already been said t h a t a c o n d u c t o r must be mentally a h e a d of
his players at all times. A corollary to this principle is t h a t every time
the baton stops (breath pauses excepted), some sort of preparatory motion
must be given to the performers before they can enter again without rag-
ged a n d frayed edges. This means that at the ends of holds a n d cut-ofTs,
a n d at important changes in tempo, mood, time-signature, style, nuance,
volume, Instrumentation, etc., there must be warnings indicated in some
definite, logical, and comprehensible m a n n e r to the executants. T h e per-
f o r m e r is waiting, or he should be, for a signal of w h a t is Coming a n d
for the exact point of entrance. It is the least he is entitled to. W h e n such
intimations are correctly given to t h e player or singer, he will Imitate
t h e m a n d translate them into music.
To secure attention suddenly, a n d literally to jerk the players into
tenseness, some conductors (though m u c h more formerly t h a n recently)
are wont to dispense with the usual preparation. Instead, they poise the
b a t o n histrionically in the air until every eye in the orchestra a n d also
in the audience is u p o n it, a n d then bring it down with tremendous drive.

54 ATTACKS
thrusting it forward at the same time. At the end of the stroke, the per-
formers catch the b e a t which waits there dramatically. T h e r e u p o n the
conductor executes a rebound, which serves simuhaneously to cut off the
first stroke a n d to p r e p a r e t h e n e x t one. This t e c h n i q u e often proves
effective theater, b u t it should be reserved for experienced conductors
a n d the proper occasions.
Let US consider the case as you stand ready to Start a musical Perform-
ance. You raise y o u r b a t o n so t h a t there is a direct Hne of vision from
your eyes through the tip of your baton into the eyes of the performers.
If your baton now descends without warning, the performers will come
in at various places after your baton has started. T h e y have no possible
way of knowing w h a t is Coming in style, speed, a n d dynamics. T h u s the
down beat itself will, in actuj.1 practica, become the preparation; and the
r e b o u n d will become the point of entrance. T h e case is the same when
the orchestra is playing a n d it is necessary tö show a forthcoming change.
To avoid confusing the players u n d e r such conditions, the c o n d u c t o r
should continue as usual until the last pulse before the change, and then
use this last pulse, already established, to indicate the ensuing change.
By t h a t time, it is too late for t h e p e r f o r m e r s to c h a n g e on the " l a s t "
pulse, so they will come in correctly on the next. T h e importance of this
psychological principle must be understood at the outset, for its applica-
tions are many, especially in sudden accents a n d sforzandos.
To repeat: after the baton has stopped, some sort of preparation must
be given if the orchestra is to Start again with a clean attack. T h e stop
m a y be occasioned by holds; cut-offs (releases); breaks; ends of phrases,
sections, e r m o v e m e n t s ; or other causes. O n c e the b a t o n has stopped,
the Situation is exactly the s a m e as if the music h a d not been played
before at all, as if the motion were being m a d e for the first time. T h e
players must be prepared for the next attack.
T h e r e are, obviously, only four general directions for the b a t o n to
take: down, up, right, a n d left. Preparations for these directions should,
therefore, be applicable to a n y p a t t e r n . In theory, one should give the
preceding beat as p r e p a r a t i o n , in the same style, speed, a n d volume as
the a c t u a l point of e n t r a n c e . I n practice, the preceding b e a t is a d a p t e d
a n d adjusted in length a n d direction toward the actual point of entrance.
T h e preparation is of the n a t u r e of a n Inhalation, followed by a n exha-
lation (the attack), with a breath pause between them, similar to a person's
actual breathing. T h e p r e p a r a t i o n must never be longer t h a n one unit
of b e a t i n g to the measure; for e x a m p l e , w h e n there are two strokes in a
2 / 4 , the p r e p a r a t o r y motion consists of a q u a r t e r note; when there are
six strokes in a 6 / 8 passage, the p r e p a r a t i o n consists of a n eighth note.

O N THE BEAT 55
 T h e essence of a good p r e p a r a t o r y b e a t is to suggest so well t h e speed,
style, a n d v o l u m e of t h e e n t r a n c e t h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r s s u b c o n s c i o u s l y
i m h a t e . I n effect, t h e c o n d u c t o r gives o n e u n i t of t h e a c t u a l e n t r a n c e
a l o n e ; t h e r e is a b r e a t h p a u s e ; t h e n t h e p l a y e r s i m i t a t e as h e b e a t s t h e
actual entrance with them.
A t this p o i n t , review w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d a b o u t a t t a c k s o n t h e d o w n
a n d u p beats in C h a p t e r Five.

LEGATO AND STACCATO

I n a legato p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e p a l m p o i n t s to t h e e n t r a n c e ; in staccato,
t h e b a c k of t h e h a n d points to t h e e n t r a n c e . T h e force a n d l e n g t h of t h e
p r e p a r a t o r y stroke v a r y a c c o r d i n g to t h e b e a t it i n t r o d u c e s . D o n o t for-
get t h a t t h e p r e p a r a t o r y stroke, t h e b r e a t h pause, a n d t h e a t t a c k literally
imitate natural breathing.
T h e p r e p a r a t i o n for a n u p b e a t is essentially t h e s a m e in a n y p a t t e m
a n d is given like a n u p - h o o k w h i c h d r o p s slightly a t t h e Start. To give
the whole d o w n beat might t r a p u n w a r y or overanxious players into a
p r e m a t u r e a t t a c k . T h e p r e p a r a t i o n h e r e , w h i c h is r e a l l y a d o w n b e a t
a d j u s t e d in l e n g t h a n d d i r e c t i o n a n d e x e c u t e d to suggest a n i n h a l a t i o n ,
has a curve t h e d e p t h of w h i c h is g r e a t e r for legato t h a n for staccato, m o r e
energetic for forte t h a n for staccato, a n d m o r e precise as t h e t e m p o quickens.
D ü r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n , o n e s h o u l d p o i n t t h e b a c k of t h e h a n d a n d t h e
wrist t o w a r d t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e u p s t r o k e starts, a n d t h e n t u r n t h e m
u p w a r d for t h e e n t r a n c e itself
F o r e n t r a n c e s o n a s m o o t h b e a t to t h e left ( t h e second b e a t in four,
t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d in six, etc.) or to t h e r i g h t ( t h e s e c o n d b e a t in t h r e e ,
t h e t h i r d in four, t h e f o u r t h a n d fifth in six, etc.), use t h e half d o w n b e a t
Fig. 6 8 a n d r e b o u n d as p r e p a r a t i o n (Figs. 68 a n d 69, Ex. 51).

Ex. 5 1 . G l u c k : Iphigenia in Au/is O v e r t u r e . S e e also; B e r l i o z / ' F o n t a s t i c " S y m p h o n y , " S e e n a s in the

C o u n t r y / ' at sfart.

fj Andante
A n d i o t e (1.^
J =
= 619 - J g l

Strss. P
r W Y
Fig. 6 9

A d a p t F i g u r e s 70 a n d 71 to forte-staccato passages like E x a m p l e 52,

t o assure incisiveness in t h e a t t a c k . P o i n t t h e b a c k of t h e h a n d a n d wrist
t o w a r d t h e e n t r a n c e a n d c h a n g e t h e m w h e n it is r e a c h e d .

56 ATTACKS
Ex. 5 2 . Bizet: " L ' A r l e s i e n n e " Suite, N o . 1

Allegro detiso ( J . 112)

Fig. 7 0

ff Fig. 71

Some conductors give a half-length down beat to prepare this sort of

entrance (see Figures 72 and 73). T h e curve at the entrance serves to
suggest compulsion.
Fig. 7 2
"FREE" ENTRANCES
Thus far, indications of entrances (at the beginning of strokes) have
been fairly easy to give, but the problenns become more demanding when
we meet what are sometimes termed " f r e e " entrances. O u r first task is
to decide how to indicate entrances which come on exactly half of a stroke. Fig. 7 3

Since we cannot give more than one unit of beating in the whole meas-
ure as a preparation for an attack without giving the watchers a wholly
false intimation of what is Coming, we spht our stroke so that one half
serves as a preparation and one half as the point of actual entrance.
T h e first half of the stroke drops and goes slightly forward; the latter
half retraces the path of the first half. T h e first half of the stroke is weak
and short and like an exhalation; the latter half is of equal length, but
strong and like an Inhalation. T h e next attack is, of course, another ex-
halation. T h e split stroke ends in the center of the pattern, where it is
in Position to proceed in any of four directions: right, left, down, or up.
Figures 74 through 77 show four representative entrances exactly on
the half stroke: within the down beat, within a stroke to the left, within
a stroke to the right, and within the up beat. Practice these patterns on
Examples 53 through 56 respectively.
Note that the preparation for an attack within the up beat is made
at the top of the stroke; preparations for the other types, at the usual
places in the patterns. Note further that the preparation for the half

Ex. 5 3 . Schumann: Manfred Overture

Precipitately { J = 152)

jr rt r i f ^ '
A_ A.

"FREE" ENTRANCES 57
 Ex. 5 4 . A l e x a n d e r : Morni'ng Prayer (By permission of the composer.)

Andante (J=J[8)

Ex. 5 5 . Mendelssohn: S y m p h o n y N o . 4

Con moto modcrato (j 126)

i m H

Ex. 5 6 . G o l d m a r k : Rushc W e d d i n g

Allegro modefato

Fig. 7 7

beat a n d the entering note should not take more time together than any
of the other strokes. The introductory strokes may go slightly in the di-
rection where they would normally go in the pattern and dip forward
at the same time.

WITHIN STROKES
T h e indication of entrances within a stroke depends as m u c h upon
suggestive powers as upon actual technical procedures. Such powers nat-
urally cannot be translated into written directions; they usually come
with experience. T h e general technical rule is to give the whole stroke
of which the actual entrance is part.
In practice, the stroke is adjusted to the special circumstances of the
case. T h e baton is thrust t o w a r d the actual point of entrance, with a
precise motion as if it were tapping an object at the actual point of en-
trance. The conductor at that point is actually beating beforehand the
note or group of notes which comprise the part-entrance. H e then ob-
serves a breath pause of exactly the same length as this stroke. T h e players
Imitate his motion on the breath pause. Thereupon, at the attack the

58 ATTACKS
Ex. 5 7 . Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 6

r r r
— j — I — 1 —
r r

Ex. 5 8 . Rimsky-KorsakofF: S c h e h e r e z o d e (Copyright by M . P. Belateff Editions. Used by permission of sola

a g e n t s , B o o s e y & H a w k e s . ) S e e a l s o : " L a M a r s e i l l a i s e " ; Rossini, Barber of Sevilte Overture.

Andantino, quasi allegretto ( J - = 5 2 )

r rTTr^fflll
f p[J
KS l r g s .
—

baton and the orchestra function together. In other words, the conductor
has given one unit of beating, which is comprised in his motion and the
breath pause. If this sounds too complicated in description, it will be
found not nearly so in actual practica.
In giving preparations where one third, two thirds, etc., of a stroke
are concerned, a conductor further uses the principle of Imitation. (For
one third of a stroke, practice on Example 57; for two thirds, on Example
58.) Thus, in bringing in an entrance on the third part of a stroke, as
one does in so many beginnings of Symphonie scherzi, one should thrust
the baton upward in exactly the length of time taken up by the entering
note, observe a breath pause of the same length to allow the players to
Imitate the thrust as they enter, and then bring down the baton for the
next measure with the players. This procedure applies, of course, to sim-
ilar "free" entrances on any stroke.
In each case, the duration of the preparatory stroke should be the
same as if the conductor had given the whole stroke of which the entrance
is part. To put the matter into other words, he beats the entrance once;
he waits for the instrumentalists to play it; then both proceed to the next
measure together.
It is suggested here that theory of time-beating should rarely be pre-
sented to orchestra players. The beat should be so suggestive and seem
so logical and inevitable that they will rarely have questions. Instrumen-
talists are practical; they want to execute and follow and are usually
impatient of explanations. These should be needless except under unusual
circumstances. This generalization holds especially in the case of prep-

WITHIN STROKES 59
Ex. 5 9 . Mozart: M o g i c Flute Overture

Adagio (J - 60)
fi
Ji'' J T I ff
m
=J=

Ex. 6 0 . Mozart; M a g i c Flufe Overture

Allegro t J - 1 2 6 ) Adagio (J - 60)

/T

jfjji; •
I ^ AUegro ( J . 86)

arations. If the attack is not knife-edged, the fault will probably lie in
your own technique. Gast about and analyze it, and try to discover why
it has failed to achieve the results you are after.
T h e opening measures from Mozart's overture to The Magic Flute
(Ex. 59) and also measures 97-102 just before the Allegro (Ex. 60) often
cause concern. In Example 59, give the usual preparation for a down
beat; then give the strong down beat with a rebound to the center of
the pattern; hold the baton motionless for a bit to accentuate the ten-
sion; execute the second stroke to the left as though you were cutting
off; and underline the suggestion by a slight downward motion of the
left h a n d , immediately giving the third beat to the right for the quarter
rest. Now hold the baton motionless for as long as you wish to observe
the hold, which, from the conductor's point of view, comes between two
rests. Preclude a premature attack by holding up the open left palm in
a warning attitude. Since one rest follows another here, beat the first
rest immediately, or some one may be d r a w n into a p r e m a t u r e attack.
Now prepare for the sixteenth-note entrance by letting the baton
drop a n d rebound in exactly the length of time of the sixteenth note;

60 ATTACKS
observe a b r e a t h pause of the same length; a n d give t h e next d o w n stroke
with the players. T h e players should e n t e r directly after y o u r r e b o u n d ,
while you a r e observing the b r e a t h pause. D r o p t h e b a t e n as the play-
ers proceed to t h e second m e a s u r e . If y o u r p r e p a r a t o r y m o t i o n for the
sixteenth n o t e has b e e n e x e c u t e d w i t h conviction, t h e players will Im-
itate it, a n d you will all reach the next attack at the same time. R e p e a t
t h e p r o c e d u r a for t h e s e c o n d m e a s u r e . I n t h e t h i r d m e a s u r e , t h e first
violins play the thirty-second note triplet group, a n d they must be brought
in together. Again, d r o p y o u r b a t o n a n d m a k e it r e b o u n d in t h e same
length of time as their attack. D ü r i n g y o u r b r e a t h pause t h e violins will
enter, imitating y o u r p r e p a r a t o r y motion. You next give t h e d o w n beat
with the players for t h e Start of t h e f o u r t h measure, which is t a k e n four
to the bar.
A n excellent exercise m a y be m a d e b y c h a n g i n g t h e l e n g t h of the
sixteenth notes here a n d practicing t h e different p r e p a r a t o r y strokes m a d e
necessary b y e a c h c h a n g e . W r i t e o u t t h e e x c e r p t so t h a t t h e sixteenth
notes are successively eighths, thirty-seconds, a n d sixty-fourths; a n d m a k e
every effort to give your p r e p a r a t i o n s so t h a t each one translates its en-
trances accurately. Since this sort of a t t a c k depends as m u c h u p o n psy-
chological factors as u p o n t e c h n i c a l , t r y to h a v e a pianist follow you.
Better still, try to practice on a few players, including preferably at least
o n e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of e a c h section of t h e o r c h e s t r a . If necessary, rear-
range the chords so that they are complete. To inveigle players, alternate
as a player yourself a n d let the others take turns conducting the passage.
I n c l u d e in your rehearsal t h e adagio before the allegro (Ex. 60).
Give the first stroke in E x a m p l e 60 with a short, light beat to indi-
c a t e t h e q u a r t e r rest, a n d observe a b r e a t h pause. T h r u s t t h e second
stroke t o w a r d t h e left, as if you were t a p p i n g a n i m a g i n a r y object a t its
end. T h e next two strokes a r e orthodox. In the second bar, give the first
stroke d o w n w a r d , the second to the right top of the p a t t e r n . W a i t there
to indicate the hold. I n t h e t h i r d m e a s u r e , indicate the rest on the first
q u a r t e r with a light beat. T h e rest of t h e passage has precedents in the
previous measures of these two excerpts.

Ex. 6 1 . Beethoven; S y m p h o n y N o . 7

LI»-' Ob. ^

1 LoJ LM ^ ^ — f
dolce
O
HijjJli
"ti M J V . • J
4- "' ^
W I T H I N STROKES 61
 I n m e a s u r e s 2 9 8 - 3 0 0 of t h e first m o v e m e n t of B e e t h o v e n ' s Seventh
S y m p h o n y (Ex. 61), the e n t r a n c e s to t h e two successive holds offer an-
o t h e r e x a m p l e of places r e q u i r i n g n e a t attacks, which were f o u n d very
difRcult not only b y B e e t h o v e n himself b u t also b y m a n y a c o n d u c t o r
a f t e r h i m . P a r t of t h e difficulty arises f r o m t h e fact t h a t t h e sixteenth
notes just before t h e holds a r e in the wood winds a n d are piano.
At this stage, d o not t r o u b l e yourself a b o u t t h e t e c h n i q u e of holds.
Concentrate on their p r e p a r a t i o n . C o n d u c t t h e passage without the holds.
T w o to t h e b a r is t h e correct b e a t for t h e passage. Practica f u r t h e r by
transforming the sixteenth notes successively into eighths, thirty-seconds,
a n d sixty-fourths. R e t u r n to this exercise later on w h e n holds are being
considered, a n d practice it t h e n with your a d d e d technique.

DIRECTLY AFTER THE STROKE

Attacks Coming directly after t h e stroke has started a r e a m o n g the

most instructive a n d interesting in t h e whole domain of conducting tech-
n i q u e . T h e o p e n i n g motif of B e e t h o v e n ' s F i f t h S y m p h o n y (Ex. 62) is
p r o b a b l y the most f a m o u s e x a m p l e of this type of attack.
T h e beat here is one to the b a r (really, two bars taken as one). T h e
initial d o w n w a r d thrust of t h e b a t o n (on t h e rest), which i m m e d i a t e l y
r e b o u n d s to the top of the p a t t e r n r e a d y for the next measure, gives the
players the unit of m e a s u r e m e n t for each of the succeeding eighth notes.
T h e b a t o n observes a b r e a t h p a u s e while t h e players s o u n d t h e three
eighth notes. T h e r e u p o n , the b a t o n starts beating again, while the players
p r o c e e d to t h e second m e a s u r e . C o n t i n u e to d i s r e g a r d t h e holds a n d
practice this passage as if they were not there.
It was formerly the practice, a n d it is one seen even today, for a con-
ductor on occasion to beat o u t a few measures silently in order to insure
a clean attack on this passage. Such p r o c e d u r e a d m i t s lack of a d e q u a t e
b a t o n t e c h n i q u e a n d suggestive control of t h e players. A n orchestra of
t h e requisite S t a n d a r d to p l a y B e e t h o v e n ' s Fifth S y m p h o n y n e e d s no
such babying.
Another p r o c e d u r e sometimes e n c o u n t e r e d is t h a t a c o n d u c t o r holds

Ex. 6 2 . Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 5

AUegro con brio ( J ° 1 0 ^

stre». ff
m
eis.

62 ATTACKS
his hands aloft, beats a preparatory motion with his left h a n d alone, and
then brings both h a n d s down, thus giving two preparations, which are
unjustified. If the c o n d u c t o r gives t h e p r o p e r p r e p a r a t i o n on t h e first
eighth rest, with the necessary inner conviction, assurance, a n d author-
ity, the attack should be clean. But since some orchestras have been
wrongly t r a i n e d in this passage, t h e y m a y h a v e some t r o u b l e in " u n -
learning" it.
Of Examples 63 through 66, which are for the Student to muH over,
the one from R i c h a r d Strauss's Don Juan (Ex. 63) m a y be taken as rep-
räsentative. For this excerpt, thrust the baton u p w a r d a n d forward as a
preparation and as a means of shocking the players into attention, keep-
ing the baton near the center of the pattern. T i m e this forward-upward
stroke to m a k e it exactly the t e m p o at which you w a n t the players to
execute each of the following sixteenths. Observe a breath pause to allow
the players to give these sixteenths. T h e n b r i n g the b a t o n still higher
for the u p beat on the second half of the measure. Proceed with the play-
ers on the down beat, in orthodox fashion.

Ex. 6 3 . Strauss: Don Juan ( R e p r i n t e d with the permission of the Copyright o w n e r , C . F. Peters Corpora-
tion, N e w York.)

Allegro con brio ( J = 104)

f f

3 '
Slrgs. ^

^ f f i J
m •e

Ex. 6 4 . W a g n e r : Flying Dufchman Overture

flu Vivace
vivace (<J
>» •- 138)

J '

j
m
a m

j j j . r j j j l i ^ n

Ex. 6 5 . W e b e r : Ofaeron O v e r t u r e

Allegro con fuoco (J =152)

• W r r t r r

ff

DIRECTLY AFTER THE S T R O K E 63

Ex. 6 6 . Sibelius: S y m p h o n y N o . 5 (By permission of Wilhelm H a n s e n , C o p e n h a g e n , a n d G . Schirmer,
Inc., N e w York.)

A n d a n t e mosso ( J - 96)
VIn. Vla.pizz. I

Strgs. mp marcato

$
Ex. 6 7 . Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 9

Adagio molto = ^"50)

-r
' hlr - t : j
:
i)Bs»..

Slrgs.

INVOLVING RESTS
Attacks involving rests which t a k e u p a whole unit of b e a t i n g are
treacherous, unless one uses the rest itself as part of the attack. If a prep-
aration is given for the rest itself, there is always d a n g e r t h a t some un-
wary player will enter before he should, especially during orchestral
a c c o m p a n i m e n t to recitative a n d solo Instruments. To illustrate, at the
beginning of the slow m o v e m e n t of Beethoven's N i n t h S y m p h o n y (Ex.
67), which is beaten in four subdivided as eight, give the d o w n beat
as the p r e p a r a t o r y motion a n d bring in the second bassoon on the first
subdivision.
In the overture to W a g n e r ' s Rienzi, at the tenth measure before the
change of time-signature to alla breve, there is a d r u m roll (Ex. 68). This
measure brings in the bassoons, trombones, a n d t u b a on the second stroke
(four to the bar) after a quarter rest on the first beat. T h e safest procedure

Ex. 6 8 . W a g n e r : Rienzi Overture

Molto soslenulo maestoso ( J = I

64 AHACKS
here is to beat this measure by giving a strong beat with an equally long
r e b o u n d back to t h e t o p of t h e stroke, Holding the b a t o n ostentatiously
high in t h e air with t h e wrist p o i n t i n g u p w a r d , so t h a t t h e players can
See t h a t a down beat is next. T h e d r u m roll thus becomes a quasi hold.
W h e n you a r e r e a d y , give t h e d o w n b e a t (which occupies t h e rest) for
t h e bassoon, t r o m b o n e , a n d t u b a , as a p r e p a r a t i o n for their entrances
on the second beat. R e p e a t this procedure in the seventh measure before
the alla breve.
T h e wrong way to conduct this passage is to beat out the first meas-
u r e in E x a m p l e 68 a n d finish t h e f o u r t h stroke n e a r t h e b o t t o m of the
pattern. It is now necessary to b r i n g the b a t o n u p to give t h e next down
beat, a n d at this point some player m a y b r e a k t h r o u g h , interpreting the
u p beat as a p r e p a r a t i o n for a n attack. W e repeaf. bring the baton
immediately to t h e t o p of t h e p a t t e r n , w h e r e it is r e a d y to descend, with
t h e q u a r t e r rest serving as t h e p r e p a r a t i o n .

FOR DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS

A few words a b o u t practical a p p r o a c h e s in o b t a i n i n g clean attacks
f r o m different Instruments m a y a p p r o p r i a t e l y bring this p a r t of the dis-
cussion to a dose. W h e r e strings are concerned, obtaining a clean attack
is easiest of all, for their bows c a n usually c a t c h even t h e most erratic
thrust of the b a t o n a n d can m o v e j u s t a b o u t as fast as a n y b a t o n . W i t h
double reeds in general a n d with oboes in particular, however, the con-
ductor h a d better be more diplomatic. W i t h the French horn, above all,
he should be most u n d e r s t a n d i n g . If he has ever tried to play this noblest
of Instruments, he will not i n d i c a t e a r a p i d attack w i t h o u t some sort of
p r o p o r t i o n a t e b r e a t h pause. If he tries to, t h e result will p r o b a b l y be so
p e r t u r b i n g t h a t he will not r e p e a t such procedure. A few sessions in the
rehearsal room will also bear out the warnings of Berlioz a n d W e i n g a r t n e r
t h a t m a n y t r u m p e t , t r o m b o n e , t u b a , a n d t i m p a n i players have an aris-
tocratic t e n d e n c y t o w a r d late e n t r a n c e , especially in figures containing
reiterated notes.
A sensible m e t h o d is to p u t yourself m e n t a l l y in the place of the play-
ers, i n h a l i n g for t h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d e x h a l i n g for the attack. I n a little
time, you should begin to feel instinctively t h e differences in a t t a c k of
string, wood-wind, brass, a n d percussion Instruments. A d d to this list a
very i m p o r t a n t g r o u p : singers. To b r i n g in t h e several p a r t s of a wood-
w i n d choir with a k n i f e - e d g e d a t t a c k , or to b r i n g in a brass section as
one m a n on a pianissimo, legato, adagio e n t r a n c e are feats not quite so easy
as t h e y a p p e a r w h e n d o n e u n d e r e x p e r i e n c e d a n d m u s i c a l h a n d s . A
successful result is certainly d u e as m u c h to psychological as to technical
resources.

FOR DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS

REVIEW
As a review of the principles involving attacks a n d their p r e p a r a -
tions, practice E x a m p l e 69 in various tempos, with different time-
signatures and strokes to the bar, in legato a n d in staccato, a n d with different
instrumental combinations in mind.

JlJ J J ||i|J J J J II j ' J |J_J J J ||>J J IJ ^ ^

^ r JiJ J J li'lJ J J J l J U IJ J J Jlli'J J |J ^ ^

( J. < 104 - 1 0 8 )

J| J J J||J J | J ^

66 ATTACKS
 Chapter Eleven

COMBINATION PULSES

FIVE BEATS TO THE BAR WITH DIFFERENT

SPEEDS AND ACCENTS
The beating of measures c o n t a i n i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s of d u p l e a n d triple
r h y t h m s , s u c h as five a n d s e v e n b e a t s i n a m e a s u r e , is a f a i r l y r e c e n t
I n n o v a t i o n . F o r m e r l y , it w a s o f t e n t h e c u s t o m to b r e a k u p t h e s e pulses
into smaller units a n d to give t w o d o w n b e a t s a m e a s u r e . A n y difRculty
involved in m a s t e r i n g these p a t t e r n s is r a r e l y t e c h n i c a l , for t h e y a r e j u s t
as easy to b e a t as t h e m o r e u s u a l ones. S u c h difRculty is u s u a l l y d u e to
t h e fact t h a t , except for m e m b e r s of c e r t a i n Slavic a n d o t h e r races, most
p e o p l e d e n o t h a b i t u a l l y t h i n k in five a n d seven pulses. I t is said t h a t
people of n a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e m a n y w o r d s in their spoken l a n g u a g e with
such r h y t h m i c c o m b i n a t i o n s c a n p l a y these pulses easily a n d n a t u r a l l y .
If t h e Student m a k e s s u c h pulses p a r t of his o w n t h i n k i n g processes, h e
s h o u l d n o t h a v e t h e slightest difRculty in b e a t i n g t h e m correctly.
T h e r e was a time w h e n composers were s o m e w h a t diffident about
w r i t i n g five a n d seven to t h e b a r a n d e v a d e d t h e issue b y p u t t i n g d o w n
a l t e r n a t i n g two's a n d three's, f o u r ' s a n d t h r e e ' s , etc. ( N o t e t h e disguised
q u i n t u p l e p u l s e in Sibelius' Finlandia.) T o d a y , a c o m p o s e r w h o writes
t h e s e pulses m e a n s w h a t h e says: o n e s t r o n g a c c e n t to t h e b a r a n d one
s e c o n d a r y a c c e n t . T h e r e a r e still c o n d u c t o r s w h o c o n t i n u e to e v a d e t h e
issue by giving t w o d o w n beats. O f course, if players a r e told b e f o r e h a n d
w h a t is b e i n g d o n e , a l m o s t a n y t h i n g can b e d o n e , n o m a t t e r h o w illog-
ical a n d u n m u s i c a l it m a y be. E v e n w h e n p l a y e r s h a v e b e e n i n f o r m e d ,
h o w e v e r , s o m e o n e w h o is c o u n t i n g his rests d u r i n g a long w a i t m a y b r e a k
t h r o u g h sooner or l a t e r w i t h a w r o n g e n t r a n c e . S u c h illogical b e a t i n g ,
m o r e o v e r , distorts t h e c o m p o s e r ' s i n t e n t i o n s . T h e t e n d e n c y to consider
five b e a t s to t h e b a r as f o u r p l u s o n e or as six m i n u s o n e m u s t also b e
g u a r d e d against.

FIVE BEATS TO THE BAR 67

 Ex. 7 0 . Barber: Essay for Orchestro ( C o p y r i g h t , 1 9 4 1 , by G . Schirmer, Inc., used by permission of pub-
lisher.) S e e also: BoTeldieu, La Dame blanche Overture.

Sostenuto ( J = 84t)

Fig. 7 8

The two Chief considerations which determine the choice of patterns

for beating five and seven to the bar are, first, the tempo of the passage,
and second, the distribution of the main accents. For ordinary purposes,
the general run of such quintuple passages may be divided into three
speeds, slow, medium, and fast. The usual accents are either ONE, two,
THREE, four, five; or ONE, two, three, FOUR, five.
Let US first consider music slow enough to be taken in five separate
strokes. As in all our patterns, the first stroke is down and the last is up.
The secondary accent, almost invariably on the third or fourth beat, is
to the right. The weak beats are then fitted into these patterns. Thus,
when the rhythm has the strong accents on ONE and THREE, use Fig-
ure 78. (Practice on Example 70.) Here the rebound of the down beat
swerves to the right to introduce the second stroke, which goes to the left.
The fourth stroke naturally goes in the same direction. It is a good prin-
ciple to avoid giving more than one stroke upward whenever possible,
to permit an unencumbered preparation for the down stroke.
When the tempo is slightly more brisk and the second pulse is weak,
the second beat may be given downward with its own rebound which
swerves to the left. THREE and four go to the right as before, and five
goes up.
Ex. 7 1 . W a g n e r : Tristan and Isolde. See also: Debussy, Six epigraphes antiques, Port 2 (Ansermet
arrangement).

j ir-v f 1
( J . 1E6)

jff

mm
68 COMBINATION PULSES
 When the main accents are O N E , two, three, F O U R , five, use the
pattern shown in Figure 79 and practice on Example 71. Here, too, the
second and even the third beats may each be given with its own rebound.
One occasionally finds the main accents on O N E and T W O (Fig. 80,
Ex. 72), an arrangement which amounts in practice to one plus four; or
the main accents on O N E and F I V E (Fig. 81, Ex. 73), an arrangement
which amounts in practice to four plus one. Note in Figure 80 that the
second down beat on two is half-length, and in Figure 81 that the fifth
stroke (the second up stroke) is executed with the back of the hand point-
ing toward the top of the stroke, to differentiate it from the fourth (the first
up) stroke.
For very brisk five pulses (three plus two), where each pulse must
be articulated, use Figure 82 and practice on Example 74. When the
accents are brisk two plus three, give an up and down beat and then a
small triangle at the top of the stroke, all in wrist motions.

Ex. 7 2 . C o p l a n d : Appalachian Spring ( B y permission of the C o p y r i g h t o w n e r , B o o s e y & H a w k e s Inc.)

( J = 80)

Ww.
Brass-

Vcl. B.
Bsn.Tbn.

Fig. 8 1

Ex. 7 3 . Bloch: Amer/co ( U s e d b y s p e c i a l permission of C . C . B i r c h a r d & C o m p a n y , B o s t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . )

( J = 72)
Tpt.

I i J I r" J i ^
mp

Ex. 7 4 . R a v e l : Daphnis and Ch/oö, S u i t e 2 ( P e r m i s s i o n for reprint g r a n t e d b y D u r a n d et C i e , P a r i s , Copy-

right o w n e r s ; E l k a n - V o g e l C o . , Inc., o g e n t s for U . S . A . )

Fig. 8 2

FIVE BEATS TO THE BAR 69

Ex. 75. Rimsky-KorsokofF: Russion Eosfer Overture

Lentomistico

m
( J = 200 )

Ex. 76. Borber: Seconc/ Essay for Orchestra (Copyright, 1945, by G. Schirmer, Inc., used by permission of
publisher.)

Piu tranquillo ( J = 64)

m Ens.
" ' ^ f

Tpta. '
f

# P

Two interesting adaptations of five pulses to the bar in the music of

Rimsky-Korsakoff and Samuel Barber are shown in Examples 75 and 76.
Take two strokes down, then one stroke to the left, one right, and one up.
In Rimsky-Korsakoff's The Snow Maiden (see Example 77), there are
five main pulses, one on each half note with an extra quarter note added
to the second main pulse. Patterns in Figures 83 or 84 are suggested.
It has already been noted that time-signatures do not necessarily de-
termine the number of strokes to the bar. In Example 78, an excerpt in
11/4 from Stravinsky's Le Sucre du Printemps, we can simply give the first
beat down and the last up, with the other beats in the center of the pat-
tern after the initial rebound (see Figure 85). Note that in this case the
second stroke is to the right, to bring the hand to the proper place for
the final up beat on the eleventh pulse. This " n e u t r a l " pattern is very
useful in such places. Accents and stresses may be suggested by bringing
the baton and left hand forward when necessary.
In moderate and flowing tempos, five separate strokes for each meas-
ure would obviously clutter up the pattern; it is, therefore, wise to excise

Ex. 77. Rimsky-KorsakofF: Snow Maiden (By permission of W . Besse! & Cie, Paris.)

(J = SOO; |=t - ^ ^ L - i j U )

I -. »

70 C O M B I N A T I O N PULSES
Ex. 7 8 . S t r a v i n s k y : Le S a c r e du Prinfemps (By permission of fhe C o p y r i g h t o w n e r , B o o s e y & H a w k e s Inc.)

A A A /%

(9-7-S)
Slrgs. ff
(4-S-l)

Ex. 79. Tchaikovsky: Symphony N o . 6 Fig. 8 5

Allegro con grazia ( J = 168)

m
vci.r G J rp-'
r
m ip
the weaker beats when possible. In Example 79 the opportunity presents
itself to utilize the rebound as a stroke, the breath pause Coming on that
part of the bar which has the three-part pulse. Thus, in two plus three
beats to the bar, use Figure 86.
When the accents are three plus two, use a pattern in which the
breath pause comes on the second pulse. Here give the down beat on
one; then observe the breath pause; the rebound comes on three; take
the fourth stroke to the right, and the fifth stroke upward.
When quintuple pulses go fast enough for two to the bar, as in Ex-
amples 80 and 81, take two on the down stroke and three on the up
stroke, or vice versa, as the passage happens to require (Figs. 87 and 88).
On the stroke delineating three pulses, whether it is up or down, observe
a hovering breath pause for the middle pulse.
Where precise one to the bar is called for, as in Example 82, observe
the breath pause at the bottom of the stroke on the middle pulse (three).
Group two bars as one, mentally, counting ten pulses to each group when-
ever phrasing permits (Fig. 89).

Ex. 80. S t r a v i n s k y : Hisfoire du Soldat (By permission of J . & W . e h e s t e r , Ltd., L o n d o n a n d of G . Schirmer,

Inc., N e w Y o r k . )

Con dolcczza e debile ( J = 113 )

^ t Cornei & Pirfnas ^

Ji I J I r
l'P k 1»

Fig. 8 7

FIVE BEATS TO THE BAR 71

 Ex. 8 1 . C o p l a n d : Appalacbian S p r i n g ( B y permission of the Copyright o w n e r , B o o s e y & H o w k e s Inc.}

Pesante (J =

¥ i
f
f f * ^mm
Vcl. B. T I j
Bsn. - 1•
Ex. 8 2 . S t r a v i n s k y : Pefrouchfca ( B y p e r m i s s i o n of the C o p y r i g h t o w n e r , B o o s e y & H a w k e s Inc.) S e e also:
S t r a v i n s k y , Histoire du soldat (5/16).

Vivace ( J « 13Ä)
Tpts.

SEVEN BEATS TO THE BAR

Patterns for seven beats to the bar are also determined by speed of tem-
po and distribution of accents. For slow O N E , two, three, F O U R , five,
six, seven, use Figure 90. Berlioz, incidentally, originally wrote the move-
ment quoted in Example 83 as three plus four, only later as seven. For
the accents O N E , two, three, four, F I V E , six, seven, and for other com-
binations, the Student should evolve his own appropriate patterns.
The principle of using a new stroke for each strong accent may be
applied to the unusual cases where accents shift from measure to measure.
Excerpts from Stravinsky's "Firebird" Suite (Ex. 84) furnish illustrations
of such a case. The time-signature is 7 / 4 and grows naturally out of a
previous 3 / 2 (quasi 6/4). The accents are either three, two, two; or two,
two, three. A purist might conceivably insist that the phrasing demands
that two-bar groupings make the rhythm 14/4. This Interpretation is
left to those who want to beat it so. It is here suggested that each main

Ex. 8 3 . Berlioz: L'Enfance du Christ

AUegteMo (J . J52)
Via. Vcl.

Fig. 9 0

72 COMBINATJON PULSES
Ex. 84. Stravinsky: "Firebird" Suite (By permission of J. & W. Chester, Ltd., London and of G. Sctiirmer,
Inc., New York.)
Maestoso ( J = l(Ki-106)
r.O.

ffrt7 1. Jl 'S ' 1- - i ' J- "3—

iJ-^i i ^ H

pulse be beat in a different direction in the pattern, as shown in Figures

91 and 92.
This passage from the " F i r e b i r d " Suite should be memorized and
its beating patterns practiced until they become automatic. T h e follow-
ing skeletal scheme should help the Student. Each small " x " represents
a quarter note; each large " X " represents the repeated entrance of the
tuba and timpano.

Key
B X X X XX XX XX XX X X X
X X X XX XX XX XX x x x

X X X XX XX
Xxx XX XX
X x X XX XX XX XX x x x
XX XX x x x
X x x XX XX
Xxx XX XX XX XX x x x
X x x XX XX XX XX x x x
XX XX x x x
XX XX x x x

When the tempo becomes too fast for a separate stroke on each pulse,
elide the weak beats and give a stroke in a new direction for each group
of pulses (duple a n d triple), as was suggested for quintuple pulses. See
to it that the length and duration of the strokes accurately indicate the
musical text (Fig. 93, Ex. 85).
Seven pulses to the bar may be taken in three beats, two beats, or
even one beat to the bar when the tempo is rapid enough. T h e Student
should now be able to evolve his own patterns, similar to those suggested
for five beats to the bar.

SEVEN BEATS TO THE BAR 73

 Subdivisions in septuple pulses, obviously rare, nevertheless serve as
excellent practice material. The Student should evolve patterns for some
of these himself.
Now review once more all the patterns studied thus far, practicing
them with either hand alone; with both hands together; in various tem-
pos, styles, and degrees of volume; and with various stresses.

Ex. 8 5 . F a l l a : El Amor Brujo ( B y p e r m i s s i o n o f J. & W . e h e s t e r , Ltd., L o n d o n o n d o f G . S c h i r m e r , Inc.,

N e w Y o r k . ) S e e a l s o ; C o p l a n d , Appalachian Spring ( 7 / 8 ) ; B o r b e t , SeconcJ Essay for Orchestra
( 7 / 4 ) ; S t r o v i n s k y , Hisloire du soldol ( 7 / 1 6).

Andantino tranquillo (i' = 138)

P P Piano Vcl. B.

1"' P J i
m% •IP 1.1J

r*^—
-tr
ip j

74 C O M B I N A T I O N PULSES
 Chapter Twelve

THE LEFT HAND

USES AND EXERCISES

The Student will have h a d considerable practice by this time in the skills
a conductor must acquire for proper use of his right h a n d , whose main
task is to indicate r h y t h m i c pulses a n d tempos. W e c o m e , n o w , to the
use of the left h a n d , whose m a i n tasks are to indicate contrast, shading,
nuance, emphasis, and volume; to cue in; and, most homely and neces-
sary task of all, to turn pages if a score is used.
W h e n w e speak of right h a n d and left h a n d , we m e a n literally right
h a n d a n d left h a n d , since p r a c t i c a l l y all conductors conduct "right-
h a n d e d " whether or not they are so in other activities. History records
that an occasional conductor (Siegfried W a g n e r , for example) has con-
ducted "left-handed"; but the chances for confusion, should a conductor
place his b a t o n in his left h a n d , are a p p a r e n t l y greater t h a n m o d e r n
conductors have cared to face. For the record, t h o u g h , let us mention
the fact that a well-known string quartet recently included a left-handed
first Violinist, w h o rearranged his strings a n d gave excellent interpreta-
tions of Chamber music; and it is quite possible that a left-handed con-
ductor m a y some day follow suit and rearrange the seating of the
orchestra.
It has been said, and with no little truth, that the conductor's right
h a n d is the artisan, his left h a n d the artist. W h i l e the aphorism is not
to be taken too literally, it does tend to point out the m a i n distinction
b e t w e e n the two hands. T h e left h a n d , in p e r f o r m i n g its m a n y tasks,
should be m a n i p u l a t e d in a n a t u r a l a n d artistic w a y , but the w a y will
Vary from one individual to another, for it is an intensely personal matter.
T h e art of the left h a n d is v e r y difficult to write about. O b v i o u s l y it is
easier to train the artisan hand than the artist, and the apprentice con-

USES A N D EXERCISES 75
d u c t o r is almost always r e c o g n i z a b l e b y his w o o d e n left h a n d . T h i s a w k -
w a r d n e s s m a y s t e m f r o m n a t u r a l i n e p t i t u d e , b u t it o f t e n r e s u l t s f r o m
l a c k of p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e f u n c t i o n s of t h e left h a n d , c o u p l e d
w i t h lack of p r o p e r p r e p a r a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g .
T h e a m o u n t of a c o n d u c t o r ' s e x p e r i e n c e c a n u s u a l l y b e g a g e d by
w a t c h i n g his left h a n d in a c t i o n . I n n o o t h e r p a r t of his t e c h n i q u e is
g a u c h e r i e m o r e q u i c k l y a p p a r e n t . T h i s f a c t leads o n e to suspect t h a t at
least some of t h e c o n d u c t o r s w h o affect t h e o n e - h a n d t e c h n i q u e d o so to
h i d e i n n a t e stiffness a n d a w k w a r d n e s s in their left h a n d s . A few decades
ago, W a g n e r i a n c o n d u c t o r s f r e q u e n t l y c o n d u c t e d a n entire e v e n i n g with
t h e i r left h a n d s in t h e i r t r o u s e r p o c k e t s , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e i r a u t h o r i t y
a n d c o n t r o l w e r e so c o m p l e t e t h a t t h e y n e e d e d b u t o n e h a n d for t h e task.
I t it t r u e t h a t t h e r i g h t h a n d a l o n e c a n d o v e r y m u c h ; b u t it c a n n o t d o
e v e r y t h i n g , a n d in c o n d u c t i n g it w a s n e v e r m e a n t to. T h e i n e v i t a b l e
r e s u l t of o n e - h a n d c o n d u c t i n g is p a r t i a l a n k y l o s i s a n d a t r o p h y of t h e
left h a n d .
T h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , i n w h i c h a c o n d u c t o r t h r e s h e s a b o u t using
b o t h a r m s like flails, is e q u a l l y o b j e c t i o n a b l e a n d reveals a l a c k of sen-
sitivity to t h e n e e d for c o n t r a s t . T h e t w o h a n d s h a v e s e p a r a t e f u n c t i o n s
a n d should b e used i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h i s f a c t does n o t p r e v e n t t h e h a n d s
f r o m i n t e r c h a n g i n g f u n c t i o n s . O n m a n y o c c a s i o n s s u c h i n t e r c h a n g e is
t h e best w a y to I n t e r p r e t music. S i m u l t a n e o u s use of b o t h h a n d s m a k i n g
t h e s a m e gestures s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e reserved for c l i m a x a n d c o n t r a s t ;
overusc of this device lessens its effect a n d m a k e s for a n t i c l i m a x .
M i s h a p s in t u r n i n g p a g e s d u r i n g a P e r f o r m a n c e a r e likely to b e ir-
r i t a t i n g . A little p r a c t i c e i n this h o m e l y c h o r e will r e p a y t h e f e w m o -
m e n t s c o n s u m e d . F i n d o u t w h e t h e r t u r n i n g t h e t o p or t h e b o t t o m of t h e
p a g e s comes m o r e n a t u r a l l y to y o u r h a n d . L e a r n to s e p a r a t e p a g e s be-
t w e e n t h e t h u m b a n d t h e first t w o fingers of y o u r left h a n d , so t h a t y o u
b e c o m e skilled in t u r n i n g o n l y o n e p a g e at a t i m e . L e a r n to t u r n back-
w a r d q u i c k l y for r e p e a t s . P r a c t i c e t h e s e tricks w h i l e b e a t i n g t i m e . Be
s u r e t h a t y o u h a v e a d e t a i l e d m e n t a l p i c t u r e of t h e score b o t h a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g s a n d e n d i n g s of pages, a n d a t places w h e r e t h e r e a r e s u d d e n
c h a n g e s a n d i m p o r t a n t cues.
I n o v e r c o m i n g a w k w a r d n e s s in t h e left h a n d , t h e Student m u s t c a r r y
t h r o u g h his first t a s k c a r e f u l l y , m e t h o d i c a l l y , a n d conscientiously. It is
to p r a c t i c e slowly a n d r e p e a t e d l y , first w i t h his left h a n d a l o n e a n d t h e n
w i t h b o t h h a n d s t o g e t h e r , every p a t t e r n p r e s e n t e d t h u s f a r in this book.
I n d o i n g so, h e will n o t e t h a t t h e left h a n d b e a t s to t h e r i g h t a t places
w h e r e t h e r i g h t h a n d b e a t s to t h e left, a n d vice versa. I n o t h e r words,
w h e n t h e h a n d s b e a t t o g e t h e r , t h e y a r e a l w a y s a p p r o a c h i n g or l e a v i n g

76 THE LEFT HAND

 Fig. 94

each o t h e r except on d o w n a n d u p beats. Figures 94 a n d 95, p a t t e r n s for

b e a t i n g six to t h e b a r , r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o c e d u r e to b e f o l l o w e d for every
p a t t e r n w h i c h p r e c e d e s t h e m t h u s far.
W h e n o n e begins to use this exercise, a n d for s o m e t i m e a f t e r w a r d s ,
for t h a t m a t t e r ( u n t i l t h e left b a n d is t h o r o u g h l y w o r k e d in), p r a c t i c e
c a n n o t b e t o o slow. A t first t h e left h a n d will seem a w k w a r d , n o t only
b e c a u s e it r e a l l y is so w i t h m o s t p e o p l e , b u t also b e c a u s e it will s e e m
even m o r e so in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e relatively a d e p t a n d p r a c t i c e d right
h a n d . O n e should strive for g r a c e , c o u p l e d w i t h firmness a n d b o d y .
W h e n y o u feel t h a t y o u c a n b e a t all t h e p a t t e r n s c o n s i d e r e d t h u s far
with almost e q u a l facility in e i t h e r h a n d , p r a c t i c e b e a t i n g p a r t of a meas-
u r e w i t h o n e h a n d a n d c o m p l e t i n g it w i t h t h e o t h e r . T h i s exercise c a n b e
v a r i e d in m a n y ways, a n d it is a m o s t h e l p f u l aid in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e h a n d s .
A n o c c a s i o n a l e x c e p t i o n to t h e u s u a l p a t t e r n of c o n t r a r y m o t i o n in
t h e h a n d s m a y o c c u r w h e n t h e c o n d u c t o r wishes to o b t a i n a t r e m e n d o u s
c l i m a x , or a s w i n g i n g accelerando a g a i n s t t h e t e n d e n c y of his p e r f o r m e r s
to d r a g , o r a ritardando w h e n t h e y t e n d to h u r r y . U n d e r these c i r c u m -
stances, h e m a y swing b o t h h a n d s in t h e s a m e direction, t h u s compelling
his u n r e s p o n s i v e p i a y e r s to follow, t h r o u g h sheer force. T h i s p r o c e d u r e
c a n easily b e o v e r d o n e a n d s h o u l d b e r e s o r t e d to very sparingly.
A f t e r y o u h a v e p r a c t i c e d all t h e exercises w i t h e a c h h a n d alone, with
b o t h h a n d s t o g e t h e r , a n d w i t h e a c h h a n d s h a r i n g p a r t s of m e a s u r e s ; go
Over t h e exercises a g a i n a n d c h e c k to m a k e sure t h a t t h e p a t t e r n s of y o u r
t w o h a n d s d o n o t o v e r l a p w h e n t h e h a n d s a p p r o a c h e a c h o t h e r . If they
do, t h e clarity of t h e o u t l i n e will b e b l u r r e d to t h e w a t c h e r s . It is a good
p l a n to divide w i t h a vertical line t h e m i r r o r b e f o r e w h i c h y o u practice,
so t h a t y o u c a n easily see w h e n e i t h e r h a n d goes o u t of b o u n d s . N e x t ,
p r a c t i c e w i t h e a c h h a n d a l o n e h o l d i n g a b a t o n ; a n d finally, p r a c t i c e

USES A N D EXERCISES 77
with both hands together, one empty and one holding a baton. T h e empty
hand will develop smoothness and fluidity, and the hand with the baton
will develop firmness and precision.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f the left h a n d should b e c h e c k e d , to avoid any
suggestion o f strain and artificiality. A natural m a n n e r of holding it is
m u c h like our old printer's i n d e x sign. T h e forefinger points more or
less prominently forward like a small baton and serves to fix the watch-
er's attention. This position is c o m m o n in action, and it should, of course,
be a d a p t e d to variations in style, t e m p o , volume, a n d so on. O p e n i n g
or closing the fingers o f the left h a n d , with Variation in muscular ten-
sion, suggests a c h a n g e in volume. T h r u s t i n g the open p a l m suddenly
outward serves with m a n y conductors to suggest pianissimo. T h e infinite
positions which m a y be assumed by the left h a n d to indicate nuance,
shading, and mood hardly admit of description and cataloguing. W h e n
it is not in a c t i o n , as it should be most of the time, do not allow it to
hang limply at your side with no suggestion of vitality. But do not pose
it ostentatiously on your hip, with pseudo-nonchalance. I f you must Im-
itate a certain great Italian conductor, begin with his lofty and uncom-
promising artistic integrity, not his idiosyncrasies.

CUING IN
One of the most important functions of the left hand is to cue in, i.e.,
to indicate entrances, and by extension, to indicate changes in volume,
style, mood, and tempo during the actual progress of the music. In other
words, an impending entrance or change must be indicated to the player
or section affected, while the other players continue with their parts. It
is very difficult for a solo voice, Instrument, or section to come in at
e x a c t l y the right place a n d in t h e right mood without disturbing the
e n s e m b l e , especially in operatic music. Very often, for e x a m p l e , brass
a n d percussion players have long waits during which the t e m p o and
rhythm of the music vary. T h e y have a fair right to receive an assisting
Signal from the conductor, and it should be given them. But there is an
even more important reason why entrances should be indicated by the
conductor instead of being left to the mood of the players. T h e mathe-
matics o f the players m a y be right, but one directing will must unify both
the e n t r a n c e and the Interpretation. E v e n when imitative or antiphonal
passages call for differences a m o n g players in style a n d Interpretation,
coördination of such passages is a task for the conductor, not for the in-
dividual instrumentalists.
It is quite possible for an experienced conductor, with routined play-
ers who are familiar with each other and their music, to cue in one section

78 THE LEFT HAND

of the orchestra with merely a nod or a slight forward-beckoning motion
of t h e right h a n d alone. T h i s sort of cue should be given as if the ensuing
e n t r a n c e were s t a r t i n g t h e c o m p o s i t i o n ; t h e h e a d rises for p r e p a r a t i o n
a n d descends on t h e a c t u a l e n t r a n c e ; or t h e right h a n d , while beating,
gives t h e p r e p a r a t i o n for the e n s u i n g e n t r a n c e , a c c o r d i n g to principles
suggested in the c h a p t e r on attacks. Both h e a d a n d right h a n d m a y werk
together. Such a preparation should be given just before the attack. Since
t h e music is going on a n d t h e passage w h i c h is a b o u t to e n d has been
established in mood a n d t e m p o , the m e n who a r e already playing can-
not possibly c h a n g e w h e n t h e c o n d u c t o r cues in t h e n e w section; they
will c o n t i n u e in t h e i r o w n p a r t s a n d i g n o r e d i r e c t i o n s n o t m e a n t for
t h e m . R e m e m b e r t h a t players a r e always literally foUowing a conductor.
By t h e t i m e t h e n e w signal h a s b e e n given, it is too late for t h e f u n c -
tioning players to c h a n g e t h e music they h a v e just been playing. More-
over, f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r ' s a t t e n t i o n to a special section, it s h o u l d be
obvious to t h e m t h a t t h e y a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d with this c h a n g e . Except
u n d e r t h e ideal c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d h e r e , h o w e v e r , it is far b e t t e r to
use t h e left h a n d to cue in, i.e., first to w a r n , a n d t h e n to signal t h e point
of e n t r a n c e for t h e i m p o r t a n t instrumental or vocal solo or section which
the c o n d u c t o r wishes to b r i n g out in t h e musical texture.
Giving a l e f t - h a n d cue presupposes t h e ability to p e r f o r m two com-
pletely separate actions at the same time, one with each h a n d . For while
t h e right h a n d continues to beat time, t h e left h a n d must a l t e r n a t e be-
tween r e m a i n i n g motionless a n d signifying preparations, beginning a n d
stopping at any point desired, all the while entirely independent of what
the right h a n d is doing.
Let US assume t h a t the orchestra is p l a y i n g a n d t h a t a single Instru-
m e n t is a b o u t to be b r o u g h t in. T h e r i g h t h a n d is b e a t i n g time. T h e
incoming Instrument must now be t r e a t e d by t h e left h a n d as if it were
going to play for t h e first t i m e , w h i c h , f r o m its o w n p r a c t i c a l p o i n t of
view, it really is doing. T h e left h a n d , therefore, gives it a p r e p a r a t i o n
a n d a cue j u s t as if t h e o t h e r I n s t r u m e n t s w e r e n o t a n d h a d n o t been
playing.
As a n initial exercise in c u i n g in, review a t t a c k s on beats, o n split
beats, a n d within beats, in every p a t t e r n t h u s far, for t h e left h a n d alone.
N o w practice in t h e following m a n n e r . H o l d t h e left h a n d motionless
slightly a b o v e t h e right, w i t h t h e i n d e x finger e x t e n d e d a n d p o i n t i n g
first in one direction of the orchestra pit a n d stage a n d t h e n in another.
Beat o u t t h e v a r i o u s p a t t e r n s w i t h t h e r i g h t h a n d a n d signal a t t a c k s
with t h e left h a n d , on a n d within various strokes. T h e left h a n d should
remain motionless until it is ready to give t h e preparation; then it invites

C U I N G IN 79
the soloist or section to enter. The head may also beckon. The tension
and Position of the left hand should show the volume and mood desired
in the newcomer's execution. Once the new part has been established,
the left hand may become motionless again or concern itself with other
tasks.
Excellent exercises for developing ease in cuing in may be found in
the open score edition of Bach's Inventions and Fugues (London, Charles
Vincent); The Forty-Eight Fugues in Color (ed. by Boeckelmann, Breitkopf
and Härtel); The Art of Fugue (ed. by Graeser, Breitkopf and Härtel),
and in J a m e s Higgs's Fugue (London, Novello), which reprints five fugues
by Bach and one by Kirnberger in open score. If difficulty is experienced
in obtaining these scores, the Student might copy a few fugues from the
piano edition into open score. Practice in cuing in on these works should
prove of special value in developing polyphonic thinking. Try to have
a pianist play the fugues. Whether he uses piano or open score is of no
moment; but the conductor should use open score only, or much of the
value of this training will be lost. Now memorize and practice cuing in
the entrances in measures 514-535 of Beethoven's Leonora Overture No. 3.
In this music, avoid at all costs phrasing according to the bar lines. Make
your right-hand patterns translate the composer's phrasing. Next, browse
through all your scores and practice cuing in on various beats and parts
of beats, e.g., the opening measures of Beethoven's First Symphony and
the entrances therein of the first violin, the v i o l a a n d Violoncello, the
bassoon and contrabass, and the flute, oboe and first violin; also the
opening measures of the andante in Mozart's G Minor Symphony (K. 550).
Discussion of other functions of the left hand must be left for later
consideration. The student's task at this time is to accustom the left hand
to act gracefully and independently. Unfortunately, apprentice conduc-
tors are often recognizable not only because their left hands are so difficult
to control, but also because their conducting suggests that they have two
left hands.

80 THE lEFT H A N D
 Chapter Thirleen

THE HOLD

The beating of holds, technically termed fermatas or Coronas, often puzzles

students out of all proportion to the difficulties involved, since each type
of hold yields to analysis a n d logical practice. It is helpful, w h e n con-
fronted by a passage with holds which seems troublesome, to beat through
the text without the holds to get the m a i n line of the musical thought,
a n d then to a d d the holds. This simple a p p r o a c h will suggest solutions
for m a n y problems.
A hold is merely a cessation in the flow of the music, the length of
which depends upon the surrounding context. T h e poignant hold in the
third movement of Brahms's Second Symphony (on the bar line between
measures 22 a n d 23) is at least as long as one long beat. T h e length of
the sublime hold on the word " G o d " in Beethoven's N i n t h S y m p h o n y
is limited only by the breath of the singers.
O n e should not assume that the only holds to be observed are those
clearly indicated. For a n example of implied holds, consider the opening
Statement of the passacaglia t h e m e in the last m o v e m e n t of Brahms's
F o u r t h Symphony, where a succession of quasi holds is certainly implied.
Often, w h e n notes or chords are stressed a n d b r o a d e n e d , they become
Virtual holds a n d heighten the effect of the musical declamation.
In its simplest form, the hold indicates a cessation in the flow of the
music, a stopping place, after which the music proceeds without a break.
A hold is shown by t h e cessation of motion in the b a t e n . It is a good
general principle never to move the baton on a hold.
After the b a t o n has stopped on the hold, matters are left as if the
music h a d never begun; consequently some sort of preparation must be
given the watchers in order to have t h e m enter cleanly on the next at-
tack. W h a t the b a t o n then does is to cue in, according to principles

THE HOLD 81
 already detailed. T h e difference at this point from an ordinary cue is
that the movement of the baton indicating re-entrance must be joined
logically to its last movement preceding the hold, in such m a n n e r that
the main outline of the pattern remains clear and unchanged.
In holds, the performer must be shown two things: when the hold is
to end, and when the music is to re-enter. When there is no break be-
tween the hold and the ensuing music, the signal to end the hold and
the preparation for the next entrance are combined into a single motion.
This combined cessation-preparatory motion is differentiated from the
usual single-purpose preparation by its slightly more premeditated char-
acter. It should be given toward the point of entrance of the next attack.
To summarize the foregoing Instructions; the baton is moving with
the music; it stops on the hold; it continues on its way to the next stroke
as part of the usual pattern, this motion serving also as preparation for
the next entrance. In curtest terms, a stroke is interrupted by a hold;
it stops; it continues on its way toward the next stroke. T h e theory is
simple enough; the practice presents enough Variation to justify detailed
analysis of representative categories.

ON ENTIRE MEASURES
A hold occupying an entire measure is the prototype of all holds.
Figures 96 through 98 present various patterns for beating it. Dotted
lines signify preparations for attacks or combined cessation-preparatory
motions. Practice on Examples 86 and 87.

Ex. 86. Mendelssohn: Midnjmmer N/ghf-'s Dream Overture

Allegro rivace

Fig. 9 6
i -tv-

p p Ena.

m
Ex. 87. Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheberezade (Copyright by M. P. Belaieff Editions. Used by permisslon of sole
ogents, Boosey & Howkes.}

Largo maestoso (J = 49)

Fig. 97
$ Ww.ÜP

Fig. 98
4
82 THE H O L D
Ex. 88
( J = 84-88)

i
O O
J J IJ J J ir J J J J IJ J J J I J ^ ^

Ex. 89
I 1'- 84-89)

.. J, j . j ^ j . J,

Technically translated, such a series of holds is a succession of down

beats going into down beats. The baton stops at the bottom of the stroke, V 6
'S
then uses the rebound as the cessation-preparatory motion; or the baton
takes its rebound to the center of the pattern, and then proceeds toward
the next stroke.
A <
ZZ-^
ON DIFFERENT STROKES
There are, as has already been observed, only four general directions
for the baton to move in: down, up, left, and right. Since holds may come
at any point of any stroke going in any of these directions, there are the- Fig. 100

oretically sixteen basic combinations. In practice, however, it is simply

a matter of adjusting the length and direction of the combination cessa-
tion-preparatory stroke so that the baton can reach the entrance point
of the next attack without changing the main lines of the basic pattern.
Figure 99 illustrates motions for a hold on each stroke of four to the bar.
Apply the principles here to Example 88.

IN THE SAME DIRECTION

The cessation-preparatory motion undergoes a slight modification
when the hold occurs in a pattern which has two strokes going success-
ively in the same direction, e.g., the second and fourth strokes of slow
six to the bar. In such cases, the cessation-preparatory motion should
be taken slightly up and away from the main beats in order to allow
the main pattern to stand out in bold relief Otherwise, the succession
of beats in the same direction will confuse the watchers. This procedure
is suggested also for holds on subdivisions (Fig. 100, Ex. 89).

IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS
Typical instances of holds taking up more than one pulse and stroke
in different directions are illustrated in Example 90. To avoid any pos-
sible ambiguity in the minds of the watchers, observe the principle of

IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS 83
Ex. 9 0

( J - 80)

$
holding on the first b e a t i n g unit a n d using the next stroke as the cessa-
tion-preparatory motion.
In b a r one, give the d o w n b e a t with a r e b o u n d to the center of the
model a n d hold. T h e n give the s e c o n d stroke to signify s i m u h a n e o u s l y
the e n d of the hold a n d the p r e p a r a t i o n for the third stroke. G i v e the
third stroke a n d hold. T h e fourth stroke shows that the hold is over a n d
that you are p r e p a r i n g for the down beat.
In b a r two, give the first a n d s e c o n d strokes a n d hold. U s e the third
stroke as a c e s s a t i o n - p r e p a r a t o r y m o t i o n for the next u p beat.
I n b a r three, give the d o w n b e a t with its r e b o u n d a n d then hold.
W h e n you are ready, give the cessation-preparatory stroke lightly to the
right; then bring in the last stroke.
In b a r four, give the down beat for the first quarter note, the second
stroke to the right, a n d hold. U s e the left h a n d if you wish to show the
passing pulses. W h e n you are ready, give the cessation-preparatory stroke
u p to the top of the p a t t e r n , w h e r e the b a t o n is p r e p a r e d for the next
down beat.
B a c h c h o r a l e s , e.g., " W i e s c h ö n l e u c h t e t der M o r g e n s t e r n , " offer
good praetice for similar holds.
To repeat a w a r n i n g ; do not m o v e the b a t o n on a hold, or s o m e un-
wary player m a y b r e a k through. S o m e conductors hold the b a t o n aloft
motionless, while showing the p a s s i n g pulses with u n o b t r u s i v e b e a t s in
the left h a n d .
T h e Student should n o w work out models for b e a t i n g E x a m p l e s 91
a n d 92, a n d he should also devise other e x a m p l e s of holds involving rests,

Ex. 91

Ex. 9 2

( J^ = 92)
- f.« Ä r.i r.i

^ ^ J V v M . J i J ' J IJ JMiiiJ'

84 THE HOLD
Ex. 9 3 Ex. 9 4

(J =

solving the time-beating problems in ways suggested by examples already

cited. He should use examples in various tempos.

FOLLOWED BY THE SAME NOTE AND BY DIFFERENT NOTES

Our next problem concerns holds followed by the same note repeated,
in contrast to holds followed by different notes. Note the procedure out-
lined in Figure 101 for Example 93, where the hold is succeeded by a
note of different pitch. In this case the hold must be broken by a stroke
away from the next main beat. But in Example 94 (Fig. 102), the hold
is tied to a note of the same pitch, a n d must be broken by using the
stroke for the tied note as a cessation-preparatory stroke. To give a special
cessation-preparatory stroke might invite a p r e m a t u r e entrance, for it
would suggest change, and here the pitch does not change.
T h e principle may be put into other words. Holds written on a note
whose duration is longer than one unit of beating to the bar should be Fig. 102
thought of as ending on a füll stroke. T h u s , there is a dotted quarter
note at the beginning of Beethoven's Symphony No. 2 (Ex. 95), and it
should be beaten according to Figure 103. If this passage were conduct-
ed according to Figure 104, some players might be trapped into playing
the F Sharp when they should be finishing the third eighth, which is
still part of the hold. T h i n k of this passage as written in Example 96.

Ex. 9 5 . Beethoven: Symphony No. 2

Adagio molto i J * - 94)

ff

m Fig. 103

Ex. 9 6 . Beethoven: Symphony No. 2 (adopted)

m
l'i J[SI
Fig. 1 0 4

FOLLOWED BY SAME A N D DIFFERENT NOTES 85

Ex. 97. Brahms: Symphony N o . 2

AUegfetto ( j =J00)

Ww. i • iJ J 'I
pf r p pr f p
i
F

In beating Example 95, one makes the baton rebound after the down
stroke and observe the hold. T h e second stroke proceeds in the regulär
pattern because there is no change in pitch; it is slightly split and given
the suggestion of a breath pause, in order to show the players (oboes
and bassoons) where the third eighth enters. If this third eighth differed
in pitch from the previous eighths within the hold, it would be necessary
to beat the passage as in Figure 104. But to give that extra motion
of Figure 104 in this case would almost certainly draw in a premature
attack.

ON BAR LINES AND RESTS

Holds Over a bar line sometimes tempt a conductor to indicate the
Start of the new measure, a practice which may bring in incautious players
(see Example 97). Beat up to the hold, ending the stroke preceding it
with a downward flick of the baton to suggest cessation and with the left
palm held open and high as an added warning. After the hold, bring in
the next attack with an u p w a r d flick of the baton. Some conductors
Vary the practice by giving this preparatory flick with the left h a n d only,
and the down stroke with both hands. Such precaution is perhaps lean-
ing Over backwards to be safe.
W h e n a rast is to be held, stop before the rest and hold the baton
motionless. Use the beat on the rest as a preparation for the next attack
(Exs. 98 and 99).

Ex. 9 8 . Kodaly: " H a r y J a n o s " Suite, Intermezzo

A n d a n t e maestoso m a con fuoco ( J = 120)

86 THE HOLD
Ex. 9 9 . K o d a l y : " H a r y J a n o s " Suite, Intermezzo

Andante maestoso m a con fuoco ( J = 120)

mm
Obs. , Hn.

p r f rrf A
iff

4
o '

IMPLIED HOLDS
Climactic ends of compositions often contain instances of implied
holds. Sometimes in other cases the music presents measures of unchang-
ing chords which virtually form a long hold. T h e first measure may then
be given as usual, and the other measures in the group indicated with
small wrist motions with the left hand, to show the passage of time and
to keep the music going (Ex. 100).

THE CUT-OFF AND END BEATS

When a hold is followed by a break, a new motion is needed to in-
sure a clean finish, in the same m a n n e r t h a t a preparatory motion is
needed to insure a clean attack. W h a t we want to know about a hold
followed by a break is, first, in what direction is the baton going when
indicating the holds; and second, where does the next entrance begin,
i.e., in what direction must the baton move while indicating the break
in Order to come out at the right place to give the next attack? T h e prin-
ciple is that the baton gives the cut-off (release) in the general direction
of the next entrance. We have, then, the following succession of motions:
the hold, the cut-off to show the break, the preparation for the succeed-
ing attack, and the new entrance.
In its simplest form, a hold on a down beat is followed by a break
and is succeeded by another down beat. Examples 86 and 87 may now

Ex. 100. Delius: O n Hearing fhe First Cucfeoo in Spring (By permission of O x f o r d University Press. W o r l d
Copyright fransferred to O x f o r d University Press, 1 9 3 0 . )

Very slowly { J = 62-66)

THE CUT-OFF A N D E N D B E A T S 87
 be profitably practiced with breaks between each hold. T h e sequence
of motions consists of the preparation for the down beat (not forgetting
the breath p a u s e at the top to insure a clean entrance), the cessation
in m o v e m e n t to signify the hold, the p r e p a r a t i o n for the cut-off, and
finally, the cut-off proper. In this case the cut-off goes a bit to the right
so that the h a n d will be ready for another preparation to a down beat.
Failure to get the baton to the right place at the right time, ready
to give the proper preparation for the next attack, is one of the most em-
barrassing contretemps an inexperienced conductor meets. What hap-
pens in m a n y instances is that the unwary conductor makes the cut-off,
only to find immediately that his hand is in the wrong place. He there-
upon makes a slight motion, with the idea that he will then be in position
to give the real preparation. H e has, in effect, prepared the preparation,
a n d he usually drags in some players too early, in the process. O n e such
m i s h a p usually suffices to convince the conductor that he should never
make more than one preparation for an attack. H e learns to decide before
the cut-off where his baton must be in order to give correctly the prepara-
tory motion for the next beat, a n d he sees to it that the cut-off motion
Fig. 1 0 5 gets his hand a n d baton to the right place. Figure 105 shows a hold on

Ex. 1 O l . Haydn: S y m p h o n y N o . 5, " L o n d o n N o . 2 "

Adagio ( J ' 84)

Ex. 102. Bach: C h n V u s , der ist mein Leben

r
ii j i j f ^ J u i
r icjliri; r 'r r ^ ^

J. J J J J j I j j I I
r r r ^ ^ g f ^
i i—
4
THE H O I D
the down beat followed by a cut-off to the right, and then a preparation
for an ensuing up beat.
T h e Student should at this point, for an exercise, determine ways to
beat Examples 101 through 107.

Ex. 103. Liszt:Hamlef

Molto lento e lugubre (J = 54)

i
H«. ^

mi m
^ Cl. Bsn.

Timp.

Ex. 104. Bloch: A m e n c a ( U s e d by special permission of C. C . Birchard & C o m p a n y , Boston, Massachu-

setts.)

Misterioso ( J = 66)
Eng. Hn.

pp —

Ex. 105. M ö h l e r : S y m p h o n y N o . 2 (Used by permission of Universal Edition [London] Limited a n d Univer-

sal Edition A . G . , V i e n n a . )

Adagio sostenulo (J = 7G-80)

figainfulLforce

Ex. 106. Borodin: S y m p h o n y N o . 2

AUegro ( J = 9S)

h
4 -CT TT

1
^ l. I I ^

" o i ^ ^ y j p ^ 1

o o
I I J J j j l j

THE C U T - O F F A N D E N D B E A T S 89
Ex. 107. Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade (Copyright by M. P. Beloieff Editions. Used by permission of
sole agents, Boosey & Howkes.)

Conmoto (^>144)

SIMULTANEOUS HOLDS
When one part of the ensemble holds a note while other parts pro-
ceed, indicate the hold with one hand held aloft motionless, and keep
the moving parts going with the other hand. When the moving hand
has reached the last stroke before the hold is to be terminated, both
hands proceed together to signify the end of the simultaneous holds. Prac-
tice Examples 108 and 109 with the right hand motionless and the left
hand moving, and vice versa. Examples 110, I I I , and 112 are for the
student's own Solution.
Here are two instructive passages (Exs. 113 and 114) from Schumann's
Symphony No. 4, which are easy to confuse in execution by the very
nature of their similarities.
In Example 113 (Philharmonia pocket score, page 24, bar 5), beat
two strokes for the first measure and hold at the top of the pattern with
both hands. Terminale the hold by an upward flick of the left hand alone
and by having both hands descend at once for the attack in the second
measure. If the right hand alone were to give the end of the hold, some
players might break through, since a rest follows in the next measure.
Keep the right hand motionless on the hold while the left hand termi-
nates it. Then bring both hands down.
In the third measure of Example 114 (Philharmonia pocket score,
page 36, last bar), hold the baton at the end of the down beat. At the
right moment, give the flick upward with the left hand alone to indicate
the end of the hold, and then have both hands ascend to bring in the

90 THE H O L D
Ex. 108. W e b e r : Ofaeron Overture

/SuJ J —1—bH rt
r ^ P! J.. J^^' =ih o
l i h r ' 1 M

P dolce P dolce

1 rr r r
VPP PP ^^

0 BD. Strgs.

Ex. 109. Boch: Ach, Gott und Herr

( J = 88)
o

m f r fTTT
i^J J
r ^ r r

A j j j J
Ji
r i f'r r i

W r T^r r P
-U- i i

"P m

Ex. 110. Sfrauss: Don Qutxofe (Reprinted with the

permission of the Copyright owners, C. F.
Peters Corporation, N e w York.) Ex. I I I . Brehms: Symphony N o . 4

( J = 66)
Pic. Larghetto (J = 64)
wVll.l

T ' PP
o

Ulf marcato

SIMUITANEOUS HOLDS 91
Ex. 112. Haydn: Symphony No. 1 2 (Breitkopf & Härtel No. 104)

Urgo ( J . 66)

r.o.I» •

Ex. 113. Schumann: Symphony No. 4

( J.116)

fpfH 1 Itf 1
^ f
JSro o

"f

Ex. 114. Schumann: Symphony No. 4

(J . U6) . 5- JK

last sixteenth of the measure; or give the flick with the right hand while
maintaining the left hand in an attitude of warning. In either procedura,
take the ascent on the rest immediately, to preclude premature entrance
or break-through. T h e various places in this movement which are almost
identical often confuse players.

BREATH PAUSES AND END BEATS

Breath pauses, technically known as caesuras, are to music what
commas and semicolons are to the spoken language. T h e y hterally give
breathing space between phrases and they clarify the text. M a n y com-
posers of the past rarely used t h e m ; although on the other hand, one
composer, Gustav M a h l e r , used so m a n y that he has been quoted as
questioning toward the end of his life the practical effectiveness of such
detailed punctuation. B r e a t h pauses are often implied in music, and
correct use of them reveals the taste and artistry of the conductor. In

92 THE HOLD
Strauss's Don Juan, the characteristic opening measures imply a breath
pause, which should be observed almost every time the figure is heard
(Ex. 115).
An implied breath pause sometimes occurs just before a striking mod-
ulation or a subito pp. It prepares the auditors' ears for a sudden change
and is effective if not overdone (Ex. 116).
Study the opening section of Dvoräk's Scherzo Capriccioso, and note
that its measures are grouped in a way that implies tiny breath pauses
between each group. To omit the breath pauses would metamorphose
a passage which now gives the effect of improvisation into a banal suc-
cession of fenced-in measures.
Breath pauses are indicated like miniature cut-offs, by a tiny flick
of the wrist in the direction of the next attack. T h e y end with a tiny
inward or outward hook, which should be executed on the stroke con-
taining the breath pause, not later. In theory, an indication of a breath
pause contains both a cut-off and a preparatory motion for the next at-
tack, but in actual practice these two motions coalesce. T h e length of a
breath pause depends upon the context of the passage in which it occurs.
" E n d beats," as they have been termed, are beats which terminate
a phrase or section, especially where such beats are followed by tiny
pauses. End beats are often implied before measures with part or füll
rests, by means of a slanted line that cuts across the top of the staff', or
the apostrophe sign, or the letters G.P. (Grand Pause).

Ex. 115. Strauss: Don Juan (Reprinted with the permission of the Copyright owners, C. F. Peters Corpora-
tion, New Y o r k . ) See also: Chorpentier, Impressions of Itaiy; Mahler, Symphony No. 1, Slow
Movement.

(J- 120)
:3=
III iii'rf Vln.I
moUo cresc. Slrgs.

Ex. 1 16. Beethoven: Symphony No. 7

m ff

Presto ( J = 139)

BREATH PAUSES AND END BEATS 93

Ex. 11 7. Brahms: S y m p h o n y N o . 2

Allegretto, poco sostenuto (J =66)

Strgs.^^a PP
r.o. I
t J 1 f

Ex. 11 9. Beethoven: Missa Solemnis

Allegretto, ma non troppo ( J = 80) Allcgro con moto [ J = 1^0)

Vln.ri

To insure a clean e n d i n g a n d to prevent s o m e o n e from b r e a k l n g

through the beat, make the end beat with a definitive hook which suggests
Cassation. T h e motion consists of a miniature cut-ofF a n d then a slight
i n w a r d or o u t w a r d hook. T h e direction of this motion, m a d e mainly
with the wrist, varies according to the individual. Both hands m a y be
used for emphasis. In principle, the end beat is a cut-off on the last note,
not after it. If you conduct the last note a n d a d d an end beat, the play-
ers will as often as not tack on the extra length to the last note a n d quit
it with a wrench. If rests follow the end beat, do not beat them. You
may, of course, count them silently, and use the last rest before the next
attack for a preparatory motion.
An end beat may be given in any direction. We suggest that it pro-
ceed to the center of the beating pattern, where the baton will be able
to give the next preparation in any direction. When either end beats or
breath pauses are followed by a break, arrange to have the pattern end
in the center, so that your baton will be in position to give a preparation

94 THE HOLD
t o w a r d a n y direction easily. Figures 106, 107, 108, a n d 109 present sug-
gested p a t t e r n s for a p p l i c a t i o n to t h e e x a m p l e s cited in this c h a p t e r .
E x a m p l e s 117, 118, a n d 119 present various problems for the student's
own Solution.
T h e opening measures of the last m o v e m e n t of Beethoven's Symphony >
No. 1 (Ex. 120) offer splendid instances of holds, implied breath pauses,
a n d attacks before rests; a n d they serve to s u m m a r i z e principles already
considered. It is most i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t w h e n a rest follows
a n o t h e r rest, you m u s t stop m o v i n g y o u r h a n d immediately, after t h e first t J J J'J
Fig. 1 0 6
(J-TO
rest. T h e n o n the second rest, m a k e a p r e p a r a t o r y m o t i o n for t h e next
attack. If y o u r h a n d rests before t h e first rest, a n d t h e n you beat it, m a n y
players will I n t e r p r e t t h e m o t i o n as a p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e next played
note a n d will come in too soon.
I n E x a m p l e 120, execute t h e first m e a s u r e by giving a d o w n stroke
a n d r e b o u n d to the center, where the b a t o n remains to indicate the hold
(which should be t h o u g h t of as Coming on t h e first q u a r t e r ) . W h e n you
are ready, give the combination cessation-preparatory stroke to the right
as a n e n d beat with a tiny b r e a t h pause, a n d join it almost a t once to the
u p b e a t , a p r o c e d u r e which takes care of t h e d o t t e d sixteenth a n d thirty-
second. Beat the second, third, a n d fourth measures four strokes to the bar. Fig. 1 0 7
I m m e d i a t e l y after t h e d o w n stroke, m a k e a n e n d beat to t h e left to show
t h e eighth rest. O b s e r v e the b r e a t h p a u s e here for as long as you wish.
If t h e b a t o n m a k e s t h e b r e a t h p a u s e a f t e r t h e d o w n stroke, a n d t h e n
m a k e s a m o t i o n , players m i g h t b r e a k t h r o u g h . W i t h t h e t h i r d stroke,
b r i n g in at will t h e scale mosaics in these measures. T h e p r i n c i p l e in-
volved in this passage is to b e a t t h e eighth rests at once.

Ex. 1 20. Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 1

m m
Adagio l J = 80-84)
- O V
v il n . iI

e '

Fig. 1 0 9
BREATH PAUSES AND END BEATS 95
 Some conductors indicate subdivisions, implied breath pauses, and
ritenuto on the thirty-second notes in the fourth measure, but this practice
may easily degenerate into affectation unless one is very careful.
Terminale the hold on the fourth line F in the sixth measure by a
release to center right, which puts the baton in position to give the up-
beat preparation for the down beat in the following measure. Do not
beat the second eighth in the seventh measure. Great care must be ex-
ercised here to give the up beat the character of a streng Inhalation and
the seventh-measure down beat that of a strong exhalation, or the play-
ers may tend to stress the first note of the ascending scale and confuse
the whole rhythmic scheme of the passage. Note that the last three six-
teenths of measure six and all of measure seven belong to the new tempo;
consequently, take them two to the bar. Memorize the passage. As an
a d d e d exercise, study the last twelve measures of Beethoven's Fourth
Symphony.
A helpful exercise is to practice the patterns in the early chapters of
this volume first by inserting breath pauses after various strokes, and
then by omitting one, two, and three strokes from the end of the pattern
and indicating end beats on the last stroke given. Vary the tempos and
volume as much as possible. Another exercise is to beat out passages
from any good hymn book, using the same procedure. Bach's chorales
offer excellent material for this study. Find a friendly organist to play
them, but avoid use of the pianoforte here, since it cannot sustain notes.
Return again to the careful study of beating medleys and potpourris
of folk songs, operettas, and operas; for these contain successions of shift-
ing time-signatures, breath pauses, breaks, holds, and changes in tempo,
and they are very difficult to do with the requisite lilt, grace, and ease.

96 THE HOLD
 Chapter Fourteen

VOLUME, ACCENTS, LEGATO

AND STACCATO

VOLUME
Even mediocre inlerpreters usually recognize a n d try to show differences in
extremes of shading, such as piano a n d forte-, b u t not every Interpreter
succeeds in obtaining convincing a n d artistic differences between such
c o m p a r a t i v e l y closely related indications as pp a n d ppp, or mp a n d p.
Another common fault is to ignore the fact that all terms describing vol-
u m e ( a n d for t h a t matter, speed also) are relative. T h u s , a sforzflndo in
one passage may be a mere piano•,in another, a weighty forte, depending
u p o n the context. A third fairly c o m m o n fault in orchestras is the tend-
ency to r e t a r d on diminuendo a n d to diminish in volume in descending
passages, and of course, the reverse: to accelerate when making crescendo
a n d to increase in volume when ascending. T h e conductor should watch
for signs of these deviations d u r i n g rehearsal. It is also wise for him to
r e m e m b e r that ff sounds m u c h louder directly after a piano t h a n after a
forte, just as pp sounds m u c h softer directly after an / t h a n just after a p.
This is especially true in the case of accents a n d sforzandos.
Indulging in anticlimaxes is still another c o m m o n fault of conductors.
Series offortissimos or pianissimos lose most of their effect unless they are
graded in intensity. M a p out the over-all d y n a m i c plan of one of Wag-
ner's or Tchaikovsky's overtures, by m a k i n g a simple graph. M a r k the
changes in volume by letters on the side of the page, a n d use a rising
and falling line to indicate the course of these throughout the work. This
will give you a perspective of the climaxes a n d show you h o w to plan
in Order not to spoil the real climaxes by previous exaggeration.
C h a n g e s in v o l u m e m a y be s h o w n to the orchestra by b e a t i n g in
various planes, i.e., by bringing the baton u p w a r d for greater a n d down-

VOLUME 97
w a r d for less v o l u m e . S o m e c o n d u c t o r s b r i n g t h e b a t o n f o r w a r d a n d
u p w a r d for increase in volume, a n d d o w n w a r d a n d inward for decrease.
I n d i c a t i n g c h a n g e s in v o l u m e is one of t h e special provinces of t h e left
h a n d , which should be m u c h e m p l o y e d in this c a t e g o r y of c o n d u c t i n g
technique. Use of the left h a n d d e m a n d s t h a t it be completely independ-
ent of the right h a n d , which keeps b e a t i n g patterns while t h e left h a n d
indicates desired nuances. This i n d e p e n d e n c e is not easy to achieve and
r e q u i t e s m u c h practice a n d experience. A l t h o u g h e a c h c o n d u c t o r must
d e v e l o p his i n d i v i d u a l m e t h o d s , c e r t a i n m o t i o n s h a v e f o u n d m o r e or
less general acceptance.
As a n e x a m p l e of t h e i n d e p e n d e n t use of b o t h hands, let us consider
t h e h a i r p i n crescendo a n d decrescendo on t h e hold, in t h e o p e n i n g t r u m p e t
solo of t h e o v e r t u r e to W a g n e r ' s Rienzi. Give t h e e n t r a n c e w i t h b o t h
h a n d s , a n d keep t h e r i g h t h a n d motionless to s h o w t h e hold. L e t the
left h a n d ascend with p a l m facing u p w a r d to show t h e swell, a n d then
descend with p a l m t o w a r d t h e g r o u n d to show t h e f a d i n g of t h e tone.
A l t h o u g h ordinarily the b a t o n should not move on a hold, it is possible
h e r e to stop it j u s t for a m o m e n t to show t h e hold a n d t h e n to proceed
with it u p a n d d o w n . It is even feasible h e r e to beckon t h e t r u m p e t for
t h e a t t a c k a n d let h i m p l a y t h e call a l o n e on his A. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e
of this type of d y n a m i c c h a n g e is f o u n d a t the beginning of t h e overture
to Boi'eldieu's La Dame blanche.
S o m e orchestras, i n c i d e n t a l l y , t e n d to m a k e a decrescendo o n holds.
A corrective is to teil t h e w i n d p l a y e r s to save their b r e a t h a n d string
players to save t h e i r bows. W h i l e t h e r i g h t h a n d r e m a i n s motionless,
b r i n g u p the left h a n d to indicate t h e d u r a t i o n of the hold a n d to keep
the volume steady.
M a n y motions which show c h a n g e s in v o l u m e are obviously prim-
itive in origin a n d almost s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y . T h e c l e n c h e d left fist pro-
ceeding u p w a r d a n d o u t w a r d is easily i n t e r p r e t e d as p a n t o m i m e for
crescendo, a n d t h e reverse for decrescendo. H o l d i n g the left h a n d high with
the forefinger extended in a w a r n i n g a t t i t u d e is a general signal for special
attention of t h e players. Tenseness of t h e h a n d s a n d body suggests loud-
ness; repose suggests q u i e t a n d serenity. T h e c l e n c h e d left fist t h r u s t
suddenly forward indicates a n accent; t h e open left h a n d , held high a n d
suddenly b r o u g h t forward, d e m a n d s piano subito. T h e left h a n d open a n d
executing a rocking motion, as if t h e p a l m were wiping something, sug-
gests lessening of tension a n d volume, a n d is especially useful in securing
b a l a n c e b e t w e e n parts. To m a k e this last m o t i o n while c o n t i n u i n g to
p o i n t t h e left h a n d t o w a r d various p a r t s of t h e o r c h e s t r a , a n d to beat
time in r e g u l ä r p a t t e r n s with t h e r i g h t h a n d , usually requires m u c h

98 VOLUME, ACCENTS, LEGATO, STACCATO

p r a c t i c e ; or o n e h a n d will inveigle t h e o t h e r i n t o I m i t a t i o n . T h e h a n d s
m u s t b e wholly i n d e p e n d e n t .
B e e t h o v e n ' s S y m p h o n y N o . 7 oflFers s o m e of t h e greatest instances in
m u s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e of J o v i a n i m p a c t s of s o u n d s , b o t h in crescendo a n d de-
crescendo. N o t e especially p a g e 18, b a r 10, to p a g e 19, b a r 8 in t h e Breitkopf
a n d H ä r t e l edition.
As w e h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , m a n y orchestras t e n d to play loudly
w h e n t h e r e is a crescendo sign a n d to play softly w h e n t h e r e is a decrescendo
sign. T h e y m u s t be m a d e to r e a l i z e t h a t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , a crescendo sign
m e a n s less v o l u m e a t t h e s t a r t a n d t h a t a decrescendo sign m e a n s m o r e
v o l u m e a t t h e s t a r t , to a l l o w for g r a d u a l c h a n g e . It is n o t easy for a n
o r c h e s t r a to p l a y a g r a d u a l crescendo or t h e reverse, a n d it u s u a l l y takes
long a n d p a t i e n t t r a i n i n g . R e c a l l h o w late in t h e history of t h e a r t it was
before a n o r c h e s t r a like t h a t a t M a n n h e i m w a s a b l e to a c h i e v e this in a
m a n n e r w h i c h a r o u s e d t h e e n t h u s i a s m of t h e chief m u s i c i a n s of t h e times.
O r c h e s t r a s m u s t b e t a u g h t to a v o i d r e a c h i n g t h e m a x i m u m of v o l u m e
t o o s o o n . A n efFect like t h a t of F i g u r e 110 i n s t e a d of F i g u r e I I I is all Fig n o
too c o m m o n .
W i n d players should b e w a r n e d often t h a t they m u s t save their b r e a t h ,
or u n j u s t i f i e d decrescendos will result. S t r i n g players m u s t b e told r e p e a t -
edly to save t h e i r b o w s in d o w n bows, b e c a u s e t h e u p p e r half does n o t Fig. \ i
h a v e t h e s a m e p r e s s u r e a n d v o l u m e as t h e l o w e r h a l f F o r this r e a s o n
d o w n b o w s a r e g o o d for d e c r e a s e of v o l u m e a n d u p b o w s for increase.
W i t h stringed I n s t r u m e n t s , c h a n g e of s t r i n g for a p a s s a g e o f t e n results
in a m o r e m e l l o w t o n e . T h u s , o n t h e violin, t h e A s t r i n g m a y o f t e n be
b e t t e r for a p a s s a g e t h a n t h e E, a n d t h e D b e t t e r t h a n t h e G. T h e G
s t r i n g m a y b e u s e d in t h e h i g h e r positions for sonority a n d b e m a d e to
s o u n d a l m o s t like a cello. T h e p r i n c i p l e of c h a n g i n g strings for special
effects m a y b e a p p l i e d to all s t r i n g e d I n s t r u m e n t s , t h o u g h w i t h d i m i n -
ishing r e t u r n s as o n e descends.
I t m a y b e p o i n t e d o u t h e r e t h a t o p e n n o t e s on s t r i n g e d I n s t r u m e n t s
a r e likely to o b t r u d e in slow a n d m o d e r a t e t e m p o s b e c a u s e of t h e i r dif-
ferences in t o n e color. Direct t h e players to use o t h e r fingerings (stopped
notes).
By this t i m e t h e S t u d e n t s h o u l d b e a b l e to evolve his o w n exercises
to o v e r c o m e a n y t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s in d y n a m i c s discussed thus far. O n e
s u g g e s t e d h e r e , d r y b u t h e l p f u l , is t o b e a t t h r o u g h t h e u s u a l p a t t e r n s
with e a c h h a n d in various speeds f r o m slow to fast a n d f r o m fast to slow,
a n d w i t h v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s of v o l u m e f r o m soft to l o u d a n d f r o m
loud to soft.
A n i n t r i g u i n g exercise is to t r y to s h o w i n c r e a s e in v o l u m e i n one

VOLUME 99
h a n d a n d t h e reverse in t h e other. T h i s requires t h e utmost i n d e p e n d -
ence of the hands, a n d especial pliancy a n d powers of suggestion. If one
degree of dynamics has a l r e a d y been established, hold it with t h e baton
h a n d a n d show t h e new d y n a m i c s with the left h a n d . Facial expressions
a n d the eyes d a r t i n g f r o m one section to a n o t h e r should aid t h e players
greatly.
W h e n two degrees of d y n a m i c s c o n f r o n t t h e c o n d u c t o r simuUane-
ously, he should w a r n b e f o r e h a n d t h e sections to be affected. C o n d u c t i n g
with one h a n d held high for the louder section a n d the other h a n d moving
below it for the softer section should meet the Situation. T h e h a n d held
high m a y descend g r a d u a l l y to signify decrease in volume for one section,
a n d t h e h a n d below m a y rise slowly to signify increase in v o l u m e for the
o t h e r section, if such c h a n g e s occur.

ACCENTS

Accents a n d o t h e r s u d d e n o u t b u r s t s in v o l u m e m u s t be p r e p a r e d .
W h e n t h e t e m p o is slow e n o u g h , give t h e p r e p a r a t i o n on t h e previous
stroke. A good example occurs in the 2Ist a n d 22nd measures of Weber's
o v e r t u r e to Oberon. T h e 2 I s t m e a s u r e , with t h e violas h o l d i n g a whole
note on a m a j o r second, suggests resolution. This effect can be heightened
by holding t h e m e a s u r e s o m e w h a t longer t h a n t h e measures preceding
it, a p r o c e d u r e which also gives the violins time to take off their mutes.
A decrescendo to ppp is most effective here. O n t h e f o u r t h stroke of the
2 Ist measure, p r e p a r e t h e explosive tuttiff c h o r d on t h e 22nd measure;
a n d m a k e t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e p r e p a r a t i o n imply t h e e n s u i n g musical
pistol shot. T h e r e is no d a n g e r t h a t the players will anticipate the ff a n d
spoil ihepp, for the b a t o n moves so rapidly t h a t they will have just enough
time to catch the explosion.
W h e n t h e t e m p o is fairly r a p i d , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is usually n o time
to give a c o m p l e t e stroke as p r e p a r a t i o n except by a w k w a r d overbeat-
ing. T h i s is especially t r u e w h e n a n a c c e n t or a sforzando comes within
a stroke. T h e p r o c e d u r e in t h a t case is to give t h e accent a t the Start of
t h e stroke in which it occurs, a n d t h e players will Imitate it in t h e next
split second. T h e r e is n o d a n g e r t h a t t h e players will anticipate the new
g r a d a t i o n in v o l u m e ; t h e t e m p o is going too fast for t h e m to d o so. All
they can do is to Imitate the conductor's signal for an accent or sforzando,
a n d by the time they h a v e d o n e so, t h e music with t h e new d y n a m i c is
u p o n them. J u s t which cases need a w a r n i n g for accents on t h e previous
stroke a n d w h i c h o n t h e stroke itself, will soon be l e a r n e d in practice.
I n general, in m e d i u m tempo, a n accent o n a stroke is p r e p a r e d on the
previous stroke; in r a p i d t e m p o , a n a c c e n t within a stroke is p r e p a r e d
at t h e beginning of the stroke itself.

100 VOLUME, ACCENTS, LEGATO, STACCATO

 S t r a u s s ' s Till Eulenspiegel, w i t h its o f t - r e p e a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t l c figure
first a n n o u n c e d b y t h e c l a r i n e t in t h e 4 7 t h m e a s u r e , offers a n inter-
e s t i n g e x a m p l e of a w a r n i n g on t h e s t r o k e itself. T h e first n o t e of this
figure m u s t b e e n u n c i a t e d w i t h special c l a r i t y a m o u n t i n g to a spiccato
tick. It is p r e p a r e d e a c h t i m e on t h e stroke w i t h a f o r w a r d t h r u s t of t h e
b a t o n . T h e p l a y e r s i m i t a t e this, a n d b y t h e t i m e t h e y h a v e p l a y e d t h e
figure, t h e b a t o n h a s g o n e o n to s u c c e e d i n g notes. T h i s t e c h n i c a l device
of i n d i c a t i n g a n a c c e n t w i t h i n a s t r o k e b y c u i n g it in w i t h t h e s t r o k e
itself, recalls t h e p r o c e d u r e of a t t a c k s , i.e., it is c a r r i e d o u t j u s t as if t h e
o r c h e s t r a w e r e s t a r t i n g o n t h e a c c e n t w i t h n o t h i n g b e h i n d it.
B e e t h o v e n ' s m u s i c a f f o r d s , a m o n g its m a n y o t h e r facets, i n c o m p a r -
a b l e i n s t a n c e s of v i o l e n t c o n t r a s t s i n v o l u m e . T h e S t u d e n t c a n n o t d o
b e t t e r t h a n to s t u d y t h e second m o v e m e n t of his S y m p h o n y N o . 8 f r o m
this p o i n t of view. I n t h e n i n t h m e a s u r e , a n ff'n followed b y a n sf a n d t h e n
by a p, a n d these m u s t all be s h o w n to t h e players b e f o r e h a n d . O f course
t h e p l a y e r s h a v e t h e d i r e c t i o n s b e f o r e t h e m a n d will a p p r o x i m a t e t h e
d y n a m i c c h a n g e s n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r does, b u t t h e result of
directionless p l a y i n g w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e t h e u n i f i e d c e r t a i n t y a n d spirit
w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e response t o a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o n d u c t o r . Beat t h e
n i n t h m e a s u r e t w o q u a s i f o u r . T h e ff c o m e s w i t h i n t h e s e c o n d stroke;
s h o w it a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s t r o k e . To t r y to split t h e s t r o k e w o u l d
b e useless; t h e r e is n o t i m e . P r e p a r e t h e sf on t h e t h i r d stroke by lifting
t h e p r e v i o u s stroke in o r d e r to a l l o w for a d o w n w a r d t h r u s t of t h e b a t o n .
P r e p a r e t h e p o n t h e f o u r t h s t r o k e b y a w a r n i n g sign in t h e left h a n d
before it arrives.

LEGATO AND 5TACCATO

A d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t a t o n c e b e m a d e b e t w e e n i n d i c a t i o n s of p u r e l y
p h y s i c a l c h a n g e s s u c h as legato, staccato, spiccato, a n d martellato; a n d in-
dications of the spirit of t h e notes such as con brio, scherzando, maestoso, a n d
t h e like. T h e first sort d e p e n d largely u p o n t e c h n i q u e ; t h e second largely
u p o n suggestion.
A n analysis of t h e m u s i c a l styles of s o m e c o n d u c t o r s will reveal t h a t
they m a y often b e classified as e i t h e r legato or staccato Interpreters. M a n y
of t h e y o u n g e r o n e s t e n d t o w a r d staccato; t h e o l d e r t o w a r d legato. C o n -
d u c t o r s w h o c a n m a i n t a i n a b r o a d a n d e l e v a t e d legato a r e n o t c o m m o n .
T h i s is d u e as m u c h to l a c k of s p i r i t u a l serenity as to a n y t e c h n i c a l faults.
T h e s p i r i t u a l r e m e d y lies b e y o n d t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e p r e s e n t discussion.
Legato a n d related styles a r e suggested b y t h e repose of t h e eyes, face,
a n d h a n d s . T h e b a t o n m o v e s in curves a n d loops w i t h a t least t h e lower
a r m t a k i n g p a r t in t h e m o t i o n s . I n staccato, marcato, a n d r e l a t e d styles,
t h e b a t o n m o v e s v e r y m u c h like a b o w u n d e r s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

lEOATO AND STACCATO 101

 j e r k i n g to t h e e n d of t h e s t r o k e a n d o b s e r v i n g a w a i t t h e r e b e f o r e pro-
c e e d i n g to t h e n e x t stroke. T h e h a n d s , f a c e , a n d eyes d o t h e i r p a r t by
t h e i r c o m p a r a t i v e t a u t n e s s , a n d t h e wrist a n d e v e n t h e fingers t a k e on
t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e d e t a c h e d style. Staccato elides all u n n e c e s s a r y m o t i o n s
a n d m a y b e t e r m e d t h e style of e c o n o m y ; legato c o n n o t e s c o n n e c t i n g
lines a n d evokes t h e feeling of fullness. I n legato, r e b o u n d s a r e m u c h in
evidence; in staccato, they a r e r e d u c e d to a m i n i m u m . Legato is associated
m o r e w i t h l o n g p h r a s e s t h a n w i t h s h o r t ones a n d w i t h m o d e r a t e r a t h e r
t h a n with fast tempos. T h e r e f o r e , w h e n legato is desired in brisk passages,
g r o u p t h e m e a s u r e s a c c o r d i n g to p h r a s e s , a n d let y o u r b a t o n i n d i c a t e
t h e over-all p h r a s i n g r a t h e r t h a n e a c h m e a s u r e in detail.
F i g u r e 112 is a l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n for six to t h e b a r , kgatissimo;
a n d F i g u r e 113 is t h e s a m e , staccatissimo. N o t e t h e " d i c k " a t t h e Start of
e a c h legato stroke w h e r e t h e p l a y e r s e n t e r .
T h e s e t w o p a t t e r n s i l l u s t r a t e o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e s
in b a t o n t e c h n i q u e . I n staccato, t h e p l a y e r s c a t c h t h e b a t o n a t t h e Start
of e a c h stroke a f t e r a tiny b r e a t h p a u s e a n d m i n i a t u r e r e b o u n d ; in legato,
they catch the baton on the " d i c k , " which comes after the combined
r e b o u n d a n d stroke. I n staccato, t h e r e is n o g e n u i n e stop; t h e b a t o n does
o b s e r v e a m i n i a t u r e b r e a t h p a u s e b u t its l e n g t h is in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e
t i m e a n d s p a c e of t h e w h o l e p a t t e r n ; in legato, t h e b a t o n m a y s t o p a n d
o b s e r v e t h e " d i c k , " t h a t is, s t o p a t a p o i n t w h e r e t h e b a t o n s e e m s to
i m p i n g e l i g h t l y u p o n a n i m a g i n a r y s p o t of c e s s a t i o n . T h e b a t o n t h e n
executes t h e r e b o u n d a n d m a k e s a n o t h e r " d i c k . " T h e r e b o u n d a n d fol-
lowing stroke coalesce. I n staccato, t h e t i m e a n d space sense of t h e players
m a i n t a i n s t h e e n s e m b l e ; in legato, it is t h e " d i c k " w h i c h does so.
I t s h o u l d b e r e c a l l e d a g a i n t h a t staccato d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n
Fig. 1 1 3 forte or accelerando, a n d t h a t s i m i l a r l y , legato does n o t necessarily c o n n o t e
piano a n d ritardando. As a c h e c k a g a i n s t t h e t e n d e n c y to associate these
stylistic a n d d y n a m i c Clements, p r a c t i c e staccato-pianissimo, ritardando; a n d
legato-fortissimo, accelerando. I n a d d i t i o n , p r a c t i c e staccato a n d legato in strict
time. S o m e c o n d u c t o r s h a v e even b e e n k n o w n to practice simultaneously
staccato in o n e h a n d a n d legato in t h e o t h e r .
E x c e l l e n t t r a i n i n g in all these b r a n c h e s of t e c h n i q u e m a y b e o b t a i n e d
b y c o n d u c t i n g Beethoven's p i a n o f o r t e s o n a t a s a n d Bach's Forty-Eight w i t h
t h e a i d of a f r i e n d l y p i a n i s t . I n this p r a c t i c e , see t o it t h a t y o u r b a t o n
a n d left h a n d a l w a y s reflect t h e m a i n lines: r h y t h m i c , m e l o d i c , p h r a s a l ,
t h e m a t i c , a n d o t h e r ideas. D o n o t w r e n c h to i n d i c a t e t h e s y n c o p a t i o n s .
A s u m m a r y of feasible c h a n g e s in t h e m o t i o n s of t h e b a t o n f r o m ex-
t r e m e legato t o e x t r e m e staccato follows. As legato i n c r e a s e s , t h e strokes

102 VOLUME, ACCENTS, LEGATO, STACCATO

dip; they tend to become round and looped; the baton glides and flows;
and the rebounds are much in evidence; in staccato, the strokes tend to
straighten out; subdivisions extend beyond the main strokes; breath pauses
come at the end of strokes, as in bowing; rebounds are minimized; and
the baton is thrust forward.

LEGATO A N D STACCATO 103

 Chapter Fifteen

TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

POETRY AND MUSIC

A study of poetry a n d its relation to music, especially from the point of
view of rhythm, should prove of great aid to the Student of conducting.
To this end the following works are recommended: C. F. Abdy Williams'
The Rhythm of Song (London, Methuen); Edmonstoune Duncan's Melodies
andHow to Harmonize Them (London, Vincent Music Company); Raymond
M a c D o n a l d Alden's Introduction to Poetry a n d English Verse (both, New
York, Henry Holt). A practical approach would be to analyze and to beat
out poems in The Oxford Book of English Verse, in Palgrave's Golden Treas-
ury, and in similar compilations.

PROSE RHYTHMS
T h e conductor sometimes meets passages whose melodic lines are
free and dose to prose utterance. This sort of musical speech often occurs
in older choral works, though instances are also found in recent orches-
tral works. To conduct such passages with justice to the subtlety of the
rhythmic line a n d yet to maintain clarity of form is a balance not easy
to achieve.
T h e first task a Student has, upon inspecting such prose rhythms, is
to note where the strong and the weak pulses come. These can be marked
in the score with dotted lines and time-signatures if desired. T h e general
principle in such passages is to beat each strong pulse in a new direction.
Let US consider the prose rhythm of Example 121. T h e u p beat and
measure of four are obvious. T h e two measures of music set to the words
"Father, and the only begotten Son," are what now interest us. In the
measure with "Father, a n d the," give two strokes down, one to the right,
and two up; in the next measure give two strokes down, three to the right,
and two up. But delineate with the freedom of prose, not in rigid patterns.

104 TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

Ex. 1 2 1 . A r k h a n g e l s k y : Day ofJudgment (By permission of the Copyright o w n e r s , J. Fischer & Bro.)

( J = 88)

P 0 Thou^maslgraciom Ri - ifutr, länd. ihe

on-Uf ; te-gol-ien
m
Spi-ril äi '

A practical m e t h o d of t r e a t i n g m a n y prose r h y t h m s is to m a r k the

s t r e n g pulses b y g i v i n g t h e first b e a t d o w n a n d t h e last u p , with the
strokes between to the left a n d right alternately, or vice versa, according
to the total n u m b e r of strokes involved. W h e n the total n u m b e r of strokes
is o d d , t a k e t h e second stroke to t h e r i g h t ( w h e n t h e r e a r e t h r e e , five,
a n d seven strokes, etc.); w h e n t h e t o t a l n u m b e r is even (four, six, a n d
eight strokes, etc.), t a k e t h e s e c o n d s t r o k e to t h e left. T h i s p r o c e d u r e
will m a k e the last stroke come out on t h e r i g h t - h a n d side of the p a t t e r n
in either c o u n t , r e a d y for t h e u p beat. N o t e also t h a t a r e b o u n d to the
Center of the pattern serves to m a k e it possible for all beats between the
initial down a n d final u p beats to be e q u a l in length. T h e r e b o u n d swerves
away from the direction of the stroke it introduces. W h e n you w a n t to stress
a n y stroke, thrust t h e b a t o n o u t w a r d a n d f o r w a r d a n d in this way attract
the attention of t h e performers to it. All strokes except the down a n d u p
o v e r l a p in t h e air, of course, a n d do n o t a p p e a r as t h e y h a v e to be pic-
tured, in only two dimensions (see Figure 57).
E x a m p l e 122 is a n o t h e r Illustration of t h e free melodic line. A m o d e r n
com poser m i g h t h a v e written this in r a t h e r slow 2 / 2 with b a r lines. W h a t
concerns us here is to d e t e r m i n e the m a i n stresses a n d b r e a t h pauses a n d
to indicate t h e m with the b a t o n .
For historical e x a m p l e s , consult s u c h works as H u g o R i e m a n n ' s
Musikgeschichte in Beispielen (Leipzig, E. A. S e e m a n n ) ; Historical Anthology
ofMusic by A. T . Davison a n d W . Apel ( C a m b r i d g e , H a r v a r d University
Press); Arnold Schering's Geschichte der Musik in Beispielen (Leipzig, Breit-
kopf a n d H ä r t e l ) ; a n d t h e Desclee edition of Gregorian Chant in Modern
Notation (Tournai, Belgium).

Ex. 1 2 2 . O l d G e r m a n S o n g , tronscribed b y Kurt Thomas (From Lehrbuch der Chorleitung b y Kurt Thomos,
published b y Breitkopf & Härtel; u s e d b y permission of A s s o c i a t e d M u s i c Publishers, Inc.)

iel = 7 6 )

r f'in^r
PROSE RHYTHMS 105
Ex. 1 2 3 . V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s : " P a s t o r a l " S y m p h o n y [By permission of J. Curwen & Sons Ltd., London, a n d
of G . Schirmer, Inc., N e w York.)

pp i3) sen:za, misurcL (nctloo^^^' ^ •

\ ^ —

BP — = BP

Tiienie
Practice E x a m p l e 123, a m o d e r n work containing barless melodic
musical speech. Place dotted lines to separate the m a i n phrases, and use
patterns which change directions on the m a i n accents.

A REVIEW OF RHYTHMIC PATTERNS

It is suggested at this point that a review be m a d e once more of rhyth-
mic patterns. Variety m a y be obtalned by making it a daily practice to
r u n through a n u m b e r of pages of the musical excerpts contained in such
books as S i g m u n d Spaeth's Guide to Great Orchestral Music ( N e w York,
M o d e r n Library); H e r m a n n K r e t z s c h m a r ' s Führer durch den Konzertsaal
(Leipzig, Breitkopf a n d H ä r t e l ) ; Percy Goetschius' Masters of the Sym-
phony (Boston, Oliver Ditson C o m p a n y ) ; Charles O'Connell's The Victor
Book of Symphonies (New York, Simon a n d Schuster); Reference Book of Min-
iature Scores with Thematic List (London, J . a n d W. Chester); Eulenburg's

106 TECHNIQUES O F R H Y T H M
Kleine Partitur-Ausgabe—Thematisches Verzeichnis (London and Zürich, Eulen-
burg); the Burrows-Redmond compilation, Symphony Themes (New York,
Simon a n d Schuster); and the Barlow-Morgenstern A Dictionary of Mu-
sical Themes (New York, Crown Publishers).
This routine may be lightened somewhat by beating through daily
some folk songs in such collections as The Botsford Collection of Falk Songs
(New York, Schirmer); Möller's Das Lied der Völker (Schott); and Rimsky-
KorsakofF's 100 chants nationaux russes (Paris, Bessel). For American ex-
amples, consult the article on folk music in the Dodd Mead International
Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians.
Supplement this sight-reading with medleys and potpourris of oper-
ettas by such composers as Victor Herbert, Franz Lehar, a n d Suppe,
and of operas in the Standard repertory. In beating through several pages
(which should be done with the help of a pianist), do not stop; avoid
spending a measure or two getting into a new tempo. Beat through the
piece without pause in correct tempo, a n d return, at another time, to
make any needed corrections.
T h e objects of this daily routine are to quicken the student's ability
to translate into patterns the printed page and to improve his sight-reading
powers. Close application to a subject often has the effect of causing one's
mind to overemphasize details. This sort of routine should act as a bal-
ance to such a tendency.

SHIFTING RHYTHMS
T h e idea that bar lines are merely general guideposts should be re-
called when we find many passages whose main pulses do not at all coin-
cide with the beginnings of the bar lines. Slavish adherence to the bar line
often inveigles the Student conductor into monotonous accentuation and
geometric repetition of rigid patterns. Translate the excerpts in Examples
124-131 so that their pulses are b r o u g h t out into correct relief. The
chief precept to remember in such cases is that a clear down stroke is
not necessarily strong and long. T h e length and strength of each stroke
should depend upon the context of each passage.

Ex. 1 24. Brahms: S y m p h o n y N o . 1

AUegro non troppo ( J = 104)

SHIFTING R H Y T H M S 107
Ex. 125. R a v e l : S p o n i s h Rhapsody ( P e r m i s s i o n f o r reprint g r a n t e d b y D u r a n d et C l e , P o r i s , C o p y r i g h t
o w n e r s ; E l k a n - V o g e l C o . , Inc., o g e n t s for U . S . A . )

T r « modere ( J =66)

Vln.

ppp
ß VI». ,

^ n Sordino J^J U^J 'üi

Ex. 126. O f f e n b a c h : Tales of H o f f m o n n

'fffnf r r f f f t f B|

Ex. 127. S t r a v i n s k y : Petrouchka (By permission of the Copyright o w n e r s , B o o s e y & H o w k e s Inc.)

( J = W)
Hn.. r

0m
5 Strga.^

m m m
Ex. 1 28. S i b e l i u s : S y m p h o n y N o . 5 (By p e r m i s s i o n of W i l h e l m H a n s e n , C o p e n h o g e n , o n d G . S c h i r m e r ,
Inc., N e w Y o r k . )
Andante mosso, quasi allegrctto ( J . = 108)
Fl. Ob.Vln. V l a . p i « . . . . .

1J J J ^ 1 ^l - ' j ; P r F

«p

Ex. 1 29. C o p l a n d : Appalachian Spring ( B y permission of the C o p y r i g h t o w n e r s , B o o s e y & H o w k e s Inc.)

108 TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

 Vln. Ww. Brass

Ex. 130. Beethoven: Symphony N o . 6

Andante molto mosso (J.= 50-60)

Ex. 131. Beethoven: Leonora Overture N o . 3

Ji"Trii^irfii^iriiirrrfiiifrrrri|ffrrri-ff
Presto f J = tag)
Vln.I

cresc. poco a poco

INTERPOLATED MEASURES

A Single measure of a time-signature different from the surrounding

measures, suggesting a n aside or reiteration, will be met f r o m time to
time. Often such a measure gives the reader the feehng of an extra In-
halation. Meyerbeer termed such interpolated measures "petites mesures."
According to writers of a past generation, these "petites mesures" were
supposed to h a v e occasioned some difficulties in time-beating, though
it is puzzling to see j u s t w h y . D e l d e v e z , in his L'Art du chef d'orchestre,
pays special attention to them at no little length and quotes four examples
by M e y e r b e e r . In essence, these isolated measures are simply parts of
the contiguous measures and might have been separated from their par-
ent measures by broken instead of the usual h e a v y b a r lines. T h e y are
beaten quite simply by maintaining the same pulsation as the surrounding
measures; or, to State this in other words, an eighth equals an eighth,
a quarter equals a quarter, and so on, a n d the same number of strokes
is apportioned to each unit as in the surrounding bars. To beat them so,

INTERPOLATED MEASURES 109

Ex. 1 3 2 . Meyerbeer: L 'Afrkaine

Presto ben marcato (J. « 126)

$ m p
m
Ex. 1 3 3 . Strauss: D o n Juan (Reprinted with the permission of the Copyright o w n e r s , C. F. Peters C o r p o r a -
tion, N e w York.)

Ex. 1 3 4 . Strauss: D o n Juan (Reprinted with the permission of the Copyright o w n e r s , C . F. Peters C o r p o r a -
tion, N e w York.)

AUegro molto con brio ( el" 100)

te-

110 TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

Ex. 1 35. H i n d e m i t h : M o f h i s der Mater ( P u b i i s h e d b y S c h o t t , M a i n z ; used by permission of A s s o c i a t e d
Music Publishers, Inc.)

Vcryslowly (J=76)
- Vln. Fl. Cl.

Strgs.

PP

Bso.
Vcl. B.

Ex. 1 36. Hanson: S y m p h o n y N o . 3 (Pubiished b y Carl Fischer C o m p a n y ; used by permission of Copyright

owners, Eastman S c h o o l of Music.)

Malinconko ( J = 7Z)

tiJ- i

V
pocosß

Ex. 137. Strauss: A/so sproch Zarathustra (Reprinted with the permission of t h e Copyright o w n e r s , C. F.
Peters Corporation, N e w York.)

Veryslowly ( J = 76)

r^-' 1 j
Vcl. (W^

pp
3
1 1 1 1 1 1=

Ex. 138. Sibelius: S y m p h o n y N o . 5 ( B y permission of W i l h e l m H a n s e n , C o p e n h a g e n , a n d G . Schirmer,

Inc., N e w York.)

Largamentc ( J = 72)
Strgs.

QMqt^.

INTERPOLATED MEASURES III

Ex. 1 3 9 . Chdusson; S y m p h o n y in B Fiat

Tresvile ( J = 100)

ff

$ Ob. Tpt. Vln.

ff
m w =8=

of course, one must be prepared to change patterns quickly for the chang-
ing signatures, always keeping the pulse-units equal. Practice with
Examples 132-136.
Examples 137-139 must not be confused with interpolated measures.
Triplets in these examples cause some players and conductors erroneously
to retard. One should observe strict time. Split the middle note of the
triplet mentally, giving the first half to one pulse and the second half
to the next pulse, but tied as one note, of course.
The preceding examples illustrate passages where the unit of tempo
remains constant. Easily confused with them are those passages in which
the tempo of the whole measure remains constant. Look at Example

Ex. 140. Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 9

Molto vivace ( J - = 132) 5).= J Presto

f J-J I r r M ^
string. ff s s s

P^ö—j—^
p
n

w r r r ^^ ^

112 TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

140, f r o m the scherzo of Beethoven's S y m p h o n y No. 9. After the meas-
ures in 3 / 4 , there follows a.presto {alla breve). Beat one to the bar through-
out; phrase two bars as one; a n d keep each bar of the 3 / 4 and alla breve
equal in length of time. Study also the similar place in the scherzo of the
same composer's Symphony No. 3, just before the finale.

RAPIDLY CHANGING RHYTHMS

It is suggested t h a t the Student, in order to a c q u i r e facility in con-
ducting rapid successions of changing rhythmic patterns, prepare a pack
of Cards, writing on each a different time-signature. I n c l u d e cards for
each time-signature in slow, m e d i u m , a n d r a p i d tempos, a n d also for
subdivisions. Shuffle the pack, a n d a different routine of time-beating is
ready for each day. At the Start, repeat each card a few times until you
achieve assurance in it. T h e n take each time-signature once only, in suc-
cession a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r of t h e d a y . A d m i t t e d l y , this is not the
most romantic a p p r o a c h to conducting; neither is the practice of piano-
forte c h r o m a t i c thirds a n d octaves r o m a n t i c ; yet both are necessary for
a well-grounded technique. W h e n this conducting game gives the Student
no special trouble any more, he m a y copy a few bars of appropriate music
on each card a n d continue his setting-up exercises every d a y with actual
living music.
Consider t h e following s u m m a r i e s of time-signatures in works by
-Igor Stravinsky, the variety of which seems to point to some sort of record.
In m a n y instances in his music, the use of cross-accents a n d combined
r h y t h m s , together with the complexity of the tone-color combinations,
serves to heighten the interest. Consult, for example, Petrouchka, in which
the following time-signatures occur: 2 / 4 , 3 / 4 , 4 / 4 , 6 / 4 , 2 / 8 , 3 / 8 , 4 / 8 ,
5/8, 6/8, 7/8, 9/8.
W r i t e each t i m e - s i g n a t u r e in this list on a s e p a r a t e c a r d a n d you
again have a good exercise in changing pulses, which m a y be varied by
shuffling the cards. Practice the same procedure with each time-signature
in the Histoire du soldat a n d in Le Sacre du Printemps listed below.
E x a m p l e 141, typical of m a n y passages in Stravinsky's music which
contain frequent changes in time-signatures, is taken from the 1912 edi-
tion, page 16 of the K a l m u s small score. Take the 3 / 8 in fast three, the
4 / 8 in two, a n d the 2 / 8 in one ( u p a n d down). You m a y beat the 5 / 8
bars either in slow one or in two so that the last third of the down beat
a n d the first third of the u p beat take care of the middle eighth. At the
next stringendo on page 26 of the same score, think of the preceding 1 / 4
as a 2 / 8 . See that the unit of pulse, the eighth, remains the same in time
value.

RAPIDLY CHANGING RHYTHMS 113

Ex. 1 4 1 . S t r a v i n s k y : Pefrouchfco (1 9 1 2 edition) (ßy p e r m i s s i o n of the C o p y r i g h t o w n e r , B o o s e y & H a w k e s
Inc.)

sums. IJ_J = W)
Vln.Vli

I n E x a m p l e 142, t h e s a m e e x c e r p t as E x a m p l e 141 b u t a d a p t e d
f r o m t h e composer's o w n f o u r - h a n d p i a n o a r r a n g e m e n t in t h e Edition
russe de musique {Russischer Verlag), we find interesting differences in time-
signatures.
I n the next excerpt (Ex. 143), t a k e n f r o m the composer's 1948 revised
Version (Boosey a n d H a w k e s edition), we find still m o r e evidence that
t h e c o m p o s e r seems to like to c h a n g e versions as well as to shift time-
signatures.

Ex. 1 4 2 . Stravinsky: Petrouchka ( p i a n o f o r t e a r r a n g e m e n t ) (By p e r m i s s i o n of ttie C o p y r i g h t o w n e r , B o o s e y

& H o w k e s Inc.)

slring. (.J^J • 46)

TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM
Ex. 143. Stravinsky: Petrouchka (1 9 4 8 edition) (By permission of the Copyright owner, Boosey & Hawkes
Inc.)

string. (J» 160-176)

Examples 141-143 a n d m a n y other passages in scores of Stravinsky's

ofFer excellent exercises for the Student to solve. A d a p t the p a t t e r n s al-
r e a d y given a n d practice t h e m until t h e h a n d automatically beats the
shifting pulses with ease a n d conviction. To r e p e a t a w a r n i n g : see to it
t h a t the unit of pulse, in this instance, the eighth, remains constant in
time value. W h e n you have mastered this problem, introduce the string-
endo. A good passage for practice in maintaining the unit of pulse occurs
in Le Sucre du Printemps at the start of the " R o n d e s printanieres," page 38
of the Boosey a n d Hawkes füll score edition. Here fairly slow 5 / 4 , 7/4,
6 / 4 , a n d 5 / 4 succeed each other. Indeed, Stravinsky's "Firebird" Suite,
Petrouchka, a n d Le Sacre du Printemps s h o u l d be t h e s t u d e n t ' s constant
c o m p a n i o n s since they constitute in themselves an u n p a r a l l e l e d set of
exercises in fluid pulsation, u n i q u e in the history of music.
Note in E x a m p l e 141 that a 3 / 8 , 4 / 8 , 5 / 8 group is repeated except
t h a t the first g r o u p has an interpolated 2 / 8 bar, a kind of m o m e n t a r y
recollection of the 1 / 4 b a r a little before. Such juxtapositions of similar-
ities a n d dissimilarities of phrase groups often help one to grasp a passage
as a whole a n d to memorize it.
Go Over this passage repeatedly while h u m m i n g a vowel or tapping
a pencil upon the table. Be careful to keep the eighths uniform in length
regardless of the length of the strokes. It is very easy to be deceived and
to elongate five beats to t h e b a r into six or c o n t r a c t it into four. It is
wise to use a m e t r o n o m e at the Start a n d to let each d i c k represent an
eighth. W h e n you can beat this passage automatically, observe the string-
endo leading to the 3 / 4 .

RAPIDLY CHANGING RHYTHMS 115

 Consult also Histoire du soldat: 3 / 8 , 4 / 8 , 5 / 8 , 6 / 8 , 7 / 8 , 3 / 1 6 , 4 / 1 6 ,
5 / 1 6 , 7 / 1 6 , 8 / 1 6 ; a n d the rhythmic kaleidoscopes in Le Sacre du Printemps:
2 / 2 , 3 / 2 , 2 / 4 , 3 / 4 , 4 / 4 , 5 / 4 , 6 / 4 , 7 / 4 , 11/4, 2 / 8 , 3 / 8 , 4 / 8 , 5 / 8 , 6 / 8 ,
7/8, 9/8, 2/16, 3/16, 4/16, 5/16, 9/16.
T h e works in the following list provide instructive exercises in train-
ing t h e m i n d a n d h a n d to a d a p t themselves to c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g
rhythmic patterns. It should be stressed that the only safe way to acquire
assurance a n d conviction in this b r a n c h of c o n d u c t i n g t e c h n i q u e is to
know the music so well t h a t the h a n d , a l r e a d y trained to execute varying
p a t t e r n s with facility, a u t o m a t i c a l l y translates the successive time-
signatures into the a p p r o p r i a t e designs. Trying to memorize the time-
signatures first, a n d by this means, to a d a p t the patterns, results almost
inevitably in stilted Performance. O n e must know the music really well
before starting to beat it. H e r e is a selection of works, chosen because
they can help to develop feeling a n d technique for fluid patterns.

A PRACTICE LIST OF K A LEID O SC O PIC RHYTHMS

Barber: Essay for Orchestra; Second Essay for Orchestra.
Bartok: Concerto for Orchestra, Part IV, "Intermezzo Interrotto."
Bax: Symphony No. 3, T h i r d M o v e m e n t .
Bloch: " A m e r i c a " S y m p h o n y ; Concerto Grosso.
Borodin: Symphony No. 2.
Copland: Appalachian Spring; " D a n c e " Symphony, T h i r d Movement.
Debussy: L'Apres-midi d'un faune; La Mer, P a r t I; Six epigraphes antiques
(arranged by Ansermet).
d ' I n d y : " S y m p h o n y on a French M o u n t a i n T h e m e . "
H a n s o n : " N o r d i c " Symphony, T h i r d M o v e m e n t ; Pan and the Priest.
Harris, Roy: Symphonies No. 2 a n d No. 3.
Hill, E. B.: S y m p h o n y No. 3, T h i r d Movement.
Holst: The Hymn to Jesus; The Perfect Pool (ballet music).
Koechlin: Five Chorales in Middle Age Modes.
LiadofT: Eight Russian Folk Songs, No. 2, " C h r i s t m a s S o n g " ; Ballade
de l'Apocalypse.
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 2, F o u r t h M o v e m e n t ; S y m p h o n y No. 4,
Slow Movement.
Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 7.
Mussorgsky: The Feast (or " B a n q u e t " ) , 33 changes in 38 measures;
The Ragamußn, 24 changes in 76 measures. (These last two are
for piano a n d voice originally.)
Mussorgsky-Ravel: Picturesat an Exhibition, the recurring " P r o m e n a d e . "

116 TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

 R a c h m a n i n o f f : Isle of the Dead.
R a v e l : Daphnis and Chloe; Miroirs (for p i a n o f o r t e ) ; Mother Goose Suite,
N o . 2; S t r i n g Q u a r t e t , T h i r d M o v e m e n t .
R i m s k y - K o r s a k o f f : Mlada; Russian Easter; Tsar Saltan.
S c h o e n b e r g : Von Heute auf Morgen.
Strauss: " A l p i n e " S y m p h o n y .
S t r a v i n s k y : Histoire du soldat; Petrouchka; Le Sacre du Prinlemps; Renard.
Tchaikovsky: Oxana's Caprices.
Vaughan Williams: "Pastoral" Symphony.
W a l t o n : Porlsmouth Point O v e r t u r e .
W e i n e r , L e o : O r c h e s t r a S u i t e of H u n g a r i a n F o l k D a n c e s , P a r t 4.

SIMPLIFYING COMPLICATED T I M E - S I G N AT U R E S
A n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e desirability of simplifying m u s i c a l n o t a t i o n
b r i n g s in its t r a i n o t h e r d e b a t a b l e issues, w h i c h t h e S t u d e n t m a y well
c o n s i d e r c a r e f u l l y a t this t i m e . O n e of these, u n n e c e s s a r y subdivision of
pulses, is i l l u s t r a t e d in S t r a v i n s k y ' s Le Sacre du Printemps (see t h e Boosey
a n d H a w k e s l a r g e or small editions, w h i c h h a v e t h e s a m e p a g i n a t i o n ) .
J u s t as m a n y c o m p o s e r s s e e m e d a f r a i d to w r i t e q u i n t u p l e a n d sep-
t u p l e time-signatures until fairly recently, a n d set d o w n instead successions
of b i n a r y a n d t e r n a r y pulses o r vice v e r s a ; so w e f i n d s o m e r e c e n t a n d
c o n t e m p o r a r y c o m p o s e r s , a m o n g t h e m S t r a v i n s k y , w r i t i n g m i n u t e sub-
divisions of pulses, w h i c h easily c o u l d a n d s h o u l d h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n in
l a r g e r units. A n o t h e r m i n o r b u t a p p r e c i a b l e source of Irritation in Stra-
v i n s k y ' s m u s i c is his h a b i t of f r e q u e n t l y h a v i n g a 2 / 1 6 f o l l o w e d b y a
2 / 8 instead of a 4 / 1 6 .
I n m a n y p l a c e s in t h e score of Le Sacre du Printemps, t h e c o m p o s e r
uses b a r lines a t a l m o s t every c o n c e i v a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y a n d t h e n p r o c e e d s
v i r t u a l l y to c o n t r a d i c t himself b y c o n n e c t i n g l a r g e r u n i t s w i t h tails. H e
has, m o r e o v e r , c o n t r a d i c t e d his o w n microscopic time-signatures in certain
P e r f o r m a n c e s w h i c h h e h a s h i m s e l f c o n d u c t e d . I n f a c t t h e Boosey a n d
H a w k e s score, o n t h e fly leaf, a c t u a l l y m a k e s a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n in one in-
s t a n c e t h a t s o m e of t h e s m a l l u n i t s b e c o m b i n e d i n t o o n e l a r g e one. T h e
n o t a t i o n of t h e score in this r e s p e c t is as logical as it w o u l d b e to s h o w a
9 / 4 b a r as a succession of t h r e e bars, e a c h of 3 / 4 ; or a 1 2 / 8 as a succession
of f o u r bars, e a c h of 3 / 8 .
It is s u g g e s t e d t h a t , in o r d e r to m a k e a S t r a v i n s k y score s i m p l e r to
r e a d in t i m e - b e a t i n g , t h e Student edit m a n y of t h e small b a r s into larger
u n i t s a n d b e a t t h e m so. H e r e a r e a f e w e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e " D a n s e
sacrale."
A t p a g e 115, b r a c e 1, no. 149: c o m b i n e b a r s 1 a n d 2 ( b e a t i n g t h r e e

SIMPLIFYING COMPLICATED TIME-SIGNATURES 11 7

Ex. 1 4 4 . Florent Schmitt: La Tragödie de Salome, " D a n s e des e c l a i r s " (From Le Chef d'orcbestre etson
equipe b y D. E. Inghelbrecht, u s e d b y permission of the publisher a n d Copyright o w n e r , Rene
Juliard, Poris.)

, (J'=126)

Ex. 1 4 5 . Inghelbrecht; Pour le /cur d e la premiere neige a u vieux Japan (From Le C h e f d'orchestre et son
equipe b y D. E. Inghelbrecht, u s e d b y permission of the publisher a n d Copyright o w n e r , Rene
Juliord, Poris.)

Ex. 1 4 6 . Inghelbrecht: Pour le pur de la premiere neige au vieux Japan (rewritten) (From Le Chef d ' o r -
chestre et son equipe by D . E. Inghelbrecht, u s e d b y permission of the publisher o n d Copyright
owner, Rene Juliord, Poris.)

plus two); bars 3 and 4 (two plus two); and bars 5 and 6 (two plus two).
At no. 150: combine bars 7 through 9 (three plus two plus two); and
bars 10 and 11 (two plus three). At brace 2: combine bars 1 and 2 (two
plus two). At no. 151: combine bars 3 through 5 (two plus three plus
three); and bars 6 and 7 (two plus two).
The Student may now go on and apply this principle to the following
passages: pages 116 through 122, pages 125 through 128, and pages 136
to the end of the score.
A related procedure, very helpful in certain modern works which
contain a welter of changes in time-signatures, is suggested by D. E.
Inghelbrecht in his Le Chef d'orchestre et son equipe (Paris, R e n e J u l l i a r d ,
1949; translated by G. Prerauer a n d S. Malcolm Kirk, The Conductor's
World, London, P. Nevill, 1953). He quotes from Florent Schmitt's La
Tragedie de Salome & passage which confused instrumentalists in 1908 and
which, it m a y be added, might confuse some even today. T h e passage
is here reproduced in Example 144. On one occasion, the conductor an-
nounced simply that he was beating the passage as if it were written in
7/8. The pattern, of course, is two down, two to the right, and three up.
Compare this passage to the 7/4 in Stravinsky's "Firebird" Suite near
the end of the score, and this pattern with Figures 91 and 92.
M . Inghelbrecht goes on to recall a conversation with his colleague,
M . Chevillard, back in 1906, concerning the beating of a passage from
M . Inghelbrecht's own work. T h e original Version is given in Example
145; he rewrote it later as Example 146.

118 TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHM

Ex. 147. Inghelbrecht: El G r e c o (From Le Chef d'orchestre et son equ/pe b y D. E. Inghelbrecht, used by
permission of the publisher and Copyright owner, Rene Juliard, Paris.)

(>-116)
S:' >±
,„1 i'fftirriiu

T h e pattern in the second Version should be three down, three to

the right, and two up for the first bar, and the same for the second bar.
But M. Chevillard was a d a m a n t about the method of beating he pre-
ferred, writes M. Inghelbrecht. "This measure," asserted M . Chevillard
stoutly (this was in 1906), "is an 8 / 8 , that is to say, a 4 / 4 . I will there-
fore beat it so." M. Inghelbrecht adds wryly that his colleague's system
of beating gave the passage " a n exotic flavor."
Writing such passages with indications in the time-signatures not
only for the n u m b e r of pulses but also for the main accents, a n d even
with numbers under the phrases, might save a lot of time and confusion
in rehearsal.
In the next quotation by M. Inghelbrecht (Ex. 147), which he aptly
terms "permutations of terno-binary a n d bino-ternary," the notation
for both conductor and player has been greatly simplified by the num-
bers placed under the notes to show the small pulse-units, by the number
after the time-signature, and by the dotted lines to show the main pulses.
The Student should now be able to evolve his own patterns for Example
147 a n d similar passages. T h e units of time should carefully be main-
tained, e.g., an eighth should remain an eighth regardless of duple or
triple combinations. Do not, in other words, make two eighths equal
three eighths.
This part of the discussion may dose with the reflection that some
composers, like some philosophers, seem to delight in expressing the sim-
plest thoughts in the most complicated manner possible.

SIMPLIFYING COMPLICATED TIME-SIGNATURES 119

 Chapter Sixteen

COMBINED RHYTHMS

The dijjiculty of beating combined r h y t h m s has been greatly exaggerated.

Any difHculty arising in the Performance of such combinations is almost
always due to the playing, not to the beating of these passages. Convic-
tion in playing such passages springs more from the routine of the play-
ers, the conductor's m e n t a l grasp of the music, a n d his pedagogical
talents, t h a n from any b a t o n technique.
T h e r e have been advocates of b e a t i n g simultaneous r h y t h m s with
different p a t t e r n s in each h a n d , b u t j u s t w h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r is to do
with only two h a n d s when there are three or more conflicting rhythms,
these advocates have never satisfactorily explained. Even when only two
patterns are involved, the spectacle of one h a n d contradicting the other
is apt to look like prestidigitation to some members of the audience. As
for the instrumentalists, there is the ever present d a n g e r that a section
of the orchestra m e a n t to be influenced by only one of the h a n d s m a y
be attracted by a conflicting pattern in the other h a n d , especially when
varying r h y t h m i c figures d a r t a b o u t the orchestra pit. T h e recommen-
d a t i o n is here given t h a t only one p a t t e r n be b e a t e n at any one time,
regardless of the n u m b e r of r h y t h m i c figures in the music. This recom-
mendation, however, does not nullify the idea that the left h a n d can and
should aid the right h a n d by indicating entrances, end beats, phrasing,
subdivisions, style, mood, a n d so on.
In so far as time-beating is concerned, simultaneous rhythmic patterns
should cause the conductor no more trouble kinetically t h a n one rhythmic
pattern. When difficulties arise, a n d admittedly they do arise sometimes,
they are usually due to the players' inability to feel the varying pulses.
R e m e d y i n g this defect is a m a t t e r of rehearsing. T h e c o n d u c t o r must
come to the first rehearsal so p r e p a r e d , with the music so clearly ana-

120 COMBINED RHYTHMS

Ex. 148. Debussy: L'Apres-midi d ' u n faune (Permission for reprint granted by J e a n J o b e r t , Paris; Elkan-
V o g e l C o . , Inc., U . S . A . Copyright owners.)

'!„. y i ' ^ - ' iUJ-^'

pp
J L k .. r^ n m . ^ M rs]

Stris.

lyzed, and knowing so exactly what he wants and h o w to explain his

wishes in orchestral parlance, that nothing remains but to iron out the
details.
Some passages, Hke Examples 148, 155, and 156, really contain con-
flicting pulses. W e must, however, again recall the truism that time-
signatures do not in themselves determine the number of strokes to the
bar; the speed of the music and the coincidence or lack of coincidence
of the main pulses are the determining Factors. W h e n one part of the
orchestra has only main accents to another part's main accents plus sub-
divisions, it can hardly be said that genuinely conflicting rhythms are in-
volved, however the time-signatures are written. This fact applies to two
against four, four against eight, six against twelve, two against six, three
against six, three against nine, four against twelve, etc. Even when one
group of Instruments has rapid two against three or multiples thereof (as
six against nine or eight against t w e l v e ) , a single stroke takes care of
each Unit of two against three. In such cases each stroke may be split
and a slight breath pause observed, so that the players of both duple and
triple figures may Interpret the stroke to suit their own parts (Exs.
149, 150).

Ex. 149. Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade ( C o p y r i g h t by M. P. BelaiefF Editions. U s e d by permission of

sole ogents, Boosey & Hawkes.)

Vivo ( i» = 160)

COMBINED RHYTHMS 121

Ex. 1 5 0 . T c h a i k o v s k y : S y m p h o n y N o . 4 . S e e a l s o : D e b u s s y , N o c t u r n e s , N o . 2 , " P e t e s , " w h e r e the w o o d -

w i n d s a r e in 1 5 / 8 , the strings in 5 / 4 .

Allegro con anima ^ J = 112 )

Tpte ^

f f f

Timp.

It is helpful to remember certain principles in the execution of simul-

taneous rhythmic patterns. The first is that when main pulses coincide,
two different time-signatures do not necessarily increase the conductor's
difficulty. Brisk 2/4 and 6/8, for example, are beaten two to the bar
whether they sound together or in succession. In Example 149, from
Rimsky-Korsakoff's Scheherezade, Part 4, the time-signature reads 2/8
(6/16 3/8). Part of the orchestra plays duple, part triple pulse. The
conductor has only to beat one to the bar, and each part interprets this
pattern to fit its own music. The music shifts back and forth here from
two to three pulses to the bar, but the conductor continues beating one
to the bar whether the different pulses follow each other or are played
together. Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony, first movement, at " P " in
the Breitkopf and Härtel edition (Example 150) shows the trumpets in
3/4 against 9/8 in the timpani. The main pulses coincide, so the con-
ductor simply beats three to the bar for all players.
The next principle to remember is that the players have their own
notes before them, and also that they have developed what has already
been referred to as a "time and space sense." This means that they can
easily fit into one or two strokes (and with a good orchestra into even
more strokes) any number of notes, so that each note in the group is
proportionate. Thus, when the baton makes a single stroke, players au-
tomatically fit into this motion groups of five notes, as in the "Storm
Scene" of Beethoven's Sixth Symphony; groups of five against six, as in
the second movement of Bruckner's First Symphony; groups of seven,
as in Ravel's Second "Daphnis and Chloe" Suite (at no. 187, Durand
et Fils, small score); or, for that matter, a handful of notes done glissando
on the harp, as in the final four bars of "Danse infernale du roi Kastchei"
in Stravinsky's "Firebird" Suite. In Stravinsky's Petrouchka (Kalmus
score, page 114), there are groups of five done in single strokes, four to
the bar, where five- and seven-note groups oppose each other. Then
follow groups of five opposing groups of four done to six strokes to the

122 COMBINED RHYTHMS

Ex. 151. Stravinsky: Pefrouchka (By permission of the Copyright owner, Boosey & Hawkes Inc.) S e e also:
Berlioz, Romeo and Julset (Eulenburg ediHon, page 271, brace 2, until l'istesso tempo on fhe fol-
lowing page), where a simple one to the bar (or t w o bors as one) holds together four pulses
agoinst three.

^ yJi. S: 4
i i
^ nr

Harp
h k
M
4 HP'
m " J-'t^ i i
Sog. Hn, Cl.
Bsn.' 2-
a
m
mp
Vcl. B.f ^
m m

bar. T h e players do not have the slightest trouble playing all this, be-
cause of their time a n d Space sense.
By m e a n s of the same faculty, players c a n also fit a n y n u m b e r of
notes into two strokes, regardless of the n u m b e r of opposing groupings.
T h u s in Honegger's Pacific 231 ( P h i l h a r m o n i a , small score, page 8, bar
4), there is a g r o u p of five notes done to two strokes. O n page 9, bar 2,
there is a g r o u p of seven notes played to two strokes. I n each case the
players fit in the m i d d l e note with ease. A k e y b o a r d player or harpist
has a real task in such combination passages; but in the orchestra each
p l a y e r is responsible for only o n e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n . If a n y difficulty
arises, each p a r t m a y be rehearsed alone a n d the r h y t h m d r u m m e d in
until it becomes a habit, before the parts are played together.

ONE TO THE BAR

A general principle for c o m b i n e d r h y t h m s is to take as few strokes
as possible. T h e simplest case is naturally one stroke to the bar, which
is illustrated by E x a m p l e 151, f r o m Petrouchka ( K a l m u s , small score,
page 84, 12th b a r after the allegretto). We have here a waltz, one to the
b a r , into w h i c h a 2 / 4 intrudes. I t w o u l d m a k e no difference at all if
other time-signatures a n d pulses were tacked on, so long as the conduc-
tor continued to beat one to the bar. To simplify the phrasing, he should
think of this passage as composed of two-measure groups. T h e players,
of course, need not k n o w a n y t h i n g a b o u t this technique. T h e y see, or
think they see, one stroke to the bar; whereas the conductor, if he wishes,

ONE TO THE BAR 123

Ex. 152. Berlioz: Roman Carnival Overture

Allegro assai con (uoco (J- = 156)

ga-

JP molto cresc.

ü
Tbns. ^

m
m a y beat two measures as one; one stroke down slightly to the right a n d
u p , a n d one d o w n again, slightly to t h e left a n d up. T h e odd measures
(1, 3, 5, etc.) h a v e the real d o w n beat, t h e even measures (2, 4, 6, etc.)
the adjusted u p stroke, b u t b e a t e n so closely together t h a t detection
depends almost u p o n explicit knowledge of w h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r is doing.

T W O TO THE BAR
It is an easy Step from b e a t i n g two bars as one to considering passages
with two difTerent r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n s w h i c h m a y be b e a t e n two to the
bar. T h u s , in Berlioz' Roman Carnival O v e r t u r e (Ex. 152), we have a time-
signature of 6 / 8 . T h e trombones have accents of O N E two T H R E E four
F I V E six, against O N E two t h r e e F O U R five six in t h e F r e n c h horns,
i.e., t h e r e are t h r e e against two pulses in each measure. T h i s conflict is
characteristic of some S p a n i s h music a n d of music of nations a n d com-
posers u n d e r Spanish influenae. O t h e r examples occur in Ravel's Spanish
Rhapsody, Debussy's La Mer, a n d Chabrier's Espana. Two to the b a r is the
p r o p e r r h y t h m p a t t e r n , t h o u g h the b a t o n m a y split t h e last t h i r d of the
down stroke a n d the first third of t h e u p stroke to aid the players having
t h e triple pulse. Some conductors actually c h a n g e from two to three a n d
vice versa w h e n these accents a r e consecutive, m a i n t a i n i n g t h e equality
of t h e Unit of t i m e - b e a t i n g , i.e., e i g h t h s e q u a l eighths, q u a r t e r s e q u a l
q u a r t e r s , etc.
Two pulses versus t h r e e s h o u l d be t a k e n in t h e smaller n u m b e r of
strokes w h e n possible. In Petrouchka ( K a l m u s , small score, at no. 13), we
have 2 / 4 taken two to the bar. At no. 14, fifteen measures later (Ex.
153), t h e oboes join the violins a n d violas with a triplet figure. Two strokes
to the b a r continues.
Two versus three pulses m a y also be taken in three strokes to the bar,
in which case the instrumentalists with d u p l e pulses take t h e down beat
a n d t h e first half of t h e second b e a t for t h e i r first pulse, a n d t h e second

124 COMBINED RHYTHMS

Ex. 1 5 3 . Strovinsky: Pefrouchko (By permission of the Copyright owner, B o o s e y & H a w k e s Inc.)

(J = 126)
t f t
Jl'f ^ f f
Vln. II
— ^

Vif
J i j J

t ^
Pic.

rrf tFrrrrf r; i
1
3

Vln. I
- Vl.i. « ^
A^'-j f t r l ^ 1 ff
LJ £3= 6

fs r f f ^ ^-i—1
r r r=
J» J» Jl T J> J»

^ — ^
r j J i i
-f f
cJ—LJ *
half of the second beat a n d the u p beat for their second pulse. T h e con-
ductor may split the second stroke to aid the players. Such cases do
occur, as in Example 154, where the preceding music has established the
triple pulse so firmly that a change might endanger the ensemble. In
general, however, one should choose to beat the smallest number of
strokes possible.

T W O T O THE B A R 125
Ex. 154. Strauss: Ein Heldenleben (Published by F. E. C. Leuckhart; used by permission of Associated
Music Publishers, Inc.)

( J = 100)
ljll.l., p-

dim. f
^^ Vcl HJ. j g ^
'•l^-ß

- r

T h e finale of the M u s s o r g s k y - R a v e l Pictures at an Exhibition ( " L a

G r a n d e Porte de K i e v " ) a n d measures 14-17 (counting from the end)
of Berlioz' Harold in Italy offer two more good examples of places where
two to the bar is kept up though the prevailing pulse is triple.
It is easy to m a i n t a i n a firm ensemble with two strokes to the bar
against a n y other pulse, c o m b i n a t i o n of pulses, or groupings of notes,
provided that two strokes to the bar is sufficient to keep the tempo fiow-
ing. T h u s in Petrouchka, p a g e 11, b a r s 3 a n d 4 ( K a l m u s , s m a l l score),
there is 5/8 against 2/4 (4/8). Already established is the whirling figure
in the violins, a sort of inverted basso ostinato, which acts as musical pivot.
T h e players with the four eighths take two on the down stroke and two
on the up; those with the five eighths fit in the third eighth without any
trouble. On p a g e 98, last b a r of the s a m e work, the time signature is 6/8
(12/16) against the two piccolo-oboe five-note groups. Two strokes to the
bar will give all the Support the players need for a firm ensemble at this
place.
Rimsky-Korsakoff's "Golden Cockerel" Suite at bar 21, Part 2, "King
Dodon on the Battlefield," presents 4/4 against 6/4 in alla breve. Here
there a r e four eighth notes against three q u a r t e r notes to e a c h stroke;
a n d since the measure divides exactly into half, two strokes to the bar
solves the problem simply.
In the same composer's Russian Easter, each of the four measures be-
fore the allegro agitato ( K a l m u s , s m a l l score, p a g e 12) contains fifteen
notes in the harp part against eight eighth notes in the clarinet. Again,
two to the b a r is sufficient. T h e h a r p p l a y s seven notes on each stroke
a n d fits in the middle one between strokes.

F O U R TO THE BAR
From two strokes to the b a r against three pulses, we proceed to four
to the bar against six pulses, a fairly common combination (Exs. 155 and
156). A g a i n we take the smaller n u m b e r of strokes, four. T h e players

126 COMBINED RHYTHMS

Ex. 1 5 5 . D e l i u s ; Appalachia ( B y p e r m i s s i o n o f the C o p y r i g h t o w n e r , B o o s e / & H a w k e s Inc.)

Fig. 1 1 4

Ex. 1 5 6 . W a g n e r : P r e l u d e to Parsifal

m
nn m
— 7

with four pulses take one pulse for each stroke; those with the six pulses
take three pulses to each two strokes. In other words, we beat six as four
(see Figure 114). This maneuver often impresses auditors as being quite
intricate and difficult.
When the music calls for four units against six and the six pulse has
been already well established before the four pulse enters, it is sometimes
the better part of valor to adopt some sort of six pattern, or better still,
a simple two pattern subdivided into six (Figs. 23 and 24). T h e elemen-
tary mathematics involved should cause no reasonably good ensemble
any concern. For instance, in E x a m p l e 157, from Bruckner's Second
Symphony, the oboe solo enters with four pulses to the bar after a string

F O U R T O THE B A R 127
Ex. 157. Bruckner: S y m p h o n y N o . 2. S e e also: Strauss, Also sprach Zarafhustra; Chabrier, Gwendoline
O v e r t u r e ; W a g n e r , Siegfried, "Forest Murmurs."

Very slowly ( J = 9^-96)

Ob. .

Pdolce

Ä F F F i
PP •

r ^ r ^Nr r r J

pizzicato has already established a six pattern. The conductor beats two
subdivided as six. T h e oboe holds the first half note for the down beat
and its subdivisions; it plays the subsequent quarter note on the second
stroke a n d half the next subdivision, a n d the last q u a r t e r note of the
bar on the second half of the subdivision just delineated and through the
last subdivision of the up beat. T h e second bar of the quotation may be
done the same way.
It was the quaint custom of some conductors in central Europe, until
at least the early 1920's, to conduct this passage beating four to the bar
with one hand and six with the other. This is not only unnecessary but
may easily cause confusion when orchestral eyes looking at one pattern
stray to the other. A few minutes of proper rehearsing should iron out
any uncertainty in the passage.

THREE TO THE BAR

Measures containing three pulses with other pulses against them and
Galling for three strokes to the bar present little more difficulty than the
cases considercd heretofore.
Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, at the last measure before the double

Ex. 158. Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 9

Adagio ma non troppo ^ <J. = 60)

128 COMBINED RHYTHMS

f u g u e in 6 / 4 (page 239 of the Breitkopf a n d H ä r t e l edition), offers a case
of eight sixteenths against t h r e e q u a r t e r s , t h r e e times. Consider the
second measure of the 3 / 2 in E x a m p l e 158, which is being done three to
t h e bar. T h e d u p l e pulse of t h e sixteenths in t h e strings a n d especially
on t h e low A roll in t h e t i m p a n o , coupled with the implied calando a n d
riienuto, calls for t h e u t m o s t clarity a n d precision. It is suggested here
t h a t t h e first beat be given so t h a t t h e d o w n stroke a n d r e b o u n d imply
subdivisions, t h a t the second stroke be split into two parts, a n d t h a t the
t h i r d stroke be actually given as two detailed parts, each p a r t split with
a b r e a t h pause. T h e players with t h e d u p l e pulses will, of course, have
n o t r o u b l e following this Splitting i n t o e q u a l p a r t s of t h e strokes; the
wood winds, p l a y i n g triplets on e a c h stroke, m a y be aided by a b r e a t h
pause between t h e quasi subdivisions. T h e conductor should execute the
split beats in as s t r a i g h t a line as possible, to give t h e p l a y e r s t h e Im-
pression t h a t he is still giving the stroke as a whole.
W h e n t h r e e pulses p l a y a g a i n s t six, n i n e , or twelve, t h e y m a y be
treated simply as m a i n beats with subdivisions a n d there is t h e n no
Problem, of course. But when three pulses are played against seven, as in
Petrouchka (pages 10, 18, a n d 28, K a l m u s small score), we h a v e a choice
of t w o courses. T h e easier w a y is to h a v e t h e m a i n pulses coincide by
m a k i n g t h r e e of t h e notes in t h e seven g r o u p a triplet. T h i s t h e com-
poser has kindly done for us, a n d he has so a r r a n g e d the first three notes
as to leave the last four for the two final pulses, which h a p p i l y coincide
with the prevailing accents elsewhere. If this Solution h a d not been
possible, a n d t h e composer h a d written his music to call for seven equal
pulses against t h e rest of t h e c o n t e x t , t h e only a l t e r n a t i v e w o u l d have
been to give t h r e e strokes a n d to t r a i n t h e players to divide t h e seven
notes into this p a t t e r n t h r o u g h their time a n d space sense. This alterna-
tive, frankly, would not be comfortable, a n d a very good orchestra indeed
would be r e q u i r e d to execute it convincingly. T h r e e strokes against four,
or vice versa, presents t h e s a m e p r o b l e m a n d requires t h e s a m e Solution.
Also in Petrouchka, p a g e 11, last b a r , t h e r e a r e e i g h t e i g h t h notes
against t h r e e q u a r t e r notes ( 1 2 / 1 6 ) . Beat three strokes, Splitting the
second stroke in the center so t h a t the g r o u p having eight notes apportions
f o u r notes to t h e d o w n b e a t a n d t h e first half of the second b e a t , a n d
t h e other four notes to t h e last half of t h e second beat a n d t h e u p beat.
I n Le Sacre du Printemps ( K a l m u s , small score, page 63, b a r 2), there is a
basso ostinato, three beats to the b a r with a five-note g r o u p t a k i n g u p the
last two strokes. A n o t h e r such case m a y be f o u n d in Ravel's Spanish
Rhapsody on p a g e 62 in t h e m i n i a t u r e score ( D u r a n d et Fils). N o t e the
five-pulse b a r in t h e solo clarinet against t h e three pulses elsewhere.

THREE TO THE BAR 129

Ex. 159. Berlioz: Domnah'on of Fausf
AUcgro (j.^10^)

Andante (J 'St)

m m
MULTIPLE BARS TAKEN AS ONE
H e c t o r Berlioz, in his b o o k Art of the Conductor, discusses a n e x c e r p t
f r o m his o w n The Damnation of Faust, h e r e r e p r o d u c e d in E x a m p l e 159.
T h e p r i n c i p l e to be e x t r a c t e d f r o m this p a s s a g e is t h a t , w h e n possible,
o n e s h o u l d c o m b i n e s e v e r a l single m e a s u r e s i n t o o n e l a r g e g r o u p a n d
t h i n k of t h e m in t h e r e s u l t a n t n e w t i m e - s i g n a t u r e . I n t h i s e x c e r p t we
m a y c o n s i d e r t h e t h r e e s h o r t b a r s as o n e l o n g b a r in 1 8 / 8 . We proceed
to b e a t this l o n g b a r as t h r e e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o six, a n d e a c h section of
t h e o r c h e s t r a i n t e r p r e t s t h e p a t t e r n t o suit its o w n m u s i c a l text (see Fig-
u r e 29). T h u s , t h e 6 / 8 ( 1 8 / 8 ) p l a y e r s get o n e s u b d i v i d e d pulse for e a c h
t h r e e eighths, while t h e 3 / 4 players get o n e m a i n pulse for e a c h q u a r t e r .
I n c o n s i d e r i n g his n e x t e x c e r p t f r o m his o w n " H a r o l d " S y m p h o n y
(Ex. 160), Berlioz expresses t h e f e a r t h a t giving subdivisions m i g h t con-
f u s e t h e p l a y e r s . O b v i o u s l y , o r c h e s t r a s of his t i m e w e r e n o t w h a t t h e y
m i g h t h a v e b e e n ; this p r o c e d u r e w o u l d c a u s e n o r i p p l e a m o n g players
t o d a y . T h e passage is b e a t e n in t w o s u b d i v i d e d ( a d a p t e d to legato so t h a t
e a c h subdivision splits a n d h a s a t i n y b r e a t h p a u s e ) .
A n i n t e r e s t i n g e x c e r p t f r o m S p o h r ' s The Birth of Music ( q u o t e d in
D e l d e v e z ' s L'Art du chef d'orchestre), w h i c h is p r e s e n t e d h e r e in E x a m p l e

Ex. 160. Berlioz; Harold in Italy

AUegteno (J. = 63)

m
AllegroassaL (J. = 138)

"i iiii^i ii i IHHi^l ii i

i ^ ^ if

130 COMBINED RHYTHMS

E x . 161. Spohr: The Birth of Musk

Aadandn« (/-W
Lf: y ti
H-t c; f
1 1 M —1-
P — ^ ^^—

..

j j ^ j ^ j ij j j j .1 j iJ J .i J J J

.1 /JJ J J -.rJlJ aJ J ,7JJ

161, yields easily e n o u g h to analysis. S p o h r himself suggested t h a t the

c o n d u c t o r (or violinist-director) m a r k e a c h sixteenth note with u p a n d
d o w n beats of the b a t o n or bow. W h i l e this primitive Solution is q u i t e
feasible, it is far better to think of the passage as " e d i t e d " in E x a m p l e
162, a n d to beat it simply in b r o a d two to the bar. W i t h t h e slight revi-
sions in t h e second version, the t e m p o is n o t h i n g more complicated t h a n
two against three, with a held B flat; t h e players c a n i n t e r p r e t t h e beat
in a n y desired m a n n e r .
T h e waltz in Stravinsky's Histoire du soldat offers an a p t illustration in
this connection (no. 22, p a g e 45, Chester small score). T h e solo pianoforte
a r r a n g e m e n t (Ex. 163) has two staves, with 4 / 4 in t h e u p p e r staff a n d
3 / 4 in t h e lower staff, for twelve b a r s until " R a g t i m e . " T h e small score
(Ex. 164), however, has e v e r y t h i n g neatly d o n e in 3 / 4 , w i t h accents to

Ex. 162. Spohr: The Birth of Music (edited)

• j ' i f r f mm r

MULTIPLE BARS TAKEN AS ONE 131

Ex. 163. Stravinsky: Histoire du soldat (By permission of J. & W , ehester, Ltd., London ond of G . Schirmer,
Inc., New York.)

Valse ( J - 184-192)

'C- r t j r ir T/r ti-r

p sui.

^ 1 ij J , l.j J 1 4 =
1 J J j
show where the conflicting pulses come. (In the quoted excerpt here one
staff is omitted, that of the cornei ä pistons, which enters later.)
As the music is written in the official pianoforte arrangement, one
should consider the over-all time-signature as being 1 2 / 4 (consisting of
three 4 / 4 and four 3 / 4 measures), which may be beaten four down, four
to the right, and four up. T h e passage might easily have been written
more simply, as it was in the small score. In the latter, the over-all time-
signature is 12/4 (but this time four against three). It may now be beaten
simply with four main strokes subdivided as twelve, i.e., three 4 / 4
measures equal four 3 / 4 measures, making one large 1 2 / 4 measure. The
part playing the waltz will follow naturally; the part with the four
quarter notes in the original measures may be aided with slight stresses
of the baton where the accents occur.
T h e principle to be extracted from this excerpt is that in such cases
it is wise to make one over-all measure from enough measures of the
conflicting rhythmic patterns so that each of the conflicting rhythmic
patterns can be divided evenly into it, i.e., the large measure contains
enough small measures to constitute the least common denominator.
Pierre Monteux and other conductors have followed this system of

Ex. 164. Stravinsky; Histoire du Soldat (edited) (By permission of J . & W . ehester, Ltd., London ond of
G . Schirmer, Inc., N e w York.)
Cl.
if
i psuh.

p sub.
m
m
sSr>

psuh.
m
Stib,

132 COMBINED RHYTHMS

Ex. 165. Brohms: S y m p h o n y N o . 2
AUegro 13Z)
Ww.

Ex. 166. Brahms: S y m p h o n y N o . 2 (edited)

^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
i
tf'"' j i ^ j J'i i M j i.M" I' I .Iii

simplification on more t h a n one occasion in conducting Stravinsky's

works. Stravinsky himself has been known to "simplify" his scores (or
permit his editors to do so for him), and he has certainly practiced similar
procedures in conducting his own music. There is, therefore, nothing dis-
respectful about this principle. It is, of course, very useful for all com-
binations of multiple rhythms; for instance, in combined 5 / 8 and 3/8,
one may think of the passage as in 15/8.
In this discussion of the way some composers habitually use the most
complicated notation possible, there comes to mind the famous passage
from the last movement of Brahms's Symphony No. 2, which occurs the
first time at bar 130, the second time at bar 333 (see E x a m p l e 165).
Can one say that his music has lost anything by keeping the notation
simple, when he might have written something like Example 166?

MULTIPLE B A R S T A K E N A S O N E 133
MORE THAN TWO SIMULTANEOUS PATTERNS
M a n y passages which at first glance seem to have more t h a n two
s i m u l t a n e o u s p a t t e r n s reveal a f t e r inspection t h a t this is not really so
from the point of view of the conductor. Thus, a glance at Example 167,
the oft-quoted passage f r o m the "Ballroom Scene" in Mozart's Don
Giovanni (pages 172-173, Peters edition), usually considered as contain-
ing three distinct rhythmic patterns, will show t h a t three measures of 3 / 8
m a y be considered simply as one m e a s u r e in 9 / 8 , a n d t h a t the m a i n
pulses of this long measure coincide with those in the single 3 / 4 measure.
We have now left n o t h i n g m o r e f o r m i d a b l e t h a n a d u p l e pulse in 2 / 4
against a triple pulse in 3 / 4 . T h e traditional Solution is to give all down
beats. It is recommended here that this procedure be followed, with the
qualification t h a t the first stroke of every three be of füll length with a
long rebound a n d that the following two strokes be taken down also, but
shorter in length. This passage usually intrigues auditors, who think it is
very difficult to conduct, especially because the action calls for dancing
a n d stage business. It is really quite simple.
T h e passage m a y easily be rewritten or t h o u g h t of with the 2 / 4 as a
3 / 4 , a n d accents placed where the b a r lines formerly showed the begin-
ning of the measures. T h e passage could then be taken three to the bar
without any mental confusion whatever (see Example 168).
Giving all d o w n beats a m e a s u r e in this fashion is also h e l p f u l in
holding together a m a t e u r a n d e d u c a t i o n a l organizations, which often
need exaggerated motions to keep t h e m f r o m swaying. A n e a t device
consists of giving the regulär patterns of a measure with the right hand
a l o n e a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e giving all d o w n beats with t h e left h a n d
raised high above the right. Here too, the down beat is to be longer than
the other strokes in the measure. T h e right h a n d m a y be reserved for the
orchestra players; the left aimed at the stage singers to comfort, reassure,
encourage, exhort, a n d console.

DEBUSSY'S LA M ER
T h r e e passages of u n u s u a l r h y t h m i c interest, which at times have
caused concern, m a y now be considered in some detail. T h e first occurs
in Debussy's La Mer ( D u r a n d et Fils, small score, page 17). T h e length
of the quotations considered in this section makes it impossible to include
t h e m in this volume; so the Student is referred to the scores themselves.
T h e two pages preceding this passage have already established a rhythm
of six to the bar. O n page 17, this six pulse is m a i n t a i n e d by the flutes,
oboes, English horn, clarinets, French horns, a n d violins. T h e bassoons
a n d Contrabasses have three q u a r t e r notes to the measure, which should

134 COMBINED RHYTHMS

Ex. 167. Mozart: Don Giovanni

f J - 104)
3rd Orch» . .
rrfrr 1 1, n j 1
1
' ' " ' hl 11 11»t
=
2iid Orch.

V ^f 1 r L J \r'^r r 'f= h»—i

'p 1'
Ist Orch.

-^tt-i . i—i—i—i—r
r^ f ff ^ ^r i' ^

J ^ r 1

1- i r ptfr11 r^t^
1^2 J-L.'J 7 1 ^ r1i TJr ' ru1. 1. EXr^i
1—''' 111

di r • \ m — r - T R. 11j J r L«. ^l O1
JT_-:
U
tg^ L-T j ^^

W) 1 1 J1 J1 J1 J= 1

ll'^'^ r ^ r

Ex. 1 6 8 . Mozart: Don Giovanni (edited)

lif i Y 'r V irTfrr^tQi

f f l H r I u

D E B U S S Y ' S LA M E R 135
 h a r d l y cause a n y a d d e d c o n c e r n , for it m e r e l y m e a n s a case of confiict-
ing a c c e n t s a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d : O N E t w o t h r e e F O U R five six against
O N E t w o T H R E E f o u r F I V E six. T h e m u t e d t r u m p e t ( s o m e t i m e s tri-
p l e d h e r e to b r i n g o u t its line in t h e o r c h e s t r a l w e b ) h a s t h r e e e i g h t h
notes for t h e first half of b a r s one a n d t h r e e , a n d t w o d o t t e d eighth notes
for t h e last h a l f of t h e first m e a s u r e , w i t h q u a r t e r n o t e s in t h e second
measure.
B e a t e n six to t h e b a r , as is t h e u s u a l p r a c t i c e , t h e t r u m p e t h a s only
t o p l a y o n e e i g h t h n o t e t o e a c h s t r o k e of t h e b a t o n , o n e d o t t e d e i g h t h
for a stroke a n d a half, a n d o n e q u a r t e r for t w o strokes. T h e o t h e r parts
h a v e n o t r o u b l e in following a six to t h e b a r p a t t e r n , e x c e p t t h e h a r p s ,
violas, a n d cellos, w h i c h all h a v e eight notes to t h e m e a s u r e . T h i s m e a n s
t h a t these p l a y e r s m u s t fit in f o u r n o t e s for e a c h h a l f m e a s u r e to t h r e e
strokes of t h e b a t o n . It r e q u i r e s a v e r y good o r c h e s t r a i n d e e d to p e r f o r m
this feat with neatness, for it very rarely comes off w i t h conviction a n d ease.
T h e u s u a l r e a s o n given for b e a t i n g six to t h e b a r h e r e is t h a t t h e pre-
c e d i n g pages h a v e so firmly established t h e six pulse in t h e m i n d s of t h e
players that a n y change might e n d a n g e r the ensemble. Nevertheless, I
r e c o m m e n d t h a t this e x c e r p t b e t a k e n f o u r to t h e b a r , a n d t h a t t h e four
pulse b e s t a r t e d o n e b a r e a r l y (at no. 8, t h e last b a r o n p a g e 16), a pre-
c a u t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d serve to establish t h e c h a n g e in p a t t e r n . G a r e
should be t a k e n to m a k e t h e four pulses e q u a l in d u r a t i o n to t h e preced-
i n g six. T h e w h o l e p a s s a g e , t h e n , is o n l y a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of o u r c i d
f r i e n d , f o u r a g a i n s t six. T h e first b a r o n p a g e 18 is t a k e n in t h r e e sub-
d i v i d e d as six (see F i g u r e 29).

STRAVINSKY'S LE SACRE DU PRINTEMP5

T h e s e c o n d passage for d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n occurs in Stravinsky's
Le Sacre o n p a g e s 6 0 - 6 1 (füll score) a t no. 70. T h e s i g n a t u r e , 6 / 4 , has
g r o w n n a t u r a l l y o u t of t h e p r e c e d i n g 4 / 4 . T h e c o m p o s e r c o n t i n u e s t h e
f o u r p u l s e in t h e percussion section ( t i m p a n i , bass d r u m , t a m - t a m , a n d
g u e r o ) , a g a i n s t t h e six p u l s e e l s e w h e r e . To a d d to t h e possibility of in-
decision, s o m e of t h e p l a y e r s e x e c u t e a n e u t r a l succession of six q u a r t e r
notes, w h i l e o t h e r s (especially t h e b r a s s ) p l a y O N E t w o T H R E E four
F I V E six, a sort of 3 / 2 .
A g a i n w e h a v e w h a t a m o u n t s to a f o u r pulse against a six pulse, a n d
it is q u i t e possible to b e a t it as such. T h e t e x t u r e is so c o m p l e x , however,
t h a t I r e c o m m e n d t h a t t h e u s u a l f o u r - b e a t p a t t e r n b e given as six,
a d a p t e d to look like a s t r a i g h t line to t h e w a t c h e r s , as m u c h as possible
Fig. 115 (see F i g u r e 115). T h i s p r o c e d u r e gives t h e p l a y e r s t h e Illusion t h e y a r e
seeing a k i n d of t w o to t h e b a r . I n s u c h i n v o l v e d passages, t h e a i m should

136 COMBINED R H Y T H M S
be to give t h e simplest p a t t e r n possible in t h e fewest n u m b e r of strokes,
p a i r i n g as m a n y motions in t h e s a m e direction as possible, in order to
give the players every aid in using their time a n d space sense. T h e players
h a v i n g t h e d u p l e pulse will I n t e r p r e t t h e f o u r strokes easily e n o u g h to
suit their p a r t s , while t h e p l a y e r s h a v i n g six pulses will p l a y half the
measure to the d o w n a n d half to the u p stroke, i.e., three pulses to each
subdivision. O n c e the players know this routine, it m a y be quite feasible
to try beating slow four as six. T h e time-signature m a y be thought of as
1 2 / 8 r a t h e r t h a n the written 6 / 4 . A helpful device, also, is to run a dotted
line d o w n the two pages, cutting e a c h m e a s u r e in half. T h e players will
then feel they a r e merely playing four against six twice in the same
measure.
O u r t h i r d special passage for d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n occurs at no.
134, pages 106-107, also in Le Sacre. T h e preceding measure, the last on
p a g e 105, is t a k e n in t h r e e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o six, a n d it establishes the
p a t t e r n for the two succeeding pages. F o u r horns with their bells in the
air a n d t h r e e oboes a r e c a r r y i n g the m a i n melodic line, a n d t h e atten-
tion of t h e c o n d u c t o r is n a t u r a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e m . O n page
107, two flutes, an echoing piccolo, a n d the first violins play twelve notes
to each stroke. T h e t h i r d flute, t h e alto flute in G, t h e clarinets, a n d the
second violins h a v e four notes to each stroke. T h e other players h a v e to
be c o n t e n t with two a n d even only one note to each stroke. Stripped of
r u n n i n g figures a n d written out in skeletal notation, the rhythmic simplic-
ity of t h e a r a b e s q u e pages emerges. If t h e pages are t a k e n in three sub-
divided, slowly a n d distinctly, t h e ensemble should be quite firm. Figure
29 m a y be a d a p t e d to this passage by giving t h e down beat with a rebound
to the Center, the first subdivision again down with its own rebound, and
t h e second a n d t h i r d beats of t h e m o d e l e a c h divided in t h e c e n t e r of
their strokes.
A passage in this category, a l r e a d y referred to, occurs in t h e " F e r i a "
of Ravel's Spanish Rhapsody (last b a r , page 62, D u r a n d small score), where
the solo clarinet plays five pulses against t h r e e in the rest of t h e orchestra.
T h e c o n d u c t o r m a i n t a i n s t h e established t h r e e to t h e b a r , t a k i n g care to
m a k e the model as r o u n d as possible a n d creating an Illusion of one con-
tinuous line. T h i s enables the players to m e a s u r e mentally the start a n d
end of the model a n d m a k e use of their time a n d space sense.
Another interesting passage with c o m b i n e d pulses occurs in R i c h a r d
Strauss's Salome, w h e r e the o r c h e s t r a is in 3 / 4 while t h e voice p a r t , in
4 / 4 , sings " U n d b r u t a l e u n g e s c h l a c h t e R ö m e r mit i h r e r p l u m p e n
S p r a c h e . " T h e voice p a r t m i g h t also h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n in 3 / 4 , using
a p p r o p r i a t e d o t t e d lines a n d accents, with n o loss in effect. As it is

STRAVINSKY'S LE SACRE DU PRINTEMPS 137

 written, if taken three to the bar it should cause no trouble. Another
passage worth dose study by the Student is the last scene of Wagner's
Götterdämmerung, in which three different time-signatures occur simul-
taneously.
Although the usual rhythmic problems which a conductor meets in
his ordinary routine have been considered in this chapter, it is quite
possible to run across music which suggests cunningly wrought acoustical
juxtapositions rather than emotional urge. It is admittedly conceivable
to put on paper rhythmic combinations which could tax the ingenuity
and technical powers of any conductor or orchestra, and which might
even produce interesting intellectual results. Passages more complicated
than those here considered may perhaps be encountered, though such
a contingency is doubtful; for although more mathematical complication
than we have studied is indeed possible, such passages would suggest
"eye" rather than " e a r " music.

138 C O M B I N E D RHYTHMS
Part Two

STYLE A N D I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
 Chapter Seventeen

TEMPO

T h e whole d u t y of a c o n d u c t o r is comprised in his ability always to in-

dicate the right tempo. His choice of tempos will show w h e t h e r he under-
stands the piece or not. With good players, moreover, the true tempo induces
correct phrasing a n d expression; a n d conversely, with a conductor, the idea
of a p p r o p r i a t e phrasing will induce the conception of the true tempo. This,
however, is by no means so simple a m a t t e r as it appears.
R i c h a r d W a g n e r , On Conducting, 1869

We come now to t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d physical skills we

h a v e b e e n s t u d y i n g to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e d e m a n d s of m u s i c . O n e of t h e
m o s t v e x i n g q u e s t i o n s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e S t u d e n t a t this stage of his w o r k is,
" H o w c a n one d e t e r m i n e t h e correct t e m p o of a given passage?" O n t h e
a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n d e p e n d s t h e c h o i c e of p a t t e r n , a n d f a i l u r e to
r e c o g n i z e t h e c o r r e c t t e m p o a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e c o r r e c t p a t t e r n lies
a t t h e r o o t of m a c h c o n f u s e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e p r o b l e m is especially
a c u t e in m u s i c of past generations. Yet it c a n n o t b e solved for t h e Student
b y a categorical a n s w e r to his q u e s t i o n .
I n m o d e r a t e t e m p o s it is q u i t e possible, m e t r o n o m i c a l l y speaking, to
b e a t t w o or four, t h r e e or six, f o u r or eight, in exactly t h e s a m e n u m b e r
of seconds. O n e c o n d u c t o r m a y t a k e a g i v e n p a s s a g e w i t h f e w e r beats
t h a n a n o t h e r ; a t h i r d c o n d u c t o r m a y use s u b d i v i s i o n s . M u s i c a l l y t h e
r e s u l t is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t o t h e e y e a n d e a r , u p o n b o t h p e r f o r m e r s a n d
a u d i t o r s , a n d is a t o n c e a p p a r e n t .

FASHION AND TRADITION IN TEMPO

M a n y t h i n k t e m p o s in g e n e r a l a r e s o m e w h a t f a s t e r t o d a y t h a n they
were a g e n e r a t i o n ago. It is a f a c t t h a t s o m e n a t i o n s " f e e l " m u s i c faster
or slower t h a n d o o t h e r n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . O n e h a s b u t to listen to a

FASHION AND TRADITION IN TEMPO 141

Beethoven, Debussy, or Tchaikovsky composition successively interpreted
b y F r e n c h , G e r m a n , I t a l i a n , a n d R u s s i a n c o n d u c t o r s to realize how
strikingly different are their conceptions of tempo. DifFerent orchestras
of different nationalities have varying reflexes, as do even orchestras in
different cities of the same country. T h e same conductor has been known
to vary in tempo a n d beating in successive Performances of the same work.
Fashions change. Fritz Recktenwald's Ueber das Dirigieren, written in
V i e n n a in 1929, contains the following revealing passage. " T h i r t y years
ago it was the fashion to interpret Bach with all the eighths beaten out.
T h e allegros in Beethoven's First a n d Second Symphonies were still beaten
in four to the bar. This does not enter anyone's head nowadays . . . T h e
allegros are now taken two to the bar, the Bach music in slow four, and
here a n d there, as the melodic line broadens, the eighths are articulated.
Similarly, the S t o r m Scene (despite Beethoven's alla breve directions),
used to be given in rather slow four. This is no longer necessary, for even
Choral societies (with few exceptions) have got away from the beating of
each subdivision." Perusal of literature on musical interpretation of half
a Century ago will reveal m a n y similar instances of varying conceptions
in tempos a n d time-beating.
Advice to students to go to tradition for guidance is fairly common.
But is so-called t r a d i t i o n always, or even generally, safe? H a s it not a
facility for easy accretion? Is it not sometimes the result of the question-
able taste or egocentricity or even megalomania of some conductors who
were worshipped temporarily? M a n y of Weingartner's strictures on von
Bülow in the former's On Conducting were largely justified. Finally, there
is t h e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e liability of honest error in oral a n d aural
transmission.

COMPOSERS' AND CONDUCTORS' TEMPOS

Shall we rely always upon the composer's own words or Performances?
A n experience concerning D u k a s ' The Sorcerer's Apprenüce a n d Arturo
Toscanini shows t h a t this is not always wise, even w h e n it is possible.
D u k a s , who h a d written in the m e t r o n o m e m a r k s himself, attended a
Performance of the work u n d e r Toscanini's direction in Paris some years
ago. After the P e r f o r m a n c e he expressed his puzzlement at what he
t h o u g h t was the conductor's excessive speed in some places. T h e conduc-
tor's reply was to point to the m e t r o n o m e marks. T h e composer subse-
quently admitted, at least indirectly, that either his original marks were
wrong or that he h a d changed his mind. A short time after this episode,
the publishers of the work issued a badly m i m e o g r a p h e d note with many
changes in t e m p o , even suppressing the direction " r h y t h m e ternaire."

TEMPO
 H e r e follows t h e publisher's c o r r e c t e d version.
Page 1—Asse^ lent / = 90 to 103 instead of J = 44
Page 2—Vif ; = 168 instead of ; = 176
Page 3 — / " moatii / = 103 instead o f J = 44
Vif ; . = 168 instead o f i = 176
Page Vif J = 116 instead of J = 126
(Elide the " r y h t h m e ternaire.")
Page 41 -—Plus anime add J.= 120
Page 48—Tre^ vif. add J. = 146
Page i9—Relenu add J = 80
Page 50—P/m^ re^CTM 68 instead of J.= 80
Page 51—^ teOTj&o add J. = 116
Page 59—8th Measure add "Tres legerement retenu"
Page 60—^ temjfto add J.= 116
(N.B. T h e Celeste may replace the Glockenspiel)

As a finishing t o u c h , let us a d d t h a t t h e e m e n d a t e d version issued by

t h e p u b l i s h e r s also c o n t a i n s o b v i o u s e r r o r s a n d t h a t even F r e n c h con-
d u c t o r s differ in t h e i r ideas of t e m p o in this w o r k , e.g., this w r i t e r has
h e a r d t h e d o t t e d - e i g h t h m e a s u r e s o n p a g e 50 a n d at no. 42 v a r y f r o m
m e t r o n o m e m a r k i n g s 50 to 70.
O n o n e occasion R a v e l , a f t e r h e a r i n g his Bolero c o n d u c t e d b y Tos-
c a n i n i , m a d e it q u i t e e v i d e n t t h a t he d i d n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e t e m p o s
a d o p t e d . S t r a v i n s k y c o n d u c t s his o w n works at c e r t a i n t e m p o s a n d has
b e e n k n o w n occasionally to criticize a n o t h e r c o n d u c t o r for t a k i n g t h e
s a m e t e m p o s . G e o r g e B e r n a r d S h a w , in a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h this writer,
w h i c h was p u b l i s h e d in t h e New Tork Herald Tribüne on J u n e 25, 1939, re-
called t h a t "Siegfried W a g n e r once b o r e d his listeners almost to anesthesia
in t h e Meistersinger P r e l u d e b y his u n c o n s c i o n a b l y d r a g g i n g t e m p o s . To-
w a r d t h e e n d of t h e piece, w h e n t h e critics h a d l o n g since d e p a r t e d , he
achieved t h e a p p a r e n t l y impossible by slowing u p still more, a n d t h e au-
d i e n c e b e c a m e electrified a n d g a v e h i m a n o v a t i o n . " N o w if t h e son of a
composer, w h o h a d a n u n p a r a l l e l e d o p p o r t u n i t y to a b s o r b traditional
t e m p o s first-hand, so e r r e d ( a n d this h a s b e e n a f f i r m e d b y o t h e r com-
p e t e n t h e a r e r s ) , w h a t a r e we t o say a b o u t t r a d i t i o n ?
I n r e l a t e d v e i n , w e find these lines i n A l f r e d P o c h o n ' s Musique
d'autrefois—Interpretation d'aujourd'hui ( G e n e v a , H e n n , 1943). " I t is k n o w n
as a m a t t e r of fact t h a t t h e t h r e e g r e a t o r c h e s t r a l c o n d u c t o r s : H a n s R i c h -
ter, H e r m a n n Levi, a n d Felix M o t t l , e a c h received all t e m p o a n d o t h e r
i n d i c a t i o n s in t h e c o n d u c t i n g of t h e Siegfried Idyl first-hand from Wagner
himself. A n d yet testimony of i r r e p r o a c h a b l e a u t h o r i t y relates t h a t these
t h r e e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s differed o n e f r o m t h e o t h e r q u i t e sensibly."

COMPOSERS' A N D CONDUCTORS' TEMPOS 143

 A n d so we h a v e a v a r i e t y of episodes o c c u r r i n g a t d i f f e r e n t epochs;
R a v e l a n d T o s c a n i n i , S t r a v i n s k y a n d o t h e r I n t e r p r e t e r s of his works,
G e o r g e B e r n a r d S h a w a n d Siegfried W a g n e r , all p o i n t i n g u p t h e e x t r e m e
difficulty of a g r e e i n g o n t e m p o indications, of t h e subjective elements in-
volved, a n d even of a c c e p t i n g so-called t r a d i t i o n a l tempos.
A r e r e c o r d i n g s to b e t r u s t e d ? M o r e t h a n o n e c o n d u c t o r h a s expressed
a s t o n i s h m e n t u p o n h e a r i n g his p l a y b a c k s . P e r f o r m i n g b e f o r e a living
a u d i e n c e p r o d u c e s d i f f e r e n t m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s f r o m per-
f o r m i n g in a n e m p t y studio. C o n d u c t o r s h a v e b e e n k n o w n to v a r y tempos
of t h e s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n in t h e r e c o r d i n g s t u d i o , b e f o r e a u d i e n c e s , a n d
Over t h e air.

TEMPOS IN BEETHOVEN'S FOURTH SYMPHONY

W h a t a r e w e t o say w h e n f a m o u s c o n d u c t o r s d e p a r t f r o m p r i n t e d
directions a n d deviate f r o m e a c h o t h e r , n o t in a small degree b u t in f u n -
d a m e n t a l ? A c o m p a r i s o n of t e m p o s b y t w o of t h e g r e a t e s t c o n d u c t o r s
of r e c e n t times ( W e i n g a r t n e r a n d Toscanini), in a w o r k like Beethoven's
S y m p h o n y N o . 4 ( t h e c h o i c e m i g h t h a v e b e e n a l m o s t a n y classical or
r o m a n t i c s y m p h o n y ) reveals s u r p r i s i n g d i v e r g e n c e s . Yet t h e t w o inter-
p r e t a t i o n s a r e e a c h t h e result of t h e d e e p e s t sincerity, t h e most c a r e f u l
a n d h u m b l e study, a n d a lifetime of experience. H e r e is t h e c o m p a r a t i v e
table.

Beethoven's F o u r t h Symphony
Movement Score marking Weingartner Toscanini
1. Introduction, Adagio J = 66 J = 58 J = 44^46
Allegro vivace 80 J-126 J =150
2. Adagio ; = 84 72 ; . = 76
3. Allegro vivace J . = 100 J . = 118
4. Allegro ma non troppo J = 80 J==126 J =140-142

Felix W e i n g a r t n e r , in his i n v a l u a b l e c o m m e n t a r y , On the Performance

of Beethoven's Symphonies, e x p l a i n s his o w n t e m p o s for this s y m p h o n y . H e r e
follow r e p r e s e n t a t i v e excerpts.

First Movement; Adagio

Instead of the very quick m e t r o n o m e mark, J = 66, I have adopted
J = 5 8 . T h e transition to the Allegro p r o d u c e s the most n a t u r a l effect if the
half bars are played twice as fast as the quarter notes in the introduction. T h e
corresponding metronome mark for t h e Allegro is J = 1 2 6 . T h e prescribed
mark, „ = 80, gives an absolutely impossible speed.

144 TEMPO
Second Movement: Adagio
I have found here the m e t r o n o m e m a r k , J = 84. This is, of course, a mis-
print; it must m e a n J' = 84. But this m a r k is also too quick, so I should rec-
o m m e n d ^ = 72, or thereabouts.

Scherzo a n d Trio
T h e extreme limit of speed for the Trio seems to me to be a b o u t J. = 76;
the t e m p o prescribed, J. = 88, would cause an overhastening of this graceful
piece. It should be noted also t h a t J . = 100 for the main section does not de-
note a very rapid tempo. It is a great error, a n d unfortunately a very com-
mon one, to play all of Beethoven's Scherzos quasi presto.

Finale

T h e Finale is marked Allegro, ma non troppo. T h e h u m o r of this delightful

piece is quite destroyed, however, if the ma non troppo is not observed, a n d if
the movement is played like one of H a y d n ' s final symphony movements. Not
only must it be started with a c o m p a r a t i v e l y quiet tempo, b u t this t e m p o
must be maintained throughout so that the piquant play of the sixteenth
notes does not degenerate into an exercise, or the pleasing melody of the sec-
ondary theme become a mere c o m m o n p l a c e phrase. T h e great c h a r m of the
movement lies in just this contrast between the moderate tempo and the ani-
mated figuration. It gives an Impression of speed without being played quickly.
T h e m e t r o n o m e mark, J = 80, does not in the least agree with t h e time signa-
ture. I should think that J = 126 would be about right.

A s i m i l a r l y d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t e m p o s in a n y o t h e r s y m p h o n y , as
t a k e n b y t h e chief c o n d u c t o r s of c u r t i m e , w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y reveal
e q u a l l y d i s c o n c e r t i n g differences. M e n g e l b e r g a d o p t e d w h a t sometimes
s e e m e d to t h e eye u n u s u a l l y slow t e m p o s , yet to m a n y h e a r e r s his tempos
d i d n o t d r a g , so n o b l y were t h e y sustained. Toscanini, in some instances,
n o t a b l y in B e e t h o v e n ' s S e v e n t h S y m p h o n y , h a s a d o p t e d f a s t e r t e m p o s
t h a n s o m e of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . Yet t h e f r a m e s of b o t h c o n d u c t o r s ' in-
t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e a l w a y s s e e m e d , a t least to this h e a r e r , to b e logical
a n d to result f r o m i n n e r c o m p u l s i o n . T h e p o i n t m i g h t b e l a b o r e d . T h e
c o n c l u s i o n to b e d r a w n f r o m this discussion is t h a t m e t r o n o m i c consid-
e r a t i o n s yield to p e r s o n a l i t y , sincerity, a n d conviction.

THE STUDENT'S APPROACH TO TEMPO

T h e a n s w e r to t h e s t u d e n t ' s q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g correct tempos, t h e n ,
is a n y t h i n g b u t a b s o l u t e . T h e b ü r d e n of t h e final decision lies u p o n e a c h
i n d i v i d u a l I n t e r p r e t e r . Get w h a t e v e r t r a d i t i o n y o u c a n first-hand. H e a r as
m a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b y a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o n d u c t o r s as y o u can. R e a d w h a t

THE STUDENT'S APPROACH TO TEMPO 145

you can find about the works under consideration. Then decide for your-
self. T h a t you m a y and probably will change your conceptions of tempos
from time to time until you die will only parallel the experiences of most
searchers for the truth.
A metronomic check of some well-known interpreters reveals that
m a n y soon deviate from the tempos they adopt at the Start of a work,
despite the musical d e m a n d s for a steady pulse. This deviation is, in
most cases, unintentional, quite different from those deviations in tempo
which are caused by deliberate exaggeration to obtain greater climaxes.
(A famous conductor of a past generation deliberately took faster and
faster tempos as he grew older, to prove to his hearers that his advancing
age did not at all effect his vitality.) It is paradoxical that the ability to
maintain a steady and undeviating tempo is beyond the powers of many.
This faculty may be developed by studying such works as Ravel's Bolero;
the second movement of Haydn's "Clock" Symphony; the second move-
ment of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony, which immortalizes the metro-
nome; Liadoff's Musical Snuff Box; a n d the Perpetuum Mobile by J o h a n n
Strauss, J r .
A helpful exercise in this regard, though admittedly not a very ex-
citing one, is to set the metronome at various speeds and beat various
patterns, first with each h a n d separately a n d then with both hands. It
will be found that it is often possible not only to beat various patterns
for the same speed, but also to use m a i n beats with a n d without sub-
divisions at the same speed.
It should be r e m e m b e r e d that indications of tempo, shading, and
phrasing vary according to the places in which they occur. They are as
much matters of mood as of speed. Words like larghissimo, largo, larghelto,
andantino, andante, adagissimo, adagio, adagietto, lento, lentissimo, moderato, al-
legro, allegretto, con moto, vivo, vivace, a n d presto; connecting words like ac-
celerando, stringendo, and affrettando; and their antonyms, ritardando, ritenuto,
meno mosso, allargando, etc., m a y be combined in a n y n u m b e r of ways,
not only with each other, but also with such qualifying terms as ma non
troppo, assai, etc. These all vary with each individual, with each nation,
with each epoch and composer, a n d above all, with the context of the
term.

VERY SLOW AND VERY FAST TEMPOS

Let US compare patterns in very slow a n d in very fast tempos. Ob-
viously, in fast tempos the patterns become shorter and cover distance
in less time than in slow ones, and omit all possible curves, subdivisions,
and extra motions. The faster the tempo, the shorter the rebound after

146 TEMPO
 the d o w n beat. In very fast t e m p o this r e b o u n d practically disappears.
T h e m a i n accents of t h e p a t t e r n s t a n d o u t while t h e w e a k beats tend
m o r e a n d m o r e to b e c o m e m i n o r in strength a n d length. W e a k second
beats cease to j u t out a n d tend to h u g t h e center of the pattern. Further-
more, fast t e m p o s limit t h e strokes to t h e wrist, with less a n d less a r m
m o v e m e n t . I n b r o a d tempos, on t h e c o n t r a r y , weak beats assume more
a n d m o r e i n d e p e n d e n c e in l e n g t h a n d strength, subdivisions r e a p p e a r ,
a n d t h e a r m shares t h e m o v e m e n t with t h e wrist.
It is o d d — o r is it?—that few young conductors seem able to vie with
their older colleagues in beating very slow tempos with sustained eleva-
tion. This is a m a t t e r not simply of experience b u t r a t h e r of mellowness
a n d Spiritual serenity. T h e s a m e S t a t e m e n t applies to y o u n g e r instru-
m e n t a l virtuosi. O n e of the tests of a c o n d u c t o r ' s m a t u r i t y is indeed the
p l a y i n g of a slow m o v e m e n t by B r a h m s , H a n d e l , Bach, Beethoven, or
Gluck. H e r e t e c h n i q u e counts for c o m p a r a t i v e l y little, a n d t h e essence
of the music must be inspired by the posture, attitude, a n d facial expres-
sion of the conductor.
To connect sections a n d m o v e m e n t s of a work logically a n d smoothly
requires taste a n d j u d g m e n t . S c h u m a n n ' s S y m p h o n y No. 4, which should
be played without pauses between movements, d e m a n d s special skill a n d
smoothness in going from the scherze to t h e introduction of the last move-
ment. T h e a i m here is to m a k e the transition of t e m p o a n d m o o d between
t h e two m o v e m e n t s imperceptible, f r o m the poco ntenuto on the final six-
teen measures of t h e scherzo to the Start of t h e final movement.
A l t h o u g h it is difficult to t r a n s l a t e t e m p o into w r i t t e n directions for
b a t o n motions, we might r e c o m m e n d for this passage t h e following suc-
cession of patterns. Beat one to the b a r in the scherzo, but with two-measure
g r o u p i n g for measures 2 1 8 - 2 1 9 ( b e g i n n i n g one b a r before poco ritenuto)
t h r o u g h the two-measure g r o u p 224-225. N o t e t h a t the inhalations come
on measures 217, 221, a n d 225. At measures 226-232, t h e p a t t e r n is more
like t h r e e to the b a r b u t so fluid t h a t it suggests one to t h e b a r . T h e mood
a n d t e m p o a b a t e so i m p e r c e p t i b l y a n d g r a d u a l l y t h a t by t h e t i m e we
r e a c h t h e last m e a s u r e of t h e scherzo, t h e q u a r t e r note m e t r o n o m i c a l l y
equals t h e q u a r t e r note of t h e o p e n i n g stroke of t h e n e w section—metro-
nomically, t h a t is; b u t t h e m o o d , in contrast to the brooding a t the end
of t h e scherzo, m a r k e d langsam, begins to stir mysteriously h e r e ; t h e at-
mosphere becomes quickened with anticipation; a n d w h e n we reach the
twelfth measure at the stringendo, quickened m o o d is a d d e d to quickened
pace. W h e n we reach the eighteenth measure, m a r k e d lebhaft, the tempo
should be pretty nearly 126 for t h e q u a r t e r , as m a r k e d .
O f t e n at a new section t h e composer h a s m a r k e d in the score a unit

VERY SLOW A N D VERY FAST TEMPOS 147

 o f t h e measure just left and its equivalent unit in time of the measure
just reached. Thus, at the Start of the langsam for the final movement,
the marking might be " J = J " . In interpreting such printed directions,
one must remember that they are merely metronomic and mathematical
symbols, and that the conduetor must achieve the transition of mood
in addition.
In the incomparable passacaglia in the last movement of Brahms's
Symphony No. 4, we note that at the 97th measure (the flute Variation)
a quarter note equals a quarter note of the previous section. T h e con-
nection in mood here between the variations as well as throughout this
movement as a whole constitutes one of the great challenges to a con-
ductor's architectural grasp of a composition. Instances of such transitions
in mood might be multiplied at great length, among them, certain pas-
sages in Debussy's L'Aprh-midi d'un faune. Suffice it to say that whether
or not a composer writes into the score the metronomic relation of sections
er movements, one is always implied; otherwise a movement or section
would rest in a vacuum, outside the orbit of the vv^hole framework. Fail-
ure to achieve the correct transitions between sections and movements
inevitably results in a wrench, not only in tempo, but what is worse, in
mood. This Statement does not apply, of course, to dramatic music, where
abrupt changes are premeditated.
By using the proper patterns, one may easily beat changes in speed
with fidelity to the outline, though change in mood can be neither de-
scribed nor dissected. For patterns showing increase in speed, one may
first beat six to the bar, using the regulär pattern where each stroke is
carefully articulated; then use a pattern with change in direction for each
stroke; then beat two to the bar, first with subdivisions and finally with-
Qut subdivisions. For decrease in speed, let us consider a case where we
Start with four subdivided. We may first omit the subdivisions and use
a breath pause, then use a pattern which changes the direction of the
strokes, and then beat two to the bar. T h e sequence naturally depends
upon each passage. To detail representative cases would amount in effect
to a resume of practically all the patterns presented thus far.
Applying these patterns is a matter of art and not one of science.
Here, we are at the extreme opposite of mannered and rigid measure-
by-measure time-beating. I f we are beating a retarding passage in six to
the bar, we might first change to a pattern having a new direction for
each stroke, and then add subdivisions. If we are beating in four to the
bar a passage with twelve pulses a measure and accelerating tempo, we
might first change to a pattern having a new direction for each pulse.

148 TEMPO
t h e n elide t h e m i d d l e subdivisions b y o b s e r v i n g b r e a t h p a u s e s , a n d last
elide b o t h subdivisions a n d go i n t o f o u r to t h e b a r .
I n choosing p a t t e r n s to d e l i n e a t e g r a d u a l c h a n g e s in speed, you will
n o t e t h a t o n e of t h e c h i e f p r o b l e m s of t h e c o n d u c t o r is t o b e a t clearly
s u c h p l a c e s as a r e t o o fast for t h r e e to t h e b a r a n d y e t n o t q u i t e slow
e n o u g h for o n e t o t h e b a r , o r t o o fast for six a n d too slow for t w o , a n d
so on. W i t h o u t s o m e c o n n e c t i n g p a t t e r n s , t h e c h a n g e o f t e n proves a b r u p t .
C o n n e c t i n g such t e m p o s r e q u i r e s skillful t r e a t m e n t so t h a t t h e transition
f r o m one t e m p o to a n o t h e r is a c h i e v e d w i t h fluidity a n d conviction. O n e
of t h e best m e a n s of d o i n g this is to use for this c o n n e c t i n g t e r r a i n p a t -
t e r n s in w h i c h e a c h stroke c h a n g e s d i r e c t i o n a n d yet in w h i c h t h e m a i n
stresses a r e clearly d e l i n e a t e d . T h e p r o c e d u r e is s o m e w h a t a k i n to c h a n g -
i n g fingers in r e i t e r a t e d n o t e s o n t h e p i a n o f o r t e k e y b o a r d . T w o , three,
a n d f o u r to t h e b a r offer n o special d i f f i c u l t y ; six- a n d e i g h t - p u l s e p a t -
t e r n s do.

CORRECTING PLAYERS WHO HURRY OR DRAG

O n e w a r n i n g is w o r t h r e p e a t i n g : g u a r d a g a i n s t t h e t e n d e n c y w h i c h
s o m e o r c h e s t r a s h a v e to i n c r e a s e in s p e e d w i t h crescendo a n d to slow u p
w i t h decrescendo. T h i s is a n a l a g o u s to t h e t e n d e n c y to increase in v o l u m e
o n a s c e n d i n g passages a n d to d e c r e a s e in v o l u m e on d e s c e n d i n g passages.
I n a c o n c e r t , w h e r e t h e c o n d u c t o r c a n n o t s p e a k , h e still h a s t e c h n i c a l
devices for b r i n g i n g e r r i n g forces i n t o line. W h e n t h e o r c h e s t r a drags,
h e m a y b r i n g t h e b a t o n to t h e e n d of its s t r o k e s slightly a h e a d of t h e
players a n d a w a i t t h e m there. W h e n t h e y catch up, he m a y h a v e the
b a t o n r e p e a t this h i n t tili t h e s p e e d is r i g h t . H e m u s t m a k e these motions,
h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t w r e n c h i n g . H e m a y also s h o r t e n t h e strokes a n d elide
all e x t r a m o t i o n s a n d s u b d i v i s i o n s . T h i s is a g o o d p l a c e t o recall once
m o r e t h a t some brass a n d t i m p a n i players t e n d to be late o n attacks a n d
to h o l d b a c k ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y m a y r e q u i r e special a t t e n t i o n .
W h e n p l a y e r s h u r r y , t h e y m a y b e h e l d in c h e c k b y a d d i n g b r e a t h
p a u s e s o r q u a s i subdivisions. T h e b a t o n m a y b e d r o p p e d slightly a t a b o u t
t h e m i d d l e of t h e stroke, t h u s Splitting t h e b e a t . It m a y t h e n be raised to
its p r o p e r p l a c e in t h e p a t t e r n b y t h e e n d of t h e s t r o k e . T h e left fore-
finger m a y b e e x t e n d e d as a w a r n i n g for e x t r e m e cases, b u t n o t too
ostentatiously.
Some composers write their m u s i c in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e m e t r o n o m i c
c h a n g e in p a c e is i n e s c a p a b l e . B u t a c h a n g e in m o o d still r e q u i r e s t h e
c o n d u c t o r ' s suggestive p o w e r s . T w o e x a m p l e s s p r i n g t o m i n d . T h e first
o c c u r s in t h e last m e a s u r e s of B e e t h o v e n ' s Coriolanus O v e r t u r e . L e t us

CORRECTING PLAYERS WHO HURRY OR DRAG 149

t a k e it in two to t h e b a r . N o t e t h e first violin a n d cello p a r t s . At the
n i n e t e e n t h b a r before the e n d , t h e first violins have a t w o - b a r figure on
middle C a n d the B n a t u r a l below it. In the following b a r the cellos have
a figure of eight eighth notes. T h e violins t h e n r e p e a t t h e two-bar phrase,
b u t t h e cellos v a r y their first figure to play six q u a r t e r notes in two tri-
plet groups. T h e composer has written here sempre piü piano for t h e third
time in the same n u m b e r of measures. N o d i m i n u t i o n of power is needed.
It is i m p l i e d in t h e notes t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h g r o w l o n g e r in d u r a t i o n .
T h e violins next play their figure over four instead of over two bars; the
cello figure has dotted halves; a n d in t h e n i n t h measure before the end,
t h e violins h o l d t h e B n a t u r a l for f o u r whole b a r s before relinquishing
it to the C n a t u r a l , while the cellos almost postpone their descent to the
low C. N o w comes a b a r of Aeschylaen rest a n d three h u s h e d m u r m u r s
pizzicato. By m e a n s so a p p a r e n t l y simple as almost to defy description,
t h e composer attains an effect of O l y m p i a n dissolution u n i q u e in the lit-
e r a t u r e of music. It is scarcely necessary to observe the retard; the music
breathes it.
A different kind of e x a m p l e occurs in Stravinsky's " F i r e b i r d " Suite
( K a l m u s score, 1919 Version). T h e composer has indicated a n accelerando
poco a poco in the first b a r of p a g e 54. We a r e beating three brisk strokes
to the bar. At no. 29, page 55, b a r 5 {piii mosso), we change to one to the
bar, taking care that the previous single beat now equals a whole measure.
T h e t i m e - s i g n a t u r e s h a v e n o t c h a n g e d . At no. 31, p a g e 58, t h e time-
signature becomes 2 / 2 a n d we c o n t i n u e in one to t h e bar. Actually we
p h r a s e two b a r s as one. At no. 33, p a g e 60, b a r 3, t h e 6 / 4 enters and
we still c o n t i n u e one to t h e b a r , p h r a s i n g two b a r s as on^. At no. 37,
p a g e 63, the 3 / 4 enters; a n d h e r e we definitely beat two bars as one to
t h e e n d of t h e m o v e m e n t , w h i c h , for c o n c e r t purposes, is o n p a g e 65.
While it is possible, even desirable, to increase the speed slightly and
g r a d u a l l y until t h e e n d of t h e m o v e m e n t in t h e passage we h a v e been
discussing, t h e effect of increasing t e m p o has been practically achieved
by the composer himself, who first gives us six eighth notes in three strokes,
t h e n six e i g h t h notes in one stroke, t h e n f o u r eighths in f o u r , t h e n six
q u a r t e r s in one (or two as s o m e t a k e it); a n d w h o writes arpeggios in
t h e w o o d winds a n d h a n d f u l s of glissandos in t h e h a r p s in t h e last four
bars of t h e m o v e m e n t . T h e result is a n exciting musical " l i f t . " A slight
b u t appreciable accelerando is implied in the text, b u t it is hardly needed;
t h e music itself suggests it in mood.

150 TEMPO
 Chapter Eighteen

MEASURE GROUPINGS

AND RUBATO

MEASURE GROUPINGS
A distinguishing characteristic of maturity in interpretation is freedom and
fluidity in phrasing. In even the simplest of compositions it is easy to
mark the great difference between the comparatively stihed phrasing of
the i m m a t u r e Interpreter and the Uving pulsation of the artist. Except
in those compositions premeditatively calling for rigidity and even mo-
notony, c o m m u n i c a t i o n of music's emotional content to an audience
demands continuous change.
To achieve freedom and fluidity in musical interpretation, one must
overcome subservience to technical patterns a n d to the bar hne. One
danger confronting the Student who apphes himself conscientiously to
the mastery of baton technique is that he may tend to force the phrasing
inherent in a musical work into the technical patterns he has been prac-
ticing assiduously. Remembering the cid dictum that it is the function
of art to conceal art, he must g u a r d against this tendency at all times.
He must absorb the spirit of a work so thoroughly that when he trans-
lates it into h a n d motions, his patterns will be governed by the music
a n d not vice versa. He must also liberate himself from the t y r a n n y of
bar lines. These little strokes, placed at m a t h e m a t i c a l l y exact periods
in measured music, are with rare exceptions meant by the composer
merely as guide posts and only that. The music fiows through them and
is guided by them, as the walls on either side of a stream control its cur-
rent as it flows at various speeds and in three dimensions.
T h e tendency of the a m a t e u r time-beater, a l r e a d y referred to in
Chapter Eight, is to break down phrases into the smallest possible units.

MEASURE GROUPINGS 151

T h u s 4 / 4 b e c o m e s two 2 / 4 ' s , w h i l e 6 / 8 , 9 / 8 , a n d 1 2 / 8 a r e split into
successive 3 / 8 ' s . W h o e v e r has h e a r d d e b u t recitals b y instrumentalists
m a y have observed a similar tendency to shortness of measure groupings.
T h e result, w h e t h e r on a n i n s t r u m e n t or with a n orchestra, sounds to
t h e e a r like musical snippets i n t e r l a r d e d with clumsy b r e a t h pauses, a
kind of musical hesitation, a stuttering, a Stammering.
T h i s effect is b r o u g h t a b o u t n o t o n l y b y physical overstress of b a r
lines a n d minor accents b u t also by m e n t a l failure to grasp the fact that
bars a n d phrases a r e single over-all units a n d p a r t of larger units. T h e
e u r e m u s t be a p p r o a c h e d f r o m b o t h m e n t a l a n d physical angles. Any
piece of music a c o n d u c t o r is called u p o n to I n t e r p r e t m u s t be studied
f r o m t h e point of view of p h r a s e groupings, until he c a n sing each part
m e n t a l l y . N o t until he c a n d o this will his b a t o n cease b e a t i n g each
m e a s u r e as if it h a d a fence a r o u n d it, eliciting isolated, pedestrian forma-
tions instead of the smoothly flowing outlines of music.
Not the least r e w a r d of such study will be a wholly new u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h e personal a n d i n d i v i d u a l melos w h i c h distinguishes every signifi-
c a n t composer f r o m every other. Even a little study of phrase groupings
reveals surprising quirks a n d idiosyncrasies in composers often thought
of as conservative. For c o n t r a s t , s t u d y in pairs dissimilar composers:
Tchaikovsky a n d F r a n c k , Beethoven a n d Bach, B r u c k n e r a n d Berlioz,
Debussy a n d M o z a r t , G l u c k a n d R i c h a r d Strauss. N o t e , as you study
composers f r o m this point of view, h o w i n s e p a r a b l y p h r a s e g r o u p s are
b o u n d u p with each composer's m a n n e r of expressing himself, e.g., in
his use of legato a n d slaccato, volume, h a r m o n y , thematic interplay, archi-
tecture, a n d instrumental tone color.
A n o t h e r r e w a r d of studying f r o m t h e point of view of phrase group-
ings will be t h e special h e l p it ofFers in m e m o r i z a t i o n . It is obviously
easier to g r a s p w h o l e p h r a s e s t h a n single b a r s c o n s i d e r e d as mosaics,
dovetailed laboriously. P h r a s e g r o u p i n g is of p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e at
the beginning a n d ending of a work, for in these two places the auditors
a r e most a w a r e of the c o n d u c t o r , a n d a slip or a suggestion of less t h a n
c o m p l e t e a u t h o r i t y a t these c r u c i a l p o i n t s m a y c r e a t e a n u n f a v o r a b l e
reaction, conscious or subconscious, in the minds of the hearers.

Brahms's Second Symphony

C o n s i d e r n o w , as a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n , a p a r t of B r a h m s ' s Sym-
p h o n y N o . 2. T h e o p e n i n g m e a s u r e serves to i n t r o d u c e the basic motif
Bars 2 t h r o u g h 5 f o r m a g r o u p w i t h t h e h o r n s c a r r y i n g t h e m a i n line.
T h e next four bars form a g r o u p with t h e flutes, clarinets, a n d bassoons
c a r r y i n g t h e m a i n line; t h e h o r n r e t u r n s in t h e s u c c e e d i n g f o u r bars;

152 MEASURE GROUPINGS A N D RUBATO

then the wood winds again pick u p the main melodic thread for six bars
(really a four-bar group with two added measures, reaffirming the pre-
vious two). T h e next twelve bars form one large group, consisting of
four-bar groups discernible but subordinate to it. The next three groups
are of four measures each.
T h e illustration above is of phrase grouping from the cool mathe-
matical point of view. Yet authorities disagree about the mathematics
of musical phrasing just as they do about everything eise. Some musical
analysts feel that the timpano solos in the 32nd and 36th measures mark
the end rather than the beginning of phrase groups. Each interpreter
must decide such matters for himself and then fit his technical expression
into what he feels the phrasing to be. Since even a short discussion of
phrasing would carry us far beyond the limits of this volume, we must
content ourselves here by pointing out that phrase groupings reveal
themselves by such factors as melody, rhythm, thematic interplay, mod-
ulation, and instrumental coloring. Four-measure groups may be accepted
as the norm of most classical a n d romantic works, though enough de-
viations certainly occur to make for interest. Frequently, however, seeming
exceptions to this four-bar norm resolve themselves into four less one or
four plus one, and so on.
In the Brahms excerpt under discussion, the opening measure in the
cellos a n d basses obviously serves as a nuclear motif or "signal," as in-
spection of later measures will confirm. T h e füll h a r m o n y in the next
four measures, carried mainly by the bassoons a n d horns, causes them
to stand out. We have another four-measure group at the Start of the
6th measure, this time carried by the wood winds, which group serves
as a contrast in tone coloring to the previous four measures. T h e next
four bars return to the horn-bassoon coloring. Next, the flutes, clarinets,
a n d bassoons take the m a i n line for four bars, the last two of which
are reaffirmed. O n the 19th measure the first violins a n d violas steal
in a n d take over, a n d carry the m a i n line in octaves for twelve meas-
ures. At the 26th measure the first violins a n d cellos cut the twelve-
bar group in half Measures 20 through 23, as in previous groupings,
are tied by a pedal point in the cello-bass part. T h e whole twelve-measure
phrase is played ideally as if it were in one bow on one single Instrument,
gradually sinking in volume when the t i m p a n o roll in the 32nd measure
(and also in the 36th) starts a new four-measure phrase. Not only does
the Instrumentation change but also the degree oi pianissimo. At the 40th
measure the timpano a n d contrabass in octaves (though practically in
unison) Start a four-measure group, a n d the first violin then enters to
introduce the second part of the theme.

MEASURE GROUPINGS 153

 Let US See what happens to the movements and the patterns of the
baton when they depict these measure groupings geometrically. Listen
to a Performance where the conductor beats each measure as if it had
a fence around it. Instead of the smoothly flowing, ever forward, soaring
and winging outlines of this music, we have isolated and pedestrian for-
mations of measure for measure.
Think of the baton as a how playing a stringed instrument. Beat the
first measure quietly as an introduction, holding the baton at medium
height. For the subsequent four-measure group, give a distinct prepa-
ration which brings the baton upward to about eye level. The hearer and
watcher, even without being conscious of it, will feel that a distinct
phrase has begun. For the last three measures of this four-measure group,
use strokes slightly less broad than those of the first measure, and also
drop the baton slightly. The over-all effect of the baton movements will
be to show the grouping of these four measures as a one-phrase unit. In
the last measure of this group, bring out slightly the basic motif in the
cello and contrabass.
Observe similar procedure in the next two groups of four bars each.
The group starting on the 14th measure follows the same interpretative
pattern until the 17th measure, when a crescendo begins; here measures
18 and 19 reaffirm the two preceding measures. Cue in the last quarter
note in the first violins and violas. From here until measure 33, use a
neutral, serene beat with no break, as if the players were employing one
bow for the whole twelve measures. The decrescendo starting at measure
27 calls for less length of stroke and slight dropping of the baton to sig-
nify lessening of melodic tension. Introduce the first measure of each of
the next three four-bar groups by more distinct preparatory motions
than you use for the surrounding measures, to achieve the effect of over-
all unity. The use of the left hand to show contrast between the beginning
of a phrase and the rest of the measure is of especial importance. This
procedure may now be applied to the rest of the symphony, as well as
to other classical and romantic works.

Berlioz' Roman Carnival Overture

Berlioz' Roman Carnival Overture offers us instructive examples of

three-measure groupings, and merits dose study. There are two places
in the work where a careful analysis of phrase groups will prove of par-
ticular aid in obtaining a mental hold of the music. The first occurs at
the 25th measure of the allegro vivace. The measure groups here follow
a sort of repetitious arithmetic pattern: two-three, two-two. Knowing

154 MEASURE GROUPINGS AND RUBATO

this a n d m e m o r i z i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l t o p lines h e l p o n e to o b t a i n a n
over-all g r a s p of t h e passage.
A t t h e 114th m e a s u r e a f t e r t h e allegro vivace, a passage occurs w i t h a n ex-
t e n d e d succession of two- a n d t h r e e - m e a s u r e groupings. S o m e t i m e s these
succeed e a c h o t h e r ; s o m e t i m e s t h e t r i p l e a n d d u p l e p u l s a t i o n s a r e com-
b i n e d . T h e c o n d u c t o r m u s t c a r e f u l l y a n a l y z e t h e s e successions a n d
c o m b i n a t i o n s a n d i n d i c a t e t h e m in his m o v e m e n t s .
T w e n t y - n i n e m e a s u r e s a f t e r t h e s t a r t of t h e 6 / 8 w h i c h follows t h e
t w o m e a s u r e s in 2 / 4 , t h e b a s s o o n p l a y s a s i x - m e a s u r e g r o u p a n d t h e n
o n e of five m e a s u r e s . A t this p o i n t it is n e c e s s a r y to choose a m a i n the-
m a t i c t h r e a d in t h e i m i t a t i v e o r c h e s t r a l w e b a n d to c u e in such entrances.
We choose t h e t r o m b o n e s , w h i c h n o w h a v e a s i x - m e a s u r e g r o u p , followed
b y o n e of five m e a s u r e s . B u t b e f o r e t h e y c a n p l a y t h e last m e a s u r e of
t h e five-measure g r o u p , t h e flutes a n d oboes p l a y a t h r e e - m e a s u r e g r o u p
in Imitation. N e x t c o m e t h e h o r n s w i t h a five-measure g r o u p . T h e t r o m -
b o n e s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e flutes a n d oboes on t h e o t h e r , c o n t i n u e
their Imitation. T h e t r o m b o n e s t a k e t h e lead a g a i n with a s e v e n - m e a s u r e
g r o u p , a n d we t h e n r e t u r n to g r o u p s m o s t l y of f o u r m e a s u r e s , sprinkled
w i t h s o m e t h r e e - m e a s u r e g r o u p s u n t i l t h e e n d . P h r a s i n g this o v e r t u r e ,
u s i n g t h e eyes a n d left h a n d in a d d i t i o n to t h e b a t o n , d e m a n d s q u i c k
reflexes a n d a t h o r o u g h c o m m a n d of t h e score.
F o r o t h e r t h r e e - m e a s u r e groupings, see D u k a s ' The Sorcerer's Apprentice
a n d , of course, t h e m o s t f a m o u s e x a m p l e of all, t h e ritmo di Ire battute in
t h e seeond m o v e m e n t of B e e t h o v e n ' s S y m p h o n y N o . 9.

RESTS AND SILENT BEATS

B e f o r e t h e S t u d e n t is r e a d y t o p r a c t i c e rubato, it is essential t h a t h e
b e a b l e to show t h r o u g h his b a t o n m o v e m e n t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a
stroke given for a living n o t e a n d t h a t for a silent b e a t o n a rest, a " d e a d "
or " e m p t y " b e a t (as t h e l a t t e r is o f t e n t e r m e d ) . O u r first exercise is to
t a k e v a r i o u s p a t t e r n s in skeletal n o t a t i o n a n d to b e a t t h e m o u t so u n -
mistakably that the watcher can translate t h e m into musical notation
w i t h o u t t h e music. T h i s c o n d u c t i n g g a m e h a s b e e n p r a c t i c e d in E u r o p e
b y c o n s c i e n t i o u s s t u d e n t s w i t h g r e a t b e n e f i t . A little a p p l i c a t i o n will
m a k e for a d e p t n e s s . T h e S t u d e n t s h o u l d s t a r t in slow t e m p o , of course,
a n d s p e e d u p v e r y g r a d u a l l y . T h e m e a s u r e s in E x a m p l e 169 m a y be
v a r i e d a d i n f i n i t u m b y a d d i n g b r e a t h p a u s e s , cut-offs, holds, e n d beats,
rests, staccato, a n d legato; a n d b y t a k i n g t h e m in v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s ,
t i m e - s i g n a t u r e s , a n d strokes. By this t i m e t h e Student s h o u l d b e a b l e to
evolve his o w n exercises, b o t h b y u s i n g skeletal n o t a t i o n a n d by finding

RESTS AND SILENT BEATS 155

Ex. 1 6 9
Modetato to Adagio

j j I i'j

j j j i ^ ^ j i ^ i j i n r i i j

(J '66^
a I > I" I »I
j j j i r ^ q ^ i v g - / ? !

ü O ff* o o
^ J J J J I J J J J I J J J JIJ J J ^ j M J j j I

( J - 6G)

n j'j. J'ij j

i'j j i'

examples from actual music—chorales, Standard overtures, suites, tone

poems, symphonies, etc.
Note carefully how the baten patterns change in these skeletal ex-
ercises. Again, note how much the baton proves like a bow in spirit; for
example, in delineating four quarter notes; then a succession of dotted
eighths, each with a sixteenth; then syncopation, and so on.
Note especially the difference between a stroke given for a hving note
and for a silent beat on a rest. T h e stroke on an actual note has body
and weight; that on a silent beat is as short as possible, and has the na-
ture of an inhalation-preparation. Indicating this difference is one of the
greatest safeguards against wrong entrances at the disposal of a conductor.
Proper consideration of rests, indeed, infuses music with the breath of
life. Nothing is deadlier than beating rests and played notes the same
way. Conducting without due regard to rests is like reading prose with-
out punctuation marks.

156 MEASURE GROUPINGS A N D RUBATO

Ex. 170. Strauss: D o n Ouixofe (Reprinted with the permission of the Copyright owner, C. F. Peters Corpo-
rotion, N e w York.)

Latghetto ( J . 80)
(T. —3--

"
pp •
/T\
S

m
Ex. 171. Brahms: S y m p h o n y N o . 1

Pocu sostenuto ( J . = 56)

T h e r e is, however, such a t h i n g as overbeating rests, a n d this practice

is fussy. M a n y of t h e m are written in more to present the correct m a t h -
e m a t i c a l c o u n t t h a n for a c t u a l m u s i c a l o b s e r v a n c e . T h i s is especially
t r u e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g s a n d e n d i n g s of m o v e m e n t s a n d sections. Elide
such rests in b e a t i n g , w h e n possible, or b e a t t h e m as u n o b t r u s i v e l y as
you can.
I n the excerpt f r o m Don Quixote (Ex. 170), disregard the introductory
rests. C u t off t h e h o l d to t h e left c e n t e r , w h e r e t h e b a t o n is r e a d y to
b r i n g in t h e cello on t h e t h i r d b e a t to t h e right. I n t h e e x c e r p t f r o m
Brahms's S y m p h o n y No. 1 (Ex. 171), give a down end beat for the final
c h o r d a n d disregard t h e r e m a i n i n g rests. I n t h e bars f r o m Beethoven's
S y m p h o n y No. 7 (Ex. 172), p h r a s e two b a r s as one. Give t h e first a n d
t h i r d b a r s with strong, long strokes, a n d t h e e m p t y second a n d f o u r t h
b a r s with r e l a x e d , short strokes n e a r t h e t o p of t h e p a t t e r n . T r e a t the
excerpt f r o m the N i n t h S y m p h o n y similarly (Ex. 173).

Ex. 172. Beethoven; S y m p h o n y N o . 7

AUegro con btio ( J = 126)

RESTS A N D SILENT BEATS 157

Ex. 1 7 3 . Beethoven; S y m p h o n y N o . 9

M o l t o vivace (J.-126)

Slrgs. f f
pp
Timp.

Ex. 1 7 4 . S i b e l i u s : S y m p h o n y N o . 5 (By p e r m i s s i o n o f W i l h e l m H a n s e n , C o p e n h a g e n , a n d o f G . S c h i r m e r ,
Inc., N e w Y o r k . )

( J =116)

I jse^ stß

T h e last nine bars of Sibelius' Symphony No. 5 (Ex. 174) offer us

an Illustration of treacherous alternation between played notes and rests,
a Situation which invites wrong entrances unless it is handled very care-
fully. T h e first thing to do is to get the phrasing clear in your mind.
Treat each two-measure group as one phrase, with the following mental
adjustments: the first two bars are a sort of preparation for the six main
bars (the last six excluding the final bar), which form the nucleus of the
passage; a n d the next-to-last chord has the characteristics of an inha-
lation-up beat, with the final chord like an exclamation point.
To beat out each stroke, even with careful differentiation between
the explosive chords and the silent beats, may be logical enough in theory
but is no protection against false entrances, even when the left hand
moves only on the actual entrances. It is recommended here that you
place quasi holds mentally on all the silent beats, and move the hands
only for the preparation a n d e n t r a n c e of each chord. T h e conductor
may mentally count the rests.
This part of our discussion may aptly be brought to a dose by re-
calling that Berlioz, in his L'Enfance du Christ (Ex. 175), directs that the
conductor keep beating six bars of rests plus a fermata, and then proceed
without pause to the nex't scene, " T h e Cradle of Bethlehem"! T h e con-
ductor need not fear incurring a charge of irreverence here if he simply
places a single long hold over the seven bars, gives a down beat, holds,
and then proceeds.

158 MEASURE GROUPINGS AND RUBATO

Ex. 1 7 5 . Berlioz: L'Bnfance du Christ
Andante(^MO)
Andante (J = 66^ Ob. Hü. P'l I

RUBATO
The dictionary definition oirubato is the shortening of some notes in
a tempo so that others may be lengthened and vice versa. Such a defi-
nition, however, falls far short of translating into words a musical concept
of this nature. With an artist rubato is liberty, always characterized by
good taste and logic; with less than an artist, rubato is never far from
license, lack of restraint, and exaggeration. With an artist, no matter
how free the tempo becomes, the main thread of the musical outline is
never lost sight of; with less than an artist, such an indulgence is always
liable to becloud the main line. Was it not Liszt who once wrote that
Chopin seemed able to take any sort of liberty with his right hand yet
preserve strict tempo with his left?
Conducting rubato is one of the severest tests of a musician's good
taste and rhythmic freedom. It calls into play every technical resource
of the conductor. As practica! applications of this kind of musical ex-
pression, two works will be considered in some detail. The first is the
overture to Johann Strauss's Die Fledermaus (Breitkopf and Härtel edition).

Johann Strauss's Die Fledermaus Overture

The Student should first place numbers at every ten bars to facilitate
easy reference.
We Start out beating two to the bar, conducting the violins; and noting
the prevailing two-measure grouping in the first 12 bars, theß: in the
5th and 7th bars, the subito p in the last quarter of the 8th bar, and the
/ in the last quarter of the 9th bar. The whole mood is one of breath-
lessness. The quarter rest in the 12th bar should be held fairly long, to
suggest the end of the introduction.
The allegretto, still in two, is slightly broader than the introduction
and may be taken two quasi four to the bar. The two bars of "vamping"
in the bassoons and violas are played with breath pauses between each
note; they are also played mp, instead of the written p, which should be-
come effective on the third bar with the entrance of the oboe solo. If the
oboe soloist plays well, the conductor should let him take the lead and

RUBATO 159
should follow him. T h e first violins at the 7th bar play a bit more broadly
t h a n the preceding oboe, a n d the pizzicati must be short a n d dry. In the
9th bar, the last dotted eighth a n d the sixteenth in the first violin section
a r e t a k e n u p - b o w , scherzando, a n d short. T h e first violins next imitate
the preceding oboe solo, a n d like it, stress the notes b u t do not accent
them. O n e should always r e m e m b e r that musical signs like accents ought
to be adjusted to fit their context.
Bars 15-16: take the last two eighths u p - b o w scherzando. Start
the two bars before the oncoming Tempo 1."'° pp, not simply/) as printed;
a n d proceed with a b r o a d allargando a n d crescendo into the new tempo.
Take the last bar before the Tempo 1.""° in two again, if you have taken
the previous movement in two quasi four. T h e Tempo must be im-
m e d i a t e l y established a n d must be a r e t u r n to t h e p a e e of t h e opening
of the overture. T h e four bars before the lento are very b r o a d a n d heavily
stressed. T h e C sharp-Z) sharp in the third measure before the lento, and
the next E, m a y be played by the outside stands a n octave higher, re-
t u r n i n g to loco on the second q u a r t e r of the second measure before the
lento. C u e in the t r o m b o n e s on the d o w n beat f p a n d the glockenspiel
o n the u p b e a t (we are still in two to t h e b a r ) so t h a t it sounds with the
fiutes a n d oboe. See t h a t the t r o m b o n e s observe the pp on the second
b a r of the lento. T h e mood of the lento is one of leisureliness.
T h e first four bars of the allegretto ( b a r 47) are merely " v a m p i n g "
a n d should scarcely be heard. We are still in two to the bar. T h e pizxicati
should be d r y a n d short. C u e in the first violins on the top b e a t of the
50th b a r ; a n d w a t c h the clarinet, oboe, bassoon, a n d flute as they cor-
r o b o r a t e the melodic o u t ü n e . Note the stringendo in the 58th measure,
a n d cue in the first horn. Increase the stringendo at the 68th measure.
Establish at once the new allegretto with b r o a d , decisive strokes, still
two to the bar. Characterize the first violins at the meno mosso (bar 75)
by giving a slight swell leading u p to the B. From bar 79 on the top beat
until the 83rd b a r , hold b a c k the t e m p o , bringing it to a h e a d at the
two eighths on the u p beat of the 8 2 n d bar, which should be executed
with up-bow thrown strokes a n d with breath pauses between them. Bars
83-86: repeat the procedure of bars 75-78. Bars 87-90: repeat the pro-
cedure of bars 79-82. Bar 101: Start with a slight broadening, the violins
a n d clarinet Standing out. O n b a r 103 there is a slight hovering hairpin
crescendo a n d decrescendo, a n d the t e m p o is at once r e t a k e n on t h e next
four bars. A hovering hold occurs on the first quarter of bar 109, where
the bassoons a n d horns enter a n d should be cued in.
Bar 110 resumes a tempo a n d forte; the notes in this bar a n d b a r 112
are "sticky" in contrast to bars 111-113, which are light a n d airy. Start

160 MEASURE GROUPINGS A N D RUBATO

 a decrescendo on b a r 112, e n d i n g in the p at b a r 114. D o bars 118-121
calando, with b a r 121 quasi four to a r t i c u l a t e the pizzicati in the cellos
a n d basses.
At the tempo di valse, b a r 122, beat one to the bar, phrasing mentally
two bars as one, however. Bars 124-125: take accelerando. Observe a break
on the double b a r between bars 125-126, by bringing the b a t o n down
to the bottom of the stroke. After a wait of about one bar, bring the baton
u p as p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e a t t a c k on b a r 126. N o t e t h e p h r a s i n g a n d
measure-grouping at this point. Take bars 126-127 together, one to the
bar. Bars 128-129 are broader t h a n the two preceding bars; beat them
quasi three to the bar with a sort of holding back, a hesitation. Continue
this style: one to the b a r in general, with quasi three on bars 131, 133,
136, 137, 139. R e t u r n to one to t h e b a r with b a r 139. Bars 147-149:
r e t a r d a n d beat quasi three. Beat b a r 150 in one again. T h e n resume
the a l t e r n a t i o n of one to quasi t h r e e to the b a r , with even more dash
t h a n before.
Bar 166: give a broad hold on the first quarter, a cut-off preparatory
motion on the seeond q u a r t e r , a n d the last two eighths broad a n d sub-
divided. Bar 167: take a tempo a n d one to the bar again. Bar 181, page
15, allegro: b e a t two to t h e hur, forte b u t lightly with f o r w a r d rushing
movement. Bar 189: Start decrescendo, to whieh join the retard at bar 197.
Bar 197: cue in pizzicati in the cellos a n d basses. Bar 198: cue in bassoon.
Bar 200: cue in bassoon again, on hold, andante con moto, three to the bar.
Bar 201: observe swell a n d f a d e on bassoon solo; cue in the oboe and
follow him if he plays well.
Bar 206: stress the first eighth of the flute-oboe solo. Bars 206-208:
violins play on G string. Bar 207: bring out clarinet. Bar 208: bring out
flute. Bars 210-213: bring out clarinet a n d cello, while violins and violas
Start down-bow on each measure, stressing the tied eighth notes, up-bow
scherzando. Bar 214: stress the first eighth note in the clarinet, first violins,
a n d cello. Bar 215: stress the last q u a r t e r note in the clarinet a n d first
violins. Bar 217: bring out horn. Bars 218, 220: have oboe stress third
eighth. Bars 219, 221: oboe plays sixteenths, scherzando in one breath.
Bars 224-225: oboe a n d flute have b r e a t h pause before sixteenths, but
without exaggeration.
Take the allegro molto moderato two to the bar. Decrescendo in the first
two bars. Bar 228: take b r e a t h pause before last eighth. T h e next four
bars a r e still slow. T h e allegro really starts at b a r 237 a n d is p r e p a r e d
by a n accelerando, starting at b a r 233. Bar 237: cue in t r u m p e t a n d keep
it down to avoid anticlimax. Bars 241-243 are a three-measure phrase.
Bar 244: give a strong p r e p a r a t i o n a n d d o w n b e a t for ff, to b r i n g to a

RUBATO 161
dose the three-bar grouping. Bar 251: Start mf; slight crescendo in timpano.
Bar 252: d e m a r c a t e new b a r group. Bars 258-259: t i m p a n o is mf a n d
has a slight crescendo. Bars 260, 262: note f p . Bar 264: Start crescendo to
bar 272. Bar 272: cue in trombones. Bars 264-267: bring out cellos a n d
basses.
T h e G.P. ( G r a n d Pause) comes twice on page 23, in bars 275 a n d
277. To preclude a b r e a k - t h r o u g h by u n w a r y players, hold u p the left
h a n d as a w a r n i n g before e a c h p a u s e ; also, give the e n d b e a t on the
second stroke in each preceding measure, letting the baton rebound each
t i m e to the top a n d giving t h e d o w n b e a t for t h e e m p t y m e a s u r e im-
mediately. K e e p the baton at the bottom of the stroke tili you are ready
to give the next up-beat p r e p a r a t i o n for the attacks on bars 276 a n d 278.
H o l d the silent measures longer t h a n their s u r r o u n d i n g measures. Note
how the bars are grouped from bar 260 on: a four-bar g r o u p (two bars
r e p e a t e d ) , followed by two similar f o u r - b a r groups; at b a r 272, three
played bars with an empty bar making the normal four-bar group; then
a played b a r , a n e m p t y b a r , a n d two b a r s for clarinets a n d bassoons,
m a k i n g a n o t h e r n o r m a l f o u r - b a r group. G r a s p this grouping carefully
to insure t h a t there will be no accidents in silent measures. Take these
bars, 260 to 280, at breakneck speed. Hesitation will betray lack of mental
grasp of the phrasing in this passage.
F r o m here until the end of the overture there is nothing which should
occasion the Student any trouble, if he has understood all that has been
discussed thus far. It would be wise to note the four-bar grouping near
the e n d , starting 17 bars before the e n d , with the last measure a d d e d
as a n e x c l a m a t i o n point. Bars 6 - 7 before the e n d : c o n d u c t the horns.
Next two bars: conduct the trombones. T h e last 5 bars; Start the snare
d r u m p a n d m a k e a crescendo to the end.

Liszt's Second Hungarian Rhapsody

O u r second example of tempo rubato in practice is Liszt's Second Hun-
garian Rhapsody in C M i n o r , as a r r a n g e d for l a r g e o r c h e s t r a by Karl
M u l l e r - B e r g h a u s ( K a l m u s , small score). Place n u m b e r s at every ten
measures for easy reference. Go through the score a n d get the m a i n me-
lodic lines in your m i n d before proceeding to the following analysis of
technical procedures.
T h e eight introductory measures, b e a t e n four to the bar (two quasi
four), pose some problems calling for n e a t solutions.
First füll b a r : cue in t h e sixteenths in the bassoons, horns, cellos,
a n d basses by giving the down stroke a n d forceful rebound immediately
to the center of the pattern, there observing a quasi hold for the players

162 MEASURE 6ROUPINGS A N D RUBATO

to e n t e r in imitation before giving t h e a t t a c k for the next sixteenth en-
t r a n c e . T h i s gives a p a t t e r n of p h r a s i n g for t h e rest of t h e piece, wher-
ever a n d whenever this characteristic figure occurs.
Bar 2 is a problem in subdivisions. T h e first three thirty-second notes
(in t h e clarinets, viohns, a n d violas) s h o u l d c o m e o n t h e d o w n beat;
t h e sixteenth n o t e on t h e r e b o u n d ; t h e first e i g h t h o n stroke two; the
second eighth on stroke three; t h e last five thirty-seconds on t h e fourth
stroke, as follows: u p , d o w n , u p , d o w n , up. Bar 4: beat Uke b a r 2, except
t h a t h e r e we h a v e six subdivisions on t h e last stroke of t h e b a r ; give a
slight p r e p a r a t i o n a n d go o u t to t h e right as a n extension of t h e m a i n
stroke; then beat up, down, up, down, up, bringing the b a t o n in position
for the next d o w n beat. I n giving these subdivisions back a n d forth, ap-
p r o a c h the top of the p a t t e r n steadily to avoid a last u p - b e a t jerk.
Bar 8: cello, beat in four subdivided as twelve, with t h e subdivisions
going b a c k a n d forth (see Fig. 52). Give t h e releases for t h e h o l d a n d
cut-off in one motion.
Beat t h e andante mesto two to t h e b a r . C o n n e c t t h e t w o sections by
m a k i n g the eighth note of b a r 8 e q u a l to t h e q u a r t e r note of bar 9. Bars
12, 16, 20; b r i n g out t h e seventh sixteenth note a n d elongate it to be a
q u a s i h o l d , by d i v i d i n g t h e s e c o n d u p stroke into two parts. Give the
release in a leisurely m a n n e r by d r o p p i n g t h e b a t o n a n d allowing the
p l a y e r s to c a t c h it as it a g a i n ascends. Bar 24: give t h e second beat as
a n e n d beat to the right a n d let the clarinet play his c a d e n z a ad libitum.
Take charge again w h e n he has played t h e last note before his hold, by
giving a p r e p a r a t i o n on this n o t e a n d r e a c h i n g t h e hold with him. Bar
26 h a s a short hold. B a r 27ff: n o t e t h a t t h e figures h e r e a r e sixteenth
notes a n d n o t thirty-seconds as a t t h e b e g i n n i n g . B a r 32: t h e seventh
sixteenth note in t h e high wood winds should be slightly elongated.
Bar 35, piü mosso: continue two to the b a r . Bar 50: Start t h e flute on
t h e u p b e a t a n d give a n e n d b e a t , c a t c h i n g h i m later at t h e beginning
of T e m p o 1 (still b e a t i n g in two). F o l l o w his r u n b u t p r e p a r e for
orchestral attack. Bar 61: give d o w n beat a n d e n d beat, t a k i n g charge
a g a i n on t h e last eighth of the flourish a n d using it as a p r e p a r a t i o n for
the next attack.
Bar 62, come prima: beat in four as at beginning. For practice, observe
a quasi hold on each beat, a n d give the ensuing attacks with the utmost
precision. Bar 69: a r t i c u l a t e carefully. Give t h e d o w n stroke, a n d then
t h e s e c o n d stroke as " e m p t y " p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e t h i r d stroke, which
is to t h e right a n d u p w a r d . You a r e now r e a d y for t h e next d o w n beat,
which is on a rest a n d must n o t be p r e p a r e d or t h e players m a y be d r a w n
into a false e n t r a n c e . T h e left h a n d m a y give a n u p w a r d f o u r t h stroke

RUBATO 163
to show the passing time, b u t the right b a n d must r e m a i n motionless at
t h e t o p of t h e p a t t e r n to i n d i c a t e t h e hold. After t h e hold, b o t h hands
descend on t h e rest, which serves as p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e e n t r a n c e of the
cellos a n d basses on t h e second eighth of b a r 70.
Bar 7 1 , 3 tempo: r e t u r n to t h e speed of b a r 27fF, again in two, though
it is possible also in brisk four. Bar 82: divide the u p stroke to bring out
t h e eighths in t h e bassoons, cellos, a n d basses. Bar 83: give a d o w n end
beat. R a i s e t h e b a t o n with t h e last f o u r c h r o m a t i c notes of t h e clarinet
c a d e n z a ; bring in the cellos a n d basses with the high D ending t h e clar-
inet solo. Bar 85: c o n t i n u e in two; n o t e t h a t t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g figures
are sixteenths, not thirty-seconds. Bars 92, 94: wait after the first stroke;
cue in t h e strings.
B a r 109, adagio: b e a t in slow f o u r ; observe a t i n y w a i t b e f o r e the
f o u r t h stroke; cue in t h e cellos a n d basses. Bar 112: give t h e d o w n stroke
o n t h e first three sixteenths a n d the second stroke on t h e first eighth; split
t h e t h i r d stroke on t h e n e x t two sixteenths; give a subdivision o n each
of t h e last sixteenths. Bar 113: give t h e first stroke on the first three six-
teenths a n d t h e second stroke on the first half of the q u a r t e r note (cellos
a n d basses); c u e in t h e w o o d winds o n t h e t h i r d stroke; s u b d i v i d e t h e
f o u r t h stroke i n t o two. B a r 116: give a d o w n stroke for t h e h o l d a n d
a n u p beat for cessation, followed by a d o w n stroke (bar 117) as an end
b e a t . H o l d t h e b a t o n low for t h e hold. Give t h e n e x t u p b e a t as prep-
a r a t i o n for the attack at vivace.
Bar 118, vivace: beat in two a n d not too fast, something like the tempo
a t t h e beginning, to allow for b u i l d i n g u p a climax. See t h a t t h e violin
g r a c e notes a r e n o t s k i m p e d . B a r 142: c u e in t h e h ö r n solo a n d h a r p
a c c o m p a n i m e n t . Bar 150: begin to pick u p the t e m p o to reach a climax
a t b a r 178 {tempo giusto vivace marcato assai). S o m e c o n d u c t o r s observe a
break between bars 177 a n d 178. C o n t i n u e to beat in two. Bar 218: take
poco meno to give contrast a n d to p r e p a r e for t h e next c h m a x . Bars 227,
229: note the shift of accents to the ends of bars. Bar 234: tempo should
be quite deliberate, almost holding back, a n d still in two. Bars 234-241,
2 4 2 - 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 - 2 5 8 : start a bit slowly a n d m a k e a slight accelerando to the
e n d of e a c h p h r a s e . Bars 2 6 0 - 2 6 9 : m a i n t a i n speed. Bar 270: Start/ioco
ritardando. Bar 273: beat in four. N o t e the two-measure groupings on the
last few pages, especially in c h r o m a t i c passages.
Bar 274: beat a tempo a n d in two again, but bring out the after-beats
with split strokes. T h e following passage is in heavy m a r c h tempo, pesante.
Bar 306: start picking u p t h e t e m p o . Bars 3 4 4 - 3 5 9 : note t h e two-measure
groupings a n d the sf's on u p beats. Bar 360: beat in four. Bar 2>&\, maestoso:
b e a t in t w o b u t w i t h a f t e r - b e a t s a r t i c u l a t e d . B a r 369: pick u p speed.

164 MEASURE GROUPINGS A N D RUBATO

Note poco a poco dim. e riten. from b a r 393 until bar 409, when ritenuto
returns again. Bar 409: still beat in two; the tempo almost drags. Bar
421: this is marked prestissimo, but do not Start too fast, in order to allow
for a climax. Note the two-measure groups tili the end. Beat two meas-
ures as one tili the last four measures. Bar 444: give a down stroke as
a n end beat, with a cut-off to the right. Hold tili you are ready, and
then give the up beat as preparation for the attack on bar 445. Bars
445-446: give each chord a quasi hold. Last two measures: take in three
Short whips, as fast as the orchestra can p l a y them. Do not give three
down beats here, but beat forward, back, and forward again.
T h e number of words necessary to describe approximately the de-
viations from the printed page in this composition reveals how difficult
it is for a composer to convey even part of his wishes to a conductor.
It is one thing for a single Interpreter to play on a self-contained poly-
phonic Instrument like the harpsichord, pianoforte, organ, or even the
harp, and quite another for a conductor to improvise upon one hundred
men. It requires indeed a high degree of both authority a n d technical
control.
For further practice in this genre, study such works as Liszt's other
Hungarian Rhapsodies, Brahms's Hungarian Dances, Dvof äk's Slavonic Dances,
Enesco's Rumanian Rhapsodies, a n d waltzes by Lehar, the Strauss family,
etc.

RUBATO
 Chapter Mineteen

ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS

AND ACCOMPANIMENT

ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS
In many instrumental concertos, brilliant displays aimed to reveal the technical
virtuosity of the soloist a n d to develop the t h e m a t i c material of the work
are inserted into the codas of the first a n d last m o v e m e n t s . T h e y are
usually a n n o u n c e d by a hold over a d o m i n a n t or 6 / 4 chord a n d they
f r e q u e n t l y a n d on a trill. Such c a d e n z a s m a y be by the original com-
poser, by the soloist, or by some other composer. In the case of Standard
concertos, the soloist often has a choice. It is not always possible for the
c o n d u c t o r to inspect the c a d e n z a before rehearsal time, a n d in such a
case, he must keep his ears open for the a p p r o a c h of the dominant har-
m o n y , often accompanied by a suggestion of r e t u r n to the m a i n tempo
of the movement. A glance at the Start a n d e n d of the cadenza should
be e n o u g h to give the c o n d u c t o r his bearings. T h e soloist s h o u l d aid
the conductor with a nod just before the c a d e n z a ends. T h e conductor
then takes charge again, waits for the eyes of the soloist a n d orchestral
players to be focussed on his baton, a n d then proceeds.
T h e Student should practice w a t c h i n g the fingers a n d bowings of
stringed Instrument players, the fingers a n d k e y b o a r d of pianists, a n d
the b r e a t h i n g a n d p h r a s i n g of singers a n d of wind players. T h e more
he can mentally feel himself in their places a n d play a n d sing with them,
the better will be his accompaniment. H e will find that even conductors
of reputation are not necessarily good in accompaniment, and that con-
d u c t o r s often a c c o m p a n y one k i n d of soloist better t h a n o t h e r kinds.
E a c h type of c o n d u c t i n g has its special difficulties a n d problems. T h e
conductor should memorize the first a n d last few measures of the cadenza,
a n d he m a y even beat the last few with very small strokes, to bring the
players back to the mood a n d t e m p o of the music. T h e left b a n d may

166 ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS AND ACCOMPANIMENT

Ex. 176. Strauss: Till Eulenspiegel (Reprinted with the permission of the Copyright o w n e r , C . F. Peters Cor-
poration, N e w Y c r k . )

Leisurely (J = 80)
Vln. Solo-

Tempo Primo ( J . ^ 1 1 6 )

L f - S 1L^ » • L • ^r.b» p r r b» -h V ^

:Ji:tBiTTrrrTff cresc
B. Cl.

be held out unobtrusively as a warning during this preliminary beating,

a n d t h e n j o i n the right b a n d in c u i n g in t h e whole o r c h e s t r a at the
proper time.
T h e subject of a c c o m p a n y i n g soloists will be discussed more later.
At this time we shall consider purely orchestral passages which are quasi
cadenzas. Thus, in Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel (Philharmonia edition, small
score, p a g e 31) (Ex. 176), t h e solo violin plays high E flat on a hold
with the trombones a n d contra bassoons. T h e c o n d u c t o r holds as long
as he wishes a n d then gives the release. T h e soloist then keeps the hold
as long as he wishes a n d next proceeds to execute the descending chro-
matic glissando. It is the task of the c o n d u c t o r to see that the bass clarinet
meets the soloist's open G. H e should give one clear down beat during
the violin solo a n d a n up-beat p r e p a r a t i o n on the first few notes of the
run, reaching the open G with the soloist a n d cuing in the bass clarinet.
T h e n he should cue in the first clarinet and bassoons in rapid succession.
Rimsky-KorsakofF is a composer who indulged m u c h in quasi cadenza
passages in his orchestral compositions. Thus, in the 7th a n d 8th meas-
ures of his Russian Easter (Ex. 177), the solo violin has a cadenza to the
a c c o m p a n i m e n t of clarinets a n d bassoons. For t h e 7th m e a s u r e , it is
necessary to give only two down strokes for the first whole note shared
by t h e soloists a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g Instruments. T h e c o n d u c t o r is
still in Charge. O n c e he gives the t h i r d stroke to the right, the soloist
plays a piacere. O n , say, the last four sixteenths of the cadenza, the con-
d u c t o r gives the p r e p a r a t o r y stroke for the next a tempo. This is a good

ORCHESTRAL C A D E N Z A S 167
Ex. 177. Rimsky-KorsakofF: Russ/on Eosfer Overture
Lento mistico

MMU
f
p l a c e to w a t c h t h e violinist's fingers a n d to m e m o r i z e t h e p e n t a t o n i c
c h o r d o u t l i n e d melodically. T w e n t y - t w o m e a s u r e s later t h e flute has a
similar passage.
A quasi c a d e n z a passage also occurs in this same composer's Capriccio
Espagnol, a t t h e start of t h e f o u r t h section, Seena e canto gitano, for t h e
h o r n s a n d t r u m p e t s . Written as allegretto, with t h e q u a r t e r equalling 69
a n d t h e time signature in 6 / 8 , this section is to be executed quite freely.
T h e passage is prevailingly in two pulses b e t w e e n t h e d o t t e d b a r lines.
T h e c o n d u c t o r brings in t h e d r u m o n t h e d o w n b e a t a n d holds. T h e
u p b e a t brings in t h e brass c h o r d . T h e d r u m plays tili t h e Start of the
next hold a n d fades just before the new b a r line. T h e next four cadenzas
a r e e x e c u t e d similarly, w i t h q u a s i prose f r e e d o m b u t a l w a y s in two-
pulse beating.
O t h e r q u a s i c a d e n z a s in R i m s k y - K o r s a k o f F ' s works c a n be found
in Antar (harp), Le Coq d'or (clarinet), a n d Scheherezade (violin, trombone,
t r u m p e t , a n d bassoon); t h e y all ofFer f u r t h e r d e l i g h t f u l instances. See
also t h e flute c a d e n z a in t h e last m o v e m e n t of S c h u m a n n ' s S y m p h o n y
N o . 1.
A most instructive e x a m p l e is f o u n d in R a v e l ' s Spanish Rhapsody a t
no. 6, p a g e 8, of t h e D u r a n d et Fils small score (see E x a m p l e 178). I n
this instance, the two clarinets play a cadenza ad libitum, an improvisatory
passage which m a y be considered as c o n t a i n i n g five m a i n groups. Each
of t h e first two groups consists of six sixteenth notes plus a q u a r t e r note.
T h e third g r o u p consists of eight thirty-second notes a n d a q u a r t e r note;
w h i l e t h e f o u r t h g r o u p consists of n i n e u n i t s : f o u r q u i n t u p l e a n d five

168 ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS A N D ACCOMPANIMENT

Ex. 178. Ravel; Spanish Rhapsody (Permission for reprint granted by Durand et Cie, Paris, Copyright
owners; Elkan-Vogel Co., Inc., agents for U.S.A.)

Cadenza ad üb.

q u a d r u p l e . T h e fifth a n d last g r o u p or u n i t is t h e half n o t e j u s t before

t h e b a r line with an implied hold.
I n this I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e long m e a s u r e c o n t a i n i n g t h e cadenza ad
libitum m a y be beaten five to the b a r with various subdivisions. T h e con-
d u c t o r m a y aid himself by counting silently something like the following
v e r b a l a n d n u m e r i c a l aids: o n e " a n d " ; t w o " a n d " ; t h r e e " a n d " ; four
(one, two, t h r e e , four, five, six, seven, eight, n i n e ) ; five ( h o l d ) " a n d . "
T h e first group, containing six sixteenths, is given a füll down stroke
with r e b o u n d ; t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e hold is i n d i c a t e d by a n o t h e r d o w n stroke
w i t h r e b o u n d , this t i m e half-length as if it were a subdivision, a n d the
b a t o n is b r o u g h t b a c k once m o r e to t h e c e n t e r of t h e p a t t e r n . T h e sec-
o n d g r o u p also has two parts. T h e first stroke to t h e right takes care of
the six sixteenths, a n d a second stroke, a g a i n to t h e right, takes care of
the q u a r t e r note. T h e third g r o u p with its eight thirty-second notes a n d
q u a r t e r note is b e a t e n similarly to the left as two subdivisions. T h e
h a n d is now in the correct position to beat t h e third group. Note at this
point the ties connecting each of the q u a r t e r notes to the following notes

ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS 169

in the first three groups. If the lies were not there and the pitch of the
notes after the quarter notes changed, an extra cessation-preparatory
motion would have to be given for each release.
The fourth group must be so beaten that after moving nine times,
the band will come out at the extreme right of the pattern to be ready
for the up beat. Give the first "subdivision" to the right, the second to
the left, and so on until nine have been given. Each short stroke will
bring the hand more and more to the right during this procedure.
For the implied hold on the half note, give the stroke upward to the
top of the pattern. Release by giving the down stroke as a combined
cessation-preparatory motion, since there is a tie to a following note on
the same pitch.
In the first group of the next bar, there are six eighth notes. Give
the down beat to release the hold and return to the center of the pattern;
give the second "subdivision" to the left, the next to the right, and so
on until you have indicated the six eighth notes. The hand is now ready
to give a stroke to the right. Change the hold mentally on the dotted
quarter to a hold on the first quarter. Give it a full-length stroke to the
right. To release, split the up beat so that the first half, a quasi end beat
with a flick to suggest a tiny breath pause, indicates the eighth repre-
sented by the dot; the second half of the stroke indicates the final eighth
of the bar. To repeat and to summarize: the method we have used in
beating this cadenza amounts in practice to five to the bar with
subdivisions.
The cadenza is reafRrmed at no. 8, page 10, this time with two bas-
soons; and we hereby leave it for the Student to work out for himself
(see Example 179).

A C C O M P A N I M E N T

Accompaniment is an art in which not all conductors are at their best.

This qualification might even be applied to some well-known names.
It would seem that pianists, who often accompany at some time in their
careers, should generally be better accompanists than conductors who
play other Instruments, but this has not always proved to be the case.
Conductors who have studied concertos by playing them themselves
would again seem to have an advantage, but again this has not always
proved true. Some conductors with established authority take their own
tempos and force all but the most famous and hence most independent
soloists to conform to them; and occasionally this policy leads to violent
disagreements, both personal and artistic. Sometimes the result is one
set of tempos for the tutti passages and another for the accompanied solo

170 ORCHESTRAL C A D E N Z A S A N D ACCOMPANIMENT

Ex. 179. R a v e l : Spanis/i Rhapsody (Permission for reprint g r a n t e d b y D u r a n d et C i e , Paris, Copyright
owners; Elkan-Vogel C o . , Inc., agents for U.S.A.)
C a d c n z a ad lib.

. Bsns.
passages. Ideally, there should be n o conflict. A n d it m a y be stated par-
enthetically t h a t usually t h e m o r e m a t u r e t h e soloist, t h e easier he is to
accompany.
T h e first task the c o n d u c t o r - a c c o m p a n i s t has before h i m is to learn
t h e solo p a r t so well t h a t h e c a n w a t c h t h e soloist a n d not t h e score.
H e m u s t play t h e solo p a r t m e n t a l l y — b r e a t h i n g , bowing, or fingering,
as t h e occasion d e m a n d s , simultaneously with t h e soloist. A real accom-
p a n i s t does n o t follow t h e soloist; h e l i t e r a l l y accompanies h i m . Some
c o n d u c t o r s " p l a y safe" by w a i t i n g until a n i m p o r t a n t e n t r a n c e is u p o n
t h e m a n d t h e n b r i n g i n g in t h e orchestra a split second later. T h i s pro-
c e d u r e is irritating to sensitive ears a n d is justifiable only w h e n t h e soloist
is erratic or w h e n rehearsals h a v e been i n a d e q u a t e .
T h e most common fault occurs when a conductor follows the soloist's
line with the b a t o n instead of c o n d u c t i n g the a c c o m p a n i m e n t . I n such
cases, the a c c o m p a n i m e n t in t h e orchestra has one kind of phrasing a n d
style, the soloist a n o t h e r . T h e players, w h o h e a r t h e soloist, realize that
t h e b a t o n is o u t l i n i n g his lines I n s t e a d of t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t , which
they must therefore improvise. T h e result is a feeling of insecurity. T h e r e
is always p r e s e n t t h e t e m p t a t i o n for t h e c o n d u c t o r to outline t h e solo
p a r t , b u t h e must not s u c c u m b to it. H e must follow the solo p a r t m e n -
tally b u t c o n d u c t the orchestral b a c k g r o u n d .
A n e x a m p l e in orchestral music of a place w h e r e some conductors
a r e t e m p t e d to follow t h e m a i n line o c c u r s at t h e start of t h e second
m o v e m e n t of Tchaikovsky's S y m p h o n y No. 4. T h e pizzicato accompani-
m e n t of the oboe solo will sufFer if t h e b a t o n gives t h e oboe line. Pizzicati
m u s t be precisely b r o u g h t in, a n d t h e p l a y e r s will n o t be able to give
n e a t entrances if the b a t o n gives the legato outline of the solo oboe. Except,
t h e n , for the first b a r , w h e r e the oboe is c u e d in a n d t h e p h r a s i n g pat-
t e r n established, t h e b a t o n m u s t p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to t h e string
b a c k g r o u n d . T h e c o n d u c t o r ' s h e a d c a n a n d does follow t h e legato, a n d
t h e b a t o n m a y also do so w h e n the strings h a v e rests between the pizzicati.
A n o t h e r place similar in this r e g a r d occurs in t h e fugato of the slow move-
m e n t of B e e t h o v e n ' s S e v e n t h S y m p h o n y , w h i c h will be d e t a i l e d in a
later c h a p t e r .
T h e m o r a l a g a i n t o b e d r a w n f r o m s u c h illustrations is t h a t there
is such a t h i n g as c o n d u c t i n g a n o r c h e s t r a t o o m u c h . T h e c o n d u c t o r
m u s t k n o w w h e n to allow his players f r e e d o m a n d w h e n to divide his
authority with t h e m . In long passages with little or no change in tempo,
t h e c o n d u c t o r should let t h e players proceed on their own m o m e n t u m ,

ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS AND ACCOMPANIMENT

j u s t keeping his h a n d lightly u p o n t h e m , so to speak. A n excerpt which
m a y be cited in this connection occurs in Berlioz' " F a n t a s t i c " Symphony,
o n p a g e 60, small score, t h e last two bars, a n d the first two bars of t h e
next page. T h e c o n d u c t o r m a y very well follow t h e two harpists on t h e
last t w o b a r s of p a g e 60 a n d with t h e m , t h e flutes, oboe, a n d clarinets
in the next two. H e should concern himself mainly with the string back-
g r o u n d . It is difficult to give a n y rules in this r e g a r d , b u t a little expe-
rience will show a c o n d u c t o r w h e n to take c o m p l e t e c o m m a n d a n d when
to s h a r e it with players. T h e ability to d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h u s is one sign of
maturity.
T h e solo p a r t must be allowed to d o m i n a t e t h e ensemble only when
it h a s t h e m a i n line a n d must b e s u b o r d i n a t e d w h e n its p a r t becomes
s e c o n d a r y , as is often t h e case. I m m a t u r e a n d egocentric soloists some-
times a t t e m p t to d o m i n a t e t h e music t h r o u g h o u t their stay on the plat-
f o r m , a n d t h e result is a n y t h i n g b u t art. T h e r e m u s t be give a n d take
b e t w e e n soloist a n d orchestra.
W h e n it is difficult to h e a r a soloist because of acoustical conditions,
b a l a n c e m a y often be o b t a i n e d by h a v i n g t h e orchestra play softer. W h e n
t h e brass tends to o b t r u d e in such cases, discreet editings offorte-pianos
m a y h e l p , especially in s u s t a i n e d c h o r d s . I n concertos like M o z a r t ' s ,
w r i t t e n for s m a l l e r o r c h e s t r a s t h a n a r e u s u a l n o w a d a y s , s o m e of the
strings m a y be dispensed with. T h e c o n d u c t o r m i g h t a r r a n g e to listen
to t h e o r c h e s t r a f r o m a b a l c o n y or f r o m t h e r e a r of t h e g r o u n d floor
w h i l e t h e c o n c e r t m a s t e r takes over. V a r i o u s sections of t h e orchestra
m a y be asked w h e t h e r t h e y h e a r t h e soloist a t all times. E x t r e m e care
should always be taken t h a t the soloist's p a r t comes through the orchestral
web.
A t e c h n i c a l s a f e g u a r d is a l w a y s to k e e p t h e b a t o n m o v i n g , however
slowly, especially in retards, so t h a t t h e players have something to hold
to. If t h e b a t o n has s t o p p e d a n d t h e t e m p o is t h e n s u d d e n l y c h a n g e d
b y a b u r s t of speed o n t h e p a r t of t h e soloist, a j e r k in t h e b a t o n will
result in a n ugly wrench.
A n o t h e r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n is to keep some of t h e length of the b a t o n
m o t i o n in reserve for a p r e p a r a t i o n as w a r n i n g for a s u d d e n c h a n g e in
tempo, particularly on the last stroke of the bar. For if t h e b a t o n is brought
to the end of the stroke too soon with no leeway, t h e h a n d is in an awk-
w a r d place if the soloist m a k e s a s u d d e n r e t a r d . I n t h a t case the baton
m u s t be p u s h e d high above t h e usual p a t t e r n , too high for comfort a n d
good a p p e a r a n c e , in o r d e r to give a p r e p a r a t o r y stroke for t h e Coming

ACCOMPANIMENT 173
a t t a c k . S o m e c o n d u c t o r s , w h i l e a c c o m p a n y i n g soloists, let t h e b a t o n
hover a n d d a r t a bit f o r w a r d in spurts, while a p p r o a c h i n g t h e next en-
t r a n c e . T h e y t h e n c a t c h t h e n e x t pulse of t h e e r r a t i c a n d elusive solo-
ist w i t h a l i g h t n i n g - l i k e t h r u s t . T h i s r e q u i r e s n e a t m a n i p u l a t i o n a n d
acts as a safety device. B u t o n e m u s t h a v e n o little e x p e r i e n c e for its
successful e m p l o y m e n t .
I n a c c o m p a n y i n g c o m p l i c a t e d melodic figuration in t h e right h a n d
of a pianist, the conductor will find it h e l p f u l to w a t c h t h e pianist's left
h a n d , w h i c h often h a s c h o r d a l f o r m a t i o n s outlining t h e h a r m o n y a n d
r h y t h m . I n t h e case of string soloists, a c h a n g e in b o w i n g often shows
a c h a n g e in phrase. W h e n a singer has c o l o r a t u r a passages, one should
w a t c h his b r e a t h i n g a n d Ups.
To r e p e a t : t h e most i m p o r t a n t p r e p a r a t i o n a c o n d u c t o r c a n have
in p r o v i d i n g a good a c c o m p a n i m e n t is to k n o w t h e solo p a r t so well
t h a t he can keep his eyes on t h e soloist. A n d he must really conduct the
a c c o m p a n i m e n t , not outline t h e solo.

M o z a r t ' s Pianoforte Concerto in A Major (K.288)

L e t US n o w consider a few examples f r o m Standard concertos which
sometimes cause concern in t h e minds of Student conductors. T h e M o z a r t
P i a n o C o n c e r t o in A M a j o r ( K . 2 8 8 ) is a good e x a m p l e w i t h which to
Start. References in this discussion will be to the Broude Brothers edition,
in which n u m b e r s are placed a t the t o p of each staff a n d in which each
m o v e m e n t starts w i t h n u m b e r one. T h e orchestra is c o n d u c t e d four to
t h e b a r in its o p e n i n g measures, like a n y Symphonie work. T h e pianist
starts on t h e 6 7 t h m e a s u r e , w h e r e h e s h o u l d w a i t for t h e conductor's
n o d . T h e general t e m p o s should h a v e b e e n previously a g r e e d u p o n so
t h a t t h e pianist's p a c e will be s o m e t h i n g like t h a t of t h e c o n d u c t o r ' s
introduction, since the s a m e t h e m e starts b o t h t h e solo a n d t h e orchestral
i n t r o d u c t i o n . M o r e t h a n a r e a s o n a b l e difference in m o o d , phrasing, a n d
t e m p o between conductor a n d soloist will cause an a u r a l dichotomy.
T h e c o n d u c t o r nods to the pianist, who, it will be n o t e d , plays a nor-
m a l f o u r - m e a s u r e p h r a s e alone. Beat these f o u r u n a c c o m p a n i e d bars
with as Short a n d as quiet strokes as possible, or simply with one down
b e a t a m e a s u r e . Bar 71: p r e p a r e a n d c u e in t h e cello a n d bass with a
clear " e m p t y " b e a t ; d o not give a p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e rest on t h e first
b e a t of the string entrance. Show t h a t t h e actual e n t r a n c e is on the sec-
o n d stroke. Bars 7 3 - 7 4 : it is best to b e a t h e r e in detail, t h o u g h unob-
trusively. B a r 74: cue in t h e violins o n t h e t h i r d b e a t of t h e measure.
M a k e t h e distinction b e t w e e n silent b e a t s (on rests) a n d living beats

174 ORCHESTRAL CADENZAS A N D ACCOMPANIMENT

 (on a c t u a l notes) unmistakable. Bar 82: cue in t h e tutti with both h a n d s
for t h e F, r e m e m b e r i n g t h a t this is M o z a r t a n d n o t Tchaikovsky or
W a g n e r . Bars 9 5 - 9 8 : follow t h e pianist's left h a n d a n d keep t h e wood
winds with it, giving very precise strokes. Bring out a n t i p h o n y a n d im-
itation b e t w e e n solo a n d o r c h e s t r a in b a r s 114, 115, a n d 116, a n d be-
tween violins a n d flute-clarinet in bars 127 a n d 128.
Bar 126ff: w a t c h soloist's left h a n d , as is r e c o m m e n d e d whenever his
right has o r n a t e figuration. Bar 137: cue in wood winds a n d horns, a n d
d o so w h e n e v e r they h a v e m o r e t h a n a few bars' rest, not because they
c a n n o t c o u n t b u t for a unified a t t a c k . B a r 143ff: meno. Bar 149ff: give
o n e d o w n beat a m e a s u r e w i t h t h e o t h e r strokes very short a n d light.
Bars 156, 157, 160, 161: cue in e a c h w o o d - w i n d e n t r a n c e h e r e a n d in
similar places. Bars 162-163: w a t c h soloist's left h a n d a n d keep strings
w i t h it. B a r 161fF: t h e soloist yields to t h e c o n d u c t o r . Bars 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 :
b r i n g o u t c l a r i n e t a n d flute. Bar 194: out off strings; give d o w n stroke
as e n d b e a t . T h e next t h r e e b a r s n e e d o n l y d o w n beats, with p e r h a p s
j u s t t h e suggestion of t h e o t h e r strokes, t h o u g h t h e d o w n b e a t alone
usually suffices. Bar 198: give a clear p r e p a r a t i o n for tutti re-entrance.
F r o m h e r e u n t i l t h e c a d e n z a , t h e p r o c e d u r e is like t h a t for passages
a l r e a d y discussed. P r e p a r e for t h e c a d e n z a 16 b a r s before t h e e n d of
t h e m o v e m e n t on p a g e 21, by observing a very b r o a d d o w n stroke a n d
a second stroke as a n e n d beat, followed by a b r e a k . O n t h e trill an-
n o u n c i n g t h e e n d i n g of t h e c a d e n z a , b r i n g t h e b a t o n u p to w a r n the
players. W h e n the soloist's left h a n d strikes t h e d o m i n a n t seventh hold,
give a short p r e p a r a t o r y stroke to t h e right, t h e n take c h a r g e by giving
a half u p w a r d a n d i n w a r d hook to t h e left. W h e n the eyes of the soloist
a n d t h e players are on your b a t o n , Start t h e tutti.
I n t h e andante, d o not beat until b a r 11. Bar 11: give only " e m p t y "
b e a t s to establish t h e m o o d . T h e b e a t is six to t h e b a r . B a r 12: bring
out t h e clarinet a n d violin. Bar 13: b r i n g out the bassoon. Bar 14: bring
out t h e flute. Bar 15: emphasize the violin a n d flute. Bar 16: emphasize
t h e violin a n d clarinet. Bar 20: give a d o w n stroke as a n e n d beat. Bars
2 0 - 2 4 : give e m p t y a n d very short strokes, i n t e n d e d more to hold a lofty
m o o d t h a n to beat time. Bar 25: cue in t h e strings. Bar 31: d o not ex-
a g g e r a t e t h e forte piano in t h e strings. T h e h a r m o n y suggests a gentle
e l o n g a t i o n a n d stress, not an accent. B a r 35: flute a n d clarinet should
be together on t h e thirty-second notes. Bars 4 6 - 4 7 : cue in t h e flute a n d
t h e bassoon carefully with a precise f o u r t h stroke. Bar 80f: see t h a t t h e
bassoon e c h o imitates t h e solo. Bar 85ff", colla parte: follow t h e solo here
b u t d o n o t o u t l i n e its p h r a s e s w i t h t h e b a t o n ; give precise strokes for

ACCOMPANIMENT 175
pizzicato, which needs exact d e m a r c a t i o n in such accompaniments. Watch
for a possible calando in t h e solo t o w a r d t h e e n d of t h e movement.
Beat t h e presto in two. T h e solo h a s eight b a r s w i t h tutti r e p e a t i n g
in outline. A g r e e o n t h e m o o d a n d s p e e d w i t h t h e soloist in a d v a n c e ,
a n d g u a r d against o v e r w h e l m i n g t h e soloist in this m o v e m e n t . Get the
e n t r a n c e of t h e violins o n t h e 3 2 n d b a r c l e a r in y o u r m i n d . A d o w n
stroke is e n o u g h to b r i n g t h e m in. Bar 62ff: a d o w n beat a m e a s u r e is
e n o u g h . Bars 7 0 - 7 1 : cue in c l a r i n e t a n d horns. B a r 97fF: d o w n beats
only a r e e n o u g h . W a t c h pianist's left h a n d . Bar 106: take this/xwro meno
a n d singing style; it m u s t p r e p a r e for p i a n o soloist's r e p e t i t i o n of the
s a m e m e l o d i c outline. B a r 125: w a t c h c h r o m a t i c s a n d animato h e r e in
soloist. Bar ISlflF: w a t c h soloist's left h a n d . B a r 163: keep strings a n d
soloist together.
Bar 176ff: exaggerate t h e precision of y o u r strokes to get clean a n d
n e a t pizzicato e n t r a n c e s . B a r 187ff; w a t c h soloist's left h a n d . T h e r e is
a n allargando at b a r 195, w i t h a tempo a t b a r 202 a n d meno mosso at b a r
238. Bar 245: give a strong d o w n beat to b r i n g in t h e strings. Bar 262:
take the clarinets cantante a n d soavamente; h e r e t h e pianist yields, at bar
270 regains c o m m a n d , yields a g a i n a t b a r 278, a n d regains c o m m a n d
a t b a r 286. B a r 300 is animato. N o t e b a r s 3 0 4 - 3 1 0 : a s e v e n - m e a s u r e
p h r a s e w i t h c l a r i n e t a n d bassoons e n t e r s on t h e last half of b a r 307.
B a r 3 1 2 : p i a n i s t m a y m a k e a slight accelerando. B a r 320 is meno mosso;
b a r 337, a tempo. Bar 347ff: b r i n g o u t t h e I m i t a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e wood
w i n d s a n d t h e soloist. Bar 359: w a t c h for t h e soloist's animato, which con-
tinues to t h e e n d of t h e work. Bar 375: k e e p strings a n d solo together.
B a r 385ff: k e e p strings w i t h soloist's left h a n d . B a r 395: k e e p strings
with soloist's left h a n d . B a r 401 is a tempo. W a t c h for soloist's left h a n d .
Bar 418: clarinet a n d bassoon enter h e r e one b a r öfter cellos a n d basses;
g u a r d against a p r e m a t u r e entrance. B a r 423: w a t c h soloist's left h a n d .
Bar 438: w a t c h c h r o m a t i c s for slight allargando. Bar 441 is a tempo. Bar
472: w a t c h for the e n t r a n c e of t h e violins; cue in with d o w n beat only.
B a r 4 8 9 : c u e in t h e w o o d winds. B a r 496: cue in t h e first violins. Bar
502: note/i. Bar 508: note f . Bar 514: w a t c h soloist's left h a n d .

Beethoven's Violin Concerto

T h e Student will find m a n y c h a l l e n g e s to n e a t a c c o m p a n i m e n t in
Beethoven's Violin Concerto. H e r e , repeatedly, he will find Illustration
of t h e wisdom of holding some of t h e l e n g t h of t h e b a t o n in reserve for
u n e x p e c t e d liberties b y t h e soloist, in b o t h s u d d e n accelerandi a n d ritar-
dandi, a n d especially on t h e last stroke of a m e a s u r e . T h u s , in t h e first
m o v e m e n t , a t b a r 330 ( p a g e 34, P h i l h a r m o n i a edition), t h e t h r e e six-

176 ORCHESTRAL C A D E N Z A S A N D ACCOMPANIMENT

teenths rounding out the soloist's trill are often taken broadly. Here the
baton should give the last quarter note to the horns and still have enough
Space left to go upward with the soloist. Watch bis bow a r m and bring
in the down beat at the change of bowing. In accompanying a string
soloist, follow his left b a n d with your ear a n d bis bow a r m with your
eye.
T h e second movement of the concerto presents a severe test of the
conductor's ability to sustain a very slow tempo. Tbough the beat is four
to the bar in the main, it will often be found that the baton has to be
stopped near the ends of strokes for waits, a n d that the next stroke has
to be prepared. With some soloists, quasi eight will best fit mood and
pace. T h e conductor-accompanist must be prepared to shift from one
pattern to the other at any time throughout the movement. T h e only
recommendation which can be m a d e is that the conductor so identify
himself with the solo part that he can feel instinctively what the latter
is about to do. It is not easy to follow a soloist in the numerous Scale
passages, especially if he establishes his initial tempo and then does not
abide by his own decision. Again, a change in the bow a r m serves as
a beacon.
T h e last movement {rondo) ofFers an unusual opportunity for neat
a n d precise accompaniment. T h e entrance of the cello on the second
eighth of the first füll bar supplies a characteristic figure repeated fre-
quently throughout the movement. T h e baton is held high to suggest an
ensuing down beat. An u p stroke must not be given under any circum-
stances! T h e fact that a rest starts the measure may inveigle some unwary
player to break through. The moment the conductor hears the soloist's
high D in the u p beat, he brings down his baton to coincide with the
first note of the next füll bar, the A. T h e players use the down beat as
the preparation (on the rest) a n d catch the rebound of the baton for
their entrance. It is h a r d l y necessary for t h e conductor to watch the
soloist in these places. H e should wait for the tonic in the solo, and
bring down the baton to coincide with the soloist's next note, the
dominant.
At bar 92 there are two successive holds in the solo part. T h e con-
ductor should hold the oboes a n d bassoons through the second hold,
with an u p beat. T h e moment the soloist's left b a n d starts to descend,
the conductor should flick the baton upward for a combined cut-off" and
preparatory motion, while the soloist plays the low D; then the baton
descends for the next attack as usual. T h e whole movement points up
the difference between outlining the solo part a n d conducting the
accompaniment.

ACCOMPANIMENT 177
 T h e last four m e a s u r e s of t h e c o n c e r t o r e q u i r e t h e dosest attention
of t h e c o n d u c t o r , a n d his eyes s h o u l d n o t leave t h e soloist. T h e third
a n d f o u r t h bars before t h e e n d should be given in two to t h e bar. T h e
next-to-last b a r should b e given with a d o w n b e a t ; b u t t h e u p beat is
divided into three parts, e a c h p a r t going in a different direction, so that
the players will have something to hold to in the two final smash chords.
T h e subdivided u p beat should be given up, down, a n d u p again, since
t h r e e stabs in the same direction w o u l d go too fast for the players' eyes
a n d b e a w k w a r d in e x e c u t i o n . T h e second subdivision m u s t be in the
n a t u r e of a p r e p a r a t i o n for the third subdivision, which cues in the sec-
o n d last chord. To follow a soloist h e r e a n d in similar r a p i d c h o r d suc-
cessions in other finales requires very neat timing.

The Allegro Vivace from S c h u m a n n ' s Pianoforte Concerto in A M i n o r

T h e f a m o u s passage f r o m t h e t h i r d m o v e m e n t (the allegro vivace) of
S c h u m a n n ' s Pianoforte Concerto in A M i n o r m a y be considered at this
point. T h e orchestra a n d soloist play together at t h e start of t h e move-
m e n t . T h e soloist then plays alone for eight measures. W h e n the orchestra
rejoins the soloist at the 213th m e a s u r e , it m a i n t a i n s a triple pulse with
p h r a s i n g which Covers two measures for a u n i t ; so t h a t each two-measure
g r o u p might be thought of as one 6 / 4 instead of two 3/4's. This r h y t h m
confiiets w i t h t h e soloist's r i g h t b a n d , w h i c h is p l a y i n g t w o - m e a s u r e
phrases, e a c h composed of t h r e e two-pulse figures. I n o t h e r words, the
orchestra suggests two times three (especially since rests start even meas-
ures) a n d t h e p i a n o suggests t h r e e times two (especially because of the
ties Over e a c h set of f o u r notes). W i t h o u t too m u c h trouble, we can see
h e r e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a k i n d of f o u r against six, if we t h i n k of each
two measures as one u n i t in 6 / 4 (3/2).
F o r t h e first m e a s u r e of this passage, give t h e d o w n b e a t divided,
so t h a t its last third acts as a long r e b o u n d slightly to the right a n d back
to t h e t o p of t h e stroke. F o r t h e s e c o n d m e a s u r e , give a n o t h e r down
stroke, w i t h a r e b o u n d on t h e last t h i r d of t h e stroke b a c k to t h e orig-
i n a l s t a r t i n g point of t h e b a t o n for t h e first w r i t t e n m e a s u r e . I n other
words, beat two bars as one, but with t h e d o w n strokes so d o s e together
t h a t t h e players a r e u n a w a r e of w h a t you a r e doing a n d t h i n k you are
giving t h e usual one to t h e b a r .
Since measures 2, 4, 6, etc., of this passage start on a rest, be especially
careful to give clear d o w n beats for t h e players so t h e y can c a t c h t h e m
for t h e i r e n t r a n c e s . T h e o r c h e s t r a h e r e m u s t be so d o m i n a t e d b y the
c o n d u c t o r t h a t it will not listen to a n d a t t e m p t to follow the soloist. T h e

178 ORCHESTRAL C A D E N Z A S A N D ACCOMPANIMENT

conductor must follow the soloist mentally, but his beat must be directed
at the players. The shghtest attempt to outline the solo part will imme-
diately cause confusion. Since this passage has acquired a somewhat
alarming reputation, the attitude a n d beat of the conductor should be
nonchalant, with an implied suggestion that nothing unusual is happening.

ACCOMPANIMENT 179
Chapter Twenty

RECITATIVE

ORCHESTRAL RECITATIVE
Recilative m a y be defined as music freed from the ordinary rules of rhythm,
so that the outlines of its phrases more nearly approach the changes a n d
pitch of n a t u r a l speech a n d elevated prose. A c c o m p a n i m e n t of this sort
of declamatory musical utterance presupposes knowing the soloist's part
so intimately that the printed page need be consulted not at all or, at
most, only occasionally.
Various sorts of quasi free musical speech occur in purely orchestral
music, a n d these f r e q u e n t l y a p p r o a c h vocal recitative b o t h in outline
a n d design. A c c o m p a n y i n g such passages calls for d o s e collaboration
b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r a n d soloist. O f t e n composers insert phrases like a
piacere (at pleasure), ad libitum (at will), colla voce (with the voice, i.e.,
take the tempo from the singer), colle parti (with the principal parts, i.e.,
take the t e m p o from the Instruments), etc., to show that they wish the
soloist to be given füll freedom.

Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel

A good example for the Student approaching the study of instrumental
recitative (good because it requires very little direction f r o m the con-
ductor yet is often " o v e r c o n d u c t e d " ) is the first horn solo of Till Eulen-
spiegel. T h o u g h apparently written in strict time, it is almost always played
with a slight accelerando d u r i n g its six measures. T h e passage is difficult
e n o u g h for horn players to play well without the extra b ü r d e n of slav-
ishly following a b a t o n . M o r e o v e r , h o r n players e v e r y w h e r e practice
this passage as a w a r m i n g - u p exercise, so they have their own conception
of it. T h e conductor, of course, m a y sing or h u m the solo in the rehearsal
to give the horn player a n idea of the phrasing he wants, but he should
then permit him the liberty of a soloist.

180 RECITATIVE
 It is e n o u g h to give a down beat on the first measure of the 6 / 8 (6th
m e a s u r e f r o m the Start); beat one d o w n beat a measure with short wrist
m o t i o n s for t h e u n c h a n g i n g a c c o m p a n i m e n t in t h e violins, d u r i n g the
six m e a s u r e s of t h e solo; a n d t h e n give a l o n g e r d o w n b e a t w h e n the
h o r n reaches t h e w r i t t e n low C, s o u n d i n g F a f o u r t h a b o v e (first space
below bass clef). T h i s slightly longer d o w n b e a t will cue in t h e viohns.
Treat this passage as a solo a n d follow t h e h o r n player. To hold h i m in
c h e c k s m a c k s of officiousness. F o r m e r l y , a h o r n p l a y e r a c c u s t o m e d to
low notes w o u l d t a k e over t h e solo on t h e last t h r e e notes; n o w a d a y s
one hornist almost always plays t h e whole solo.

B e e t h o v e n ' s Leonora Overture No. 3

T h e t r u m p e t solo b e h i n d stage in Beethoven's Leonora O v e r t u r e No. 3

(at measures 272 a n d 294, almost exactly in the middle of the com-
position) n e e d only be s t a r t e d . It is h a r d l y necessary even to give one
d o w n b e a t a m e a s u r e in t h e u n c h a n g i n g string b a c k g r o u n d . Consider
t h e six m e a s u r e s o n e hold. W h e n t h e t r u m p e t r e a c h e s m e a s u r e s 277
a n d 299, the conductor takes charge again a n d brings in the other players.

Rimsky-Korsakoff ' s Scheherezade

T h e o p e n i n g m e a s u r e s of t h e s e c o n d p a r t of R i m s k y - K o r s a k o f f ' s
Scheherezade offer us a n o t h e r e x a m p l e . S t a r t t h e violin solo with a prep-
a r a t i o n a n d d o w n b e a t w i t h r e b o u n d to t h e c e n t e r of t h e p a t t e r n , and
hold t h e b a t o n there as long as you wish. U s e t h e second stroke to t h e
left as p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e h a r p a r p e g g i o o n t h e third
b e a t . M a k e this third stroke swerve u p w a r d s so as to h a v e the b a t o n in
Position to give t h e next d o w n beat. Give n o f o u r t h stroke for t h e first
m e a s u r e . H o l d t h e b a t o n m o t i o n l e s s w h i l e t h e violinist plays his solo
ad libitum, which he starts only after the h a r p chord.
For the second measure, d o not give a p r e p a r a t i o n , since a rest starts
it. Give t h e d o w n b e a t with t h e violinist; give t h e second stroke to the
r i g h t a n d u p for t h e second h a r p c h o r d ; t h e r e t h e b a t o n waits for t h e
t h i r d m e a s u r e . P r e p a r e t h e h a r p ' s t h i r d e n t r a n c e o n t h e f o u r t h beat.
A f t e r c u i n g in t h e h a r p , k e e p t h e b a t o n motionless u n t i l t h e violinist
reaches high C, m a r k e d "ten." (abbreviation for tenuto, held or sustained),
a t which point you take charge.
At t h e molto moderato ( 3 / 2 ) , f o u r m e a s u r e s after " D , " t h e composer
h a s a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n "recit." a n d "adlib." Give t h e d o w n b e a t a n d hold
as long as desired at t h e b o t t o m of the stroke. W h e n you a r e ready, use
t h e r e b o u n d as p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e second stroke, o n w h i c h t h e trom-
b o n e is cued in. W h e n the trombonist reaches his last note, take charge
a g a i n with a short p r e p a r a t o r y motion to t h e right a n d a half hook up-

ORCHESTRAL RECITATIVE 181

ward and inward. He yields here as you give the next down beat. This
time the baton rebounds to the center, where it is ready to hold and
then to cue in the trumpet. Take charge again when the trumpeter reaches
his last note with the hold.
At the moderato assai (4/4), letter " F , " the composer again has written
recit., ad Hb., and colla parte. For three measures the clarinetist executes
roulades against a strummed accompaniment, obviously connoting ex-
otic Oriental Instrumentation. T h e clarinetist starts his solo just after
the baton has given the third stroke to the right. T h e baton remains
motionless during the rest of the measure until after the final three six-
teenths, when it follows them in an up-beat preparation for the down
beat in the second measure. It now takes charge again until the third
stroke and repeats the procedure of the first measure. In the third meas-
ure a quasi hold is observed on the second last note, the G, first space
above the stafT. It is marked "ten."
Further instances occur at measure 138 in the third movement of
the same work, at the 8th and 28th measures of the fourth movement,
and also at the 25th and 6th measures before the end. Rimsky-Korsakoff's
Sadko offers equally fascinating instances of quasi improvised musical
speech.
In Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben, where the violin solo teils us
of the hero's beloved (just before no. 23 in the Eulenburg small score),
and in the same composer's Don Quixote, where the solo Violoncello paints
for US the unforgettable picture of the death of the immortal tilter at
windmills, we have two great examples of orchestral Instruments as-
suming the role of the operatic singer. In each work, the extreme tech-
nical and musical demands are such that it is unthinkable that less than
first-rate Interpreters would ever be entrusted with responsibility for
executing the solos. Such being the case, the conductor should treat these
soloists as colleagues and allow them the füllest possible liberty in these
passages. T h e Interpretation should, of course, be discussed in detail
and agreed upon before the general rehearsal. T h e conductor should
follow these soloists when they have the main line and then take charge
when the soloists retreat into the ensemble. Accompanying Instruments
should be cued in with special care in these passages. There should be
constant give and take, the conductor and soloists all yielding at the
proper time. Only in this manner can the Intention of the composer to
obtain complete musical freedom be fully realized.
T h e supreme instance of orchestral recitative, is, of course, to be
found in Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.

182 RECITATIVE
V O C A L RECITATIVE

We turn now to vocal recitative, where, in Standard works from the

lyric repertory, tradition plays a great part in interpretation and delivery.
While this tradition must usually be obtained firsthand in the opera
house, recordings and broadcasts m a k e available to students of today
means of comparison of different Performances, rarely possible to their
predecessors. T h e matter of what language the singer uses should give
the Student conductor no concern. If he knows the vocal line he should
be able to conduct the score regardless of what language or translation
the singer may use, though he must watch for slight rhythmic variations.
In conducting orchestral a c c o m p a n i m e n t to vocal recitative, one
has a choice of two possible procedures. T h e first is to follow slavishly
every note in the vocal line, and to beat out every note and rest in the
orchestral part. This method is preeminently safe but often becomes
very fussy and labored. T h e other extreme is to ignore all rests and waits
a n d to cue in only notes which are actually played. U n d e r less than
ideal conditions, this method should be reserved for the virtuoso con-
ductor. It is dangerous with less than first-rank organizations. Between
these two extremes lies a compromise method, followed by most conduc-
tors, which minimizes danger of wrong entrance and avoids overbeating.
Though conductors may seem to conduct vocal recitative differently,
closer study reveals that their underlying principles are pretty much
the same. T h e differences lie in detail a n d are usually dictated by the
special circumstances under which each conductor meets his musical
forces. H e must a d a p t his technique to the circumstances in which he
finds himself. Thus, if one comes as a guest with only a few rehearsals,
it m a y prove best to beat out every detail, especially if the orchestra is
less than first-rank and the music is not well known to most of the play-
ers and singers. If, on the other hand, the conductor directs the same
forces week after weck, if they are first-rank, if they have rehearsed to-
gether long enough to know each other's musical styles well, and if the
music is part of the Standard repertory, details are hardly necessary,
and only general indications of mood, tempo, and entrance are needed.
Whatever adaptations of technique the conductor makes, the players
will want to know, above all, where the start of the measure comes.
Where the whole measure is silent, one down beat is enough. Where
there are notes in a measure (with or without rests), a clear down beat
(not necessarily a strong and long down beat) should be given. The ac-
tual entrance of the players should be noted and must be unmistakably
differentiated from the surrounding rests by the preparation and strong

V O C A L RECITATIVE 183
stroke. T h e rests in the measure mu8t be differentiated from the played
notes by being given as silent beats, t h a t is, beats which are light a n d
short a n d which have a suggestion of inertia. T h e strokes cuing in actu-
ally played notes, on the other h a n d , are characterized by their weight,
force, a n d b o d y , w h i c h at once set t h e m a p a r t f r o m t h e silent beats.
This, theo, is one of the secrets of good recitative conducting: the baten
shows the players in the orchestra which parts of the measure are rests
a n d which are played. T h e left h a n d a n d facial expressions naturally
aid in this.
This procedure applies especially to measures which start with rests.
W h e r e rests end a measure, it is usually possible a n d desirable to ignore
t h e m . If the conductor feels he must beat these final rests, let him da so
as u n o b t r u s i v e l y as possible. It is h e r e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t these final
rests be ignored, a n d t h a t the last stroke for notes actually played in a
measure be executed to the right, where the b a t o n is ready to give the
a t t a c k for the next measure's d o w n beat. This next a t t a c k m a y be of
two kinds: first, a down b e a t which brings in notes played at the start
of the stroke a n d which should be preceded by a n up-beat preparation;
or, second, a down beat which brings in a rest, a n d which does not have
a n u p - b e a t p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e d o w n b e a t itself assuming t h a t function.
If a preparation is given for a measure starting on a rest, some unwary
player m a y be inveigled into a p r e m a t u r e entrance. This principle must
be reiterated, for it concerns one of the most dangerous a n d treacherous
aspects of conducting recitative.
T h e only general r e c o m m e n d a t i o n which c a n be m a d e about vocal
recitative (it applies to orchestral recitative as well) is t h a t players should
usually have a down beat for every measure. This permits t h e m to count,
especially in long waits, a n d to m a k e e n t r a n c e s o n time. Even t h e n the
c o n d u c t o r s h o u l d indicate the exact point of e n t r a n c e , not because the
player cannot count (as has already been stated), but to give a n over-all
unified Interpretation. T h e r e are exceptions to this one-down-beat-a-
m e a s u r e procedura, especially a t places w h e r e players h a v e very long
waits. Its general purpose is to preclude accidents w h e n singers hurry,
drag, repeat, or skip. Incidentally, the conductor need not give the down
beats for e a c h m e a s u r e e x a c t l y with t h e singer w h e n t h e players are
silent. H e m a y beat t h e m out quickly, hold the b a t o n poised until the
singer catches u p to him, a n d then cue in the players.
T h e principles concerned with bringing in orchestral attacks as back-
g r o u n d for vocal lines are very m u c h like those g o v e r n i n g attacks in
general. These have a l r e a d y been discussed in some detail in C h a p t e r
Ten a n d m a y be profitably reviewed at this point. It may be added here

184 RECITATIVE
t h a t rests at the Start of the measure are indicated by e m p t y beats u p
to t h e stroke before the a c t u a l orchestral e n t r a n c e , at which point the
p r e p a r a t i o n a n d a t t a c k a r e given as if t h e music were starting for the
first time. I m p l i e d in this Statement is t h e absolute r e q u i r e m e n t that
the c o n d u c t o r k n o w at all times w h a t is Coming in the next measure,
especially at its Start. O n l y thus will he know where his baton must be
directed after the last played note of the measure he is conducting, so
that he will be ready a n d in the correct position to give the proper mo-
tion for the ensuing attack.
T h e next implication is t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r must not delineate the
vocal line; this he must follow mentally. T h e motions of his baton should
have no visual relation to the line sung on the stage; they should clearly
indicate the orchestral background. Conduct the orchestra, not the singer,
t h o u g h this does not preclude the giving of cues a n d all sorts of assist-
ance to the singer when necessary.
To sum up: give a clear d o w n beat for every silent measure and for
measures having sustained chords, holds, a n d tremolos. Successions of
measures like these need not be followed note for note in the vocal line;
t h e y m a y be b e a t e n in r a p i d succession a h e a d of t h e singer, a n d the
b a t o n m a y then wait for the singer to reach the point where the prep-
a r a t i o n for t h e next a t t a c k is to be given. I g n o r e rests at the ends of
measures or beat t h e m as unobtrusively as possible. Indicate rests at the
Start of m e a s u r e with silent beats; use t h e pulse before the a c t u a l en-
t r a n c e as a p r e p a r a t i o n ; a n d execute the stroke on the last played note
t o w a r d the right, so that it will be ready for the next down-beat attack.
It is possible, w h e n t h e stroke in such cases n o r m a l l y goes to the left,
to give it so a n d then immediately to give a stroke to the right, though
this is finicky. W h e n the next measure starts on the beat, give a prepa-
r a t i o n ; w h e n it starts on or w i t h i n a rest, use t h e d o w n b e a t for this
p u r p o s e a n d d o not give a n u p - b e a t p r e p a r a t o r y m o t i o n or you may
d r a g some player into a p r e m a t u r e attack. W h e n the h a r m o n y changes
in a m e a s u r e , or w h e n special r h y t h m i c or melodic figures emerge in
the text, show these with the baton.

V e r d i ' s II Trovafore

Let US now see what h a p p e n s in a c t u a l practice. T h e simplest sort

of recitative occurs when the orchestral b a c k g r o u n d consists of unchang-
ing chords or tremolo. These m a y be considered holds whether so marked
or not.
T h e passage quoted in Example 180, from Verdi's II Trovatore (brace
2, p a g e 81, Ditson edition), starts w i t h M a n r i c o ' s words, " I n no-stra

VOCAL RECITATIVE 185

Ex. 180. Verdi: II Trovotore

Manrico (readintr)

J> j . } J j i

"Jn no -slra posjac Cadetlor; TU dii tu,percermo delpren-ce, vi-gi-lar

J , h h^ftf, ., f ^ p P, ^ It, I r .. .
1 ' ' ^ i» -p p
le di-fe-se. 0 - ve U j äa-bi^offrel-la-iUi ve -• nir. äum-ia 1a se-ra,,

_ p •• • ,. • — .

I ''p P P P P P p F' p ''P P P P [? , ,,

Jrat - &Jn. vn-^-TU m Uta. morU^ vi-cm dhusäro del - la.

(äespaxrifigUj)

Croce^l ve -U cin-gt - ra Jfio - no - raV Oh ^iu-sto

186 RECITATIVE
 p o s - s ^ C a s t e l l o r . " A messenger h a s j u s t b r o u g h t h i m a letter. M a n y
t e n o r s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a d e it a special point of professional p r i d e
a n d h o n o r to rush t h r o u g h t h e letter a t the utmost possible speed.
S i m p l y give a d o w n b e a t o n t h e D flat c h o r d a n d h o l d u n t i l the
c h a n g e in h a r m o n y . R e p e a t this p r o c e d u r e for t h e n e x t long b a r a n d
t h e n give a n e n d beat u p w a r d for t h e tied e i g h t h - n o t e c h o r d which starts
t h e m e a s u r e before t h e e n s u i n g aüegro agitato mosso. At t h e e n d of each
long hold, give t h e u p beat as p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e next attack. T h e b a t o n
n o w r e m a i n s motionless until t h e p r e p a r a t i o n on t h e last b e a t of this
m e a s u r e for the singer's attack on the high A flat, which starts the allegro
agitato mosso.
I n t h e following c o m m e n t s u p o n passages c o n t a i n i n g operatic reci-
tative, we shall not use direct musical q u o t a t i o n , because of t h e avail-
a b i l i t y of t h e v o c a l - p i a n o scores of Bizet's Carmen, M a s s e n e t ' s Manon,
G o u n o d ' s Faust, a n d Verdi's Aida.

Bizet's Carmen
In Bizet's Carmen at no. 3-bis, where Z u n i g a addresses D o n Jose with
t h e w o r d s , " C ' e s t bien lä, n ' e s t - p a s , d a n s ce g r a n d b ä t i m e n t q u e tra-
vaillent les cigarieres?" directly after t h e " b r o o m s t i c k " chorus of Street
boys, we h a v e e x a m p l e s of a rest on t h e first stroke of t h e b a r (bars 1
a n d 5), silent bars (bars 3, 4, 6, a n d 7), rests filling out a m e a s u r e after
p l a y e d notes a n d rests (bars 2 a n d 8), a n d an attack within t h e second
stroke (bar 9).
I n b a r s 1 a n d 5, give the e m p t y d o w n beats as p r e p a r a t i o n . In
b a r s 3, 4, 6, a n d 7, give o n e d o w n b e a t e a c h . I n b a r s 2 a n d 8, the sec-
ond stroke goes to t h e right t o p a n d waits there until the singer reaches
t h e next measure, w h e n the b a t o n gives t h e d o w n beat. Ignore the final
rests in these measures. In b a r 8, the b a t o n goes to t h e right t o p on the
t h i r d stroke a n d descends at once as a n e m p t y beat on t h e first stroke of
t h e n e x t m e a s u r e , w i t h t h e singer's first q u a r t e r note, t h e second line
G. T h e b a t o n moves with t h e F s h a r p e i g h t h a n d brings in t h e orchestral
players. T h e r e is n o p r e p a r a t i o n o t h e r w i s e , t h e s e c o n d stroke serving
as such, as if the orchestra were entering for the first time in any similar
attack.

Massenet's Manon
I n Massenet's Manon, on p a g e 209 of t h e Novello vocal score, where
Des Grieux begins a recitative with t h e words, " M a n o n , dearest M a n o n , "
we find a passage containing h a r m o n i c changes which must be indicated
by t h e b a t o n . T h e s u r r o u n d i n g text is to be minimized.

VOCAL RECITATIVE 187

 Bar 1: give a down beat; the u p beat cues in the singer. Bar 2: give
a down beat only, or give the other beats in the measure unobtrusively.
Bar 3: give the down beat as the preparation for the second stroke, since
the first q u a r t e r is tied to the previous b a r . Bar 4: take as you did bar
2. Bar 5: m a k e the first beat unobtrusive; give the second beat as prep-
aration for the third beat; m a k e the fourth beat unobtrusive. Bar 6: make
the first three strokes unobtrusive; the f o u r t h stroke prepares the next
d o w n beat. Bar 7: give the d o w n beat sf; the rest of the measure is un-
obtrusive. Bar 8: keep this unobtrusive, since it is tied to the previous
b a r ; give the third stroke to the right top. Bar 9: give a down beat v\dth
a n i m m e d i a t e r e b o u n d to the top, to be in position to give the empty
d o w n beat of b a r 10 as preparation for the entrance on the second stroke,
m a r k e d aüegro agitato.
T h e really bothersome places in directing recitative come where the
a c c o m p a n i m e n t is c h o p p y , e n t e r i n g a n d s t o p p i n g on a n y p a r t of the
measure. In such places, it is absolutely necessary to indicate with the
utmost clarity the differences in rests, preparations, a n d entrances. Not
only the b a t o n , b u t also one's facial expressions m u s t p r e c l u d e ambi-
guity. Recall that a clear down beat does not necessarily m e a n a strong
or long one, especially on a rest. T h e left h a n d must assist the right when
there is any danger of wrong entrances. Success in conducting recitative
depends m u c h upon preparation a n d cuing in.

" J e w e l S o n g " from G o u n o d ' s Fausf

At this point, let us consider M a r g u e r i t e ' s "Jewel Song" in Act I I I
of G o u n o d ' s Faust, " J e ris de me voir si belle" (alkgretto). N u m b e r the
measures in your score to facilitate reference.
First note how the measures group themselves into phrases. Conduct
the music by phrase-units instead of by single measures; thus you will
obtain a better musical line a n d memorize the music m u c h more read-
ily. T h e first eight measures of orchestral introduction form one phrase,
taken one to the bar in two-measure units. This phrase, therefore, con-
sists of four g r o u p s of t w o m e a s u r e s e a c h . T h e trill p h r a s e , covering
four measures, is d o n e one to t h e b a r ; a n d the b a t o n t h e n awaits the
lady's pleasure on the 12th bar, where a breath pause usually announces
t h e trill's e n d . T h e b a t o n d a r t s u p w a r d with t h e a s c e n d i n g r u n and
catches the singer's high G s h a r p on the next d o w n beat. C o n t i n u e in
one to the b a r until bar 23, when a meno mosso calls for three to the bar.
B a r 30: b e a t again one to the bar. Bar 46: r e t u r n to three to t h e bar.
Bars 49, 55, 59: hold back. Bar 60: beat again one to the bar. Bar 67:
give only the d o w n beat. Bars 6 8 - 7 2 : b e a t t h r e e to the b a r . B a r 73:

188 RECITATIVE
again, beat in one. Bars 91-96: beat in three. Bars 96-106: beat in one.
Bar 97: again beat one to the bar. Bars 107-110: these are a repetition
of the opening bars, with a slight Holding back. Beat one to the bar
until bar 125; then beat in three again until bar 132. T h e singer often
holds the G in bar 131 through the third beat. Bars 132-139: beat in
one. Bars 140-144: beat in three. At bar 144, the half note B is often
held. Bars 145-146: beat in one. At bar 156, the high A is often held.
From here until the end, beat one to the bar. The trill bars 161-163
are often taken very rapidly. T h e quarter-note chord for the orchestra
in bar 164 is often held for a whole measure during the singer's high B,
proceeding directly to bar 165 without a break. F r o m here until the
end, go as rapidly as possible. Applause usually makes this section almost
inaudible in any event.
T h e ability to switch with suppleness from one to the bar to fluid
three to the bar at almost any time, a n d the ability to make any beat
coalesce with any other, are the main factors in a good accompaniment
to this aria.

Verdi's "Celeste A i d a "

O u r attention is next to be directed to Verdi's Aida, specifically to
Rhadames' romance, "Celeste Aida," which is sung a few minutes after
the curtain rises. Again, n u m b e r t h e measures in your copy for easy
reference.
We Start with the words, "Sc quel guerrier io fossi!" Bars 1-3: give
one down beat a measure. (With a routined orchestra, even this would
be pedagogic and can be omitted.) Bars 4 - 5 : beat four to the bar. Bar
6: give the second stroke to the right top; do not beat the final rests.
Bar 7: hold the down beat at bottom tili you are ready to give the prep-
aration for the next bar, on the tenor's last eighth note. Bars 8-10: do
as you did bars 4, 5, a n d 6. Bar 10: give the second stroke to right top;
ignore the rests; give a preparation on the tenor's sixteenth note. Bar
11: beat in four. Bar 12: give the second stroke to right center; give a
p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e next down beat on t h e tenor's last q u a r t e r note.
Bar 13: do as you did b a r 10. Bars 14-15: beat in four. Bar 16: give
a down beat with rebound to right center, ready for the preparation on
the tenor's last eighth note. Bar 17: make the first and third strokes streng
a n d the others very light, thus bringing out the change in harmony.
Bars 18-20: make the down strokes here empty and inhaling, the second
strokes strong and exhaling. Give all the beats, both played and silent,
in Order to keep strict tempo. Show the players each definite entering
place by making a thrust on the second stroke, a n d nod to the singer

V O C A L RECITATIVE 189
at his entrances. Bar 20: b e a t out t h e final rests, to keep strict tempo,
but m a k e them empty beats. D ü r i n g this bar, your eyes (or mind if you
are using no score) should a l r e a d y be at t h e Start of the next bar. Bar
21: give two e m p t y beats quickly to i n d i c a t e rests, a n d give t h e third
stroke on t h e singer's q u a r t e r - n o t e A flat as p r e p a r a t i o n for the streng
attack on the last quarter. Bars 22-23: take four to the bar. Bars 24-26
contain quasi holds. C u e in the singer at the Start of the andanlino 6 / 8 .
F r o m the andantino on, b e a t six to t h e b a r with the utmost fluidity
a n d suppleness, to give the singer complete freedom of movement. Note
t h a t c o n d u c t o r a n d t e n o r m u s t e a c h yield to t h e o t h e r at points, the
orchestra Coming through in the singer's held notes. Bar 42: cue in the
singer. Bar 50: give four strokes rapidly a n d leave the singer alone on
his h i g h B flat a n d short c a d e n z a ; n o t e t h a t t h e last sixteenth of the
m e a s u r e , E n a t u r a l , is held. B a r 51 is a good place at which to bring
out the orchestra. T h e measures following must be conducted with neat-
ness, precision, a n d i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n soloist a n d c o n d u c t o r . C u e in
the singer at the Start of each phrase a n d then follow h i m until he has
t h e long note d u r i n g which t h e orchestra details the lace-work back-
g r o u n d . Bar 70: w a t c h t h e singer's lips a n d b r e a t h i n g . Bar 74: stress
the t h i r d eighth. Bar 75: beat in two, with a quasi hold. Bars 76-77:
b e a t in six, t h o u g h again a p p l a u s e usually drowns out these bars. O n
the last eighth, give a n end beat.

SUMMARY
F r o m the foregoing remarks concerning the a c c o m p a n i m e n t for these
arias f r o m Faust a n d Aida, it is obvious t h a t printed notes convey only
approximately w h a t the composer wants. In Standard operas the music
has a c q u i r e d traditional t e m p o s a n d o t h e r Conventions. T h e s e c a n be
learned only by hearing authoritative Performances first h a n d , though
recordings a n d discussions with singers who have the traditions do help.
But one must always be careful to distinguish between stylization and
genuine tradition.
A n a t t i t u d e of conviction a n d ease on the conductor's p a r t should
instill a feeling of security into the players a n d singers. Artistic results
d e p e n d , first, upon the conductor's intimate friendship with the singer's
parts, a n d second, upon a baton technique which allows of no ambiguity
in i n d i c a t i n g rests, p r e p a r a t i o n s , a n d entrances. T h e c o n d u c t o r must
not follow the vocal line with his baton, but with his mind, a n d he must
a c c o m p a n y by directing t h e orchestra. H e must a c c u s t o m himself to
shifting his gaze from the stage to any section of the pit back a n d forth
suddenly, a n d he must be able to cue in a n y participant not only with

190 RECITATIVE
his baton but also with his eyes and head. The spectacle of a conductor
gazing into far distances and giving cues, however mathematically cor-
rect they may be, conveys the impression of science rather than art.
There should be a feehng of personal contact between the conductor
and his fellow artists at all times.

SUMMARY 191
 Chapter Twenty-One

STUDYING AND ANALYZING

AN ORCHESTRAL SCORE

In any work of art the whole is greater t h a n t h e sum of its parts. Dissecting
it, no m a t t e r how minutely, does not necessarily m e a n entering into its
spirit. Did not H e n r i Bergson in his essay on " G e n i u s " once say that
the m a n of talent sees a n infinite n u m b e r of closely placed dots but that
the genius sees the connected line? In music, the final synthesis depends
u p o n each Interpreter, a n d no a m o u n t of study of infinitesimally de-
tailed a n d microscopic minutiae will take the place of inner compulsion.
At the risk of stressing the obvious, it must be repeated here t h a t each
work of art is sui generis a n d presents its own technical a n d Spiritual
Problems.
T h e Student of c o n d u c t i n g s h o u l d a p p r o a c h his study of a n orches-
tral score knowing t h a t the a p p e r c e p t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of its
Spiritual message is so peculiarly individual a n d personal that each m a n
is literally for himself, a n d must hew öut his own road through experi-
ment a n d trial a n d error. A n important part of that hewing-out process
is t h e m i n u t e analysis of a score into its technical c o m p o n e n t s . T h e r e
is n o Single " b e s t " way of m a k i n g this analysis. E a c h Student must de-
velop his own methods a n d learn t h r o u g h his own experience. Yet
v a l u a b l e h e l p m a y c o m e to h i m f r o m the experiences of others. All a
t e a c h e r can do for him is to present t h e results of his own a n d others'
experiences in studying scores a n d let the Student a d a p t all this to his
own individuality.
T h e r e are various methods by which score analysis m a y be ap-
proached. Some conductors prefer to o b t a i n a perspective of the whole
work a n d then get down to details; others a p p r o a c h the work as a
succession of mosaics a n d then bring t h e m together into a whole; some
seem to use these two a p p r o a c h e s simultaneously. Some go directly to

192 STUDYING AND ANAIYZING AN ORCHESTRAL SCORE

the score with no intermediary steps; some learn the score at a piano;
some enlist the aid of a pianist or two; some use recordings or follow
the score over the air or at pubHc rehearsals or Performances. Some
conductors have been known to learn a score during their own orchestral
rehearsals, but this luxury is rarely granted to ordinary mortals. Each
individual must use the means at hand and fit them into his own mental
and artistic processes.
One warning must be given. Avoid the practice which many students
follow, of reading about a composer and his works from biographical,
historical, and esthetic points of view before they have studied the score
they are a p p r o a c h i n g . This is not to d i s p a r a g e what can be learned
from musical connotation; it is merely to emphasize the fact that extra-
musical study should follow and not precede a conscientious examination
of the music itself
With these thoughts in mind, here is a suggested procedure for
studying an orchestral score.
(1) Inspect the list of Instruments, the clefs, the transpositions, and
the foreign and technical terms.
(2) Sing through every part in succession horizontally, as it actually
sounds.
(3) Sing through the parts up and down, first starting on the lowest
staff in each section (wood wind, brass, string), and then starting at the
bottom of the staff on each page, until you can sing, hum, or solfege
any chord or line across or up or down the page.
Note: this does not mean that one must have a good or even a decent
voice. An octave suffices, and when the part goes too high or low, the
Student can ignore the extreme ranges a n d bring the part within his
one octave. His solfege should include sounds which can follow each
other in rapid succession, much like those used in double a n d triple
tonguing on certain wind Instruments. " B e e " and " D e e " are good al-
ternates for duple effects, while " B e e , " " D e e , " and " K a y " serve for triple.
Conductors' voices are notorious and the Student need not be self-
conscious in this regard. T h e only professional singer to become conductor
of a large orchestra whom this writer recalls offhand was Sir George
Henschel. Singing lyric passages presents no special difficulty; but often
coloratura excerpts in the violins, flutes, and even clarinets demand no
little vocal, lingual, and maxillary agility. Facility in this skill, which
might be termed conductor's solfege, serves not only the purpose of giv-
ing the Student an insight into the details of the score, but also a further
purpose at rehearsal, in enabling the conductor to show the players
quickly what he wants and how he wants it.

STUDYING A N D A N A L Y Z I N G A N ORCHESTRAL SCORE 193

 (4) Analyze the music architecturally so that you have a bird's eye
view of the main outlines in your mind. Pay special attention to tran-
sitions and development sections.
(5) Analyze the rhythmic figures, periods, a n d phrases of the work.
(6) Analyze the h a r m o n y , the modulations, the counterpoint, and
the thematic interplay.
(7) Analyze the changes in instrumental coloring, a n d note places
which you think might prove troublesome for the instrumentalists to
play.
(8) Analyze the changes in volume horizontally to determine where
the climaxes are, a n d vertically to determine problems of tone balance.
In doing this, remember that some Instruments have more penetrating
tones than others and that dynamic signs do not always teil the whole
Story.
(9) Now combine the previous categories in your m i n d a n d note
how phrasing, dynamics, volume, and instrumental coloring are often
inextricably intertwfined.
(10) Consider the tempo a n d mood of each section a n d movement
individually and in relation to the other parts of the v^fork.
(11) Beat through the work and note places requiring special atten-
tion, which may be troublesome for players or singers to follow. Do not
say simply: this section requires so m a n y strokes to the bar. It is rare
music indeed that does not call for constant and subtle change in delin-
eation of baton patterns. Question yourself constantly whether your
motions and demeanor are interpreting the music, not only in tempo,
but also in volume, tone, balance, style, mood, and the othef facets which
have been discussed in this volume.
(12) W h e n you have done all this, a n d when you feel you have a
good command of the score technically and apperceive its spiritual con-
tent, the time has come to read what those who speak authoritatively
have written about the score. A list of such works is found in the
Bibliography.
Finally, do not be discouraged if progress has been slow. After con-
scientious examination of a few scores, you will find that the time needed
for getting at the essentials of a score will become shorter a n d shorter.
There is no royal road to learning an orchestral score, and you will save
time by facing this fact at once.

SOME NOTES ON BEETHOVEN'S SEVENTH SYMPHONY

Let US now consider Beethoven's Seventh Symphony from the point
of view of the Student conductor, to suggest ways of aiding him in the

194 STUDYING AND ANALYZING AN ORCHESTRAL SCORE

Solution of some c o n d u c t i n g problems. References m a d e h e r e are to the
Breitkopf a n d H ä r t e l edition of t h e füll score. If this edition is not avail-
able for h o m e use, b r i n g your small score to t h e music library a n d copy
into it t h e lettering a n d p a g i n a t i o n of t h e Breitkopf a n d H ä r t e l score,
for easy reference while r e a d i n g t h e following lines.
A f t e r t h e Student has s t u d i e d t h e s y m p h o n y a c c o r d i n g to t h e pro-
c e d u r e j u s t o u t l i n e d in this c h a p t e r , h e is r e a d y for a consideration of
t h e m a i n line, by w h i c h is m e a n t t h e chief musical i d e a a t a n y given
time. It m a y be r h y t h m i c , melodic, h a r m o n i c , or c o n t r a p u n t a l , a n d is
often, in a p u r e l y orchestral work, i n e x t r i c a b l y associated w i t h t h e in-
s t r u m e n t a l t o n e coloring w i t h w h i c h t h e composer has clothed t h e
passage. T h e S e v e n t h S y m p h o n y , e v e n m o r e t h a n o t h e r s y m p h o n i e s
b y B e e t h o v e n , c o n t a i n s striking e x a m p l e s of this association, e.g., the
second m o v e m e n t , where t h e m a i n line, a r c h i t e c t u r e , a n d instrumental
coloring seem to have been born in the composer's b r a i n simultaneously.
O n e of t h e best m e t h o d s of v i e w i n g t h e m a i n lines of a s y m p h o n y
is to m a k e a p i a n o a r r a n g e m e n t of it, w i t h o u t too m u c h regard for the
p l a y a b l e possibilities a n d pianistic i d i o m , w h i c h a r e n o t w h a t we are
after here. R e m e m b e r t h a t a pianist is b o u n d by ten fingers; a conduc-
tor is not. S u c h a c h o r e will yield g r a t i f y i n g results in r e h e a r s a l , for it
should help the c o n d u c t o r to be able to pick o u t any passage instantly.
H a v i n g set the m a i n lines of t h e whole s y m p h o n y in his m i n d , the Student
should n o w h u m or solfege t h e m until he is able to carry t h e m through
t h e s y m p h o n y f r o m b e g i n n i n g to e n d , c h a n g i n g f r o m one I n s t r u m e n t
to a n o t h e r a n d dovetailing i n s t r u m e n t a l solos into a single line, as they
will really sound after transpositions have b e e n m a d e .
I n singing t h r o u g h the single m a i n line, consider this score from the
p o i n t of view of tone b a l a n c e , w h i c h meets us almost at t h e very start.
T h e m a i n line is carried successively for two measures each by t h e oboe,
t h e clarinets, t h e h o r n s , a n d t h e bassoons. T h e single oboe, a f t e r the
smashing tutti chord, sounds thin. T h e bassoons in the 7th a n d 8th meas-
u r e s d o n o t c o m e t h r o u g h t h e o r c h e s t r a l t e x t u r e s so easily as d o the
clarinets in t h e 3rd a n d 4 t h measures a n d t h e horns in t h e 5th a n d 6th
m e a s u r e s . N o r d o t h e low h o r n s s o u n d w i t h e n o u g h b o d y in t h e 9th
m e a s u r e . All this m u s t be a d j u s t e d if t h e a u d i t o r is to be e n a b l e d to
follow t h e m a i n line with clarity. A n o t h e r p r o b l e m arises at the 5th b a r
of t h e finale, w h e r e , unless g r e a t c a r e is t a k e n , t h e t r u m p e t blares out
a g a i n s t t h e musical t e x t u r e . T h e t r u m p e t e r ' s sf m u s t be p l a y e d mezzo;
he s h o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y d i m i n i s h to let t h e violins c o m e t h r o u g h ; a n d
h e m u s t be u r g e d to give a mellow t o n e instead of a bügle call. M a n y
other passages in t h e s y m p h o n y present similar problems in tone balance.

S O M E NOTES O N BEETHOVEN'S SEVENTH SYMPHONY 195

 An exhaustive consideration of this single point of view would obviously
transcend the limits of the present volume. T h e Student is referred for
an authoritative discussion of tone balance to Weingartner's On the Per-
formance of Beethoven's Symphonies.
In analyzing the harmonic fabric of the score, learn to get at the
core of the chords, i.e., disregard at the Start extraneous matters like
passing notes, retardations, suspensions, and all notes we may for our
purposes call arabesques. A Student conductor should a p p r o a c h the
harmony of a score to get the chief outlines, not to analyze chords in
the spirit of the etymologist. Once he has grasped aurally the block for-
mations and modulations stripped of all Ornaments, the details will give
him no trouble. Further, what is on the printed p a g e means nothing
unless he has translated it into sound. H e should study the harmony
by learning whole phrases, the longer the better. H e should test him-
self by listening to recordings, a pianist, or actual Performances and
seeing whether he can really name the chords a n d modulations. Such
training is excellent for preparing for the rigors of initial rehearsals,
where the orchestral web Coming from all directions often sounds jumbled
to the self-conscious apprentice conductor, beset by many simultaneous
Problems.
O u r next Step is to analyze the phrases so that we may be able to
indicate the rise a n d fall of stresses by movements a n d planes in the
baton. T h e beginning of a phrase obviously has more stress than the
rest of it, a n d the end of a phrase has the suggestion of a n end beat.
Consider the normal phrase as consisting of four measures and mark
each group with a cross or caret at the bottom of the staff. Note where
phrases are other than four-measure, a n d where they are really four-
less-one or four-plus-one or -two. Remember that phrases need not Start
on the bar line; they may Start anywhere within a measure. Moreover,
a phrase may have been telescoped by ending in one Instrument and
starting in another, simultaneously.
Observe the fugato in the second movement, starting on p a g e 40.
It is preceded by an extra measure, a kind of underlining by the com-
poser of the last measure of the previous four-bar phrase. Unless one
has analyzed this place (and other similar places), the baton sometimes
betrays a desire to go on. Since the conductor has had the extra meas-
ure in mind as the reaffirmed end of a phrase, he may then cue in the
first violins at the Start of the fugato clearly, though pp, starting a new
section with an unmistakably etched stroke.
Solfeging this fugato is an excellent exercise. Count the measures
which are accorded to the motif each time it is sounded, and note which

196 STUDYING A N D A N A L Y Z I N G A N ORCHESTRAL SCORE

instruments enunciate it. Note where the group consists of four, two,
or some other number of measures. Thus, on page 40 the following in-
struments each have the motif for four measures: the first violins at brace
I, bar 7; then the second violins; then, starting on the last two bars and
going to the next page, the cellos a n d basses; a n d finally, the violas.
Next the motif, cut into snippets, is given for a single measure to the
cellos and basses, to the violas, and to the cellos and basses again. Then
the first violins, the second violins, a n d the cellos a n d basses all have
it successively for two measures each. Next come the violas for two
measures, with the oboe a n d bassoon on the second measure; then the
flute and clarinet together have it for three measures, to which is joined
the fourth closing measure of the group. T h e motif now becomes a paean
chanted and intoned by the horns, trumpets, timpani, and strings against
the figuration of the wood winds. Note t h e mosaic-like snippets and
the unique use of changes in instrumental tone color for contrast in the
final section of the movement. Analysis like the foregoing is invaluable
for getting the main line and the phrasing and for memorizing.
T h e third movement has some tricky places, and an analysis will be
of great aid in pure time-beating. The rhythmic pattern is four measures
long and starts on bar 3, page 45. T h e first two bars on the page inhale
and are merely introductory. T h e long stroke for the main phrase,
therefore, comes on the third bar. T h e m a i n phrase might be said to
consist of two four-bar groups, making one unit of eight bars. On page
47 starting on the last beat of bar 10, the oboe and bassoon have a two-
bar group, tacked onto the three-bar group of the strings which started
at bar 7. This arrangement results in an extra measure for the strings
before the characteristic figure of the movement is taken up in the oboe.
T h e long down stroke for the oboe comes on the 13th bar of page 47.
O n page 48, starting at bar 2, the cellos a n d basses, the violas, and the
second violins each start a measure apart, but the first violins enter two
measures after the second violins. This is a place to watch, for the first
violins sometimes imitate the other instruments a n d try to come in a
bar ahead. These " e x t r a " measures must be recognized, especially in
the music of Beethoven, who has a way of writing with J o v i a n whim-
sicality. For detailed consideration of phrasing in Beethoven's symphonies,
the Student is referred to the works by Goetschius a n d Evans listed in
the Bibliography.
Now the Student should make an analysis of the architecture of the
whole symphony. T h e special a p p r o a c h at this time should be to see
how the composer has so intertwined the instrumental coloring and the
form that they seem to be artistically inseparable. A füll understanding

SOME NOTES O N BEETHOVEN'S SEVENTH SYMPHONY 197

of this symphony is impossible without a mental perspective of its form
in relation to its instrumentation.
O n e of the most striking examples of this relation occurs in the sec-
ond movement, vifhich has characteristics of both rondo a n d Variation
forms. At the beginning, the rhythmic phrase is given out p in the three
lower strings for two balanced eight-measure groups a n d is answered
in echo by another eight-measure group, a formal device which Bee-
thoven repeats in the last movement of the Ninth Symphony. The
second violins take the bürden in a higher octave, then the first violins
still another octave higher, then the horn gives it in climactic form, fol-
lowed by a diminuendo. Note how strings a n d woods are contrasted in
the sections. T h e last page of the movement, page 44, stands out especially
in this matter of tone-color contrast. Note the balance of the opening
a n d closing bars of the movement, with the horn on the dominant at
the bottom of the 6 / 4 chord, imparting a mood of unrest.
Form should be studied from the point of view of modulation also.
T h e modulations connecting the sections of each movement must be
firmly fixed in the ear of the Student. Orchestras have been known to
go back deliberately to the exposition when they wfere supposed to have
proceeded to the recapitulation, leaving the unsuspecting conductor
nonplused. It is a clever trick and not likely to leave a conductor happy.
If he catches the orchestra trying it, he should never again have trouble
with that orchestra. Tenseness a n d climax and their reverse hinge, too,
u p o n form. Note where these occur in t h e score, a procedure vv^hich
should help you to arrange dynamic a n d tempo climaxes logically and
without repeated exaggerations.
It surely will not escape the attention of the Student that each move-
ment of this work is characterized by a rhythmic figure so striking and
individual that you can quite easily recognize it by merely hearing it
t a p p e d on a board. Wagner called the Seventh the "apotheosis of the
dance," as is well known.
W h a t the mood of each movement should be is one of the most
difficult Problems a conductor has to face. By the time the Student has
m a d e his repeated analytical tours of the score, he should have his own
ideas in this regard. T h e decision need not be forced or hurried, how-
ever, for given time a n d thought, a Solution will crystallize sooner or
later. Once the technical questions have been analyzed conscientiously,
the Student is justified in Consulting m e n who have established their
right to speak on the matter. But, concerning the mood a n d spirit of
a work, the counsel of no authority is to be accepted unless it is in har-
mony with the student's own inner conception.

198 STUDYING A N D A N A L Y Z I N G A N ORCHESTRAL SCORE

 Let US Start again at the beginning of the score. Take the introduc-
tion four to the bar. Indicate the first chord by a sweep of the baten
suggesting powerful down bows; then direct your attention immediately
to the oboe, outlining its half notes.
T h e measures containing the sixteenth notes (page 4, measures 1,
3, and 5 through page 5, measure 3) must be given with precise, short
strokes of the baton, each of which is the length of one sixteenth. Only
four strokes to the measure, however, are to be given. If the baton beats
füll strokes, each long enough for four sixteenths, as is the temptation,
the players will have little to hold to while the baton is moving; whereas
if the baton enunciates crisply only the first sixteenth of every four and
then waits until the first sixteenth of the next set is reached, the players
will Imitate and keep together, as they often fail to do otherwise.
On page 4, make the alternating bars for the sixteenths and those
for the half notes quite distinct. At bar 6, note that the second violins
and not the firsts begin the half-note motif. Do not allow the players
to use too much bow, or a diminuendo will result. T h e lower half is enough.

Vivace
T h e vivace, marked in the score as starting with the 6/8, really enters
at füll tilt four measures later and is, of course, taken two to the bar.
It is preceded by a tiny breath pause in the winds to separate the cre-
scendo from the subito p. On page 9, bar 18, the hold is long and proceeds
without a break.
Page 15, brace 1: beat the rests with empty strokes; and note that
they consist of two measures after normal four-measure groups before
the repeat, but are part of the four-measure group after the repeat. Page
15, bar 16: note the ten-measure group consisting of two-measure units,
enunciated successively by the cello and bass, the first violins, the second
violins, the violas, and the oboe and flute. Stress the first note of each
entrance. See that the lyric imitations are played as one man by the
five colorists. Page 17, bar 2: give a tiny breath pause before the next
bar to point up the p. Page 23, bar 4: do not make the hold too long
or it will hurt the effect of the hold in the next measure. Cut off with
a sweep to allow the baton füll play to bring in the wood-wind chord
attack on the sixteenth note. This place, very much like the opening
measures of the overture to Mozart's Marriage of Figaro, invites frayed
edges unless the greatest possible care is taken. Give the preparation as
if you were playing the sixteenth note with the orchestra. Wait at the
top of the pattern for the players to Imitate your motion. Then descend
together, with the attack on the hold. T h e preparatory motion must be

S O M E NOTES O N BEcTHOVEN'S SEVENTH S Y M P H O N Y 199

u n h u r r i e d a n d positive. Bar 5: t h e r e is n o b r e a k after this hold; pro-
ceedpp without a cut-off to the oboe. Page 27, b a r 12: take a tiny breath
pause before the pp implied Neapolitan sixth.

Allegretto
T h e first two bars are quasi holds; t h e n b e a t two to the b a r . Page
33, b a r 14: keep the second violins on the D string for eight measures.
Bar 22: keep the first a n d second violins on the A string until b a r 12,
p a g e 34, t h e n on the E string. Page 36, b a r 2: still beat in two, legato.
P a g e 43, bars 18-21: let the tone float mystically, to p r e p a r e for final
o u t b u r s t of tone in the m o v e m e n t . P a g e 44, last played b a r : keep the
first violins on the A string. Last two played bars: keep the second vio-
lins on the G string.

Presto
P a g e 45: beat one to t h e b a r , p h r a s i n g t w o bars as one. P a g e 46,
b a r s 19-20: note w h e n t h e s u d d e n d y n a m i c changes a r e ^ a n d when
they are pp. A fortissimo motion in the wrong place is likely to look silly.

Assai Meno Presto

O n page 50 is one of the f a m o u s t e m p o question marks. Continue
to beat one to the bar but Square the speed with your musical conscience.
P a g e 53, bars 2 3 - 2 4 : observe a tiny b r e a t h pause just hefore ppp, and
hold back on these two measures to p r e p a r e the ear for the noble har-
monic change. Beat these two bars in three, with a slight hold on the
second stroke of measure 24 to give the entrance on the u p beat for the
r e t u r n of the presto. Page 63, bars 5 - 6 : follow similar procedure. Page
64, b a r 9: hold back a bit to give the wood winds a chance to play this
difficult place cleanly (de the same on page 79, b r a c e 2, b a r 5, which
is a w k w a r d for the flute to play). Page 68, bar 6: the last q u a r t e r note
in the basses m a y be articulated by the b a t o n if it does not come through
precisely e n o u g h . T h e final presto should be slightly b r o a d e r t h a n the
m o v e m e n t as a whole, like five exclamation points.

Allegro Con Br/o

At page 69, a d o p t the t e m p o for t h e whole m o v e m e n t at the Start
a n d d o not let u p once; d o not Start one t e m p o a n d speed u p tili the
outline becomes indistinct, or Start a t e m p o which the players cannot
m a i n t a i n . Premeditatively rigid t e m p o is very effective. N o t e t h a t the
first four bars are introductory a n d t h a t the silent measures (2 a n d 4)
h a v e e m p t y beats a n d are quasi holds. Avoid anticlimaxes.
For a reading a n d reference list on Beethoven's symphonies, see the
Bibliography.

200 STUDYING AND ANALYZING A N ORCHESTRAL SCORE

 Chapter Twenty-Two

MARKING, CORRECTING, AND

EDITING SCORES

Most conductors have personal methods of marking scores in ways which

call attention to important places. There are conductors who assert that
they never, never have marked their scores and that they carry every-
thing in their heads. O f some of these it has been said that, though the
scores they exhibit are new copies with freshly cut leaves, those they
have used for study look like war maps. C e r t a i n l y most conductors,
even those who conduct public Performances without a score, still mark
their scores for study purposes. M e m o r i e s vary, but even a good one
should not be burdened unnecessarily.
T h e r e is such a thing as cluttering up a score with so many mark-
ings that the over-all picture runs into the danger of being swamped
by details. Markings on a score may be likened to fingerings for instru-
mentalists, and methods for making them may well be studied. Fortu-
nately for the Student of conducting, orchestral scores which have been
marked up by experienced conductors have reached our public libraries,
where they may be consulted. Two points should interest those inspecting
such scores: what was considered of enough consequence to mark and
how the markings were made.
S o m e conductors use one color to denote music for the stage and
another to show music for the pit, or different colors for different sections
of the orchestra. This sort of color scheme can be easily overdone. Some
use a death's-head, an exclamation point, or an arrow to warn of places
of extreme danger, for example when a quick turn of the page is called
for, followed by an important cue or change in tempo. T h e traditional
" v . s . " {volta subito, which means turn i m m e d i a t e l y ) is frequently em-
ployed for such spots.
Some conductors have ideographs for instrumental cues, for example,
an outline of the timpano, a A for the triangle, a large " O " to suggest

MARKING, CORRECTING, AND EDITING SCORES 201

 the bell of the horn, intertwined circles for cymbals, an " H " for the
h a r p , a comb to suggest a keyboard, " I " for first violins, " I I " for sec-
ond violins, and obvious abbreviations like via, trb, cl, fit, ob, bsn, vlc,
etc. Showing sudden changes of time-signature and dynamics in color
often proves of aid. Circling an accent or important note is a common
practica. A line increasing in thickness or the reverse has often been
used to show change in volume.
Where single notes in a measure are to be articulated, a single ver-
tical line over each note will call attention to it. This device is of special
aid in recitative and retards. When a wholfe passage or a group of meas-
ures is to be taken in the same n u m b e r of beats to a measure, the first
measure may be marked with the same n u m b e r of short vertical lines,
circled and followed by an arrow pointing to the right.
Dangerous cues a n d sudden changes at the Start of a page may be
noted on the preceding page, on the staff to be affected. Similarly, the di-
rection a n d kind of stroke on a page may be noted on the page before, as
may a change in the n u m b e r of strokes, in signature, or in transposition.
In marking cuts, be careful to enclose the exact places to be elided.
Use thick vertical lines to catch the eye. Perhaps because the eye muscles
follow a curve more easily than a straight line, it will usually be found
that a cut marked as in Figure 116 reads more comfortably t h a n one
Fig. 116
marked as in Figure 117.
W h e n there is more than one page to a cut, clip the pages affected
so that they will turn as one. It is also a good plan to mark at the Start
of the cut what is Coming at its end, e.g., "to bottom page so-and-so,"
"horn," "in three," etc. Pasting blank pages over elided passages is not
Fig. 117
wise since the cut may vary at another time.
See that consecutive numbers or letters, or both, are placed at about
every ten measures, at every important change in time-signature and
tempo, and at other Strategie points. These will prove invaluable aids in
starting, stopping, and finding one's place easily. See that these indica-
tions agree in your score and in the players' parts. Remember that
editions vary in this regard and that much time and patience in rehearsal
may be lost if the indications do not tally. If worst comes to worst and
they do vary, you should know your score well enough to be able to
say to your orchestra: "Start at such and such a solo or change in tempo
or time-signature and teil me whether I a m to give an u p or down beat
a n d how many beats to the bar. And sing a few notes to me." After a
note or two you should be able to teil exactly where the place is. Or-
chestral players like this sort of team work.

202 M A R K I N G , CORRECTING, A N D ED1TING SCORES

 H a v e all bowings, special fingerings a n d strings, breathings, phrasings,
a n d other indications of style m a r k e d in the parts plainly before the re-
hearsal. N o m a n a g e m e n t should waste m o n e y or t i m e (synonymous
today in orchestral rehearsals) for matters which can he attended to at
the copyist's desk. You will, of course, h a v e consulted section leaders
a n d the concertmaster when Instruments are to play passages of thematic
Imitation w h i c h r e q u i r e similar p h r a s i n g . T h e y p r o b a b l y k n o w their
Instruments better t h a n you do.
To r e p e a t : do not o v e r m a r k . T h i s h a b i t is a kind of subconscious
a t t e m p t to shift responsibility to t h e p r i n t e d page; it impels one sort
of c o n d u c t o r to b e l a b o r his scores with i n n u m e r a b l e doodlings. W h e n
you m a k e a m a r k , be sure it i s j u s t i f i e d ; m e m o r i z e t h a t m a r k as if it
were p a r t of the music itself; b u t do not lose sight of the forest for the
trees.
T h e task of correcting scores is one w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d a b l y causes
young conductors no little concern. New scores have their q u o t a of errors,
a n d even m a n y Standard works have occasional misprints a n d possible
variations. Works in m a n u s c r i p t have m o r e t h a n their share, a n d the
prospect of detecting errors on the spot in rehearsal m a y cause the con-
ductor of limited experience to become flustered a n d nervous.
Such errors are likely to fall into a few definite categories. T h e first
is w r o n g accidentals. Copyists work for a living, a n d t h e y have been
known to speed up towards the end of their tasks much as did the tailor
in the " P e e r G y n t " Suite. Some, like Rossini's favorite, have a n inor-
dinate fondness for sharps and flats as artistic devices. When accidentals
disagree, a n analysis of the string, h a r p , or trombone parts, which often
outline the complete h a r m o n y , gives the correct answer quickly. Thus,
in the 18th measure of Berlioz' " F a n t a s t i c " S y m p h o n y (Eulenburg
edition), the cello p a r t has a m i s p r i n t e d A flat, whereas t h e other In-
struments play the triad F-A-C. Quite a volume might be compiled of
questionable corrections m a d e by well-meaning but misguided com-
mentators a n d self-appointed musicologists who have h a d no compunc-
tions about t a m p e r i n g with the defenseless music which the masters have
b e q u e a t h e d to us. T h e r e is also an understandable proclivity toward
honest error in the preparation of editions.
In Stravinsky's " F i r e b i r d " Suite (1919 Version, K a l m u s edition), we
meet a series of errors in various categories. These obvious errors, dif-
ficult to understand in the case of a living composer, will serve to show
the categories into which such deviations often divide themselves.
In the 16th measure f r o m the Start, the last note of the first violins

MARKING, CORRECTING, A N D EDITING SCORES 203

should read second line G a n d not the printed F sharp on the first space.
T h e following note F should be F s h a r p . I n t h e 18th m e a s u r e , t h e first
violins should have a n a t u r a l before t h e sixth eighth note.
In the "Variation de l'Oiseau de feu et sa danse," at no. 11, measures 9
a n d 10: cancel the jete ( t h r o w n bow) in t h e violins. This is solo bowing
a n d i m p r a c t i c a b l e for a whole section. (Berlioz commits a similar error
by d i r e c t i n g spiccato at t h e tip of t h e b o w [ä la pointe]. T h i s looks good
on p a p e r b u t just does not come off in a c t u a l Performance.) Two meas-
ures before no. 13: t h e clarinet p a r t s h o u l d ( b u t doesn't) r e a d A sharp
t h r o u g h o u t t h e m e a s u r e . T h e second n o t e in t h e h a r p p a r t should be
F s h a r p . T h r e e m e a s u r e s a f t e r no. 17, a d d a n a t u r a l sign b e f o r e the
first violin A h a r m o n i c , for safety.
Going b a c k to the introduction, one m e a s u r e after no. 3, t h e strings
play a glissando of n a t u r a l harmonics. T h e composer or his editor should
h a v e m a r k e d in t h e bowing. T h e first violins m a y Start d o w n - b o w a n d
give eight notes to a bow, with the last four thirty-seconds up-bow. T h e
s e c o n d violins a n d violas start u p - b o w , eight notes to t h e bow. Cellos
Start d o w n - b o w a n d t a k e ten notes to a bow. D o not try to get m a t h -
ematical exactitude; t h e effect is impressionistic a n d the bowing sugges-
tions are m e a n t only to h e l p the players follow the b a t o n a n d come out
right at the next bar.
I n t h e " V a r i a t i o n de l ' O i s e a u de f e u , " at no. 9: violins, first triplet,
d o w n - b o w ; next two triplets u p - b o w a n d simile for all strings.
I n t h e " R o n d e des princesses," at t h e second m e a s u r e a f t e r no. 6,
t h e t h i r d eighth n o t e should be A s h a r p , a semitone below t h e printed
t h i r d hne B.
I n the " D a n s e infernale d u Roi Kastchei," t h e Xylophone solo h e a r d
in t h e t h i r d m e a s u r e before no. 4 should be r e p e a t e d in the b a r preceding
no. 4, i.e., t w o m e a s u r e s l a t e r . T w o m e a s u r e s before no. 16, t h e viola
p a r t should be in the t r e b l e clef, c h a n g i n g b a c k to the alto clef a t no. 16.
I n t h e " B e r c e u s e , " t h e bassoon p a r t in t h e t h i r d b a r p r e c e d i n g no. 7,
a n d t h e h a r p p a r t in t h e two m e a s u r e s before no. 10 n e e d correction,
w h i c h is left to the Student as a n exercise.
I n t h e " F i n a l e , " at t h e t h i r d m e a s u r e a f t e r no. 12, fill in t h e h a r p
p a r t so it will r e m a i n in unison with the clarinet p a r t for the four-
m e a s u r e passage beginning a t no. 12. At no. 16, t h e violas should be in
t h e alto clef; a n d t h e y s h o u l d c h a n g e to t h e t r e b l e clef at no. 17. T h e
t u b a p a r t in t h e sixth m e a s u r e before no. 19 should d u p l i c a t e the third
m e a s u r e before no. 19, i.e., start b o t h measures with a n eighth E below
the staff.
H e r e , t h e n , a r e a few representative t y p o g r a p h i c a l errors in a score

204 MARKING, CORRECTING AND EDITING SCORES

b y a living c o m p o s e r , errors in m e l o d y , h a r m o n y , clefs, accidentals, a n d
omission of notes. T h e y s h o u l d suggest m e t h o d s of c o r r e c t i o n in similar
cases in o t h e r scores.
T h e P r o b l e m s of c o r r e c t i n g errors w h i c h h a v e c r e p t i n t o works even
i n t h e S t a n d a r d r e p e r t o r y , n o t t o s p e a k of r e c e n t a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y
scores, h a v e o c c u p i e d d i s t i n g u i s h e d w r i t e r s of t h e p a s t . S o m e of these
errors a r e discussed in books b y R o b e r t S c h u m a n n , Sir D o n a l d Francis
Tovey, a n d Felix W e i n g a r t n e r , listed in t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y . S c h u m a n n ' s
c o m m e n t in t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y p a r a g r a p h of his essay " O n C e r t a i n
P r o b a b l y C o r r u p t e d Passages in t h e W o r k s of B a c h , M o z a r t , a n d Bee-
t h o v e n " s h o u l d b e t a k e n to h e a r t b y every c o n d u c t o r :

. . . if earthly tones p e n e t r a t e beyond the grave, I think the masters

must often smile when they hear errors that custom, tradition, a n d even rev-
erence, have permitted to continue in their works. It has long been my
intention to refer to a few in some of the better known works of the masters
mentioned above, with the request that all artists a n d connoisseurs test them,
whenever possible, by comparisons with the original manuscripts. Even these
themselves are sometimes incorrect. N o composer would dare to swear with
certainty t h a t any m a n u s c r i p t of his is entirely free f r o m errors. It is quite
n a t u r a l t h a t a m o n g the t h o u s a n d skipping dots that he writes in a n incred-
ibly short space of time, a dozen or so should be jotted down too high or too
low; indeed, composers oftentimes set down the maddest harmonies.

T h e m a t t e r of e d i t i n g scores is o n e w h i c h t h e c o n d u c t o r m u s t face
f r o m t i m e to time, especially in o l d e r works. S o m e e d i t i n g tasks a r e t h e
Substitution of p r e s e n t - d a y I n s t r u m e n t s for obsolete or a r c h a i c ones w h e n
t h e l a t t e r a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e or d e s i r e d ; t h e a d d i t i o n of n o t e s in e x t r e m e
r a n g e s for F r e n c h h o r n s a n d t r u m p e t s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n p e r f e c t e d
since t h e score w a s w r i t t e n ; a n d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of o l d o r n a m e n t a t i o n
a n d clefs i n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y usages.
A n o t h e r t y p e of e d i t i n g f a c i n g t h e y o u n g c o n d u c t o r arises f r o m t h e
n e e d to o b t a i n p r o p e r t o n e b a l a n c e in m u s i c by s u c h classic c o m p o s e r s as
H a y d n a n d M o z a r t , w h o w r o t e o r i g i n a l l y for o r c h e s t r a s d i f f e r i n g in size
a n d p r o p o r t i o n s f r o m t h o s e of t o d a y . S o m e p l a c e s in B e e t h o v e n ' s or-
c h e s t r a l m u s i c , f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e
o r c h e s t r a , t h e t e c h n i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e I n s t r u m e n t s of his t i m e , a n d
his d e a f n e s s , n e e d reverent a d j u s t m e n t in g e t t i n g p r o p e r t o n e b a l a n c e .
D o u b l i n g t h e w o o d s m a y solve o n e p r o b l e m ; c u t t i n g d o w n t h e strings
another; changing dynamics a third.
Still a n o t h e r t y p e of p r o b l e m in s e c u r i n g p r o p e r tone b a l a n c e is m e t
in t h e m u s i c of m o r e r e c e n t c o m p o s e r s s u c h as B r u c k n e r , S c h u m a n n ,

MARKING, CORRECTING, AND EDITING SCORES 205

a n d C h o p i n , w h o were not at their best as orchestrators, a n d in the
music of Brahms himself, who envied Bizet in this respect. Before a
young conductor, however, attempts to trust his own j u d g m e n t in such
matters, let him first consuh authorities a n d try such expedients as ad-
justing volume a n d doubling or diminishing instrumental sections. T h e
Solution of these problems is largely a m a t t e r of experience. U n t i l the
time comes when he has sufficient experience, he should go to author-
ities for procedure.
Composers themselves, Vaughan Wilhams a n d Debussy, for example,
have m a d e variants of some of their works, a Situation which offers yet
a n o t h e r p r o b l e m for the y o u n g c o n d u c t o r . T h e following reactions to
the two versions of M o z a r t ' s G M i n o r S y m p h o n y , by two of the most
distinguished authorities of the past generation, should serve to point
u p the difficulties here.
D o n a l d Francis Tovey writes, " I n t h e G M i n o r S y m p h o n y he
[ M o z a r t ] at first did w i t h o u t clarinets, a n d most editions of his score
give only his original Version; but he afterwards rewrote the oboe parts,
giving all their softer a n d less rustic u t t e r a n c e s to the clarinets, a n d it
is a great mistake not to accept this revision." {Essays in Musical Anal-
ysis, Oxford.)
W h i l e Felix W e i n g a r t n e r says, " 1 e x h o r t , at the very outset, that
the clarinets, allegedly a d d e d later [to M o z a r t ' s G M i n o r Symphony],
be r e n o u n c e d . T h e y thicken u p the t i m b r e a n d rob this s y m p h o n y of
the indescribably delicate c h a r m with which the very absence of clar-
inets invests it." {On the Performance of the Classical Symphonies, vol. II,
Breitkopf)
In view of these sincere differences between two such distinguished
authorities, the need for humility of soul in the young conductor facing
similar problems is obvious. H e has only his good taste a n d his conscience
as his guides.
Contrary to populär belief, Toscanini did " a d j u s t " some places in
orchestral scores. See Spike Hughes, The Toscanini Legacy (London:
P u t n a m , 1959), a n d Vincento Tommasini, " Q u e l q u e s erreurs dans les
Partitions celebres Corrigees p a r Toscanini," Revue Musicale 17 ( J a n u a r y
1936), pp. 1-6. Tommasini discusses adjustments by the maestro in
Beethoven's Symphony No. 7, Symphony No. 9, a n d Leonore Overture
a n d in Wagner's Prelude to Tristan and Isolde a n d Die Meistersinger.

206 M A R K I N G , CORRECTING, A N D EDITING SCORES

 Chapter Twenty-Three

PREPARING FOR T H E REHEARSAL

The time comes in the life of the a p p r e n t i c e or Student c o n d u c t o r when

he faces his first rehearsal. T h e orchestra at his c o m m a n d will be a far
cry from the orchestras he will face later if he achieves success as a con-
ductor. It m a y seem to the Student that suggestions in this a n d the
following c h a p t e r , which discuss some of the p r o c e d u r e s which have
b e e n f o u n d effective for m a k i n g r e h e a r s a l s s m o o t h a n d efficient, are
impractical in view of the limitations of the players a n d facilities with
which he will have to work. If he, as a young Student of the flute, violin,
or p i a n o h a d h a d only a poor a n d musically limited Instrument upon
which to learn a n d practice, however, he would w a n t to a p p r o a c h it
in t h e way most likely to m a k e h i m efficient w h e n he might later be
able to h a v e a far better i n s t r u m e n t . H e should a p p r o a c h his first re-
hearsals in the same spirit.
S o m e of the suggestions which follow m a y not be practical for the
i n a d e q u a t e conditions the Student c o n d u c t o r will meet w h e n he first
practices his art. In some instances his very first position, especially if
it is connected with an educational Institution, m a y give him opportunity
for one big p r o g r a m at the end of the year, for which he m a y have m a n y
rehearsals. W h e n conditions are not favorable for the kind of work he
would like to do a n d he is forced to b e n d to neccssity, he should bend
only temporarily, never losing sight of the goal he hopes to reach later.
If he knows the best procedures, he m a y be able to follow t h e m oftener
t h a n seems possible at first.
Some aspects of the work, a p p r o a c h e d in earlier chapters from the
student's point of view, will now be reviewed f r o m the point of view of
t h e m a n p r e p a r i n g to rehearse a n o r c h e s t r a . T h e suggestions which
follow will, if conscientiously carried out, go far t o w a r d m a k i n g initial

PREPARING FOR THE REHEARSAL 207

meetings with performers a m i n i m u m trial a n d insuring a logical and
well-ordered series of rehearsals. T h e Student is r e m i n d e d again that,
as was n o t e d in t h e F o r e w o r d , some of t h e p r o b l e m s he will meet in
r e h e a r s a l s a r e not discussed here, especially those h a v i n g to do with
subtleties of tone balance a n d technical knowledge of orchestral Instru-
ments, Information which is easily available in clear detail in such works
as Forsyth's Orchestration a n d Scherchen's Handbook on Conducling.

LEARNING THE SCORE

W h e n the conductor p r e p a r e s for a rehearsal he has a definite
p r o g r a m in m i n d . W h e t h e r the music to be p l a y e d is S m e t a n a ' s My
Country, a Bach chorale, or Schubert's " U n f i n i s h e d , " his first task is to
m a s t e r the score. H e must k n o w it so well t h a t he has his own Inter-
pretation of it clearly in m i n d a n d the ways in which, from every page
of t h e music, he intends to elicit t h a t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n from players a n d
Instruments. H e needs to hear in his mind, before a single note has been
p l a y e d , w h a t the L,ritic d e m a n d s a f t e r all the rehearsals h a v e e n d e d
a n d the final result is being j u d g e d .
As the p a i n t e r visualizes first in his mind's eye the tones a n d colors
h e sees on the blank c a n v a s on his easel, the c o n d u c t o r must achieve
a n i n n e r audition, as he masters the score in front of him, of accurate
a n d clean playing of the notes, of good pitch, w a r m tonal quality,
knife-edged attacks a n d releases, musical phrasing, p r o p e r b a l a n c e of
tone, p r o p e r distribution of d y n a m i c climaxes,/oriw«OTO which is not
f e a t h e r y as a poor orchestra makes it, a n d pianissimo which is füll. H e
m u s t be able to h e a r clearly the m a i n line of the music, which m a y be
r h y t h m i c , h a r m o n i c , c o n t r a p u n t a l , or melodic. H e must h a v e a plan
in m i n d which relegates m a i n a n d s u b o r d i n a t e parts to their proper
places; a plan, also, which places d y n a m i c climaxes in their proper
proportions a n d not as a series of anticlimaxes.
As he prepares to rehearse a score, he must achieve a unified and
individual concept of the music as a whole a n d h e a r in his mind's ear
how it will sound eventually u n d e r the direction of his baton. If, in the
final Performance, he does not reach his ideal, he c a n console himself
with the knowledge t h a t this difference between projected a n d actual
P e r f o r m a n c e has plagued even the greatest conductors. Rarely indeed
has it been granted to an Interpreter to be wholly satisfied with his Per-
f o r m a n c e in all respects.
As a first Step in preparing to rehearse a score, the conductor should
study a n d analyze it by some such procedure as that suggested in Chap-
ter T w e n t y - O n e . H e m a y next be able to get hold of the composer or

208 PREPARING FOR THE REHEARSAL

of a recording u n d e r the composer's direction or by an authoritative
interpreter. This procedure is usually wise but it should be undertaken
with the knowledge that listening to recordings is apt to take away the
conductor's own individuality, especially in new works, unless he is very
careful. From these sources the conductor m a y learn correct tempos,
phrasing, balance, and other important matters. If the composer is not
Hving, or if he is not available in person or through correspondence,
the conductor should endeavor to obtain technical studies a b o u t his
compositions and his epoch. T h e conductor is then ready to decide
whether the score needs correcting, adjusting, and editing, and to mark
it according to methods suggested in Chapter Twenty-Two.
As he is preparing to rehearse his score, the conductor should obtain
an accurate idea of the time required to play through it a n d through the
entire program. This means the time which will be consumed when the
music is played in his own tempos, not those of some one eise, which may
easily be ascertained from recordings, broadcasts, other conductor's Per-
formances, or from books mentioned in the Bibliography. T h e only safe
m e t h o d is to go t h r o u g h the works oneself, taking into account time
for intermissions, pauses between movements, choral groups going on
and off stage, the seating of late comers in the audience, and even
applause.

STUDYING AND ANALYZING THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS

A good idea, one which if carried through may lessen the self-
consciousness and nervousness which often assail comparatively inexper-
ienced conductors at rehearsals, is to take home the individual parts of
a score a n d go over them with the füll score. Players often read notes
incorrectly at rehearsals, and the conductor has armed himself well if
he has gone over microscopically, in advance, the h a r m o n i c bases of
the score section by section.
Study of the individual parts of a score will reveal t h a t errors are
apt to creep into the parts of transposing Instruments like the clarinets,
French horns, trumpets, a n d English horns. Misprints in clefs are apt
to be found in the parts of violas, cellos, bassoons, and trombones. Other
advantages, in addition to checking possible errors, accrue from this
type of score study. It will acquaint the conductor with notational
idioms peculiar to each Instrument, which by their very concentration
may confuse the inexperienced conductor when handed to him suddenly
for inspection during a rehearsal. Familiarity with these idioms enables
him to talk to the instrumentalist in the idiom peculiar to his Instrument.
W h e n he has his own füll score in front of him, containing his own

STUDYING AND ANALYZING THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS 209

m a r k i n g s , c o m p a r i s o n of t h a t w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s will call his at-
t e n t i o n t o i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h l o n g w a i t s , a n d h e m a y n o t e o n his o w n
s c o r e w h e r e t o c u e t h e m in. B e t t e r still, h e m a y also w r i t e in his füll
score a few b a r s of t h e m a i n line w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s such
e n t r a n c e s . H e c a n m a k e n o t e of p a s s a g e s w h e r e low n o t e s in t h e flute
a r e easily o v e r p o w e r e d ; passages w h e r e notes in t h e oboe's m i d d l e r ä n g e
m a y o b t r u d e too p u n g e n t l y ; a n d passages w h e r e e x t r e m e s in r ä n g e a n d
r a p i d shifts in p u l s e a n d t e m p o will f o r m d a n g e r spots for h i m w h e n
h e faces his m a n a t r e h e a r s a l .
E s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e a p p r e n t i c e b e c o m e s a g u e s t c o n d u c t o r will h e
b e g r a t e f u l for this füll a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h c a r e to his
o w n i n d i v i d u a l l y - o w n e d score. O t h e r w i s e h e m a y b e f a c e d w i t h a score
t h a t has b e e n m a r k e d a n d r e - m a r k e d in various colored pencils, m a k i n g
it e x t r e m e l y c o n f u s i n g for h i m to r e a d . H e will h a v e e n o u g h t o d o with-
o u t t h a t a d d e d b ü r d e n , for h e will d o u b t l e s s b e f a c i n g m e n w h o h a v e
to forget w h a t they h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d to do previously, in o r d e r to
a d o p t a n o t h e r style for h i m .

TIMING AND SCHEDULING REHEARSALS

P e r f o r m i n g forces s h o u l d r a r e l y b e called u p o n t o r e h e a r s e for m o r e
t h a n a n h o u r a n d a half a t one Stretch. A f t e r this p e r i o d of c o n c e n t r a t e d
a t t e n t i o n , t h e r e t u r n s a r e d i m i n i s h i n g to b o t h c o n d u c t o r a n d c o n d u c t e d .
P e r i o d i c rests s h o u l d b e s c h e d u l e d t o a l l o w m i n d s , voices, a n d fingers
t o r e l a x , a n d to let p e o p l e s m o k e a n d Stretch t h e i r legs. It is a n e s t a b -
lished f a c t t h a t w o r k e r s c a n a c c o m p l i s h b e t t e r w o r k w i t h rest p e r i o d s
t h a n w i t h o u t t h e m , b e c a u s e m e n t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n flags a f t e r a c o m -
p a r a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d . P e r f o r m e r s s h o u l d b e m a d e to u n d e r s t a n d ,
however, that a fifteen-minute rest p e r i o d m e a n s j u s t t h a t , a n d t h a t
they a r e to be b a c k a n d r e a d y for w o r k tuned up w i t h i n these fifteen
m i n u t e s , j u s t as t h e y a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e in t h e i r seats w i t h i n s t r u m e n t s
w a r m e d u p w h e n r e h e a r s a l s a r e c a l l e d . If this is n o t insisted u p o n a t
t h e Start, m a n y p r e c i o u s m i n u t e s will b e lost a n d t h e a m o u n t of loss
will stealthily increase.
T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e n u m b e r of r e h e a r s a l s to b e held is often one
w h o s e a n s w e r is d i c t a t e d b y c i r c u m s t a n c e s . O n e of t h e best m e a n s of
g e t t i n g a b e t t e r a n d b e t t e r e n s e m b l e is t o h a v e t h e o r c h e s t r a o r c h o i r
r e h e a r s e o f t e n , u n t i l t o n e b a l a n c e is feit b y e a c h m e m b e r a n d u n t i l t h e
Organization as a u n i t d e v e l o p s a p e r s o n a l i t y of its o w n .
L e a v e t i m e a t t h e e n d of e a c h r e h e a r s a l , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e final re-
h e a r s a l p r e c e d i n g a P e r f o r m a n c e , for p o l i s h i n g , t o n a l a d j u s t m e n t s , a n d

210 PREPARING FOR THE REHEARSAL

an over-all review of the high lights and danger spots, so that the per-
formers retain a feeUng of the whole as an art work and not as a series
of fences.
T h e conductor will of course arrange sectional rehearsals for com-
plicated works. It is preferable that he take these himself, although
the task can be delegated to the leaders of the several sections. In that case
the conductor must himself check later and perhaps modify Instructions
somewhat. But he will have missed valuable aural experience. Preliminary
consultations with sectional leaders before rehearsing starts should by
all means be held. If there are conflicts the conductor must resolve them
and he should do so in time for his füll score, with his markings, letter-
ings, and numberings at Strategie points, to be given to the copyist for
transference to the individual parts before the first rehearsal. The
conductor need not fear that experienced players feel it beneath their
dignity to take their parts home to look over, even when the work is
in the Standard repertory. S o m e of the best players do this religiously,
even in top-flight orchestras.
T h e young conductor in the act of timing his rehearsals is warned
against thinking that certain "war horses" and shorter compositions may
be allotted more limited rehearsal time than newer or longer works. The
truth of the matter is that some of the classics need time to freshen up;
they are difficult to keep alive because they are overplayed and may
degenerate into stylized Performances unless great care is exercised;
while some of the shorter works often demand more rehearsal time than
longer works.
In timing rehearsals, the conductor should take care to avoid the
resentment and Irritation feit by performers who are forced to wait
a r o u n d during periods while others rehearse, or who are called for a
Short period, left waiting for a long period, and then recalled for another
Short Stint. Each singer and instrumentalist should be apportioned his
fair share of time, in an order that will keep him in the rehearsal room
for the shortest possible length of time. It is often possible to arrange for
certain of the less frequently played Instruments, like the bass trombone,
the bass clarinet, the English horn, and the harp, to be rehearsed at the
Start or end of sessions. This arrangement can sometimes be extended
to whole sections.
Instrumental and vocal soloists should be rehearsed with the piano
before the general rehearsal, to assure that the starts and ends of caden-
zas are clearly understood on both sides, a n d that moot questions of
tempo, phrasing, a n d tone balance are ironed out. In appointing

TIMING A N D SCHEDULING REHEARSALS 211

rehearsal time for vocal soloists, even the conductor who has not studied
the techniques of singing should be aware that very early morning re-
hearsals are not conducive to the best results, that voices do not sound
the same in the early morning as later in the day, a n d that for these
good reasons singers should be called as late as possible for morning
rehearsals. T h e difficulties which Ghaliapin is known to have made for
all concerned when he was scheduled to rehearse before noon were not
simply due to artistic t e m p e r a m e n t , but were based on sound physio-
logical reasons.

REHEARSAL HALLS
The conductor will, of course, see to it that the best available quarters
are at the disposal of the performers. This precaution is not alone for
altmistic and humanitarian reasons. Good lighting, adequate Ventilation,
and healthful temperature have a definite influence upon Performance.
T h e y make for better tempers a n d t e m p e r a m e n t s . Rooms with high
ceilings are desirable for better acoustics; rooms with echoes should be
avoided. Chilly or overheated rooms work havoc u p o n organ tuning
and have equally whimsical effects upon winds and strings, making some
high a n d some low, so that even after a q u a r t e r hour the divergence
may become acute and painful. Proper dynamics and tone balance are
difficult enough to achieve without these handicaps. T h e players' effi-
ciency is seriously impaired by extremes in temperature. Some of these
sheerly physical matters may be more a problem for an engineer than
for the conductor. If so, get his expert advice.
In the matter of rehearsal halls, it is wise to insist upon having
available for the last rehearsal the same hall where the concert takes
place. Music sounds different not only in different halls but in the same
hall when it is empty and when an audience fills it. It takes experience
to judge these differences, but a rehearsal in the concert hall or the con-
ductor's attendance at another concert in that hall will give him some
sort of gage. Failing these aids, he should listen intently at the Start of
his concert a n d have trusted assistants report to him, after they have
tested various parts of the hall, as early as possible in the program.

SEATING PLANS
Prepare all seating plans so that there is no doubt in any performer's
mind about just where he is to sit or stand. There are various effective
methods of arranging performers, but traditional usages should be
followed until a conductor has h a d enough experience to know what

212 PREPARING FOR THE REHEARSAL

he wants and to be sure that he can get it only by deviating from estab-
lished arrangements. Theater pits and broadcasting stations present
special problems. Sometimes the work itself suggests that certain sections
sit near each other, but this matter can easily be overdone and should
be reserved for special occasions. Changes in choral seating may be dic-
tated by weakness or strength in one section, the weaker ones being
placed in front.
One characteristic of a good seating arrangement is that every per-
former has a direct line of vision to the conductor's baton and face and
that the conductor can see the Instrument and face of every performer.
Whatever the seating arrangement, straining to see on the part of con-
ductor or performers should be avoided at all costs.

GETTING THE PLAYERS' POINT OF VIEW

T h e conductor preparing for a rehearsal envisions what he expects
and plans to get from his men. If he is facing a professional group, his
men also envision, from the moment he steps before them, what they
expect of him, and it is a great aid for him to know something about the
players' point of view. This is especially valuable for those conductors
who have never played as members of an orchestra. Even for those who
have been orchestral players, a fresh recollection of themselves as they
sat under the baton of another should be good for the sense of balance.
As he looks forward to meeting his men, the Student conductor should
realize that the first and foremost source of Irritation experienced by
orchestral players in relation to conductors is pretension, affectation,
and their concomitants: posing; attitudinizing; premeditated gyrations,
contortions, and gesticulations; and aping of famous conductors by
placing hand over heart, hand on hip, both hands in the air as if evoking
Olympian thunder, and by other histrionics. Oddly enough, the conduc-
tor need not fear that, at the concert, the player will usually resent
sincere histrionics, which he feels are a matter between conductor and
audience. T h e rehearsal, however, the player feels is a matter between
the conductor and the orchestra. As he puts the matter bluntly and
racily, he has seen and played under so many of the best and worst
conductors and has taken so many of them in his stride that he views
histrionics at the rehearsal with a grain of cynicism.
T h e player will want to know what the conductor wants without
long abstractions, exegesis, and lectures. He will not want to be prac-
ticed on. H e has spent years acquiring a competent technique and
expects no less from the man who presumes to lead him.

GEntNG THE PLAYERS' POINT OF VtEW 213

 T h e player will d e m a n d a clear b a t o n technique. This m e a n s above
everything eise a clear d o w n beat. It m e a n s neither overbeating so that
the watcher's eye is confused by the excess of motion, nor u n d e r b e a t i n g
so t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g to h o l d to b e t w e e n " c l i c k s . " T h e p l a y e r will
w a n t to k n o w a t all t i m e s w h a t t h e b a t o n is d e l i n e a t i n g : t h e t e m p o ,
time-signatures, p h r a s i n g , pulsations, subdivisions, m e a s u r e groupings,
a n d d y n a m i c s . H e will n o t w a n t useless m o t i o n f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r ,
i n d u l g e d in for its o w n sake a n d effect. H e will w a n t t h e c o n d u c t o r to
look a t the p e r f o r m e r s with a face t h a t constantly reveals t h e m o o d of
t h e music. H e will w a n t the m a i n line kept always in evidence, a n d the
music which is secondary in i m p o r t a n c e in the tonal w e b h e l d in abey-
ance, t h a t is, he wants musical b a l a n c e . H e will w a n t t h e c o n d u c t o r to
c u e every significant c h a n g e in good time: attacks, releases, pauses, a n d
holds. I n Short, t h e p l a y e r will d e m a n d t h a t t h e m a n w i t h t h e b a t o n
conduct, a n d project his o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
T h o u g h instrumentalists h a v e never been very articulate in writing
a b o u t these things, they h a v e been b o t h voluble a n d biting in speaking
of t h e m on propitious occasions. E x c l u d i n g a certain bitterness in those
of t h e i n e v i t a b l e m i n o r i t y w h o feel t h e y w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t o r s
themselves except for a q u i r k of fate, t h e r e r e m a i n s m u c h t h a t is just,
objective, a n d g e r m a n e in their c o m m e n t s . Two works of great interest
in giving t h e player's p o i n t of view a r e B e r n a r d Shore's The Orchestra
Speaks a n d Sixteen Symphonies. M r . S h o r e writes with keenness, c h a r m ,
a n d m a t u r e j u d g m e n t a b o u t t h e m a n y years he has p l a y e d as solo
violist with the B.B.C. S y m p h o n y O r c h e s t r a , u n d e r m a n y of the world's
chief conductors. In the same category, t h o u g h regrettably not available
in English, a r e Nikolas L a m b i n o n ' s Der Orchestermusiker ( T h e O r c h e s t r a
Player) a n d H a n s Diestel's Ein Orchestermusiker über das Dirigieren (An O r -
chestra Player on C o n d u c t i n g ) , with a foreword by R i c h a r d Strauss. T h e
y o u n g conductor will find m u c h of value a b o u t rehearsing in these four
volumes a n d learn m u c h a b o u t w h a t t h e player rightly d e m a n d s of the
c o n d u c t o r . H e m a y well t a k e to h e a r t , as he a t t e m p t s to see himself at
face value t h r o u g h the eyes of the players h e must first face at rehearsal,
some words written by H e r r Strauss in his foreword to the Diestel book: *

Don't be too proud of your three curtain calls after the third Leonora
overture. Down there in the orchestra amongst the first violins, in the back
amongst the horns or even at the other end at the timpani there are argus-
eyed observers, who note each of your crochets or quavers with critical regard,

*Thls translation is t h a t of L. J . L a w r e n c e in RecoUeclions and Reßections, a n d is used by permission of

Atlantis Verlag, Z ü r i c h , a n d Boosey a n d Hawkes, N e w York.

214 PREPARING FOR THE REHEARSAL

who groan if you wave your baton furiously in their faces conducting Tristan
"alla breves" in four, or when you celebrate the movement " B y the Brook"
or the second Variation in the adagio movement of the " N i n t h " by beating
twelve complete quavers. They even revolt if you constantly shout "ssh" and
"piano, gentlemen" at them during the Performance, whilst your right hand
constantly conducts forte. They wink if you say at the beginning of a rehears-
al "the woodwind is out of tune" but cannot indicate which instrument is play-
ing too high or too low. The conductor up there may imagine that they follow
reverently each movement of his baton, but in reality they go on playing
without looking at him when he loses his beat and they blame his "individ-
ualist Interpretation" for every false tempo when he is, let us say, conducting
a symphony for the first time which they have played a hundred times before
under better conductors.
In short the stories of how conductors have been caught out by members
of the orchestra would fill volumes. And yet this malicious mob, who plod
their weary way in a chronic mezxßforte, who cannot be flattered into accom-
panying pp or into playing chords in a recitative precisely unless the right
man happens to be at the rostrum, with what enthusiasm do they not play—
tortured though they be by blunderers with no idea of rehearsing, tired out
as they are by giving lessons—with what self-sacrifice do they not rehearse
if they know that their conductor will not worry them unnecessarily, how
readily will they not obey his slightest gesture on the evening of the Perform-
ance (especially if he has let them off a rehearsal), when his right hand,
fully mastering the high art of conducting conveys to them his exact intentions;
when his eye surveys their playing severely yet benevolently, when his left
hand does not form a fist in ff passages and does not unnecessarily restrain
them in p passages.

G E H I N G THE PLAYERS' POINT O F VIEW 215

Chapter Twenty-Four

THE REHEARSAL

It should be self-evident that the value of rehearsals depends not so much

upon their number and length as upon the results they produce. T h e really
effective conductor achieves more in one rehearsal than an ineffective conductor
does in ten. This comes about not only by what is said but also by how it is
Said. Rehearsals must be interesting; the feeling of boredom must never be feit
by the participants. An Englishman who had already waded through Handel's
Messiah a hundred times once dreamed that he had fallen asleep during a
rehearsal of this work. He awoke in the midst of his dream and discovered that
he really had fallen asleep during a rehearsal of the Messiah.
Fritz Busch: Der Dirigent

A well-ordered, s m o o t h l y f u n c t i o n i n g r e h e a r s a l is of t h e u t m o s t i m p o r -
t a n c e , a n d n o p a i n s s h o u l d b e s p a r e d to e n s u r e its a c h i e v e m e n t . If
p r e p a r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n conscientiously m a d e , t h e c o n d u c t o r s h o u l d h a v e
e n o u g h c o n f i d e n c e in himself d u r i n g t h e r e h e a r s a l p e r i o d to b e q u i t e
free to m a k e l a s t - m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s a n d even to e x t e m p o r i z e a bit.
H e will h a v e passed t h r o u g h t h e stage of t h e critic, w h e r e h e i m a g i n e d
a n ideal P e r f o r m a n c e , a n d t h a t of t h e explorer, w h e r e h e w e n t over t h e
g r o u n d a n d p r e p a r e d to lead his p a r t y over it t h r o u g h t h e easiest, m o s t
i n t e r e s t i n g , a n d m o s t r e v e a l i n g roads. N o w , as h e faces his forces, h e
b e c o m e s t h e t e a c h e r a n d g u i d e w h o will show t h e m t h e best m e t h o d s
of t r a v e r s i n g t h e c o u n t r y .
T h e r e h e a r s a l is p r i m a r i l y for t h e singers a n d p l a y e r s a n d also for
t h e m to get a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e i r c o n d u c t o r . If t h e c o n d u c t o r is re-
h e a r s i n g himself, players will k n o w this a l m o s t at once, a n d t h e c o n d u c -
tor's a u t h o r i t y is lost t h e n a n d there. T h e c o n d u c t o r s h o u l d k n o w his
score b e f o r e h e starts his first rehearsal. H e e x p e c t s r i g h t l y t h a t those
s i n g i n g a n d p l a y i n g u n d e r h i m m a s t e r t h e i r p a r t s ; h e c a n d o n o less. T h e

216 THE REHEARSAL

g o a l he has for t h e m is t h a t t h e y r e s e m b l e a g o o d string q u a r t e t , every
m e m b e r of w h i c h is, in a real sense, a n e q u a l p a r t n e r w h o understands
the style of every other m e m b e r a n d feels instinctively w h e n to come to the
fore a n d w h e n to y i e l d . W h i l e t h e c o n d u c t o r k n o w s in his h e a r t that
the large orchestra c a n n o t , e x c e p t p e r h a p s in v e r y rare instances, r e a c h the
ideal tonal b a l a n c e of a string q u a r t e t , he will a i m at his organization's
greater elasticity, h o m o g e n e i t y , a n d tonal b a l a n c e , a n d he will a t t e m p t
to h e l p e a c h p l a y e r d e v e l o p as a n i n d i v i d u a l instead of as s i m p l y one
c o g in a large m a c h i n e .

GAGING THE CALIBER OF THE ORCHESTRA

R e h e a r s a l p r o c e d u r e s d e p e n d to n o s m a l l e x t e n t u p o n the k i n d of
g r o u p o n e faces, its Standards, a n d the position in w h i c h the c o n d u c t o r
finds h i m s e l f in relation to it. A guest c o n d u c t o r i n t e r p r e t i n g Standard
w o r k s w i t h a f i r s t - r a n k g r o u p does not r e h e a r s e in t h e s a m e w a y as a
r e s i d e n t c o n d u c t o r w i t h a s m a l l e r a n d less p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p . I n the
f o r m e r case, the m e n h a v e p l a y e d t h e w o r k s m a n y times b e f o r e u n d e r
all sorts of conductors a n d they o n l y w a n t to r u n t h r o u g h the m a i n
points to a s c e r t a i n this c o n d u c t o r ' s wishes. E x p l a n a t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d
b e p r o p e r for less e x p e r i e n c e d g r o u p s w o u l d b e r e s e n t e d b y m e m b e r s
of a professional orchestra.
W h e n t h e a p p r e n t i c e c o n d u c t o r faces e x p e r i e n c e d g r o u p s as their
guest, if he f r a n k l y a c c e p t s his Situation a n d t a c i t l y suggests t h a t he is
h a p p y to learn, the players will u s u a l l y be put in a f r a m e of m i n d
w h e r e t h e y are r e a d y to assist h i m c o r d i a l l y . M e m b e r s of g o o d orches-
tras possess a n esprit de corps w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h e m f r o m p e r m i t t i n g Per-
f o r m a n c e s b y their g r o u p to d r o p b e l o w c e r t a i n Standards. A l s o , they
are pretty well a w a r e that even experienced Choral conductors, organists,
a n d c o m p o s e r s a r e n o t , as a g e n e r a l r u l e , r o u t i n e d o r c h e s t r a l l y ; a n d
conversely, that orchestrally r o u t i n e d c o n d u c t o r s are not a l w a y s equally
c o n v e r s a n t w i t h p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to o r g a n p l a y i n g a n d c h o r a l singing.
E d u c a t i o n a l a n d a m a t e u r o r g a n i z a t i o n s present s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s
w h i c h require p a t i e n c e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , tact, a n d g o o d h u m o r . M a t t e r s
of fingering, b r e a t h i n g , a n d b o w i n g , taken for g r a n t e d in professional
groups, must here b e detailed a n d drilled in. T h e necessarily protracted
r e h e a r s a l s u s u a l w i t h s u c h a m a t e u r o r g a n i z a t i o n s m a k e it d i f f i c u l t to
get a w a y from rigidity, a n d the c o n d u c t o r is faced w i t h the task of
a c h i e v i n g some sort of elasticity d u r i n g t h e final sessions. T h e most
t r o u b l e s o m e aspect of w o r k i n g w i t h nonprofessional g r o u p s ( a n d some-
times even with professional ones) is o b t a i n i n g good Intonation. Regardless

GAGING THE CALIBER OF THE ORCHESTRA 217

of all eise, this simply must be present, for without good pitch the results
can hardly be called music in any real sense.
Whether dealing wlth an amateur group, a famous orchestra or
choir, or with an ensemble of various grades between these two extremes,
the conductor should quickly grasp the personality of the group he faces
and adapt his methods and procedures to its needs. He will find that
some groups are phlegmatic and tend to drag tempos and be late on
attacks, while others are tense and tend to rush and anticipate attacks.
He will find that the tone of some verges on the thinnish side, while that
of others is thick. Any number of differences in groups will soon become
apparent, and the conductor must cast about and find ways of correct-
ing their defects and approximations. With one group he will hold back,
with another he will take slightly faster tempos to instill vitality, and
so on. These differences in group personalities are matters of previous
training, traditions, geographical location, and national temperaments,
and he must learn to sense them quickly and adapt himself to them.

PANTOMIMIC SIGNS

It should be axiomatic that the Student conductor possess a good

command of physical techniques by the time he meets his forces in re-
hearsal and that all his gestures relating to the music to be played have
been practiced until they have become automatic. These techniques
should at the rehearsal be supplemented with certain pantomimic signs
that have been found useful in avoiding confusion between performers
and conductor.
Extending the left forefinger as a warning to a singer or player to
prepare for a sudden or important entrance goes back to primitive times.
Holding up one finger for a first ending and two for a second ending
may be used as a reminder, but this system must be understood on both
sides, for some conductors have used the same signals to mean exactly
the opposite, i.e., one finger to mean once only (second ending) and two
fingers to repeat (first ending). If one finger means once only (take sec-
ond ending and go ahead), follow it with a motion to the right (to go
ahead); if two fingers mean repeat, motion backward.
The left hand may be brought up to show that some one is flat and
should come up; the hand may be brought down to mean someone is
Sharp and should come down.
To show an orchestra how many beats a measure are to be given
for a passage (perhaps because a singer changes his mind in Performance,
or because rehearsals have been inadequate), hold up the required num-

218 THE R E H E A R S A L
ber of fingers in the left h a n d while c o n t i n u i n g to beat with the right.
It is not so easy as might be t h o u g h t to separate fingers in one's h a n d
suddenly so that some stand out prominently. Awkwardness in this regard
during a Performance will not prove amusing. For one, try the forefinger;
für two, the forefinger a n d m i d d l e finger; for three, the third, fourth,
a n d fifth fingers; for four, all b u t t h u m b ; for six, t h r e e fingers shown
twice, a n d so on. Practice a bit shifting quickly f r o m one set of fingers
to another.

REHEARSAL PROCEDURES IN GENERAL

Obviously, one procedure for all types of orchestras a n d choirs can-
not be suggested, but a few general suggestions for economical a n d
effective rehearsals can be made.
(1) Works should first be played through as a whole, then their
details stressed, a n d t h e n t h e y s h o u l d be p l a y e d t h r o u g h as a whole
again. R u n n i n g completely t h r o u g h familiar works to get w a r m e d u p is
often a good procedure.
(2) Weather a n d a t m o s p h e r i c conditions have definite effects upon
throats, a n d conductors should be considerate with singers under adverse
conditions.
(3) It is h a r d l y wise for a c o n d u c t o r to allow the orchestral w e b to
Overbalance singers, or to take passages with extreme ranges repeatedly
a n d thus wear out their throats. T h e same consideration should be ex-
t e n d e d to players of Instruments like the oboe a n d F r e n c h horn. Take
the desired vocal passages at half voice by keeping the other parts down
most of the time, so t h a t t h e soloist m a y save himself for the concert.
(4) For unfamiliar a n d difficult works start with a n over-all picture.
Give the prevailing tempo a n d your choice of beat; stress solo passages
requiring special attention; a n d explain the general mood of the piece.
Play as m u c h as you can without stopping. W h e n comparatively small
errors occur in the first reading, make a mental note of them. It is better
to stop once to correct several places at the same time than to stop m a n y
times for detailed treatment of single places.
(5) Do not overtalk. T h e conductor's privilege of talking during
rehearsal is often abused. Some conductors, even famous ones, have
distorted this privilege into the license to lecture orchestras on various
abstractions for long periods. This addiction may have its origin in
inability to express oneself adequately with the b a t o n alone. Never
explain in prose what can be shown your players with solfege or your
baton.

REHEARSAL PROCEDURES IN GENERAL 219

 (6) Starting and stopping in rehearsal are facilitated by the letters
or numbers which have already been placed every ten bars or so in the
score, depending upon where important changes in the musical sense
occur. A Start may be made at any spot by directing the players to "five
bars before ' M ' " or "six bars after ' L ' . " Do not Start at awkward places
but at the beginning of a musical phrase. It is bad psychology to give
a player a wrench by stopping a b r u p t l y in the midst of a phrase; let
him complete it. I f the exact spot you want in the score is not easily
found by the players, it is simple to say something like this: " T h e strings
(or the oboe), two to the bar with u p b e a t " ; or " W h e r e the phrase starts
like this," and then you proceed to solfege the main line. M u c h time
and patience may be conserved by the use of such practical parlance.
(7) I f you wish to take a difRcult rapid passage slowly in order to
iron out the notes or Intonation, remember that some passages are ac-
tually more difficult, in a different way, when taken slowly than when
taken at correct tempo. T h u s , a very rapid string spiccato taken largo,
with bows hugging the strings, may come out cleanly enough, but doing
this does not rehearse spiccato. Take the passage as slowly as possible in
the tempo necessary for spiccato. Similar procedure should be followed
in double and triple tonguing. Start before the disputed passage in order
to give the players a feeling of continuity and context. Taking a group
of players measure by measure through a difRcult passage often smacks
o f the schoolroom and arouses the suspicion that the conductor is re-
hearsing himself Again, the general principle is to Start with an over-all
picture, go on to more and more detail as needed, and end with another
over-all reading for unification.
(8) Tempos at the rehearsal may be slower or faster than at the Per-
formance, but it is a good plan to take at least one portion of each item
at correct tempo. T h e players must then listen to each other and "sing,"
and the conductor must not talk.
(9) D o not take the edge off by over-rehearsing. Weingartner has
observed that he once conducted the " N i n t h " twice on the same day,
as indeed von Bülow and others had done before him. After one such
spiritually exhausting experience, Weingartner vowed never to repeat
this stunt. Over-rehearsing has much the same effect and often results
in an anticlimax.

HANDLING PLAYERS' ERRORS

It is much easier to detect errors in a first-rank group t h a n in an
amateur group. T h e reason is simple. In a really good orchestra an error
stands out against a clear background and calls attention to itself.

220 THE REHEARSAL

 whereas in an amateur group errors are likely to abound simultaneously.
Some of the more c o m m o n faults of a m a t e u r organizations are poor
enunciation of clipped notes, especially on the up beat, fuzzy attacks
and releases, and slovenly reiterated notes.
T h e ability to detect deviations in a complicated tonal web varies
greatly with different conductors. O n e sort of detection may be termed
stylistic recognition. For example, a m a n may have studied the music
of H a n d e l or Ravel so closely t h a t he feels the composer's harmonic
vocabulary instinctively. If he hears a chord or progression which, al-
though it sounds pleasing, is not one which Ravel or Handel could
possibly have used, he knows forthwith that it must be wrong. He could
call out wrong notes this way in a score he has never conducted or one
he is reading by sight in a rehearsal. T h e Student conductor's ability to
detect wrong notes will increase enormously not only as he becomes
more familiar with various composers' styles but also as his ears become
more and more accustomed to apperceiving details of single and com-
bined tone colors within the mass of sound reaching his podium.
Usually a player knows almost as soon as does the conductor that
he has played a wrong note (which is often caused by a misprint). Al-
most invariably the inside desk m a n will pencil in the correction, and
in any event, the player will usually not repeat the error. A smile in the
player's direction is enough to show him that you both recognize the
error, and thus a bond of understanding is established. If the conductor
feels that the player cannot or will not play the correct notes (especially
in the forest of strings), he might look the other way. T h e r e is such a
thing as seeing and hearing too much. With woodwinds, the deviation
cannot be passed over diplomatically in the same way. But singling out
a string player for solo playing as a punishment should be used rarely.
Once in a great while an orchestral player will try tricks a n d will
play wrong notes maliciously. If the conductor knows the Instruments
well enough, he can often detect such defections visually even if he cannot
hear them, by noting that the player is on the wrong string or in the
wrong Position. Unless one is very sure, however, discretion is the better
part of valor. It goes without saying that at the concert nothing in the
conductor's demeanor should reveal any knowledge of such antics. Of
course the matter may be taken u p later, man-to-man.
T h e conductor's solfege should be facile enough and his knowledge
of the score intimate enough to enable him at a moment's notice to sing
a chord up and down or down and up, in order to correct a wrong note.
Teil the players you are singing " c o n c e r t " pitch, that is, the notes as
they actually sound, a n d then teil them what notes should be in their

H A N D U N G PLAYERS' ERRORS 221

p a r t s after the notes h a v e been t r a n s p o s e d for their Instruments. Use
orchestral parlance, not literary verbiage.
Preawareness of some common orchestral dodges in rehearsal should
assist the young conductor in Spotting t h e m . Players of transposing In-
struments such as clarinets, horns, a n d t r u m p e t s sometimes use Instru-
m e n t s of a size o t h e r t h a n t h a t called for in the score. Hornists m a y
stop notes with mutes instead of by h a n d as some scores direct; the brass,
especially the t r u m p e t , must be w a r n e d against blaring. Percussion
players on occasion a r r a n g e the snare d r u m s a n d cymbals so t h a t one
m a n can play them, a solecism borrowed from jazz; the percussion
sometimes tries to set the t e m p o ; the triangle a n d bells must be Struck
in the right places a n d in the correct m a n n e r to produce their best
efTects; the brass a n d percussion must be watched for late attacks,
especially on repeated notes. Strings tend to execute tremolos lazily and
to produce pizzicato which is dry a n d late in attack; string vibrato is often
too slow a n d lifeless; string players are prone to let the concertmaster
count long rests a n d to w a t c h h i m for re-entrances. Contrabasses have
been k n o w n to transpose extremes of r ä n g e u p or d o w n a n octave or
to simplify figurations; flutes m a y d r o p an octave.
A most serious musical fault occurs w h e n a player fingers, bows, or
tongues his phrases to suit his instrument's idiom, a n d thus defeats the
composer's intentions. In thematic Imitation, such divergences m a y well
bring a b o u t lack of musical unity.
W h e n , instead of actual errors, frayed a n d false entrances a n d other
approximations occur, b l a m e yourself inwardly; as often as not the
fault will be yours a n d not the players'. T h e next time you come to the
place, m a k e your baton indications a n d facial expressions so unmistak-
ably clear that a break-through is practically impossible. Frayed
a n d false entrances, as well as b l u r r e d harmonies, m e a n t h a t some
players begin too soon or too late. Listen intently to discover who they are.

ATTITÜDE OF THE CONDUCTOR TOWARD PLAYERS

Various technical aspects of t h e a t t i t u d e of the c o n d u c t o r t o w a r d
his players have been considered. A h u m a n relationship beyond those
sheerly technical aspects exists b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r a n d players, also,
a n d is of great i m p o r t a n c e to t h e y o u n g c o n d u c t o r . As he establishes
his own relationship with his m e n , he should recognize t h a t orchestral
players feel with no little justice t h a t m u c h of the b ü r d e n of labor falls
upon them, but that most of the honor falls upon him. In every possible
way he should strive to deserve this honor.

222 THE REHEARSAL

 Several c o m m o n a t t i t u d e s w h i c h y o u n g c o n d u c t o r s o f t e n assume
t o w a r d t h e i r Forces a r e to be a v o i d e d . T h e first is t h a t of t h e h u m b l e
a p p r e n t i c e trying to i n g r a t i a t e himself with players b y being flattering
a n d e v e n a p o l o g e t i c , b y a c c e d i n g to " s u g g e s t i o n s , " b y s h o r t e n i n g or
cancelling rehearsal t i m e to p r o m o t e good will, by p e r m i t t i n g laxity of
a t t e n t i o n , c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d s m o k i n g . T h i s a t t i t u d e i n v a r i a b l y leads
to g r a d u a l lowering of Standards a n d discipline a n d eventual loss of
control. Its inevitable result is loss of respect.
A n o t h e r a t t i t u d e , possible to c o n d u c t o r s of g r e a t r e p u t a t i o n or to
those w h o c a n e n g a g e a n d dismiss p l a y e r s , b u t to be a v o i d e d b y the
y o u n g c o n d u c t o r , is t h e m a g i s t e r i a l pose w h i c h implics omniscience.
P a r t of this pose is to imply t h a t the player is guilty tili proved innocent.
Of course, if t h e y o u n g c o n d u c t o r thinks he can carry t h r o u g h this
a t t i t u d e technically a n d musically, he m a y be able to force his will
against the players' rescntment, b u t such occasions are simply negligible.
M a n y instrumentalists a r e v e t e r a n s a t showing u p the slightest preten-
sion a n d know e n o u g h dodges to test a n y b u t t h e most resourceful,
experienced, a n d unruffled conductors.
Still a n o t h e r pitfall to be a v o i d e d s p r i n g s f r o m t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d
c o n d u c t o r ' s psychological f e a r of o r c h e s t r a l players whose experience
far exceeds his. H e a t t e m p t s to bolster his o w n insecurity by t a k i n g a
very difficult w o r k t h r o u g h a t b r e a k n e c k speed, w h i c h he h o p e s will
k e e p t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e s e a s o n e d p l a y e r s u p o n t h e w o r k i n s t e a d of
u p o n him. This p r o c e d u r e is füll of peril, unless the c o n d u c t o r possesses
a n i n o r d i n a t e l y keen e a r a n d c a n detect i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y m i n u t e devi-
ations f r o m t h e score.
Finally, do not fall into the tendencies to n a g a n d to indulge in
paternalism.
A r e a s o n a b l e a t t i t u d e for t h e y o u n g c o n d u c t o r to a s s u m e t o w a r d
his players is t h a t t h e y are colleagues a n d fellow workers d e d i c a t e d to
t h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of music, e a c h h a v i n g his a p p o i n t e d task w h i c h he
performs to the best of his ability a n d to which he brings his varied ex-
perience in differing m e a s u r e . I n a s s u m i n g this a t t i t u d e t h e c o n d u c t o r
need be neither h u m b l e a p p r e n t i c e n o r grand seigneur. H e has m a d e
a d e q u a t e preparations for this m o m e n t a n d has a sincere concept of the
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e music. H e k n o w s he has a right to d e m a n d t h a t
the forces he is rehearsing give h i m the same Cooperation, b o t h in letter
a n d spirit, t h e y w o u l d give to a m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d l e a d e r . T h e y o u n g
c o n d u c t o r m a y be assured t h a t if he really does k n o w t h e score a n d if
he a p p r o a c h e s t h e m u s i c w i t h d e d i c a t i o n , o r c h e s t r a l p l a y e r s will im-
m e d i a t e l y recognize it, respect it, a n d work w h o l e h e a r t e d l y with him.

ATTITÜDE O F THE C O N D U C T O R T O W A R D PLAYERS 223

 T h e employment of h u m o r a n d anecdotes to enlist the players'
interest is risky, for it tends to break down the necessary barrier between
the conductor a n d those conducted. A conductor of reputation may
unbend on occasion, but his professional stature protects him from un-
due familiarity, whereas the procedure might be fatal to a lesser figure.
It is better to hold the players' interest by purely musical means, such
as the keenness of one's reactions to the playing, and by efficient
rehearsing.

THE LIGHT TOUCH

Lightness of touch may sometimes be used, however, without loss

of dignity, if it concerns itself with purely musical matters a n d is used
to illustrate the music being rehearsed. O n e story which has been told
a n d retold with many variations a n d in m a n y locales concerns a con-
ductor who found that numerous repetitions of a reiterated figure for
trumpets, horns, a n d trombones in " T h e Ride of the Valkyries,"
consisting of a dotted eighth, a sixteenth, and an eighth, did not prevent
the players from sounding it as an eighth and two sixteenths. H e finally
succeeded in obtaining w h a t he w a n t e d by asking the men to think
" A m s t e r d a m , A m s t e r d a m , " or "Washington, Washington." Another
Story teils about Arturo Toscanini's letting a silk handkerchief float
gently through the air to the floor to dramatize the kind of tonal qual-
ity he wanted. A strained atmosphere and frayed nerves may sometimes
be relieved by such methods, but they should not be resorted to too
often.
A conductor must be a pretty fair psychologist during a rehearsal,
adjusting himself rapidly a n d instinctively to h u m a n reactions under
constantly changing conditions. Nikisch used to assert that orchestral
players d e m a n d different treatment according to the Instruments they
play. Toward oboe and horn players he counseled deference; toward
viola a n d large brass players, calm a n d good humor, a n d so on. One
does not address a well-known soloist as one addresses the run-of-the-
mill executant. Coloraturas differ in t e m p e r a m e n t from lyric and
dramatic sopranos, as do tenors from baritones and bassos. In any
event, courtesy and friendliness yield dividends, and a conductor soon
learns lessons in diplomacy.

OTHER CONDUCTORS' REHEARSALS

T h e Student should attend as many rehearsals under resident and

visiting conductors as he finds possible. It is best to play under such con-

224 THE REHEARSAL

ductors, but being free to watch a rehearsal from the auditorium with
score in hand has many advantages. Perhaps doing some of both is the
ideal practica. Obtaining permission to attend rehearsals is not always
easy. Comparatively few souls were Fortunate enough to have been ad-
mitted to Arturo Toscanini's rehearsals, and even these permissions were
sometimes canceled without notice at the last moment.
T h e Student should not think that so-called public rehearsals are any-
thing but polite social affairs where amenities and protocol are observed.
These carefully rehearsed rehearsals are often a sort of bonus to buyers of
season tickets to give some people the feeling of being " i n " and are almost
always at variance with what often happens at a real rehearsal, where
blunt language, not euphemisms, have been known to be used.
Some conductors are sincere in the dislike of having Outsiders "intrud-
ing" into what they consider family affairs between the players and
themselves. Some, having uttered words and phrases during moments of
inspirational heat, are truly sorry afterwards. They do not wish others than
those directly involved to hear these momentary lapses. Other conduc-
tors—and this is an open secret—have no wish to expose their less-
than-professional competence to the public without being prepared to
distract the attention of their hearers with ballet posturing and related
kinetic antics. Chiefly, they do not wish to reveal that they do not hear all
and see all.
Most members of a professional orchestra have not the slightest diffi-
culty puncturing the pretensions of the incompetent conductor who puts
on airs, regardless of bis public image. When such men beat time, per-
cussion players have been known to draw cartoons (some very good indeed
and now collectors' items), and string players have been known to play
wrong notes with utter impunity and wry detachment ("to noodle," in
orchestral idiom). Such interludes bring amusement to an otherwise drab
rehearsal.

A POETIC REHEARSAL

A Story about one famous conductor's rehearsal practice has now be-
come part of orchestral folklore. Unless the weather was unusually un-
pleasant, just before the final rehearsal of a program the conductor would
walk to a nearby park accompanied by a young friend who shielded him
from curious onlookers and saw to it that he returned home safely. T h e
conductor would go at once to a certain spot beside a winding stream and
stand upon a natural mound of earth, which served as a podium, facing
large clumps of trees and bushes of various heights and thicknesses, which
represented Instruments or sections of the orchestra.

A POETIC REHEARSAL 225

 Before starting his "rehearsal," the conductor would circle his "or-
chestra," adjusting the circumference to the score he was about to con-
duct. Then, holding a long, thin pencil which served as a baton, he would
go through by memory each score on the program he was soon to Interpret
to the public. He gave every important cue and nuance and brought out
dynamics and phrasing with his left hand, pointing at times to particular
trees and bushes. Occasionally he would stop and with a friendly ad-
monition request repetition of a passage until his " e a r " was satisfied.
Although he sometimes spoke with a bit of impatience during moments
of stress in a rehearsal with his real orchestra, in these rehearsals he was
always gentle, never impatient.

DISCIPLINE AND COURTESY

At a rehearsal, the Student should watch the conductor's beat first and
foremost. Certainly Furtwängler and Koussevitzky made it difficult by
forcing their players to divine by some sort of mystical extrasensory per-
ception just what it was they wanted. Again, however, considering the gifts
these men brought to their art and to many of their memorable inter-
pretations, they can be forgiven.
T h e Student will, or should, note two extreme attitudes toward players
in rehearsals. One is comradery. This, in extreme, may lead to rapid de-
terioration in orchestral discipline. T h e other extreme is exemplified by
Karl Muck and caused some players to cross the street ostentatiously
when encountering him outside of Symphony Hall in Boston in the days
when he was its music director: his insulting manner and vulgär and
personal remarks on occasion to those who were forced to endure this
by economic necessity were inexcusable. Yet Dr. Muck was also a gifted
Interpreter.
There is a happy medium. Sir Adrian Boult, Pierre Monteux, and
some others were always able to maintain firm—even taut—discipline and
combine all this with Victorian courtesy. Their technique was clear; they
possessed exceptional pedagogical gifts, knew exactly what they wanted,
what was practical, and how to get it, and never wasted a moment. They
were immediately respected as persons as well as conductors.
To get the utmost out of observing an orchestral rehearsal, a serious
Student should know the orchestral scores scheduled to be gone over as
well as is humanly possible. Of course, if the conductor is a visitor and is
presenting a premiere in manuscript, this may not be possible. T h e more
a Student brings to a rehearsal, the more he will take away with him. If
he has not mastered the score before the rehearsal, he will be confused by

226 THE REHEARSAL

the simultaneous strands of tone e m a n a t i n g f r o m the p l a t f o r m a n d miss
m u c h of w h a t he has come to analyze: t h e technical m e a n s the c o n d u c t o r
is e m p l o y i n g to o b t a i n the essence of t h e score f r o m the players.
At a concert, especially if the c o n d u c t o r is glfted, the Student will be
d r a w n away f r o m m e r e t e c h n i q u e by the magic of the interpretation. T h i s
is as it should be a n d will inevitably occur w h e n a great Interpreter is on
the p o d i u m a n d the hearer is musically sensitive.

A REHEARSAL IS N O T A CONCERT
A y o u n g c o n d u c t o r should m a k e a rehearsal just t h a t — a rehearsal.
F r o m excitement, some conductors have m a d e the final rehearsal practi-
cally into a concert. T h e y have left the m e n exhausted physically a n d
spiritually the night before or on the very m o r n i n g of a concert so that it
took all the players' reserve to get through. U n d e r s t a n d a b l e as this is, it
should be g u a r d e d against. K e e p s o m e t h i n g for the concert itself Tos-
canini simply h a d to rehearse in the most frenetic m a n n e r h u m a n l y pos-
sible, a n d sometimes t h e final rehearsal left t h e m e n with less t h a n their
füll nervous powers for t h e concert. Fritz Busch, in his Der Dirigent, quotes
a player w h o told t h e maestro, t h e n a y o u n g m a n : Maestro: due minuti sotto
Lei e lo stesso che dieci minuti sotto il tram! ( " M a e s t r o : two m i n u t e s u n d e r you
is the same t h i n g as ten m i n u t e s u n d e r the t r a m ! " )
A n o t h e r point of d a n g e r which afflicts Community a n d university
orchestras t h a t rehearse a long a n d difficult masterpiece for a whole
semester is t h a t they often lose their freshness f r o m repeated rehearsals,
b e c o m i n g the victims of routine a n d rote learning. At all costs strive
to m a i n t a i n freshness. O n e m e t h o d is to play a bit of other music now
a n d t h e n for contrast.

THE ULTIAAATE CREATION

At a rehearsal there m a y be a b o u t a h u n d r e d players, a n d often even
more singers, each w i t h his or her own personality. Slowly, u n d e r the
Single will of t h e m a n on the p o d i u m , the tones begin to merge, t h e
m o o d to b e c o m e homogeneous. T h e p r o p e r tone-balances are being
achieved. T h e m a i n lines begin to stand out. T h e attacks a n d releases
improve. T h e conductor's h a n d instinctively adjusts itself to the person-
ality of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r orchestra a n d choir a n d leads r a t h e r t h a n drives.
Some players are too slow here; some are too eager there. T h e y are being
b r o u g h t together t h r o u g h the hands, eyes, gaze, a n d b o d y of the m a n
on t h e stand to b e c o m e more t h a n the mere m a t h e m a t i c a l sum of
separate parts.

THE ULTIMATE CREATrON 227

 It is an act of creation somewhat akin to sculpturing—not in stone
or bronze or marble—but of immaterial tones. If the Student has come
to all this equipped with the proper technical knowledge and a famili-
arity with the score, and with his heart and mind open, he will under-
stand the metamorphosis which his eyes and ears are taking in. H e will
understand even if at this stage in his development he cannot hope to
emulate the man on the stand. But in a very significant sense, he is
already a fellow artist of that man on the podium!
Much emphasis has been placed on preparations for a Performance.
T h e Student will bless himself when he has done everything possible in
this regard, for then and then only is he free to express himself musically
without being hindered by technical shortcomings. This feeling of cre-
ating without any technical handicap Ts something to work for! Once
achieved, the Student is an artist, free and unhampered.

228 THE REHEARSAL

 Chapter Twenty-Five

THE PERFORMANCE

More and more I have come to think that what decides the worth of
conducting is the degree of suggestive power that the conductor can exercise
Over the performers. At the rehearsal he is mostly nothing more than a workman
who schools the men under him so conscientiously and precisely that each of
them knows bis place and vi^hat he has to do there; he first becomes an artist
when the moment arrives for the production of the work. Not even the most
assiduous rehearsing, so necessary a prerequisite as this is, can so stimulate the
capacities of the players as the force of the imagination of the conductor. It
is not the transference of his personal will, but the mysterious act of creation
that called the work itself into being, which takes place again and again in
him, and, transcending the narrow limits of reproduction, he becomes a new
Creator, a self-creator. T h e more, however, his personality disappears so as to
get behind the personality that created the work—and to identify itself, indeed,
with this—the greater will his Performance be.
Felix Weingartner: On Conducting

The Statement is o f t e n m a d e t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r ' s p r i n c i p a l task is to

r e h e a r s e a n d t h a t w i t h this conscientiously d o n e , his p r e s e n c e a t t h e
c o n c e r t is m e r e l y to r e t n i n d t h e p e r f o r m e r s w h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i r o n e d
o u t a t t h e rehearsals. T h i s m i s c o n c e p t i o n stems p a r t l y f r o m i g n o r i n g t h e
basic d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t o r as p e d a g o g u e a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r
as inspired i n t e r p r e t e r .
A t t h e rehearsal t h e c o n d u c t o r ' s a i m is to a c h i e v e a n excellent a n d
literal r e n d e r i n g of t h e notes; t h e rehearsal is m e r e l y a n a g g r e g a t e of
all t h e t e c h n i c a l p a r t s i n h e r e n t in t h e music. A t t h e c o n c e r t t h e c o n d u c -
tor ceases to b e a p e d a g o g u e : h e lays aside t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s of t e a c h i n g ,
of s t a r t i n g a n d s t o p p i n g , of t a l k i n g a n d e x p l a i n i n g , a n d of s i n g i n g a l o u d ,
a n d h e re-creates a n a r t w o r k a n e w . D ü r i n g t h e c o n c e r t t h e c o n d u c t o r

THE PERFORMANCE 229

has only his hands, his baton, when used, his bodily attitudes, and bis
facial expressions (especially his eyes) to translate his inner conceptions
to the players in front of him and, through tbem, to the auditors behind
bim.
According to old theatrical tradition, poor final rehearsal augurs a
good opening Performance. There is a sound substratum of truth in this.
The reason is that once the rehearsals are over and the group is perform-
ing before an audience, each man does somehow rise above himself.
Once, after an orchestra had given a historic concert under an eminent
conductor, one of the players said with his eyes shining: " W h e n I play
under that m a n I feel like a maestro myself. T h e n I do things I never
thought I could do when I play alone."
This phenomenon is known to every conductor and to every musical
group, large or small. It results from the warm feeling of Cooperation
brought about by working toward a common artistic goal: re-creating
music together. If, after the concert, the performers teil the conductor
that the smoothness of the ensemble seemed natural and effortless, it
is the highest and most sincere compliment a conductor can receive from
his colleagues.
A young conductor of any practical experience is undoubtedly al-
ready acquainted with some of the following problems and, of necessity,
will have solved them in his own way. Suggestions drawn from the
similar experiences of many men are offered here in the hope that
they may be helpful to the reader.

EMERGENCIES
Inevitably, emergencies arise. Almost anything can happen—and
usually does. The conductor must be alert. If not inborn, presence of
mind can often be developed through experience. Remember, the unex-
pected has confronted even the most famous conductors.
One important rule: be at the concert hall at least half an hour before
the scheduled time of the concert. Some conductors pace the floor if
they are too early, but it is best to have enough time to solve last-minute
Problems. One young conductor was making his debut not only as
interpreter, but also as composer; while resting anxiously in his hotel
room, he received a message to hurry to the concert hall, where he learned
that the English horn player, who had an important series of solos, had
just been rushed to a hospital possibly with acute appendicitis. O u r young
composer-conductor thought all lost until an older player who had had
years of experience doing last-minute orchestration calmly sat down and

230 THE PERFORMANCE

cued in the English horn parts, dividing them according to ränge be-
tween the oboe and bassoon players. Since only the players and the
composer knew the original, no one was the wiser. T h e Performance
went smoothly, and the critics' and auditors' reactions were cordial.
T h e moral is clear: if you get into trouble, consult some of the older
players, who are often first-class musicians and survivors of many musical
emergencies. They have saved many an incompetent or inexperieneed
conductor. Also, continue to perfect your skills in score-reading, cross-
cuing, and using old clefs and transpositions. Practice making small
orchestral arrangements from very large scores; many of these do not
suffer from reduction.
This author once witnessed an incident that might have been tragic
had it not been for the presence of mind and sense of humor of the
young conductor. W h e n fire suddenly burst out on stage, the conductor
shouted to his orchestra of many nationalities in Italian, German,
French, and English, "Sit down!" and then "Play something!" Members
of the orchestra Struck up different tunes simultaneously. T h e auditors,
who a moment before had started to stampede, were shocked into silence,
began to laugh, and calmly watched the asbestos curtain descend to cut
off the blaze. A few moments later the Performance began again.
It is instructive (and comforting) to learn how some famous conduc-
tors have responded to unexpected situations. Theodore Thomas, for
example, once had as soloist an excitable bass singer. While he was
singing, lightning Struck the roof of the wooden auditorium. T h e soloist
blanched, screamed hysterically, and headed for the nearest exit. His
flight took him past Mr. Thomas, who calmly seized him by one ear,
chanted the solo part himself loudly enough to be heard above the din,
and succeeded in returning the singer to his post. T h e fire was quickly
extinguished and a panic averted.
Once Sir Thomas Beecham, while conducting an orchestra of modest
Standards, found his English horn player unable to free his clogged reed.
To the delight of the audience, the conductor himself sang the ensuing
solo snatches.
An example of süperb presence of mind is the story told of the late
Fritz Reiner, whose exceptional ability to sightread and memorize a score
without piano is well known. T h e manuscript of a last-minute Substi-
tution was delivered to him as he set sail from London for Venice, where
the program was to be performed. Mr. Reiner accepted the orchestral
score, studied it while resting on the sun deck, and conducted it upon
arrival with ease and assurance.
Arthur Nikisch, about whose genius almost anything can be believed.

EMERGENCIES 231
arrived for a guest engagement in a Scandinavian city just before the
concert, having missed the morning rehearsal completely. H e took the
score, just off the printer's desk with many pages still uncut, and used
his baton to out them as he nonchalantly conducted it by sight.

ROUTINE EXIGENCIE5
Most conductors sooner or later are required to cope with what may
be called routine exigencies. Here are a few to expect.
(1) The orchestra, familiar with the opposite preference of the resi-
dent conductor, fails to repeat a section in a Performance under a guest
conductor.
(2) Instrumentalists who change their fingering in a difficult passage
before a concert confuse their new pattern with the original fingering.
(3) At the end of a section with repeats, part of the orchestra takes
the first ending and part takes the second ending. All that can be done
here is to cut off, hold up one or two fingers to signify which ending
is wanted, and point to the beginning or the "go ahead." If the conductor
has the remotest suspicion of possible danger he might do this just before
the first ending to preclude misunderstanding. This mishap once forced
an eminent foreign visitor to stop and Start anew, a most humiliating
procedura which the local critics have never permitted him to forget.
(4) In operatic and choral works nervous singers sometimes forget
their notes and lines, even with a prompter. A conscientious conductor
will have memorized all vocal solos and be able to enunciate the foreign
words clearly enough to be understood, even though his diction may
not be enviable. M a n y singers have been saved by such conductors and,
it should be added, by good concertmasters, who often can play by heart
nearly all the famous arias and have been known to help out faltering
singers unobtrusively.
(5) Instrumental soloists at times skip bars. O n e pianist j u m p e d four
bars in the middle of an opening Statement and again in the repeat.
T h e conductor simply held u p four fingers and pointed ahead, and the
routined players followed so quickly and neatly that the soloist himself
never knew what happened.
(6) Remembering the seating arrangement of an orchestra is espe-
cially important when giving a concert away from one's home grounds.
Like a fingering once learned which intrudes upon a new one, the
conductor's usual seating plan may suddenly obtrude and cause a slip.
The sight of a visiting conductor giving a cue to the wrong player or
section may well amuse auditors, who may assume that the conductor

232 THE PERFORMANCE

does not know his score. Since the architecture of stages differs widely,
especially in older buildings, the conductor should visit each hall before
the Performance to be sure he knows exactly what to expect.
(7) Physical ailments or distress may overcome soloists during Per-
formances. At the Metropohtan Opera House some years ago, the tenor
soloist had just started "Celeste A i d a " when he doubled up in pain. H e
valiantly kept going, although his voice began to go off pitch and his
tempo began to slow. T h e conductor deftly motioned to his men to play
flat and to adjust their tempo to the singer's. Sometimes, too, a soloist
dies while singing or playing. In this case the Performance is better
abandoned and the audience given the option of Coming to another
Performance. Finally, at more than one memorial Performance, one or
more of the performers have broken down. A professional musician
should be able to control his emotions in the interest of the Performance
at hand.
(8) T h e problem of Intonation is perpetual, yet the conductor need
not feel he is helpless at a Performance when the Intonation becomes
approximate. His forces should be trained to listen and adjust. It is true,
especially when an organ is used, that the temperature of a stage may
change and wreak havoc with pitch, but if the players have been fore-
warned, this can be minimized. Curiously enough, a Student who listens
to the same orchestra under two or three successive conductors will notice
that pitch is better under some. Similarly, the quality of tone improves
under certain conductors. Under one the tone may be heavy; under
another, feathery; under a third, luminous. Such phenomena are impos-
sible to analyze scientifically but are easy enough to hear. One French
horn virtuoso put the matter very well when he said: " I f you have the
right tone in the back of your head and have the technique to bring
it out, it will come out right." If the conductor has the right notes and
mood in his head and the technique to show his players what he wants,
he can draw it from them.

NERVOUSNESS
A conductor must first and foremost guard against showing any signs
of nervousness, for it will spread rapidly to his players and singers. He
must exude an air of serene confidence at all times. This applies not
only to amateur but also to professional orchestras. Without it, conviction
and authority are lost.
O n e now-famous conductor formerly was so nervous when he first
conducted that his legs quivered spasmodically and in rhythm with the

NERVOUSNESS 233
music while he was on the podium. He confessed to his own students
years later that he was cured by persuadlng himself that in his audience
were many men and women who were most kindly disposed toward him
and wished him every success. As he came to make his first bows and
receive the welcoming amenities, he would pick out some bright young
faces to the right, to the left, in the front rows, and in the balconies
and bow to them. These were his friends and he was making music for
them. With this in mind, he said, he soon forgot his agonizing self-
consciousness and addressed himself to his task.

BE O N E S E L F
Conscious or subconscious imitation of physical mannerisms of older,
admired conductors has always been a tendency of beginning conductors.
If one must imitate, why choose the physical instead of the musical
idiosyncrasies of the great? Some pupils of Liszt dressed hke him, but
this didn't do much for their piano playing. W h y imitate the bad beat
of Koussevitzky or Furtwängler when one should instead strive to emu-
late the magical tone colors evoked by the Russian and the beautifui
phrasing, subtle tone balances, and surging climaxes of the German?
Contribute what you have, no matter how modest, and all will recognize
your sincerity. Pick out the men you most admire and try to do what
they do musically. Formerly students watched Monteux, Mengelberg,
Weingartner, and a very few others; today there are many from which
to choose. There have been superb technicians without spirituality, and
great Interpreters without enviable technique. Spirituality with mediocre
technique is far more valuable, however, than superb technique with
little or nothing to say.

D I C T A T E S OF G O O D TASTE
It may seem wholly gratuitous to concern ourselves with the public
image of a conductor, but there are several ways in which it can influence
the actual musical Performance. Not only the dress, but also the physical
appearance and Performance style of a conductor are on display before
the public. In matters of attire, let good taste dictate—a gentleman's
dress never calls attention to itself. Unusual costumes or accessories are
only distracting and draw attention away from the music. Examples are
numerous. One visiting maestro wore a wristwatch which traced delicate
light beams around the room. The late Belgian violin virtuoso Ovid
Musin thrilled his feminine admirers with a large diamond ring on the
fourth finger of his bow arm, which he flashed expertly into the eyes
of a fortunate few. Mr. Musin was a brilliant violinist who had no need

234 THE PERFORMANCE

for such ancillary tactics. Another conductor was known for the
exquisite blooms he wore in his lapels. Still another could be depended
u p o n to vary his elegant waistcoats to suit the most sophisticated tastes.
Perhaps it is the very short conductor who worries most about his
physical appearance. O n e , for instance, tried to create a n Illusion of
height by wearing cuffs stretching from his wrists halfway u p his arms;
a really good tailor could have done this unobtrusively by altering the
cut of his clothes. A quick tabulation of very short conductors (including
M u c k and Toscanini) a n d very tall conductors (including Abendroth,
Weingartner, and Klemperer) shows that musical stature bears no rela-
tion to physical stature. Appearance is easily altered by a high or low
p o d i u m , as appropriate.
T h e Student conductor should beware of extreme conducting styles.
Although both are superficially dramatic, neither frantic emotionalism
nor mechanical precision constitutes an effective Substitute for true
feeling. T h e first is the a t t e m p t to cover u p spiritual deficiencies with
wild gesticulations. T h e inevitable result is a bored audience. Recently
a letter to a large metropolitan newspaper suggested that the editor
assign the dance critic to the concerts of a certain young conductor.
Another time the sports editor of a newspaper wrote what has now
become a journalistic classic: " J u s t as the English lose every battle but
win their wars, so did Beethoven lose every round last night but was
still Standing at the end of the bout a n d won the decision on points."
T h e opposite of the emotional approach just mentioned is apparently
on the increase. Instead of a conductor being on the point of physical
exhaustion at the end of a Performance, the recent fashion has been to
show how simple it is to evoke music from a h u n d r e d players a n d perhaps
twice as m a n y choristers. This type conducts music academically, using
practically no a r m or wrist motion. H e merely cues the players as though
activating an I B M machine. T h e score ceases to be music a n d becomes
a series of acoustical juxtapositions without spirit. Fritz Kreisler once
Said that there was only one unforgivable crime in the arts: that of being
dull. In similar vein, a Boston critic once wrote the musical obituary
of a departing conductor with the words: " H e always inspired respect
but never evoked enthusiasm." T h e young conductor should take these
quotes to heart.

THE PRESS
Some comments about press evaluations of Performances m a y be
helpful to the young conductor. M a n y conductors, including eminent
ones boast that they never—well, almost never—read critiques of their

THE PRESS 235

concerts, except for amusement. T h e majority of performers, however,
do read reviews of their Performances and are affected by them. One
famous conductor stamped angrily on a critical review, yet ordered
thousands of copies of the same critic's favorable reaction on another
occasion.
A conductor should recall that by trying to please everyone he may
end by pleasing no one.
At one Performance, for example, one critic complained that the
tempo of a certain movement of a symphony was too slow, while another
complained with equal warmth that it was much too fast, although both
liked the Performance as a whole. This paradox may be explained by
the fact that the concert took place in a country where two languages
were spoken and two divergent artistic heritages were part of that city's
culture.
T h e conductor should remember that while there are many well-
trained critics, there are also those who may specialize in other fields,
yet feel they are competent to evaluate musical Performances. In any
case, remember that a review is simply one man's opinion of how a piece
should be conducted. O n the other band, the young conductor can often
learn much from the reviews of critics who are good musicologists as
well as trained musicians.
If a resident conductor finds the local critic comparing his group
with famous visiting companies, let him shrug his shoulders. Most
readers are sensible and know quite well that the working conditions
of the two groups are completely dissimilar. Even great conductors do
not Interpret all epochs, composers, and national schools equally well,
and many have surprising gaps in their repertories. T h e skills required
to train college-community groups are as highly specialized as those
needed to direct famous professional orchestras. It is important to keep
in mind that the talents of different conductors are as varied as the
groups with which they work and that context is a first consideration
in judging the musical product.

THE C O N D U C T O R ' S MISSION

T h e conductor's aim is to bring the composer's message to his
listeners. H e acts as a guide to his audience, pointing out the chief
beauties of the music they are hearing together; he takes his audience
to different lands and epochs, spreading before them the musical treas-
ures the composers have left us. His task is to bring to life a Performance
the composer himself would want to hear if he could conduct. It is a
task few men are privileged to attempt.

236 THE PERFORMANCE

 The physical release which comes when everything seems to go
smoothly and the conductor shares his music fully with his players and
auditors is a rarely discussed phenomenon. When players and audience
are in rapport, a Performance can reach heights which no one previously
would have suspected lay within the powers of those interpreting the
music. Although it is difficult to articulate such an emotional phenom-
enon, those who have approached this State can testify to the spiritual
reward and elation it can bring. It can make worthwhile all the labor
and preparation and deferred hope which precede such moments. On
the platform, it is the conductor's privilege to transmit the composer's
inner conception through the performers facing him to the auditors
behind him. He has no one to look to but himself. He is now on his own,
there to reveal his unique music personality.

THE C O N D U C T O R ' S MISSION 237

Chapter Twenty-Six

ON PROGRAMS

Be not the first by whom the new are tried,

Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.
Alexander Pope: An Essay ort Criticism

These often quoted lines by the master of the lightning couplet may apply
to the literary critic; but they certainly do not apply to the conductor
whose duty and privilege it is to keep his audience abreast of the latest
tendencies in music. Compositions may be historically as well as intrin-
sically or technically important. One generation may create new tech-
niques for another to make use of emotionally. Most important, com-
posers cannot create in a vacuum. The creative flame must be kept alive
for oncoming generations so that another burst of creation may eventu-
ally arise. Our conductors must give new composers a sounding board
and yet hold to the best of the old which have proved their worth and
their right to periodic and repeated hearings.
The young conductor who is about to plan his programs as a guest
for a Single appearance or a series or for two or three seasons with a
community-university orchestra gazes with understandable enthusiasm
at the embarrassment of riches spread before him. Beautiful music
bequeathed to him over the centuries beckon for his interpretations. He
has, he feels, only to reach out to assemble truly great programs of the
past and present for the listening delight of his listeners. But has he?
There are, unfortunately, a few practical handicaps to this ideal Situation
which Our program-maker must take into account.
A young conductor is often tempted to pattern his program on some
of those given by famous conductors. This has its dangers. The first is
that each man interprets certain works better than others. The second

238 ON PROGRAMS
is t h a t a f a m o u s c o n d u c t o r is n o t necessarily a good p r o g r a m - m a k e r .
A loyal a u d i e n c e will c o m e to h e a r a n d o f t e n to see a f a v o r i t e w i t h o u t
too m u c h r e g a r d for w h a t h e offers. W h e r e t h e c o n d u c t o r is u n k n o w n
t h e a u d i t o r s m a y b e a t t r a c t e d b y bis p r o g r a m s or p a r t of t h e m . P e r h a p s
this is u n j u s t ; a t a n y r a t e , it is so. A n d w h e n a c o n d u c t o r is b o t h a
f a v o r i t e a n d a good p r o g r a m - m a k e r , t h e a u d i t o r ' s d e l i g h t is endless as
it s h o u l d be.

PRACTICAL CONSl DERATIONS

T h e first q u e s t i o n for t h e c o n d u c t o r to c o n s i d e r is in w h a t k i n d of
m u s i c h e is m o s t c o m f o r t a b l e , m o s t a t h o m e , a n d m o s t efFective. I n short,
w h a t is h e best q u a l i f i e d to I n t e r p r e t ? T o t h i n k he c a n c o n d u c t a n y t h i n g
in t h e r e p e r t o r y is foolish. N o t e v e n t h e greatest c o n d u c t o r s h a v e b e e n
a b l e to d o this, t h o u g h of course a n a u d i e n c e will e n d u r e f r o m a f a v o r i t e
w h a t it will n o t suffer g l a d l y f r o m a n e w c o m e r . N a t u r a l l y , if a n e n g a g e -
m e n t hinges u p o n one's c o n d u c t i n g c e r t a i n works a b o u t w h i c h o n e is
n o t e x a c t l y e n t h u s i a s t i c , a n d t h e r e h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e r s whose t e m p o -
r a r y p o p u l a r i t y h a s n o t a r o u s e d w a r m t h in everyone's b r e a s t , t h e y o u n g
c o n d u c t o r will h a v e to d e c i d e for himself w h e t h e r to forego t h e e n g a g e -
m e n t or yield as a m e a n s to a n e n d , h o p i n g t h a t at a later d a t e h e c a n
decide w h a t h e will p l a y on his p r o g r a m s .
T h e n e x t q u e r y is w h e t h e r h e t h i n k s t h e p r o g r a m s h e is c o n s i d e r i n g
a r e w i t h i n his powers, a n d e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , w i t h i n t h e p o w e r s of t h e
g r o u p h e is to c o n d u c t . T h e r e is a t r u e story a b o u t a very y o u n g a n d
i n e x p e r i e n c e d c o n d u c t o r w h o s u b m i t t e d to a m a n a g e r as a s p e c i m e n
p r o g r a m : D e b u s s y : La Mer, or R a v e l : Daphnis and Chloe or La Valse;
R . Strauss: Also sprach ^arathustra or Ein Heldenleben oiDon Quixote; S t r a v i n -
sky: Le Sacre du Printemps. N o w this f o r m i d a b l e p r o g r a m c o n t a i n s a t least
t h r e e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e works of t h r e e n a t i o n a l i t i e s a n d diversified m e t h o d s
of expression. T h e contrasts a r e d a z z l i n g . S u c h a p r o g r a m w o u l d cer-
t a i n l y reveal t h e resources of t h e w o r l d ' s best c o n d u c t o r s a n d orchestras.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this p r o g r a m w o u l d also mercilessly reveal t h e faults a n d
w e a k n e s s a n d i n e x p e r i e n c e of all b u t t h e m o s t gifted of c o n d u c t o r s a n d
i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s , e v e n w i t h a d e q u a t e rehearsals, w h i c h guest c o n d u c t o r s
u s u a l l y a r e n o t given. T h e m o r a l is p i a i n . T h e y o u n g c o n d u c t o r ( a n d
m a n y a n o l d e r o n e ) m u s t realize his o w n l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e k i n d of orches-
t r a a t his c o m m a n d , t h e n u m b e r of r e h e a r s a l s h e is to h a v e , a n d so on.
L e t h i m r e m e m b e r t h a t o n e c o n d u c t o r of i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t u r e d e m a n d e d
t w e n t y rehearsals for Don Quixote a l o n e b e f o r e h e w o u l d c o n s i d e r a n
e n g a g e m e n t as a guest.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 239

 C o m m u n i t y - u n i v e r s i t y orchestras a n d choirs s o m e t i m e s try to
p r o d u c e g r e a t works b e y o n d t h e p o w e r s of t h e c o n d u c t o r , his s t u d e n t s ,
or his quasi-professlonal s u p p l e m e n t s . A B a c h w o r k , for e x a m p l e , m a y
h a v e to b e r e h e a r s e d so l o n g t h a t it loses its freshness a n d b e c o m e s a
m u s e u m piece. T h e result is o f t e n t h a t a lay a u d i e n c e is b o r e d a n d yet
too o v e r a w e d to express a n e g a t i v e o p i n i o n . R a r e l y i n d e e d does a College
c o n d u c t o r a n d his Forces succeed in c o n v e y i n g t h e v o l c a n i c e m o t i o n a n d
O l y m p i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e of B a c h ' s m a j o r works.
T h e s u i t a b i l i t y of p e r f o r m a n c e c o n d i t i o n s m u s t also b e c o n s i d e r e d .
T h e a u t h o r o n c e h e a r d Berlioz's Grande Messe des Morls p r e s e n t e d b y a n
u n d e r g r a d u a t e b o d y in a house of w o r s h i p w h e r e t h e acoustical condi-
tions p r o d u c e d a n e c h o w h i c h s o u n d e d a l m o s t e x a c t l y a b a r late. T h e
s e a t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s p l a c e d p a r t s of t h e c h o i r so f a r a p a r t t h a t t h e y
b e c a m e s e p a r a t e entities. I n s t e a d of t h e o r c h e s t r a called for b y t h e
c o m p o s e r , w h i c h i n c l u d e d 8 p a i r of t i m p a n i , a n d t h e 25, 25, 20, 20, 18
strings, plus 12 horns, 4 c o r n e t s a n d t u b a , plus sub-orchestras in t h e east,
west, a n d s o u t h plus t r o m b o n e s a n d m o r e percussion, t h e y u s e d p a t h e t i -
cally i n a d e q u a t e string sections, t w o t r u m p e t s , a n d o n e c o n t r a b a s s . T h e
result, t h o u g h testifying to t h e d e v o t i o n of t h e p e r s o n a b l e y o u n g l a d y
in c o m m a n d , was h o r r e n d o u s . T h e r e was a n inverse r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e
ecstasy on t h e faces of t h e Student p e r f o r m e r s a n d t h e i r f r i g h t f u l p i t c h .

NATIONALISM AND REGIONALISM

Still o t h e r factors in p r o g r a m - m a k i n g m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . C o u n t r i e s
h a v e always h a d favorite composers, as h a v e regions of countries. P l a y i n g
u n p o p u l ä r composers or i g n o r i n g p o p u l ä r ones of t h e m o m e n t is soon
reflected in t h e b o x office. B r a h m s h a s always b e e n m e r e l y t o l e r a t e d in
L a t i n countries. Berlioz, t h e a n n i v e r s a r y of w h o s e d e a t h is n o w b e i n g
p i o u s l y o b s e r v e d w i t h s o m e w h a t b e l a t e d o b s e r v a n c e in various w o r l d
Centers, c o u l d n o t d r a w a d e c e n t h o u s e in P a r i s w h e n c o n d u c t o r s of t h e
s t a t u r e of M o n t e u x or W e i n g a r t n e r i n c l u d e d his m u s i c o n t h e i r p r o g r a m s .
M a n y F r e n c h m e n will assure one t h a t d ' I n d y a n d F a u r e , a m o n g others,
a r e b e i n g u n j u s t l y n e g l e c t e d o u t s i d e of t h e i r n a t i v e l a n d . Sibelius has
fallen i n t o c o m p a r a t i v e d e s u e t u d e ; a few years a g o h e was o v e r p l a y e d .
S h o s t a k o v i t c h ' s m u s i c w a s f o u g h t over for t h e privilege of a p r e m i e r e
b y t w o f a m o u s c o n d u c t o r s w h e n t h e political c l i m a t e was d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h a t of t o d a y . T h u s , a c o n d u c t o r ' s p r o g r a m s , even if h e is f a m o u s , a r e
n o t so d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e politics of t h e m o m e n t as m i g h t b e i m a g i n e d .
T o p l a y s o m e c o m p o s e r s w h e n o n e is a guest is n o t a l w a y s t h e m o s t
d i p l o m a t i c w a y of i n t r o d u c i n g oneself to a n e w a u d i e n c e .

240 ON PROGRAMS
 P r o g r a m s m a y b e c i r c u m s c r i b e d b y other i n t a n g i b l e Forces. O n e is
c h a u v i n i s m . W o r k s b y n a t i v e composers m a y b e p l a y e d o n c e to prove
the c o n d u c t o r ' s patriotism a n d t h e n relegated to oblivion. A g l a n c e at
the p r o g r a m s in the a p p e n d i x will illustrate this t e n d e n c y .
A l l that has b e e n said a b o u t p l a y i n g u n w o r t h y music for extraneous
reasons should not b e interpreted, h o w e v e r , as counsel against g i v i n g
the n a t i v e c o m p o s e r his c h a n c e . T h e c o n d u c t o r should use his orchestra
as a s o u n d i n g b o a r d for the local c o m p o s e r w h o is part of the C o m m u n i t y .
If the work has vitality, its r e p u t a t i o n will g r o w regionally a n d n a t i o n a l l y
a n d v e r y occasionally, internationally. G r e a t composers are not b o r n
e v e r y d a y , a n d a c o m p o s e r need not be great to deserve a hearing.
If one looks at surveys of music of past decades, one is Struck b y
the hillocks a n d hills as distinguished f r o m the m o u n t a i n s . T h e r e r e m a i n s
in the m o d e r n repertory S c h u b e r t , M e n d e l s s o h n , S c h u m a n n , Berlioz,
some of the Liszt, R i c h a r d Strauss, B e e t h o v e n , B r a h m s , a n d H a y d n . B u t
w h o p l a y s or r e m e m b e r s J o a c h i m , R a f f , Draeseke, R e i n i c k e , a n d most
of M a x B r u c h ? Y e t t h e y were i m p o r t a n t at the time; o n l y w h e n there
are m a n y composers a n d a flourishing school c a n the great composers
really emerge. H o w m a n y p l a y e d t o d a y will b e k n o w n e v e n b y n a m e
to a u d i e n c e s a Century hence? O r will t h e y b e relegated " t o the p a t h e t i c
b a c k w a s h of h i s t o r y ? " N o t e v e r y c o n d u c t o r w i l l h a v e the good fortune
to d o w h a t K o u s s e v i t z k y did for A m e r i c a n works, w h a t B o u l t d i d for
his c o m p a t r i o t s , a n d A n s e r m e t a n d M o n t e u x d i d for the F r e n c h school.
B u t e v e n the c o m m u n i t y - u n i v e r s i t y c o n d u c t o r , sooner or later, will c o m e
across music w h i c h has never b e e n presented to the p u b l i c a n d should
be. T h i s is one of the rewards of the c o n d u c t o r .
P r o g r a m - m a k i n g m a y b e f u r t h e r h a m p e r e d b y t w o kinds of auditors
w h o are apt to b e vociferous, a r t i c u l a t e , a n d s e e m i n g l y u b i q u i t o u s , e v e n
t h o u g h their n u m b e r is c o m p a r a t i v e l y small. T h e first is the person w h o
w a n t s to hear the newest music before the ink is dry; the second w a n t s
to e x h u m e some j u s t l y u n k n o w n w o r t h y w h o has r e m a i n e d u n s u n g a n d
u n p l a y e d for centuries, a n d rightly so. T h e s e p e o p l e are first cousins.
M u s i c should not b e p l a y e d because it is n e w or old, b u t s i m p l y because
it is good a n d deserves a h e a r i n g ; it takes strong c h a r a c t e r to resist
pressures, especially w h e n they c o m e f r o m friends or donors.

P R O G R A M S OF V A R Y I N G LENGTHS

L e t US take the simplest p r o g r a m s to c o n s i d e r — s i m p l e s t on p a p e r

that i s — t h e Single work. S o m e of these l o n g single works are p a r t i c u l a r l y
difficult to c o n d u c t so as to keep u p the auditor's interest b e c a u s e only

PROGRAMS OF VARYING LENGTHS 241

one composer is involved. In the case of a composer like Bruckner, there
are langweiligkeiten (tediosities) where t h e composer is talking to himself
instead of to God. Mendelssohn was accused by W a g n e r of h u r r y i n g over
such long-winded passages, a n d he p r o b a b l y did, a h h o u g h t h e spectacle
of W a g n e r criticizing a n o t h e r ' s c o n d u c t i n g is like t h e kettle calling t h e
pot black.
J u s t as practically every actor, even the drohest c o m e d i a n , secretly
hopes to d o H a m l e t some day, so does every y o u n g c o n d u c t o r set his
sights on the N i n t h . T h i s work, like any other single long work, is usually
i n t r o d u c e d by one or more shorter works for various reasons: to allow
late-comers a chance to be seated, to get the players w a r m e d up, a n d
to p r e p a r e t h e auditors w h o have come f r o m a w o r k a d a y world for the
lofty work a b o u t to be heard.
Beethoven's First S y m p h o n y is a favorite opener for it gives t h e hearer
the composer's first a n d last works in the genre a t one sweep. T h e
five-minute Prometheus O v e r t u r e is often played before t h e First a n d
N i n t h . T h e Second S y m p h o n y is also a good introduction: the Student
n o d o u b t will have noted t h a t the 23rd m e a s u r e of this Second
S y m p h o n y a n d the 17th measure in the N i n t h show t h a t the composer
carried this kernel in his subconscious for some t w e n t y years. O t h e r
t h e m a t i c relations between the two works will also reveal themselves to
the Student. A n o t h e r composition which has often i n t r o d u c e d t h e N i n t h
is t h e composer's Fantasia for Pianoforte, Choir, and Orchestra ( O p . 80, 19
m i n u t e s long), which was finished t o w a r d the e n d of 1808 a n d which
m i g h t be considered a sort of first sketch of the N i n t h . T h e r e are passages
in it q u i t e as glorious as some in t h e N i n t h . It is an ideal c o m p a n i o n
for the later work a n d gives the feeling of h e a r i n g the composer impro-
vising variations. Serge Koussevitzky once h a d the h a p p y idea of starting
a concert of the N i n t h with " A M i g h t y Fortress is O u r G o d . " O t h e r s
have used B r a h m s ' " H a y d n Variations," an a d m i r a b l e choice.
Since, however, there are only aesthetic a n d not legal strictures against
p a i r i n g u n s u i t a b l e works with the N i n t h , some conductors, p e r h a p s
trying to get away f r o m t h e b e a t e n track or being u n d e r s t a n d a b l y
influenced by local pride, have b r o u g h t stränge c o m p a n i o n s to share
the evening w i t h the N i n t h . T h u s , on a p r o g r a m given by t h e J a p a n
Broadcasting C o r p o r a t i o n S y m p h o n y O r c h e s t r a , u n d e r no less a guest
c o n d u c t o r t h a n H e r b e r t von K a r a j a n , the N i n t h was followed by
Yaritsuno M a r s u d a i r a ' s " T h e m e a n d Variations" for Pianoforte a n d
Orchestra, an order which would impress most concert-goers as distinctly
anticlimactic. A n o t h e r e x t r e m e fairly often m e t with is b e g i n n i n g a
p r o g r a m with the composer's Fifth S y m p h o n y or F o u r t h or Fifth Piano-

242 ON PROGRAMS
forte Concertos. This kind of overloading is deplorable. By the time the
Ninth is reached, the auditor has lost his freshness.
A striking idea about programming by a composer appeared in the
original edition of the first violin part of Beethoven's "Eroica": "This
Symphony, being purposely written at greater length than usual, should
be played nearer the beginning than the end of the concert, and shortly
after the overture, an Air, or a Concerto, lest if it be heard too late,
when the listener is fatigued by the previous pieces, it should lose its
proper and intended effect." T h e author disagrees. A program which
includes the "Eroica" should be so chosen and arranged that this
symphony comes at the end of the program as a climax, being prepared
by proper items. Anything Coming after it would be anticlimactic.
Good programs are built in a sense like a carefully planned edifice.
T h e Start should catch the attention of the hearers, each section should
have its climax, and the soloist, if there is one, should come as a second
or third item of the first section. There are exceptions of course—
occasions where the auditors come prepared for great moments from the
very start. And when the conductor is great and also the soloist, and
the conductor is not afraid to dose the concert and share the applause
with the soloist, a great concerto like Beethoven's Fourth or Fifth may
be the last item.
Amid the many pressures exerted upon those responsible for the
making of programs, those most affected, the auditors, are often forgot-
ten. True, an annual request program is often given after a poll as a
peace offering, but this sometimes degenerates into appeasement to the
lowest common denominator and in the long run is a quantitative rather
than a qualitative test of what a musical audience wants.
Places for musicologists and musical historians to practice their
calling and to indulge in their enthusiasms and places for composers
to make experiments should be kept separate from concerts intended
for the general music lover. An audience has the right to enjoy good
music. In such audiences will be found many physicians and painters
and other professional men and women who studied Instruments in their
youth. They have a right to hear a classic on each program—classic
here used to mean a much-loved work which has become a Standard
item in the repertory and has withstood the test of time and repeated
hearings. With this connotation it may come from any epoch: baroque,
classic, romantic, impressionistic. O u r non-professional music lover has
the right also to hear a work, orchestral or solo or vocal, which displays
brilliant technical prowess. There are. enough concertos and scintillating
orchestral works to delight the hearer who admires hearing and seeing

PROGRAMS OF VARYING LENGTHS 243

what the h u m a n voice and fingers can do. H e may, indeed, have secretly
practiced such works himself.
T h e non-professional listener further has the right to hear a lofty
work—rehgious in spirit and name—to refresh his spirit. Düring the
holidays there are certainly enough of such works to satisfy the demand.
Audiences also include those who enjoy music having intellectual con-
tent: contrapuntal and architectural. If such works are presented with
the proper emotional drive there will not be the usual complaints about
museum pieces which often are caused by the fusty approach of the
conductor. Teil the ordinary listener that he is hearing a fugue and a
canon and he is appalled; teil him it is a sort of elaborate round and
he will find it fascinating.
Music illustrating national schools, especially dances, should have
an occasional place on programs. So should tone poems telling stories.
There are many delightful works in these categories. To exclude them
is mere snobbery. The greatest composers have written much in this
category. Remember that auditors come from a material world where
they work hard for a mere living. If they come late, let Stokowski and
Beecham chastise them. Play a short bright piece for them until they
get seated and composed. T h e n lead their spirits upwards with the main
works on the program.

SOME PRINCIPLES IN P R O G R A M - M A K I N G

As for the program itself, there are certain principles which, if not
applied too rigidly, can help the program-maker. Unity in variety
balanced is what we are after, although this can be carried too far. Karl
Muck, who once was musical director of the Boston Symphony Orches-
tra, feit that a musical program should be like a room in an art gallery,
each devoted to a period or school. Now this is quite possible, and good
programs can be fashioned on this principle, but there are also rooms
in art galleries in which contrasting schools are shown. Dr. Muck also
feit that the inclusion of an instrumental or vocal solo was a concession
to populär taste. Too much unity makes for boredom often; too much
variety makes for confusion.
O n e must avoid at all costs the appearance or even the remote hint
of the classroom, for here the average concert-goer does not wish to be
taught anything or be preached to. The very sight of one item from each
epoch is often enough to antagonize and alienate him. If he wants
Instruction he knows where to get it. Remember the words of the wise
old bishop to the young priest: you may win the argument but lose the

244 ON PROGRAMS
convert. O f course the clever p r o g r a m - m a k e r can shape a historical
p r o g r a m so cunningly t h a t even the astute concert-goer will not suspect.
I n general, it is better to leave p r o g r a m s outlinlng historical d e v e l o p m e n t
where they belong; in t h e classroom.
O u r musical ancestors were veritable t r e n c h e r m e n a n d gluttons who
expected a n d got p r o g r a m s lasting hours a n d hours. Concerts nowadays
have settled d o w n to a b o u t ninety or a h u n d r e d m i n u t e s actual playing
time, a l t h o u g h two hours is not unusual. O v e r l o a d i n g of p r o g r a m s shows
u p occasionally, however, in präsent day programs, especially in com-
bined Choral a n d orchestral Performances. T h i s is a d a n g e r for y o u n g
a n d enthusiastic a n d a m b i t i o u s music directors which often results in
a kind of musical m a r a t h o n , or a test of physical stamina. Felix Wein-
gartner once c o n d u c t e d the N i n t h twice on the same day a n d has
recorded his complete physical a n d spiritual exhaustion a n d his a d a m a n t
refusal ever to repeat this stunt.
O n e of the most extreme examples of this throwback, the result of
mistaken devotion a n d consecration, occurred w h e n T h e o d o r e T h o m a s
c o n d u c t e d Beethoven's Missa Solemnis and t h e N i n t h t h e same evening.
To a d d to the overloading, there was a concert t h a t very a f t e r n o o n given
u n d e r his b a t o n with t h e same soloists, orchestra a n d choir. E a c h of
these works should h a v e b e e n presented on separate days, preceded by
suitable i n t r o d u c t o r y works—not only for the sake of t h e performers b u t
also for t h e sake of auditors.
T h e m a k i n g of good p r o g r a m s is an art w h i c h can be explained in
some m e a s u r e b u t c a n n o t be analyzed completely, just as any art c a n n o t
be r e d u c e d to objective principles. We nevertheless recognize a good
p r o g r a m w h e n we read or hear it. T o some, the m a k i n g of good p r o g r a m s
comes easily a n d naturally; to others, p l a n n i n g t h e m is always a chore.

SOME PRINCIPLES IN P R O G R A M - M A K I N G 245

 Chapter Twenty-Seven

P R O G R A M S IN P R A C T I C E

The making qf a good program is an art a n d not a science. Some very gifted
conductors do not possess this art; some indifferent conductors possess
it to a marked degree a n d can fashion logical a n d attractive programs
without effort. Good programs are easily recognized by Veteran concert-
goers a n d orchestral players even though it is not always possible to
analyze their efTect.
In the Hope of showing how established conductors in various parts
of the World have presented their repertory, the a u t h o r has assembled,
in appendix I V a representative listing of fairly recent programs from
various musical centers by m a n y principal orchestras. T h e Student might
well keep a notebook of such lists to see w h a t works a n d w h a t composers
have held their places. In addition to native works, which every orchestra
should present both at h o m e a n d when traveling, there is a world
repertory which often makes it virtually impossible to teil what orchestra
is playing by inspecting the program.
In designing a program, one must first recognize that music programs
are for the enjoyment of the auditor—enjoyment in the highest a n d best
sense of the word. It may consist of the most spiritual music in the world,
or in dance music brilliantly executed. Some of the world's best com-
posers have not disdained to write such light music, a n d some of the
best conductors have delighted in presenting it. W h a t e v e r music is
played has only one function: to help transport the auditor away from
the workaday world.
T h e Student has already been warned not to a t t e m p t programs
beyond his powers or those of his forces; he should consider also the
absorptive powers of his audiences. It is one m a t t e r to give a history
of music illustrating schools a n d epochs in the art of music to those who

246 PROGRAMS IN PRACTICE

c o m e v o l u n t a r i l y for this p u r p o s e , a n o t h e r to inflict e x p e r i m e n t s , scien-
tific or aesthetic, u p o n helpless listeners w h o c o m e to find r e l a x a t i o n
a n d Spiritual release in m u s i c . N o c o m p r o m i s i n g or l o w e r i n g of S t a n d a r d s
is i m p l i e d .

PROGRAM BALANCE
A b r i g h t , short o v e r t u r e or suite or t o n e p o e m is o f t e n good to Start
a p r o g r a m , n o t o n l y to t a k e c a r e of t h e u b i q u i t o u s l a t e c o m e r b u t also
to p r e p a r e t h e a v e r a g e listener for t h e h e i g h t s to follow. O f course, if
t h e listener knows h e is to h e a r t h e B M i n o r M a s s or T h e N i n t h o n special
occasions t h a t is s o m e t h i n g eise, b e c a u s e h e arrives p r e p a r e d .
S o m e c o n d u c t o r s feel t h a t t h e so-called h e a v y p a r t of t h e p r o g r a m
s h o u l d c o m e d u r i n g t h e first p a r t of t h e p r o g r a m b e f o r e t h e a u d i t o r is
t i r e d ; o t h e r s feel t h a t h e s h o u l d b e led g e n t l y i n t o t h e h e a v y p a r t d u r i n g
t h e second h a l f T h e c o n d u c t o r m a y d e t e r m i n e this. T h e a u t h o r is n e u t r a l
here. S o m e c o n d u c t o r s try to p u t t h e soloist in t h e first half of t h e
p r o g r a m b e t w e e n t w o orchestral i t e m s so t h a t they will b e t h e first a n d
last on t h e p o d i u m . T h i s is p u r e envy, of course. O n l y c o n d u c t o r s w h o
a r e u n s u r e of t h e m s e l v e s w o r r y a b o u t s u c h i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l i t i e s .
E a c h p r o g r a m m i g h t well h a v e s o m e t h i n g n e w or relatively u n k n o w n ,
or s o m e t h i n g b y a local c o m p o s e r or a c o m p a t r i o t , especially w h e n t h e
c o n d u c t o r is visiting a n o t h e r city or c o u n t r y as a n a m b a s s a d o r of good
will. T h e u n k n o w n m u s i c c o u l d b e e i t h e r s o m e t h i n g of a b y g o n e e r a
or s o m e t h i n g j u s t off t h e press. Also, e a c h p r o g r a m s h o u l d i n c l u d e a
classic, t h e w o r d h e r e b e i n g used to d e n o t e a well-loved w o r k w h i c h h a s
h e l d its o w n over m a n y c h a n g i n g tastes a n d decades. T h e final i t e m
s h o u l d obviously b e a n i t e m of s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a p p e a l ,
w h i c h does n o t necessarily m e a n m u s i c t h a t is l o u d a n d fast.

A REPERTORY IN DEPTH

T h e Student c o n d u c t o r s h o u l d Start a t t h e earliest m o m e n t to l e a r n

in d e p t h a d o z e n or so p r o g r a m s w h i c h h e feels p r e p a r e d t o p r e s e n t a t
short notice. M a n y great o p p o r t u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n seized or lost w h e n
s u d d e n e m e r g e n c i e s arose. T h e s e p r o g r a m s s h o u l d i n c l u d e s o m e S t a n d a r d
violin a n d p i a n o a n d cello solos a n d c o n c e r t o s as well as s y m p h o n i e s ,
t o n e p o e m s , a n d orchestral suites. T h e s e d o z e n o r so p r o g r a m s c a n b e
j u g g l e d to f o r m t w i c e as m a n y v a r i a t i o n s to m e e t local c o n d i t i o n s as
necessary.
Scores s h o u l d b e m e m o r i z e d even t h o u g h c o n d u c t e d in p u b l i c w i t h
a score on t h e s t a n d . T h i s is n o t o n l y for t h e c o n d u c t o r b u t also for t h e

A REPERTORY IN DEPTH 247

orchestra, which tends to be nervous when a visiting conductor appears
without a score. Even Toscaninl has had lapses in memory, and as every
experienced conductor knows, the danger of such a lapse grows para-
doxically with repetition of the music because the danger of learning
the score by rote increases.
To repeat, in choosing a program, gauge your own hmitations and
that of the orchestra you have been invited to conduct as well as the
taste of your audiences. It may come as a surprise to some young con-
ductors to learn that conducting Mozart with a stränge orchestra with
comparatively few rehearsals is infinitely more difficult than conducting
Wagner or Tchaikovsky or Beethoven, whose music is almost always
"conductor-proof." George Bernard Shaw has written and Said on more
than one occasion that a conductor was to be judged by his conducting
of Mozart's works. The deceptive simplicity and Greek perfection of his
music comes out all too rarely, and then only with the greatest conduc-
tors and orchestras.

UNITY AND VARIETY

An ideal program combines unity in variety. Döing this effectively
is extremely difficult. M a n y program-makers achieve some sort of unity
by presenting the music of a school, a tendency, an epoch, one composer,
one nationality, and so on. T h e obvious danger is that the program will
remind the hearer of a classroom. And unless the conductor is very
careful the result may be monotonous. T h e other part of the dictum,
variety, has its dangers also when carried to extremes. Thus, in London
not so long ago, the apposition of two composers placed Beethoven on a
program followed by Rubbra. We can understand an Englishman's love
of his country, but not an anticlimactic program. Logically, Wagner,
works by Liszt, and Tchaikovsky, and Richard Strauss have gone well
together, as have works by Satie, Debussy, and Ravel, and by Handel
and Bach.

NUMBER A N D L E N G T H OF PIECES
A program of about ninety minutes containing one item has an
entirely different effect upon an audience than one containing, let us
say, three items. In the case of the one-item program, even when pre-
ceded by a short introductory piece or two, there is a suggestion of weight
and grandeur, of solitary and isolated eminence. But note how compar-
atively few composers have written purely orchestral works which are

248 PROGRAMS IN PRACTICE

in themselves long enough for a whole program. T h e artistic task of
obtaining continuous variety in Performances of these one-unit programs
devolves heavily u p o n the conductors. O f t e n celebrations a n d anniver-
saries call for works utilizing both orchestra a n d voice. Beethoven himself
a d d e d voices in his final symphony because voices alone express certain
h u m a n emotions. M a n y such works are religious or memoria! in nature—
oratorios, cantatas, a n d operatic works given in concert form without
costumes or scenery.
Bruckner a n d M a h l e r have recently been m u c h in evidence on
programs containing one and two items, b u t they were not until recently.
In the 1930's a New York critic censured visiting central E u r o p e a n
conductors for playing works by these two composers a n d implored
conductors like Klemperer not to " e x h u m e these works a n d bore Ameri-
can audiences."
T h e two-unit program permits the apposition of two composers, b u t
care must be taken to avoid too sharp a n d incongruous contrasts. W h e n
two works by the same composer are programed even of different periods
in his evolution and development, the b ü r d e n of obtaining contrast again
rests u p o n the skill of the conductor.
T h e majority of programs contain three a n d four items. W h e n five
or more items are included, programs are apt to be for celebrations for
frank entertainment a n d present a kaleidoscope of glittering orchestral
color a n d exciting rhythms.

RESPONSIBLE PRO G RA M-MA K I N G

T h e responsibilities of a program-maker are truly great. Conductors
of university, Community, as well as large professional orchestras are
called u p o n from time to time to furnish musical programs for State
occasions, anniversaries, historic events, memorial services for national
heroes, the investiture of royalty or the Inauguration of presidents, or
commencements a n d other academic holidays. T h e task of choosing a
musical program for such occasions which avoid belabored pomposity
is not easy. It is therefore of great interest to note how this challenge
was met at the celebration of the greatest feat of the atomic era—the
first Step of m a n on the moon, the giant leap for m a n k i n d with its
awesome implications for all m a n k i n d ' s life, material a n d spiritual.
T h e music played in tribute to this Apollo venture included Fly Me
to the Moon, Up Up and Away, Moon River, Moon over Miami, a n d
weightier items such as Four Rußes a n d Flourishes!
T h e a u t h o r hopes that his presumption for daring to intrude into
the demesne of statesmen will be condoned. H e is constrained, however.

RESPONSIBLE PROGRAM-MAKING 249

to say that the occasion evoked thoughts of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony
and Missa Solemnis, the works of Palestrina, and Haydn's The Creation,
and, in lighter vein, Holst's The Planets, Milhaud's The Creation of the
World and Joseph Strauss's The Music of the Spheres.
Is it not pertinent to inquire whether the music played at the cele-
bration of this event of global magnitude could not have risen above
Broadway ditties to express the aspirations implicit in the achievement
of man when, after aeons of dreaming, he has at long last cast off his
telluric chains and begun to reach out to other worlds?

250 P R O G R A M S IN PRACTICE
 Chapter Twenty-Eight

BYPATHS AND BYGONE DAYS

One of the mosi forbidding aspects to the Student who is not a music
specialist is the variety of high-sounding titles sometimes glven to orga-
nizations which concern themselves with music of past epochs. W h e n
the ordinary music lover sees "Collegium M u s i c u m " he is apt to think
of Latin a n d even Greek a n d conclude all this is not for him. W h e n
he sees "Ancient M u s i c " he is apt to conjure u p ideas of the archaeology
a n d paleontology of Babylonia and Sumeria.
It is fair to d e m a n d better titles, then, for groups culling the treasures
which have been b e q u e a t h e d to us. T h e following phrases have been
used with justification: Music of the Baroque, Music of the Renaissance,
Music of the Past, Music of O l d e n Times, Music of O t h e r Days, Music
in Days of Yore, a n d the best in the view of this writer, the French
Musique d'Autrefois, which evokes picturesque countrysides a n d inns a n d
the p o m p a n d circumstance of old courts a n d the stateliness and hushed
silences of places of worship. W i t h such titles m a n y more music lovers
would long ago have been attracted to the fold.
Young people of our time are searching for spiritual values which
they feel are lacking in the world. This is manifested in the reversion to
costumes a n d styles a n d to the music of past days. M a n y of these young
people, who not so long ago looked u p o n such music as the province
of the specialist, are cultivating their own versions of Century old folk
a n d religious tunes a d a p t e d to our own times and played on our old
a n d m o d e r n folk Instruments. These young people, it is true, do not
always present this music very well, but their need is evident a n d will
not be denied.
A glance at newspapers in the world's capitals will often report such
concerts which are touching evidences of their sincerity. T h e notion that

BYPATHS A N D BYGONE DAYS 251

these so-called ancient Instruments are of interest only to scholars a n d
antiquarians is at variance with columns appearing with increasing
frequency in the daily newspapers. A trio of young people attired in
the garb of flower children with appropriate stage settings presented a
program of music by H a n d e l , Telemann, a n d R a m e a u on flute, harpsi-
chord, a n d a m o d e r n reconstruction of a viola da g a m b a recently in
New York City. A m o n t h before a College quartet had presented a
program of Renaissance music from Italy, Germany, a n d Spain. Such
Instruments as the c r u m h o r n , the organetto, the sackbut, the viola da
g a m b a , the viol, a n d the vihuela mingled with the voices of the young
performers in presenting music by M u d a r r a , Milan, Vasquez, Bertrand,
a n d Lassus. A L o n d o n newsnote reports that the music of Chaucer's time
is becoming populär again. T h e c r u m h o r n , shawm, rebec, sackbut, a n d
other Instruments of early days are sharing the popularity of the lute.
A Student does not have to emulate Bream or Segovia to give pleasure
to himself and his friends or to form a group with genuine artistic
Standards.

THE C O M M U N I T Y , THE UNIVERSITY,

AND " O L D " MUSIC

T h e men a n d women who direct the destinies of our College a n d

university music d e p a r t m e n t s should take note. Here is the natural
habitat of those who should know how to train young performers into
groups of singers, instrumentalists, a n d dancers who can present to others
the results of their specialized knowledge a n d fill the gap for t h e m what
they miss in the marketplace. And if these talented musicologists a n d
historians a n d technicians wish, there is still nothing to prevent t h e m
from c o m m u n i c a t i n g to their own coteries, in their own special lan-
guages, the results of their esoteric exhumations.
T h e r e are collections of Instruments of a n t i q u a r i a n c h a r m and beauty
as well as priceless musical heritage lying mute. These ought to be used
by living artists carefully screened for trustworthiness, just as Paganini's
violin in Paris has been lent occasionally to visiting virtuosi worthy of
such high honor. T h e collections at Yale, the Metropolitan M u s e u m of
Art in New York City, a n d that which c a m e to the Boston Symphony
Orchestra from the Societe des Instruments Anciens founded by Henri
Casadesus are a m o n g such. T h e Instruments belonging to the Dolmetsch
Foundation in Haslemere, England, a n d those of the Societe de M u s i q u e
d'Autrefois in Paris have been employed by the guiding spirits of these
groups in a model manner. Collectors of antiques might be furnished

252 BYPATHS AND BYGONE DAYS

with conversation and period pieces for their estates made from such
models and thus help defray costs of upkeep, always an unavoidable
concomitant of artistic enterprise. It would not be the first time this has
been done to reconcile the eternally conflicting demands of art and
money.

M O D E R N USE O F " O L D " MUSIC

It is of interest to note that some composers of recent times have
shown an interest in "old" instruments. M a n u e l de Falla scored for the
harpsichord in his Concerto for the Harpsichord and in his El Retablo
de Maese Pedro, Op. 5., which includes the violin, Violoncello, flute,
clarinet, and oboe. Poulenc, in his Concert Champetre, pairs it, oddly
enough, with a tuba! Frank M a r t i n has scored for it in his Petite Symphonie
Concertante for solo harpsichord, pianoforte, harp, and double string
orchestra.
There are societies for lovers of the viola da gamba, the recorders,
and the lute, and this is all to the good. More puzzling has been the
varying fortune of the most poetic of instruments, the viola d'amore.
There is no society for the preservation of this romantic voice. From
time to time a virtuoso emerges and shares his art with us. The neglect
is inexcusable when one considers the wonderful possibilities and espe-
cially the wealth of harmonics available, far beyond those of any other
string Instrument, old or new. In scanning the programs of the Dolmetsch
Foundation, the Societe de Musique d'Autrefois, the Clarion Concerts,
and similar organizations for over a decade, only one item, Vivaldi's
Concerto in D Minor, is to be noted. Yet Stamitz and others wrote for
it, as did Hindemith.
The Student fortunately can now hear the viola d'amore played as
it should be by Professor Renato Fasano, a virtuoso on this Instrument,
accompanied by his group the Virtuosi di R o m a on recordings. They
reach a high level of re-creation in the music of such composers as
Vivaldi and Alessandro Scarlatti. It is to be hoped that their trips and
recordings will give music lovers everywhere easier access to their art.
The neglect of this Instrument m a y be explained partly, at least, by
an exaggerated idea of its difRculty because it has seven strings plus seven
sympathetic strings, giving an unparalleled array of natural and artificial
harmonics which is one of its greatest beauties. This commentator can
assure any violinist or violist of reasonable proficiency that a season of
serious study should sufiice to give him about the same proficiency on
the viola d'amore. For practicing the harmonics, which are among the

MODERN USE OF "OLD" MUSIC as3

glories of the viola d'amore, this commentator suggests that the Student
obtain a copy of Sevcik's Schoo! of Violin Playing, pt. 4 (New York:
G. Schirmer; Boston: Boston Music Company, 1905).

NEW INSTRUMENTS
T h e frenetic search continuously going on nowadays for "new"
musical instruments, which are often synthetic or merely percussive,
leads to the suggestion that some of the innovators might direct their
talents to combinations of some of these "old" instruments. Why not
try a group containing a harpsichord with woods and brass from the
groups of other days? The string section might include viole d'amore
in various sizes and a celesta, plus some of the new mallet instruments
electrified.
T h e almost continuous search for experimentation and new orchestral
tone colors has produced some admittedly startling and original effects,
many of which are anything but artistic by any definition, especially
in many T V fantasies. Again one might consider a combination of "old"
instruments and French horns (perhaps discreetly muted) and mallet
instruments with resonators.
The conductor of an orchestra should encourage his players to form
small groups to practice string, wood, and brass ensembles. Each section
has a fairly large repertory to choose from. The effect upon the overall
ensemble will soon be noticeable. T h e men need very little encourage-
ment to brauch out on their own. Every good orchestra should act as
the parent group from which such smaller groups branch out. Not the
least of the results of such activities, in addition to unusual programs
of delightful music, is the improved ensemble of the orchestra as a whole.

CONTEMPORARY GROUPS
Fortunately there are and always will be dedicated men and women
and groups who will seek each other out and form organizations to
preserve the heritage of these treasures. In New York City, Newell
Jenkins, who combines to an unusually high degree the qualifications
of the Organizer, conductor, and musicologist, has been presenting music
of the past and present which is suitable for small and medium sized
groups. These programs constitute a veritable dictionary of much of the
best music which has come down to us over the centuries, and much
of it has been presented to modern listeners for the first time by Mr.
Jenkins.

254 BYPATHS AND BYGONE DAYS

 There is a retreat at Haslemere, near London, founded a little over
fifty years ago by Arnold Dolmetsch, who "brought his wife and family
to Haslemere to make their home at 'Jesses' a n d to continue the tradition
begun in London in the 1880's." T h e Statement in the 43rd Haslemere
Festival Souvenir program that "the name of Haslemere is known in
every corner of the globe" is true if we add "to music lovers." Since
the founder's passing, his plans and visions have been carried on mainly
by his son Dr. Carl Dolmetsch, present musical director, and members
of the family, assisted by distinguished scholars and performers from all
Over the world. There is a Workshop for the manufacture of early types
of Instruments and research directed toward discovering and performing
great music of past epochs. There is an annual Journal, half yearly
bulletins with valuable articles of great historical interest, a Musical
Society, a Viola da Gamba Society, and a Lute Society which also
cultivates allied Instruments.
In Paris, the Societe de Musique d'Autrefois presents aristocratic
concerts under its two guiding spirits, the Countess Chambures and
M. Pierre Chaille. Characteristically, many of the concerts take place at
the Eglise Saint-Merry, some of which are given for the benefit of the
"Jeunesse Musicales aux Chandelles." T h e simple elegance of the pro-
grams, with poetically translated historical texts, add much in creating
the proper artistic atmosphere to the auditors. To one whose native
language is English, reading the French versions is very poetic indeed.
T h e music to which sessions have been devoted ränge from Chamber
music, Francois Couperin and his contemporaries, a celebration of the
bicentennary of Jean-Philippe Rameau, to poetry and music in
sixteenth-century Italy, and Petrarch and music.
The works are played as closely as possible as they were in the olden
days and, with the exception of the lute, are Originals reconditioned and
refurbished by M . Marcel Assemna. The lute is furnished by the master
luthier, M . Corbani. Other Instruments have been checked by
M M . Marcel and Etienne Vatelot, and the seventeenth-century organ has
been restored by M . Gonzalez.
Of special interest to Student and faculty members of educational
institutions who have at their command players and musicologists versed
in music and Instruments of the past are the scholarly researches, the
courses of Instruction, and the concerts given periodically by the Schola
Cantorum Basiliensis in conjunction with the Basel (Switzerland)
Friends of Old Music, and the Basel Chamber Orchestra under Paul
Sacher. To the Student conductor the programs given by this Orga-
nization are of great interest, for they sustain a technical Standard and

CONTEMPORARY CROUPS 255

virtuoso quality not always associated with academic groups. T h e
instruments used are original or copies carefully executed from authentic
models mixed with more familar instruments. Programs regularly offered
ränge impartially over epochs, nations, a n d centuries. T h e familiar
names of Palestrina, Shakespeare, Purcell, R a m e a u , Leclair, Alessandro
Scarlatti, Bach, H a n d e l , a n d M o z a r t find themselves a m o n g names even
most knowledgeable musicians do not always recognize.
Fortunately for the Student a n d the conductor a n d Organizer of
medium-sized groups of instruments of bygone days, the programs
given by the various groups in Basel have been well d o c u m e n t e d and
constitute a first rate source of material. T h e y should save students,
especially thpse who are h a n d i c a p p e d by being at a distance from sources
a n d collections of original collections a n d manuscripts, m u c h labor.
In A Ite und Neue Musik 25 Jahre Basler Kammerorchester (Zürich: Atlantis
Verlag, 1^52) the Student m a y find what is a veritable encyclopedia of
composers a n d works of past centuries. Inability to read the G e r m a n
text is of little consequence here for titles are given in their original
tongues.
Finally, let us mention at least two representative organizations of
the m a n y which fortunately travel. T h e first is the G e r m a n R a d i o
Cappella Coloniensis of Cologne, a forty-piece orchestra of instruments
constructed after models carefully studied in museums a n d music
ferreted from archives. T h e y play chiefly baroque music, though occa-
sionally other epochs are presented for contrast. Ferdinand Leitner is
the artistic director. T h e players are Interpreters of virtuoso Standards.
T h e pitch is that used in b a r o q u e time, a half-tone lower t h a n that of
today. Their concerts m a y fairly be said to sound reasonably like what
their composers intended except that probably their pitch is better than
what was originally heard.
T h e second is the Syntagma M u s i c u m of Amsterdam, n a m e d after
Michael Praetorius's 1619 treatise of Renaissance music a n d instruments,
with a repertory which ranges over the music literature of 1050 to 1650.
T h e high technical Standards a n d interpretative finish of the members
of the group a n d the scholarship of the director, Kees O t t e n , make their
Performances a delight a n d a n object lesson to those who think that great
learning is necessarily dull. Although the repertory of this superior group
ranges with impartial objectivity over the centuries, it naturally "takes
a particular delight in the discovery of the important role played by m a n y
Netherlands composers of the era," to quote from their program notes.
These composers include such names as Cinconia, Dufay, Ockeghem,
Obrecht, Josquin, Isaac, Clemens non Papa, Lassus, a n d Sweelinck. Füll

256 BYPATHS A N D BYGONE DAYS

length programs are drawn around a particular theme: an anthology
of old m u s i c ; t h e flourishing of D u t c h m u s i c ; t h e I t a l i a n m u s i c of t h e
R e n a i s s a n c e ; E n g l i s h c o m p o s e r s ; M u s i c a sacra.

EDITING, ARRANGING, AND TRANSCRIBING

T h e m u c h - u s e d G e r m a n w o r d Aufführungspraxis literally m e a n s Per-

f o r m a n c e , or p r e s e n t a t i o n , b u t t h e h t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n is insufficient. T h e
w o r d refers to t h e a u t h e n t i c I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m u s i c left b y a c o m p o s e r of
l o n g ago, w h i c h r e q u i r e s a n s w e r s to such q u e s t i o n s as: w h a t were t h e
original I n s t r u m e n t s this m u s i c was p l a y e d on? h o w does o n e t r a n s l a t e
i n t o m o d e r n s o u n d t h e notes w h i c h m a y well h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n in o t h e r
t h a n m o d e r n m u s i c a l n o t a t i o n ? w h a t d i d m a n y of t h e O r n a m e n t s of o t h e r
periods s o u n d like? w h a t w e r e t h e seatings of past e p o c h s a n d t h e
acoustical c o n d i t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e i r h e a r i n g (note, for e x a m p l e , h o w
d i f f e r e n t l y a n ecclesiastical w o r k s o u n d s in a c o n c e r t hall a n d in a
c h u r c h ) ? A r r i v i n g a t a n s w e r s r e q u i r e s a c o m b i n a t i o n of m u s i c a l taste,
t e c h n i c a l a n d historical k n o w l e d g e , a n d r e a d i n g a b i l i t y in v a r i o u s lan-
guages, n o t easy to find. T h e c o n c e p t briefly is: w h a t d i d t h e c o m p o s e r
h a v e in m i n d a n d h o w w o u l d h e p r o d u c e , o r p r e s e n t , his m u s i c if h e
w e r e alive t o d a y ? O n his o w n I n s t r u m e n t s ? O n t h e n e a r e s t m o d e r n
relative or d e s c e n d a n t ? H o w a b o u t notes c o m p o s e r s left o u t b e f o r e w o o d s
a n d brasses were i m p r o v e d a n d t h e i r lower a n d h i g h e r r a n g e s e x t e n d e d ?
H o w a b o u t p l a y i n g C h a m b e r works a n d h a r p s i c h o r d s in o u r h u g e m o d e r n
c o n c e r t halls for e c o n o m i c reasons? H o w a b o u t t h e t e m p o s of o t h e r
times?
S o m e of t h e best a n d most c o n s c i e n t i o u s m u s i c a l m i n d s h a v e for m a n y
years a d d r e s s e d themselves to these questions. N a t u r a l l y t h e i r conclusions
h a v e differed. I n t h e o p i n i o n of this writer, t h e q u e s t i o n is n o t " s h o u l d
old m u s i c b e e d i t e d a n d m o d e r n i z e d ? " b u t r a t h e r , a n d q u i t e definitely,
" w h o is to d o t h i s ? " T h e m a t t e r of t o n a l b a l a n c e o f t e n r e q u i r e s d e l i c a t e
a d a p t a t i o n . Discoveries of original m a n u s c r i p t s o f t e n reveal c o r r u p t i o n s
b y l a t e r editors. I n e p t n e s s of s o m e c o m p o s e r s in o r c h e s t r a t i n g t h e i r o w n
works o f t e n necessitates a e s t h e t i c c h a n g e s . T h e c o n d u c t o r m u s t b e a
Scholar, a conscientious e d i t o r , a Student of t h e p e r i o d u n d e r s c r u t i n y ,
a n d a n e x p e r t w i t h p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e of a given p e r i o d , n o t m e r e l y
theoretical knowledge, which d e m a n d s ability to play the Instruments
c o n c e r n e d . A n d t h e n , t h e r e a r e good taste a n d m o d e s t y , i n b o r n instincts
n o t a c q u i r e d even b y t h e h a r d e s t work.
O n e of t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t of pitfalls is correct b o w i n g on m o d e r n
bows. Bows h a v e c h a n g e d over t h e years, a l t h o u g h m o s t c o n d u c t o r s

EDITING, ARRANGING, AND TRANSCRIBING 257

whose i n s t r u m e n t s are keyboard seem oblivious of this. H e a r i n g a string
section play Bach's music u n d e r t h e m often resembles a hop, skip, a n d
j u m p . Such conductors take most of a phrase w i t h a long d o w n b o w
a n d t h e n scramble back to t h e heel of the bow for a new phrase. It is
not enough for t h e conductor, as one f a m o u s one did, to ask his concert-
master to play this passage with a few different bowings a n d t h e n choose
t h e one he likes most. E v e n concertmasters d o not always know t h e most
musical bowings of other days. W h a t is n e e d e d here is a string player-
scholar. String players in t h e a u d i e n c e can usually recognize w h e t h e r
a string or keyboard player is on the p o d i u m .
It is indeed simple to suggest the use of original instruments. In prac-
tice, these i n s t r u m e n t s are not always available, a n d w h e n they are, they
m a y prove to be poor in pitch or in need of expert refurbishing. Players
of t h e m are scarce, a n d even w h e n available m a y be r a t h e r poor, a m a t e u r ,
starry-eyed idealists. F a r better to play older music on m o d e r n Instru-
m e n t s well, t h a n u p o n old instruments b a d l y or indifferently. G r a n t e d ,
old i n s t r u m e n t s are best if they are played very well. O n e m i g h t recall the
Story of S a m u e l J o h n s o n , who, w h e n told that a certain operatic aria
was terribly difficult, replied testily: " I wish to G o d 'twere impossible."
M a n y scholars defend their results by saying t h a t their results are
original, forgetting t h a t also some of the world's worst music is original.
At this point the Student m i g h t well ask himself a b o u t t h e m o d e r n
a d a p t a t i o n s of Bach, the so-called Bach transcriptions by Elgar,
Stokowski, Respighi, a n d others. T h a t these versions have m a d e m a n y
converts to t h e music of Bach should not be p e r m i t t e d as evidence.
Would he c o n d e m n these transcriptions, or would he side with those
whose credo goes s o m e t h i n g like " B a c h would have d o n e such versions
if he were living." H o w should one feel a b o u t Felix Weingartner's
a r r a n g e m e n t for string orchestra of Beethoven's Grosse Fuge, O p . 133,
or his orchestral dressing of the same composer's pianoforte Sonata t h e
" H a m m e r k l a v i e r , " O p . 106? M a n y other " t r a n s l a t i o n s " have been m a d e
by qualified a n d u n q u a l i f i e d m e n of music. Almost every c o n d u c t o r has
tried his h a n d at i m p r o v i n g S c h u m a n n a n d C h o p i n , with varying results.
Again, t h e question is not w h e t h e r such a d a p t a t i o n s , modernizations,
a n d all the rest of their synonyms should be m a d e ; it is simply w h o
should m a k e t h e m ? H a v i n g it d o n e b y a W e i n g a r t n e r is one thing;
h a v i n g the organist of a small town t a m p e r with masterpieces is another.
Willem M e n g e l b e r g , not the most modest of m e n , whose inter-
pretations were a n a d m i x t u r e of greatness interwoven w i t h b o m b a s t a n d
b l a t a n c y , once regaled his orchestral players by casually a n n o u n c i n g that
" I know m o r e as [j-zc] Beethoven; he was only a composer." H e t h e n

258 BYPATHS A N D BYGONE DAYS

proceeded to teil how he would have scored certain passages in the Bonn
composer's music more effectively. George Bernard Shaw once noted that
Sir Edward Elgar had told him that he (Sir Edward) had shown him
(GBS) a passage which he (Sir Edward) could have scored more effec-
tively than the composer (a certain Richard Wagner) and thus bring
out the orchestral climax properly.
For an example of sublime confidence in one's superiority as a
musician who could improve even Beethoven, one must go to The Life
ofjullien, by Adam Carse (London: W. Heffner, 1951). An extract from
Mr. Carse's account teils us: " T h e [1846] season was marked by a new
departure; Jullien gave a Beethoven Festival and the audience listened
to the Fifth Symphony, to the Egmont and Fidelio Overtures, to Sivori's
and Harton's renderings of the Kreutzer Sonata, and the famous Septet
(Op. 20), played by 24 violins, 10 violas, 10 cellos, 8 basses and doubled
clarinets, horns, bassoons. T h e Septet was played in that manner in
London and Paris at the Conservatoire concerts." Now Beethoven him-
self was satisfied with violin, viola, clarinet, horn, bassoon, Violoncello,
and contrabass. Toscanini modestly, and no doubt after much soul
searching, used ten violins, ten violas, eight cellos, four basses, and the
original wind parts.
At the other end of the spectrum is Arturo Toscanini, whose respect
for a composer's wishes was shown when he was rehearsing a work by
a young American composer in which he thought a slight change would
increase the clarity of a passage. He spent a few days locating the
composer to obtain his permission to make the change. T h e notion that
Toscanini, whose faithfulness to a composer's intentions was a legend
in his lifetime, never "adjusted" scores is not literally true, however.
Those tempted to "improve" orchestral scores might keep this charac-
teristic episode in mind. Such editors might remember that tampering
with scores gives a small m a n a grand feeling of reflected glory. This
is not the same as a Weingartner spending a lifetime of study and
devotion on the classics and writing of his conclusions over the years.
And it should be borne in mind that Dr. Weingartner got not only the
notes but also the spirit of the music in his own Performances.
T h e editing and correcting of old scores must strike the amateur as
a very simple matter. This is deceptive. Most who undertake it simply
transcribe, that is, transliterate. They change the clefs and keep within
the proper octaves, although even this latter task sometimes presents
puzzles because of changed ranges of the Instruments over the years.
At best this is only a transliteration, not an idiomatic translation.
Adapting the idioms of a keyboard Instrument to strings takes knowl-

EDITING, A R R A N 6 I N 6 , A N D TRANSCRIBING 259

edge. There are matters of doubling, and spacing of chords, which de-
m a n d nice judgment. Knowledge and experience are needed. Typo-
graphical errors creep into scores despite the greatest care of copyists and
succession of editors. Composers of the past have had their works pirated,
and variants have been issued. Composers have changed their minds
Over the years. Well-meaning friends have taken it upon themselves to
improve Originals, such as Rimsky-Korsakoff with Mussorgsky. Certainly
many conductors know the orchestra much better than Chopin and
Schumann, who thought in terms of the pianoforte, and Bruckner, who
thought in terms of the organ. But before tampering with their scores,
we should remember that it is far better to get what the composer was
after than mere correctness. Even so great a musician as Mahler often
ended by making a score top-heavy, and what some editors have done
to Mozart's music has been most unhappy.

FACULTY AND COMMUNITY COOPERATION

There are problems of using reduced forces when music of past days
are presented. O u r very large halls demand different tonal balance from
the days when the harpsichord was the Instrument. For such, a College
or a university is often an excellent place to work out musical and
historical puzzles and arrive at reasonable aesthetic solutions. For here
rehearsals and conferences are not based on stop watches and the atmos-
phere is (or should be) unhurried. Here one is likely to meet scholars
historians and musicians. In a university may often be found experts
in Staging, scenery, lighting, acting, the dance, and other arts necessary
to the presentation of programs of past epochs. Such programs might
well be a College venture. Where but in a very large university with
departments devoted to the long and honorable history of the Chinese,
Japanese, and other oriental languages, cultures, philosophy, and history
would it be possible to bring together such expertise and illustrate
lectures with examples of their music and ancient Instruments? Any
n u m b e r of similarly fascinating programs are within the grasp of students
and faculty of such institutions which rarely reach audiences in this part
of the world.
T h e conscientious Student has many authorities to go to, many of
whom are cited in the bibliographies in this volume. T h a t these au-
thorities disagree simply means that the bürden is thrown back where
it should be, on the conductor and performers. Music is an art, and
many solutions, each equally valid artistically, are possible to a given
problem.

260 BYPATHS AND BYGONE DAYS

APPENDICES
 APPENDIX I

WORKING REPERTORY OF CLASSICAL AND ROMANTIC SYMPHONIES

ANALYZED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF STROKES TO THE BAR

At this point in his study, the Student should practice m u c h sight-reading

a n d faithfully apportion a certain a m o u n t of time daily to this end. T h e rules
of the game should be that there are to be N O stops for any reason whatever.
T h e a i m should be u n i n t e r r u p t e d a n d i n s t a n t a n e o u s Solution of t h e usual
technical problems. If a mistake occurs, do N O T stop; go on. For introductory
practice, any good collection of piano music, dance music, hymns, folk songs,
or chorales offers excellent material. Almost every leading publisher issues
such. After this initial practice, which should soon result in clear and gracefui
beating of whole movements which usually have no change in time-signature,
the next step should be to apply the same procedure to overtures, suites, op-
erettas, a n d potpourris of national songs a n d operas. A pianist or small
ensemble will greatly aid here, t h o u g h it is also good to c o n d u c t mentally
from the music to develop the ability to hear through the eye.
T h e ensuing tables of symphonies, with skeletal suggestions as to time-
beating, a r e not to be t a k e n too literally. These suggestions a r e not m e a n t
to p r e c l u d e personal a d j u s t m e n t s a n d qualifications. T h e y a r e merely in-
t r o d u c t o r y m a p p i n g , to be filled in by t h e Student as he gets to k n o w the
music better a n d better, a n d as his j u d g m e n t , taste, critical faculties, and
technique develop a n d mature.
M a n y decisions will necessarily be subjective, a n d the tempos a d o p t e d
will determine the models. Differences of eight to the bar, four subdivided,
four quasi eight, and occasional eight in four to the bar, for example, are far
too subtle for objective description. T h e same Interpreter m a y even beat the
same passage difftrently at different times.

WORKING REPERTORY OF CLASSICAL AND ROMANTIC SYMPHONIES 263

 Composiiion Time-
Movement Strohes to the Bar
Signature
BEETHOVEN
Symphony 1. Adagio moho 4/4 4
No. 1 Allegro con brio <t 2
2. Andante cantabile
con moto 3/8 3
3. Allegro molto vivace 3/4 1
4. Adagio 2/4 2
Allegro molto e
vivace 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Adagio molto 3/4 3

No. 2 Allegro con brio C 2
2. Larghetto 3/8 3
3. Allegro 3/4 1
4. Allegro molto C 2

Symphony 1. Allegro con brio 3/4 1

No. 3 2. Adagio assai 2/4 2
3. Allegro vivace 3/4 1
4. Allegro molto 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Adagio C 4
No.4 Allegro vivace 2
2. Adagio 3/4 3
3. Allegro vivace 3/4 1
4. Allegro, m a non
troppo 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Allegro con brio 2/4 1 (2 bars as one)

No.5 2. Andante con moto
Piü mosso 3/8 3
3. Allegro 3/4 1
4. Allegro C 2

Symphony 1. Allegro, m a non 2/4 2

No. 6 troppo
2. Andante molto mosso 12/8 4
3. Allegro 3/4 1
A tempo, allegro 2/4 2
4. Allegro C 2
5. Allegretto 6/8 2

Symphony 1. Poco sostenuto C 4

No. 7 Vivace 6/8 2
2. Allegretto 2/4 2
3. Presto 3/4 1
4. Allegro con brio 2/4 2

264 APPENDIX I
 Time-
Composition Movement Strohes to l/ie Bar
Signalure

Symphony 1. Allegro vivace e con 3/4 3 (often 1)

No.8 brio
2. Allegretto scherzando 2/4 4
3. Tempo di Menuetto 3/4 3
4. Allegro vivace ^ 2 (even 1 possible)

Symphony 1. Allegro, m a n o n
No.9 troppo, un poco
maestoso 2/4 2
2. Molto vivace 3/4 1
Presto <t 2 (1 also possible)
3. Adagio molto e
cantabile C 4
subdivisions)
Andante moderato 3/4 3
4. Presto 3/4 1
Allegro assai C 2
Allegro assai vivace 6/8 2
Andante maestoso 3/2 3
Allegro energico,
sempre ben marcato 6/4 2
Allegro ma non troppo 2

BERLIOZ
"Fantastic" 1. Largo C 4
Symphony subdivisions)
Allegro agitato e
appassionata assai C 2
2. Valse allegro non
troppo 3/8 1
3. Adagio 6/8 6
4. Allegretto non troppo C 2
5. Allegro 6/8 2

BORODIN
Symphony 1. Allegro <t 2
No.2 Poco meno mosso 3/2 3
2. Prestissimo 1/1 1
Allegretto 6/4 2
3. Andante C and
3/4 4
Poco piü animato 3/4 3
4. Allegro 3/4 3
and
2/4

WORKING REPERTORY O F CLASSICAl A N D ROMANTIC SYMPHONIES 265

 Time-
Composition Movement Strokes tß the Bar
Signalure

BRAHMS

Symphony 1. U n poco sostenuto 6/8

No. 1 Allegro 6/8
2. A n d a n t e sostenuto 3/4
3. U n poco allegretto 2/4-
e grazioso 6/8
4. Adagio C
Piü a n d a n t e C
Allegro non troppo,
m a con brio

Symphony 1. Allegro non troppo 3/4 3 (sometimes 1)

No.2 Quasi ritenuto 3/4 3
2. Adagio non troppo C 4 (often sub-
l'istesso tempo, m a divided)
grazioso 12/8 4 (often sub-
divided)
3. Allegretto grazioso
(quasi andantino) 3/4 3
Presto, m a non assai 2/4 1
Presto, m a non assai 3/8 1
4. Allegro con spirito <t 2

Symphony 1. Allegro con brio 6/4 2

No.3 9/4 3
6/4 2
2. A n d a n t e C 4
3. Poco allegretto 3/8 3
4. Allegro i 2

Symphony 1. Allegro non troppo <t 2

No.4 2. A n d a n t e moderato 6/8 6
3. Allegro giacoso 2/4 2
4. Allegro energico e
appassionata 3/4 3
quasi 1)
3/2 3
DVORAK
Symphony 1. Adagio 4/8 4
No. 5, Allegro molto 2/4 2
" F r o m the 2. Largo C 4
N e w World" 3. Molto vivace 3/4 1
4. Allegro con fuoco C 4 (occasionally 2)
FRANCK
Symphony in 1. Lento c 4
D Minor Allegro m a non troppo 2
2. Allegretto 3/4 3
3. Allegro non troppo <t 2

266 APPENDIX I
 Time-
Composition Movement Strohes to the Bar
Signature

HAYDN
Symphony in 1. Allegro assai 3/4 3
F Sharp Minor 2. Adagio 3/8 3
(Breitkopf and 3. Menuetto-Allegretto 3/4 3
Härtel 18), 4. Presto 2 (even 1 possible)
"Candle" or 5. Adagio 3/8 3
"Farewell"

Symphony in 1. Adagio 3/4 3 (or subdivided)

D Major Allegro spiritoso C 2 (or subdivided)
(B. & H. 86) 2. Largo 3/4 3
3. Menuetto-Allegretto 3/4 3
4. Allegro con spirito C 2 (quasi subdivided)

Symphony in 1. Adagio 3/4 3 (quasi subdivided)

D Major Allegro assai 3/4 3
(B. & H. 93) 2. Largo cantabile C 4
3. Menuetto-Allegretto 3/4 3
4. Presto ma non troppo 2/4 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio cantabile 3/4 3 (occasionally sub-

G Major divided)
(B. & H. 94), Vivace assai 6/8 2
"Surprise" 2. Andante 2/4 4 (or 2 subdivided)
3. Allegro molto 3/4 3
4. Allegro di molto 2/4 2

Symphony in 1. Allegro moderato C 4

C Minor 2. Andante cantabile 6/8 6
(B. & H. 95) 3. Menuetto 3/4 3
4. Vivace <t 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio 3/4 3 (or subdivided)

C Major Vivace 3/4 3
(B. & H . 9 7 ) 2. Adagio ma non troppo C 4
3. Menuetto-Allegretto 3/4 3
4. Presto assai 2/4 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio C 4
B Fiat Major Allegro 2
(B. & H . 9 8 ) 2. Adagio cantabile 3/4 3
3. Menuetto allegro 3/4 3
4. Presto 6/8 2

WORKING REPERTORY OF CLASSICAL AND ROMANTIC SYMPHONIES 267

 Movement Time- Stmkes to Ihe Bar
Composition
Sigmture

Symphony in 1. Adagio c 4 (or subdivided)

E Fiat M a j o r Vivace assai c 2 (occasional
(B. & H . 99) subdivisions)
2. Adagio 3/4 3 subdivided
3. Menuetto-Allegretto 3/4 3
4. Vivace 2/4 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio C 4
G Major Allegro $ 2
(B. & H . 10'
"Military"
2. Allegretto
3. M e n u e t t o moderato
l
3/4
2 (or subdivided)
3
4. Presto 6/8 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio 3/4 3

D Major Presto 6/8 2
(B. & H . 10 2. A n d a n t e 2/4 2 (subdivided or in 4)
"Clock" 3. Allegretto 3/4 3
4. Vivace <t 2

Symphony in 1. Largo C 4
B Fiat M a j o r Allegro vivace 2
(B. & H . 102) 2. Adagio 3/4 3 subdivided
3. Allegro 3/4 3
4, Presto 2/4 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio 3/4 3

E Fiat M a j o r Allegro con spirito 6/8 2
(B. & H. 103), 2. A n d a n t e 2/4 2 (or subdivided)
" D r u m R o l l " 3. M e n u e t t o 3/4 3
4. Allegro con spirito 2

Symphony in 1. Adagio C 4
D Major Allegro 2
(B. & H. 104) 2. A n d a n t e 2/4 4
3. Menuetto-Allegro 3/4 3
Trio 1 (quasi)
4. Allegro spiritoso <t 2

MENDELSSOHN
Symphony 1. A n d a n t e con moto 3/4 3
No.3 Allegro u n poco 6/8 2
in A Minor, agitato
"Scotch" 2. Vivace non troppo 2/4 2
3. Adagio 2/4 4
4. Allegro vivacissimo 2
Allegro maestoso assai 6/8 2

268 APPENDIX 1
 Composition Movement Time-
Slrokes to the Bar
Sigmture

Symphony 1. Allegro vivace 6/8 2

No.4 2. Andante con moto C 4
in A Major, 3. Con moto moderato 3/4 3
"Italian" 4. Presto C 4

Symphony 1. Andante C 2
No.5 Allegro con fuoco i 2
in D Major, 2. Allegro vivace 3/4 3 (occasionally 1)
"Reformation" 3. Andante 2/4 2
Andante con moto C 4

MOZART
Symphony 1. Allegro con spirito «t 2
No. 35 2. Andante 2/4 2 subdivided
in D Major 3. Menuetto 3/4 3
(K. 385), 4. Presto <t 2
"Haffner"

Symphony 1. Adagio 3/4 3 quasi 6

No. 36 Allegro spiritoso C 4
in C Major 2. Poco adagio 6/8 6
(K. 425), 3. Menuetto 3/4 3
"Linz" 4. Presto 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Adagio C 4
No. 38 Allegro C 2 (or subdivided)
in D Major 2. Andante 6/8 2 (quasi 6)
(K. 504), 3. Presto 2/4 2
"Prague" or
"Without
Minuet"

Symphony 1. Adagio C 4 (often quasi 8)

No. 39 Allegro 3/4 3 (often quasi 1)
in E Fiat 2. Andante con moto 2/4 2 (quasi 4)
Major (K. 543) 3. Menuetto 3/4 3
4. Allegro 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Allegro molto <t 2

No. 40 2. Andante 6/8 6
in G Minor 3. Menuetto-Allegretto 3/4 3
(K. 550) 4. Allegro assai <t 2

Symphony 1. Allegro vivace C 2

No.41 2. Andante cantabile 3/4 3 (occasional
in C Major subdivisions)
(K. 551), 3. Allegretto 3/4 3
"Jupiter" 4. Allegro molto <t 2

W O R K I N G REPERTORY OF CLASSICAL A N D R O M A N T I C S Y M P H O N I E S 269

 Composition Movement Time-
Strohes to the Bar
Signature

SCHUBERT
Symphony 1. Andante C 4
No. 7 Allegro ma non troppo 2
in C Major, 2. Andante con moto 2/4 2
"Great" 3. Allegro vivace 3/4 1
4. Allegro vivace 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Allegro moderato 3/4 3

No.8 2. Andante con moto 3/8 3
in B Minor,
"Unfinished"

SCHUMANN
Symphony 1. Andante un poco C 4
No. 1 maestoso
in B Major, Allegro molto vivace 2/4 2
"Spring" 2. Larghetto 3/8 3
3. Molto vivace 3/4 1
Molto piü vivace 2/4 1
4. Allegro animato e 2
grazioso

Symphony 1. Sostenuto assai 6/4 6

No.2 Allegro ma non troppo 3/4 3
in C Major 2. Scherzo allegro 2/4 2
vivace
3. Adagio espressivo 2/4 2 subdivided
4. Allegro molto vivace <t 2

Symphony 1. Lebhaft 3/4 3 quasi 1

No.3 2. Scherzo-Sehr 3/4 3
in E Fiat, Massig
"Rhenish" 3. Nicht Schnell C 4
4. Feierlich c 4
5. Lebhaft <t 2

Symphony 1. Ziemlich langsam 3/4 3 (or subdivided)

No. 4 Stringendo 2/4 2
in D Minor Lebhaft 2/4 2
2. Romanze 3/4 3
Ziemlich langsam 3/4 1 (2 barsas 1)
3. Scherzo-Lebhaft 3/4 1 (2bars as 1)
4. Langsam; Lebhaft C 4
Schneller 2

270 APPENDIX I
 Composition Movement Time- Strohes to the Bar
Sigmture

SIBELIUS
Symphony 1. A n d a n t e m a non troppo 2
No. 1 Allegro energico 6/4 2
in E M i n o r 2. A n d a n t e m a non C and 2
troppo lento 6/4
3. Scherzo-Allegro 3/4 1
4. Allegro molto 2/4 2

Symphony 1. Allegretto 6/4

No. 2 2. Tempo andante, m a 3/8
in D M a j o r rubato
Lugubre C
3. Vivacissimo 6/8 2 ( o r 2 b a r s a s 1)
Lento e suave 12/4 4 quasi 12
4. Allegro moderato 3/2 3

Symphony 1. Tempo molto moderato 12/8 4

No. 5 Allegro moderato (ma 3/4 1 (or2barsasl)
in E Fiat poco a poco stretto)
Major 2. A n d a n t e mosso quasi 3/2 3
allegretto
3. Allegro molto 2/4 2
U n pochettino larga- 3/2 3
mente

TCHAIKOVSKY
Symphony 1. A n d a n t e sostenuto 3/4 3
No. 4 M o d e r a t o con a n i m a 9/8 3
in F M i n o r 2. A n d a n t i n o in modo di 2/4 2
canzone
3. Allegro 2/4 2
4. Allegro con fuoco C 4

Symphony 1. A n d a n t e C 4
No. 5 Allegro con a n i m a 6/8 2
in E M i n o r 2. A n d a n t e cantabile 12/8 4
con alcuna licenza
M o d e r a t o con a n i m a C 4
3. Allegro moderato 3/4 3
4. A n d a n t e maestoso C 4

Allegro vivace <f 2

(alla breve)

W O R K I N O REPERTORY OF CLASSICAL A N D R O M A N T I C S Y M P H O N I E S
 Composilion Movement S^mture Strohes to the Bar

Symphony 1. Adagio C 4
No. 6 2. Allegro con grazia 5/4 Quasi 2
in B Minor, (cf. Figs. 86
"Pathetique" and 87)
3. Allegro molto vivace 12/8 4
and
C
4. Adagio lamentoso 3/4 3

272 APPENDIX I
 APPENDIX II

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES

T h e Student should now apply his own exercises by practicing passages and
movements in the following works from the point of view not of time-signatures,
b u t of the n u m b e r of strokes to the bar. At the Start, five, seven, a n d eleven
p a t t e r n s m a y be omitted, a n d t h e n t a k e n u p later. E n o u g h examples have
been cited to make it probable t h a t most Hbraries will possess representative
items in their collections of füll scores. W h e r e a r a r e though possible time-
signature has been omitted, it is because no orchestral work has been found
to illustrate it. This is no reason, however, why some composer somewhere
sometime may not suddenly decide to write such theoretically possible pulses.
In any event, the Student can easily fill in the missing time-signatures in skel-
etal notation.
It is to be stressed again t h a t t h e choice of patterns a n d the n u m b e r of
strokes to the b a r are often matters of individual preference a n d are largely
the result of the tempos adopted. T h u s , it is possible to beat a given passage
in one or two for d u p l e a n d three for triple pulses, in two or four, in three
or six, a n d with or without subdivisions. T h e determining factors are speed,
accents, context, a n d style. A given passage, indeed, m a y be t a k e n in half
a dozen different ways, each logical, clear, artistic.
It is the final and inescapable responsibility of each Interpreter to choose
his own tempos a n d then to fit his p a t t e r n s into these tempos, not t h e other
way about. M a n y students fit tempos and phrasing into their technical capa-
bilities, and thus do grave injustice to the music. Choose patterns which will
keep the pulses of the music flowing a n d yet give the players s o m e t h i n g to
hold to at all times, patterns which will not pass before the eyes of the watchers
too r a p i d l y to follow easily, a n d which delineate the phrasing. A final re-
flection; time-signatures are, in essence, only general indications of the
composer's intentions.

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES 273

1/1 Borodin: S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2
Elgar: " E n i g m a " Variations
Variations for O r c h e s t r a , No. 7
Rimsky-KorsakofF: S y m p h o n y No. 2
2/1 Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter
3/1 Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter
Saint-Saens: S y m p h o n y in C M a j o r a n d C M i n o r
1/2 C o p l a n d : Appalachian Spring
Elgar: " E n g l i s h " S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 2
Strauss, R i c h a r d : Death and Transßguration
Weiner, Leo: Csongor es Tunde
Williams, V a u g h a n : " L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y
2/2 Debussy: La Mer, P a r t 3
Delius: Appalachia
Elgar: Variations for O r c h e s t r a , No. 11
S y m p h o n y N o . 1, M o v e m e n t 1, a f t e r I n t r o d u c t i o n ; M o v e m e n t
4, after I n t r o d u c t i o n
Glazunoff: S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 4
H i n d e m i t h : Malhis der Maler
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 1, M o v e m e n t 2 {Molto Cantando)
Mussorgsky: Night on Ihe Bald Mountain
Prokofieff: "Classical" S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t s 1 a n d 4
Lieutenant Kije, No. 3
Respighi: Fountains of Rome
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Antar, M o v e m e n t 2
Russian Easter
Scheherezade, a t Start
Saint-Saens: Carnival of Animals, "Fossils"
Scriabin: Poem of Ecstasy
Sibelius: FinUmdia
Pelleas and Melisande, P a r t 1
S y m p h o n y No. 6, M o v e m e n t 1
Stravinsky: Chant du Rossignol
" F i r e b i r d " Suite
Le Sacre du Printemps
Wagner: Huldingungsmarsch
Williams, V a u g h a n : " L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 1
S y m p h o n y in F M i n o r , M o v e m e n t 4
Alla A u b e r : The Bronze Horse O v e r t u r e
Breve Beethoven: Overtures: Fidelio; Leonora I; Prometheus, after Introduction
in the S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 1
Modern S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 4
Sense S y m p h o n y No. 4, after I n t r o d u c t i o n
of (f S y m p h o n y No. 8, M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 9, M o v e m e n t 2 {Presto), M o v e m e n t 4 {Allegro ma
non troppo)

274 A P P E N D I X II
 Berlioz: Benvenuto Cellini Overture
Borodin: Symphony No. 2, Movement 1
Brahms: Symphony No. 2, Movement 4
Symphony No. 3, Movement 4
Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1
Tragic Overture
Variations on a Theme of Haydn's, Finale
Bruckner; S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1; M o v e m e n t 4, after
Introduction
Symphony No. 7, Movements 1 and 4
Symphony No. 9, Introduction
Chausson; Symphony in B Fiat, Movement 3
Franck; S y m p h o n y in D M i n o r , M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction;
Movement 3
Glinka: Russlan and Ludmilla Overture
Gluck: Alceste Overture
Goldmark: Rustic Wedding, " S e r e n a d e , " "Final Dance"
H a y d n : "Clock" Symphony (Breitkopf and Härtel 101), Movement 4
" D r u m R o l l " S y m p h o n y (B. & H. 103), Movement 4
Symphony No. 2 (B. & H. 104), Movement 4
Symphony No. 12 (B. & H. 102), Movement 1 {Allegro vivace)
Honegger: Pacific 231
"Symphony for Orchestra," Movement 1
M a h l e r : Symphony No. 5, Movements 2 and 5
Mendelssohn: Overtures: Midsummer Night's Dream; Ruy Blas
Symphony No. 3, Movement 4
Mozart; Overtures; Ahduction from the Seraglio; Cosi Fan Tutte; Don
Giovanni; Magic Flute; Marriage of Figaro
Symphony No. 12 (Koechel Catalogue 110), Movement 2
Symphony No. 35 ( K . 385), "HaflFner," Movements 1 a n d 4
Symphony No. 40 (K. 550), Movements 1 and 4
Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), "Jupiter," Movement 4
Rachmaninoff: S y m p h o n y No. 2, Movement 1, after Introduction;
Movements 2 and 4
Saint-Saens: Symphony No. 3, Movement 2 at Allegro
Schubert; Symphony No. 4, "Tragic," Movement 2
Symphony No. 5, Movement 1
Symphony No. 7, "Great," Movement 1, after Introduction
Schumann; Symphony No. 1, " S p r i n g , " Movement 4
Symphony No. 2, Movement 4
Symphony No. 3, " R h e n i s h , " Movement 5
Sibelius: Symphony No. 1, at Start of Movements 1 a n d 2
Symphony No. 2, Movement 1, Sections 2 and 3
Symphony No. 4, Movement 4
Smetana: Bartered Bride Overture
Strauss; " A l p i n e " S y m p h o n y
Don Juan
Tchaikovsky: S y m p h o n y No. 5, Movement 4, after Introduction
Wagner: Lohengrin, Prelude to Act III

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES 275

3/2 Bach: Prelude No. 8, Book I in The Forty-Eight
Beethoven: Egmont O v e r t u r e ( 3 / 2 , 3 / 4 , C)
S y m p h o n y No. 9, M o v e m e n t 4 {And. maestoso)
Borodin: Polovetzian Dances
S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 1, at Poco memo mosso
B r a h m s : S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 4, Variations 12, 13, 14, 15
Debussy: Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, Parts 1 a n d 4
Dehus: Briggs Fair
d ' I n d y : " I s t a r " S y m p h o n i e Variations
S y m p h o n y No. 2, P a r t s 1 a n d 4
Elgar: Variations for O r c h e s t r a , No. 6
H a n d e l ; Water Music (arr. H a r t y )
H i n d e m i t h : Mathis der Maler
Kalinnikoff: S y m p h o n y No. 1, Last Movement, at Maestoso
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter
Scheherezade
Saint-Saens: S y m p h o n y in C M a j o r a n d C M i n o r
Scriabin: Divine Poem
Sibelius: S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 2; M o v e m e n t 3, last section
S y m p h o n y No. 7, from Start to E flat tonality, a n d final Largamente
Strauss: Don Quixote
Stravinsky: " F i r e b i r d " Suite
Le Sacre du Printemps
Williams, V a u g h a n : " L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 1, a t Start;
I n t r o d u c t i o n to M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y in F M i n o r , M o v e m e n t 1, at Meno mosso

4/2 B a r b e r : Second Essay for Orchestra

C o p l a n d : Appalachian Spring
Debussy: Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, P a r t 2
Koechlin: Five Chorales in Middle Age Modes
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter
Schoenberg: Von Heute auf Morgen
Wetzler: Assisi

5/2 Barber: Second Essay for Orchestra

Holst: The Planets
Koechlin: Five Chorales in Middle Age Modes
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter (then <f)
Snow Maiden
Tsar Saltan

6/2 Steffani: Reginam Nostram

7/2 Borodin: Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 1, Animato assai

(3/2 2/2 2/2 = 7/2)

1/4 C o p l a n d : S y m p h o n y No. 1
H i n d e m i t h : Mathis der Maler, " G r a b l e g u n g "

276 A P P E N D I X II
1/4 Holst: The Perfect Pool (ballet music)
(Coni.) R a v e l : Miroirs, " U n e b a r q u e sur l ' o c e a n , " P a r t 3 (for pianoforte)
Stravinsky: Petrouchka

2/4 Beethoven: King Stephen O v e r t u r e

Symphony No. 1, M o v e m e n t 3
Symphony No. 3, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 4
Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 4
Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 1
Symphony No. 6, M o v e m e n t 1
Symphony No. 7, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 4
Symphony No. 8, M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 9, M o v e m e n t 1
Bizet: Prelude to Act 1, Carmen
B r a h m s : S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 1
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 3
Variations on a Theme of Haydn's, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6
Bruckner: Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 3
d ' I n d y : S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 3, a t Start; M o v e m e n t 4
Dvorak: Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction
Glinka: Life for the Czar O v e r t u r e
H a y d n : S y m p h o n y No. 7 (B. & H . 97), M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 12 (B. & H . 102), M o v e m e n t 4
Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody II
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 3, first section
Mendelssohn: S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3, first section
M o z a r t : S y m p h o n y No. 1 ( K . 16), M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 12 ( K . 110), M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 35, "HaflFner" ( K . 385), M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 36, " L i n z " ( K . 425), M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 37 ( K . 444), M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 38, " P r a g u e , " " W i t h o u t M i n u e t " ( K . 504),
Movement 3
S y m p h o n y No. 39 (K. 543), M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 4
Schubert: S y m p h o n y No. 4, " T r a g i c , " M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 7, " G r e a t , " M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 4
S c h u m a n n : S y m p h o n y No. 1, " S p r i n g , " M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduc-
tion
S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction
Shostakovitch: S y m p h o n y No. 1, last section
Sibelius: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 4, a t Start
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 2, section 3
Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
Strauss: Aus Italien, M o v e m e n t 4
Sinfonia Domestica, first section

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-5IGNATURES 177

2/4 Tchaikovsky: S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 4
(Colli.) S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3
Weber: Abu Hassan O v e r t u r e
Williams, V a u g h a n ; " L o n d o n " Symphony, M o v e m e n t 3, final section

3/4 A u b e r : The Black Domino O v e r t u r e

Beethoven: O v e r t u r e s : Egmont {Allegro); Leonora II ( t h e n <f); Leonora
I I I (then <(;); Prometheus
S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 2, I n t r o d u c t i o n to M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t s 1 a n d 3
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 6, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 7, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 8, M o v e m e n t s 1 a n d 3
S y m p h o n y No. 9, M o v e m e n t 2 {Molto vivace); M o v e m e n t 3 {And.
mod.); M o v e m e n t 4, at Start
Berlioz: Waverley O v e r t u r e (then (f)
Borodin: Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 3 {Poco piü animato),
Movement 4
B r a h m s : S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 4, " G r o u n d T h e m e Variations,"
Nos. 4, 8
Variations on a Theme of Haydn's, No. 8
Bruckner: S y m p h o n y No. 7, M o v e m e n t 3
C h a u s s o n : S y m p h o n y in B F i a t , M o v e m e n t 1, a f t e r I n t r o d u c t i o n
d ' I n d y : S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t s 3 a n d 4
Dvorak: Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
Elgar: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 4
Flotow: Overtures: Alessandro Stradella (then <f); Martha
F r a n c k : S y m p h o n y in D M i n o r , M o v e m e n t 2
GlazunofF: Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction
G o l d m a r k : Rustic Wedding, " B r i d a l S o n g "
H a y d n : " C l o c k " S y m p h o n y (B. & H . 101), M o v e m e n t 1, after
Introduction; Movement 3
" D r u m Roll" S y m p h o n y (B. & H . 103), Introductions to
Movements 1 and 3
" L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y No. 4 (B. & H . 98), M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3
" L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y No. 5 (B. & H. 95), M o v e m e n t 3
" M i l i t a r y " S y m p h o n y (B. & H . 100), M o v e m e n t 3
" S u r p r i s e " S y m p h o n y (B. & H . 94), Introductions to M o v e m e n t s
1 and 3
Symphony No. 2 (B. & H . ,104), Movement 3
Symphony No. 3 (B. & H . 99), Movements 1 and 3
Symphony No. 5 (B. & H . 93), Movements 1 a n d 3
Symphony No. 7 (B. & H . 97), Movements 1 and 3

278 A P P E N D I X II
3/4 S y m p h o n y No. 10 (B. & H . 86), Introductions to M o v e m e n t s 1 and
(Cont.) 3; M o v e m e n t 3
Symphony No. 12 (B. & H . 102), M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 45, " C a n d l e " or " F a r e w e l l " (B. & H . 18), M o v e -
ments 1 a n d 3
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 3 {Andante)
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
Mendelssohn: S y m p h o n y No. 3, I n t r o d u c t i o n
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 2
M o z a r t : S y m p h o n y No. 12 (K. 110), M o v e m e n t s 1 a n d 3
Symphony No. 35 (K. 385), M o v e m e n t 3
Symphony No. 36 (K. 425), " L i n z , " Introduction, M o v e m e n t 3
Symphony No. 37 (K. 444), Introduction
Symphony No. 39 (K. 543), Movements 1 a n d 3
Symphony No. 40 (K. 550), M o v e m e n t 3
Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), " J u p i t e r , " Movements 2 a n d 3
Prokofieff; "Classical" S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 2
Ravel; Bolero
Spanish Rhapsody, Parts 1 a n d 2
Rossini: William Teil O v e r t u r e (then C )
Saint-Saens: Danse Macabre
Schubert: Rosamunde O v e r t u r e (then <f)
S y m p h o n y No. 4, " T r a g i c I n t r o d u c t i o n " a n d M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 7, " G r e a t , " M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 8, " U n f i n i s h e d , " M o v e m e n t 1
S c h u m a n n : S y m p h o n y No. 1, " S p r i n g , " M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction
Symphony No. 3, " R h e n i s h , " Movements 1 a n d 2
S y m p h o n y No. 4, I n t r o d u c t i o n , Movements 2 a n d 3
Shostakovich: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 1, last section
Sibelius: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 1, Sections 3 a n d 4
S y m p h o n y No. 6, M o v e m e n t 2
Strauss: " A l p i n e " S y m p h o n y , " A p p a r i t i o n "
Ein Heldenleben (from No. 41 in Eulenberg M i n i a t u r e Score)
Tchaikovsky: Marche Slav
S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t s 2, 3, a n d 5
S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1, at Start
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
S y m p h o n y No. 6, M o v e m e n t 4
1812 O v e r t u r e
Weber: Overtures: Jubel; Preciosa
W a g n e r : Tannhäuser O v e r t u r e
Williams, V a u g h a n : " L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 1 (Paco piü
mosso), M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES 279

3 1/2 Schmitt, Florent: La Tragedie de Salome, " D a n s e des eclairs"
4 Varese: Integrales

4/4 Auber: Overtures; Fra Diavolo; La Muette de Portici

Bax; S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 2
Beethoven: Overtures: Coriolan; Consecration of the House; Leonora I
(then <f, 3 / 4 ) ; Namensjeier
Symphony No. 1, I n t r o d u c t i o n to Movement 1
Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 1
Symphony No. 4, I n t r o d u c t i o n to Movement 1
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 4
Symphony No. 6, M o v e m e n t 4
Symphony No. 7, Introduction
Symphony No. 9, M o v e m e n t 3 {Adagio cantabile), M o v e m e n t 4
(Allegro assai)
Berhoz: Romeo and Juliet {Allegro fugato)
" F a n t a s t i c " Symphony, Introduction, Movements 1 a n d 4
Overtures: The Corsair; Francs-Juges; King Lear
Boi'eldieu: La Dame blanche O v e r t u r e
Borodin: S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 3
Brahms: Overtures: Academic Festival; Tragic
Symphony No. 1, Movement 4
Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 2
B r u c k n e r : S y m p h o n y No. 4, M o v e m e n t 2; M o v e m e n t 4, t h e m e 2
Symphony No. 7, M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 9, Movements 1 a n d 3
Chausson: S y m p h o n y in B Fiat, I n t r o d u c t i o n to M o v e m e n t 2,
Movement 3 {Grave)
Copland: " D a n c e " S y m p h o n y , Introduction
Dvorak: Carnaval Overture
Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1
Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 2
Elgar: Symphony No. 1, Introduction to Movement 1, Introduction
to Movement 4
S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2
Franck: Symphony in D Minor, Introduction to Movement 1
Glazunoff: Symphony No. 5, Introduction to M o v e m e n t 1
Gluck: Overtures: Iphigenia in Aulis; Orpheus and Euridice
Goldmark: Rustie Wedding, M o v e m e n t 4
Hanson: Symphony No. I, M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t s 1 a n d 2
Symphony No. 3, Movements 2 and 4
Harris, Roy: Symphony No. 2, Movement 1
H a y d n : Symphony No. 2 (B. & H . 104), Introduction to M o v e m e n t 1
Symphony No. 3 (B. & H. 99), Movement I
Symphony No. 5 (B. & H . 93), M o v e m e n t 2

280 A P P E N D I X II
4/4 Symphony No. 7 (B. & H. 97), Movement 2
(Cont.) Symphony No. 8 (B. & H. 98), Introduction
S y m p h o n y No. 10 (B. & H. 86), M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction
Symphony No. 12 (B. & H. 102), Introduction to Movement 1
Honegger: " S y m p h o n y for Orchestra," Movement 2, M o v e m e n t 3
{And. tranquillo)
Kodaly; " H a r y J ä n o s " Suite, Intermezzo No. 5
M a h l e r : Symphony No. 2, Movements 1, 4, and 5
Symphony No. 3, Movements 1, 5, a n d 6
Symphony No. 4, Movements 1, 3 (Part 1), and 4
Symphony No. 5, Movement 4
Mendelssohn: Overtures: Athalie; Fingal's Cave; Meeresstille; Paulus
Mozart: Overtures: Clemency of Tito; Idomeneo; Impresario
Symphony No. 1 (K. 16), Movement 1
Symphony No. 36 (K. 425), " L i n z , " Movement 1, after Introduc-
tion
Symphony No. 37 (K. 144), Movement 1, after Introduction
Symphony No. 38 (K. 504), "Without Minuet," Movement 1
Symphony No. 39 (K. 543), Introduction to Movement 1
Symphony No. 41, "Jupiter," Movement 1
Mussorgsky: Khovantschina
Nicolai: Merry Wives of Wmdsor Overture
Prokofieff: "Classical" Symphony, Movement 3
RachmaninofF: S y m p h o n y No. 2, Introduction to M o v e m e n t 1,
Movement 3
Rossini: Overtures: II Barbiere di Siviglia; La Gazza Ladra; Tancredi
Saint-Saens: Symphony No. 3, Movement 1
Schubert: Symphony No. 4, "Tragic," Movement 1, after
Introduction
Symphony No. 7, " G r e a t , " Introduction to Movement 1
Schumann: Overtures: Genoveva; Manfred
Symphony No. 1, Introduction to Movement 1
Symphony No. 3, Movements 3 a n d 4
Symphony No. 4, Movement 4
Shostakovitch: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t s 1, 2 ( p a r t 1), 3, and
4 (part 1)
Symphony No. 5, Movements 1, 3, a n d 4
Sibelius: Symphony No. 1, Movement 4, final section
Symphony No. 2, Movement 2, after Introduction
Symphony No. 3, Movement 1, Movement 4 (Con i
Symphony No. 6, Movement 4
Smetana: Libussa Overture
Strauss: "Alpine" Symphony, various sections
Aus Italien, "On the C a m p a g n a "
Ein Heldenleben
Suppe: Poet and Peasant Overture
Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet Overture
Symphony No. 3, Movement 1

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES 281

4/4 Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 4
(Cont.) S y m p h o n y No. 5, I n t r o d u c t i o n , M o v e m e n t 2 [Mod. con anima),
Introduction to M o v e m e n t 4
S y m p h o n y No. 6, M o v e m e n t 1
W a g n e r : Overtures: Faust; Meistersinger; Rienzi
Preludes: Lohengnn; Parsifal ( 6 / 4 , (f, 6 / 4 , 2 / 2 , 6 / 4 , 2 / 2 )
Weber: Overtures: Euryanthe; Freischütz; Oberon; Silvana
Williams, V a u g h a n : " L o n d o n " S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 2 (Lento),
M o v e m e n t 4 {Maestoso allegro)
" P a s t o r a l " S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 1 {Malta mod.)
S y m p h o n y in F M i n o r , M o v e m e n t 2

5/4 Barbar; Essay for Orchestra

Second Essay for Orchestra
Bloch: America
Boieldieu: La Dame blanche
Borodin: Prince Igor
S y m p h o n y No. 2, Finale (written 3 / 2 : 2 / 4 )
C a r p e n t e r : Sea Drift
C o p l a n d ; Appalachian Spring
Cornelius; The Barber of Bagdad
Debussy: Fites
Six epigraphes antiqv.es (arr. Ansermet), No. 2
Delibes: Jean de Nivelle ( 3 / 4 - 2 / 4 shifting)
Le Roi l'a dit
d ' I n d y : " I s t a r " S y m p h o n i e Variations
S y m p h o n y No. 2
Glinka: A Life for the Czar
Griffes: The White Peacock
H a n s o n : S y m p h o n y No. 3, I n t r o d u c t i o n
H a n d e l : Orlando
H i n d e m i t h : Chamber Music No. 1 for Small Orchestra
Holst: Egdon Heath
The Planets
Koechlin: Five Chorales in Middle Age Modes
Liadoff: Ballade de l'Apocalypse
Liszt; " D a n t e " S y m p h o n y
Miaskowsky: S y m p h o n y No. 8
Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov, Feodor's Tale about the P a r r o t
Pictures at an Exhibition, " P r o m e n a d e "
Puccini: La Boheme
Rachmaninoff; Isle of the Dead
Ravel: Daphnis and Chloe
Respighi: The Pines of Rome
Rimsky-Korsakoff; Tsar Saltan
Schoenberg: Pierrot Lunaire, " M o n d e s t r u n k e n , " P a r t 1 ( 2 / 4 a n d 3 / 4
in irregulär alternation)
Shostakovitch: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 2

282 A P P E N D I X II
 Sibelius: Finlandia (implied 5 / 4 )
Stravinsky: Histoire du soldat
Le Sacre du Printemps
Strauss: Don Quixote, Variation No. 6 ( 2 / 4 - 3 / 4 )
Macbeth
Salome
Sullivan: G r a n d Ballet, Victoria and Metrie England
Tchaikovsky: The Enchantress
Mazeppa
Symphony No. 6, M o v e m e n t 2
Varese: Integrales
Vassilenko: George the Beautiful, Part V
Wagner: Die Meistersinger Overture
Tristan, last act (3 plus 2)
6/4 Beethoven: Symphony No. 9, Movement 4 {Allegro energico)
Borodin: Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2 (Allegretto)
Brahms: Symphony No. 3, M o v e m e n t 1
Debussy: Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, Part 2
La Mer, Part 1
Nmges
Delius: On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring
Summer Night on the River
d'Indy: "Istar" Symphonie Variations
Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2, at Start
Griffes: The Pleasure Dome of Kuhla Khan
Holst: The Planets
Kodaly: Psalmus Hungaricus
Mendelssohn: Märchen von der schönen Melusine Overture
Rimsky-Korsakoff: " L e Coq d ' o r " Suite, Part 2
Scheherezade, at Allegro non troppo, near Start
Saint-Saens: Camival of Animals, " T h e S w a n "
Symphony No. 3, Movement 2
Schumann: Symphony No. 2, Introduction
Sibelius: Symphony No. 1, M o v e m e n t I, after Introduction; Move-
ment 2, last section
Symphony No. 2, I n t r o d u c t i o n to M o v e m e n t 1, first a n d last
sections
Symphony No. 3, M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 7, final pages
Strauss: Aus Italien, " A m i d Rome's Ruins"
Don Quixote, Variation No. 7
Stravinsky: " F i r e b i r d " Suite
Petrouchka
Le Sacre du Printemps
Wagner: The Flying Dutchman Overture
Weber: Der Beherrschender Geist Overture
Williams, V a u g h a n : S y m p h o n y in F Minor, M o v e m e n t 1, at Start

REFERENCE TABLE O F TIME-SIGNATURES 283

7/4 Barber; Second Essay for Orchestra
Berlioz: L'Enfance du Christ, "Incantation Music" (originally 3 + 4 )
Brahms: Variations on a Hungarian Song (for pianoforte), Op. 21, No. 2
d'Indy: "Istar" Symphonie Variations
Griffes: The White Peacock
Holst: Egdon Heath
Liszt: "Dante" Symphony
Miaskowsky: Symphony No. 7
Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition
Ravel: Daphnis and Chloe
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Tsar Saitan
Schoenberg: Von Heute auf Morgen
Stravinsky: "Firebird" Suite
Le Sacre du Prinlemps
Wagner: Tristan, last act (3/4 plus 4/4)
8/4 GretchaninofT: Dobrynya Nikititch (2-3-3)
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Mlada (3-3-2)
Ruggles: Men and Mountains
Schoenberg: Von Heute auf Morgen
Strauss: Don Quixote, Variation No. 7, "The Windmills"
Whitehorne: Fata Morgana
9/4 Brahms: Symphony No. 3, Movement 1
d'Indy: "Istar" Symphonie Variations
Hindemith: Mathis der Maler
Holst: The Planets
Krenek: Symphony No. 2
Massenet: Le Cid
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Tsar Saitan
Sibelius: Swan ofTuonela

10/4 Honegger: Sonata for Piano and Violin

11/4 Rimsky-Korsakoff: Sadko, Chorus from Act I
The SHOW Maiden
Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps
12/4 d'Indy: "Istar" Symphonie Variations
Sibelius: Pelteas and Melisande, No. 5
Symphony No. 2, Movement 3, last section
1/8 Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps
2/8 Delius: A Dance Rhapsody
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade
Stravinsky: Histoire du soldat
Les Moces
Petrouchka
Le Sacre du Printemps

284 A P P E N D I X II
3/8 Beethoven: S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2
S y m p h o n y No. 5, M o v e m e n t 2
Berlioz: Beatrice and Benedict O v e r t u r e
"Fantastic" Symphony, Movement 2
Borodin: S y m p h o n y No. 1
Brahms: S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 3
Variations on a Theme of Haydn's, No. 4
Chabrier: Espana
Debussy: La Mer, P a r t 2
d ' I n d y : S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 3
Dukas: Sorcerer's Apprentice
Dvorak: Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 3
Elgar: " E n i g m a " Variations
Symphony No. 1, M o v e m e n t 3
Variations for O r c h e s t r a
Falla: The Three-Comered Hat
Franck: Les Eolides
H a n s o n : S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 3
H a y d n : S y m p h o n y No. 45 (B. & H . 18), " C a n d l e " or "Farewell,^
Movements 2 a n d 5
Ippolitoff-Ivanoff: Caucasian Sketches
M a h l e r ; S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t s 2 a n d 3
S y m p h o n y No. 3, M o v e m e n t 2, last section
Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1
M o z a r t : S y m p h o n y No. 1 ( K . 16), M o v e m e n t 3
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade
Spanish Capnce, Variation No. 2
Schubert: " U n f i n i s h e d " S y m p h o n y , M o v e m e n t 2
S c h u m a n n : S y m p h o n y No. 1, M o v e m e n t 2
Sibelius: S y m p h o n y No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2, Introduction
Strauss: Aus Italien, " O n t h e Shores of Sorrento"
Sinfonia Domestica
Stravinsky: Pritbaoutki

4/8 Dvorak: Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 1, Introduction

The Water Fay
Elgar: Symphony No. 1, M o v e m e n t 3
Falla: El Retablo de Maese Pedro
Schoenberg: Pierrot Lunaire, " P a r o d i e , " P a r t 1
Strauss: Till Eulenspiegel
Stravinsky: Berceuse du chat
Histoire du soldat
Petrouchka
Pritbaoutki
Le Sacre du Printemps

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES 285

5/8 Barber: Second Essay for Orchestra
Borodin: Symphony No. 3 (unfinished)
Copland: Appalachian Spring
d'Indy: Symphony No. 2, Movement 4
Hanson: Symphony No. 3, Movement 1, final section
Holst: Egdon Heath
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Tsar Saltan
Rachmaninoff; Isle of the Dead
Ravel: Q u a r t e t in F
Stravinsky: Berceuse du chat
Chant du rossignol
Divertimento, "Sinfonia" ( 2 - 2 - 1 )
Histoire du soldat
Petrouchka
Pritbaoutki
Le Sacre du Printemps
Williams, Vaughan: The Wasps Overture
6/8 Bax: Symphony No. 3, M o v e m e n t 1
Beethoven: The Ruins of Athens Overture
Symphony No. 6, Movement 5
Symphony No. 7, M o v e m e n t 1 (Vivace)
Symphony No. 9, M o v e m e n t 4 (Allegro assai)
Berlioz: Harold in Italy (first Allegro)
"Fantastic" Symphony, "Scenes in the Country," " D r e a m of a
Witch's S a b b a t h " (Allegro)
Roman Carnival Overture
Romeo and Juliet (pp. 150-176, Eulenburg Edition)
Brahms: Symphony No. 1, Movement 1
Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 2
Variations on a Theme of Haydn's, Nos. 5, 7
Debussy: La Mer, Part 1
Elgar: " E n i g m a " Variations
Glazunoff: Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 3
H a y d n : "Clock" S y m p h o n y (B. & H . 101), M o v e m e n t 1, after
Introduction
" D r u m Roll" S y m p h o n y (B. & H. 103), M o v e m e n t 1, after Intro-
duction
" L o n d o n " Symphony No. 5 (B. & H. 95), Movement 2
"Military" Symphony (B. & H. 100), Movement 4
"Surprise" Symphony (B. & H . 94), Movement 1, after Introduction
Symphony No. 8 (B. & H . 98), Movement 4
Honegger: "Symphony for Orchestra," Movement 3
Kodaly: Psalmus Hungaricus
Mahler: Symphony No. 3, Movement 3, Section 2
Mendelssohn: Heimkehr aus der Fremde Overture
Symphony No. 3, Movement 1, after Introduction; Movement 4,
final section

286 A P P E N D I X II
6/8 Mozart: Symphony No. 36, " L i n z " (K. 425), Movement 2
(Cont.) Symphony No. 37 (K. 444), Movement 3
Symphony No. 38 (K. 504), Movement 2
Symphony No. 40 (K. 550), Movement 2
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade
Rossini: Semiramis Overture
Saint-Saens: "Algerian" Suite, Nos. 2 and 3
Symphony No. 3, M o v e m e n t 1
Schubert: Symphony No. 5, Movement 2
Sibelius: Symphony No. 2, Movement 3
Symphony No. 6, M o v e m e n t 3
Smetana: The Moldau
Strauss: "Alpine" Symphony, " O n the Mountain Pasture"
Ein Heldenleben, last section
Till Eulenspiegel
Tchaikovsky: Italian Caprice
Symphony No. 5, Movement 1, after Introduction
Thomas: Mignon O v e r t u r e
Wagner: Tristan and Isolde Prelude
Williams, Vaughan: " L o n d o n " Symphony, Movement 3
Symphony in F Minor, M o v e m e n t 3

7/8 Bartok: Music for Stringed Instruments, Percussion and Celesta

Copland: Appalachian Spring
Falla: El Amor Brujo
Holst: The Perfect Pool
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Mlada
Stravinsky: Histoire du soldat
Les Noces
Petrouchka
Le Sacre du Printemps

8/8 Balakireff: Symphony ( 3 - 2 - 3 )

Bartok: Music for Stringed Instruments, Percussion and Celesta (3-3-2)
Copland: " D a n c e " Symphony
Holst: Fugal Overture ( 3 - 2 - 3 )
Ravel: Pianoforte Trio ( 3 - 2 - 3 )
Schoenberg: Von Heute auf Morgen
Stravinsky: Renard
Weiner: Csongor es Tunde (4-4)

9/8 Bach: Preludes Nos. 4 a n d 7, Book II in The Forty-Eight

Barber: The Schoolfor Scandal Overture
Beethoven: Pianoforte Sonatas:
Op. 22 Adagio con molt' espressione
O p . 31, No. 1 Andante grazioso
Op. 79 Andante
Op. 101 Andante molto cantabile ed espressivo, Variation 4

REFERENCE TABLE OF TIME-SIGNATURES 287

9/8 Debussy: L' Apres-midi d'un faune
(Cmi.) Petes
Delius: On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring
d ' I n d y : " I s t a r " Symphonie Variations
Dukas: The Sorcerer's Apprentice
Falla: Nights in the Gardens of Spain
H i n d e m i t h : Mathis der Maler
Saint-Saens: " A l g e r i a n " Suite, Prelude
Stravinsky: " F i r e b i r d " Suite
Petrouchka
Le Sacre du Printemps
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4, M o v e m e n t 1, after Introduction

10/8 Bartok: Music for Stringed Instruments, Percussion and Celesta ( 3 - 2 - 3 - 2 )

Schoenberg: Von Heute auf Morgen

12/8 Bach: Preludes Nos. 9 a n d 11, Book I in The Forty-Eight

Preludes Nos. 5 a n d 19, Book II in The Forty-Eight
Beethoven: Pianoforte Sonata, O p . 57 ("Appassionata"), Atlegro Assai
Symphony No. 6, M o v e m e n t 2
Symphony No. 9, M o v e m e n t 3
Brahms: Symphony No. 2, M o v e m e n t 2 (LTstesso tempo)
Chopin: " N o c t u r n e in E F i a t "
Debussy: UApres-midi d'un faune
La Mer, Part 1
Sirenes
Six epigraphes antiques (arr. Ansermet), Parts 1 a n d 3
Delius: Appalachia
Summer Night on the River
d ' I n d y : " I s t a r " Symphonie Variations
Dvorak: The American Flag, No. 1
Elgar: Variations for Orchestra, No. 5
Symphony No. 1, M o v e m e n t 1
H a n d e l : The Messiah, "Pastoral S y m p h o n y " (Pifferari)
Honegger: King David, No. 19 (really 6 / 4 vs. 12/8)
Liadoff: The Enchanted Lake
Sibelius: Symphony No. 5, at Start
Stravinsky: " F i r e b i r d " Suite, at Start
"Pulcinella" Suite
Le Sacre du Printemps
Tchaikovsky: Sleeping Beauty Ballet
Symphony No. 5, M o v e m e n t 2, at Start
Symphony No. 6, M o v e m e n t 3, at Start

15/8 Debussy: Nocturnes, No. 2, " F e t e s " ( T h e woods are in 1 5 / 8 ; the strings
in 5 / 4 . )
Q u a r t e t in G Minor
d ' I n d y : " I s t a r " S y m p h o n i e Variations
G o u n o d : Mireille ( 9 / 8 - 6 / 8 shifting)

288 A P P E N D I X II
21/8 Wohf. Edgon Heath

1/16 Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps

2/16 Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter

Stravinsky: Histoire du soldat
Le Sacre du Printemps

3/16 Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps

4/16 ^tiawin^ky. Chant du rossignol

Histoire du soldat
Renard
Le Sacre du Printemps

5/16 Sessions: Symphony No. 1

Stravinsky: Chant du rossignol
Histoire du soldat
Renard
Le Sacre du Printemps

6/16 Bach: Fugue No. 11 in F M a j o r , Book II in The Forty-Eight

Bizet: Carmen, quintet f r o m Act 2
Falla: El Retablo de Maese Pedro
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherezade

7/16 Copland: Symphony No. 1

Stravinsky: Chant du rossignol
Histoire du soldat
Renard

8/16 Stravinsky: Histoire du soldat

9/16 Beethoven: P i a n o f o r t e S o n a t a , O p . I I I , Anetta ( D o n a l d Francis

Tovey, in his essay, " R h y t h m , " in Musical Articles from the En-
giclopadia Britannica [Oxford University Press, 1944], asserts t h a t
the second Variation in 6 / 1 6 should b e m a r k e d 1 8 / 3 2 a n d the
third in 1 2 / 3 2 should be 3 6 / 6 4 . )
Dukas: The Sorcerer's Apprentice
Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps

10/16 Copland: Symphony No. 1

12/16 Bach: Prelude No. 13, Book I in The Forty-Eight

Fugue No. 4 a n d Prelude No. 21, Book II in The Forty-Eight
Beethoven: Pianoforte S o n a t a , O p . 110, Adagio, ma non troppo a n d
LTstesso tempo di Arioso

21/16 Hohf. Egdon Heath

24/16 Bach: Prelude No. 15, Book I in The Forty-Eight

Sibelius: Night Ride and Sunrise (C)

REFERENCE TABLE O F TIME-SIGNATURES 289

 T h e Student should now make his own table of exercises according to the
n u m b e r of beats to the bar, first without a n d then with subdivisions. Note that
tempo a n d phrasing, as well as time-signature, are determining Factors for
constructing beating models. Base the table of beats to the bar on appendices
I and II and include overtures, preludes, fantasias, tone poems, suites, concertos,
rhapsodies, a n d dance music—especially waltzes. Practice the excercises with a
friendly Organist or pianist as a first step a n d then with the eye alone. Do this
daily to maintain fluidity.

290 A P P E N D I X II
 APPENDIX III

UNUSUAL MODERN RHYTHMS

The Short musical quotations of recent and contemporary orchestral scores

illustrate some rhythmic practices which have developed during recent years.
These excerpts make good technical exercises and should be practised until they
become automatic—that is, executed with no conscious thought. Try rewriting
the passages quoted in simpler fashion and according to traditional notation.
Finally, go to the complete scores and study them in depth!
The following references will serve as supplementary material for further
study in the field of rhythm.

Baresel, Alfred, Der Rhythmus in der Jazz- und Tanzmusik (Trossingen:

M. Hohner, 1955).
Schule der Rhythmus (Leipzig: W. Zimmerman, 1930).
Copland, Aaron, " O n the Notation of R h y t h m , " Modem Music ( M a y -
J u n e 1944). Cf. Marcelle de Manziarly's " O n R h y t h m , Complex and
Simple," Modern Music ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1944).
Djoudjeff, Stoyan, Rhythme et mesure dans la musique populaire bulgare (Paris:
Librairie Ancienne Champion, 1931). Bibliography.
Laloy, Louis, "La musiqe chez soi: Les orgues de la terre," Comoedia
(Paris, April 9, 1914). Keen reactions to Stravinsky's Le Sacre du
Printemps.
L'vov, Aleksyei Fiodorovich, Uber den freien rhythmus des altrus-
sischen kirchengesangs (St. Petersburg: Polytechnographischen
Etablissement, 1859). T h e original Russian edition came out in 1855.
Rimsky-Korsakoff, Nikolay A., 100 chants populaires russes, 3 vols. (Paris:
W. Hessel, 1877).
Sachs, Curt, Rhythm and Tempo: A Study in Music History (New York:
W. W. Norton, 1953).
Udine, J e a n d ' [Albert Cozanet], Les transmutations rhythmiques (Paris:
Heugel, 1922).
Woollet, H., Pieces d'etude pour piano sur les mesures et les tonalites dites
d'exceptions (Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1910).
For practice in time-beating, see also Wagner's Forest Murmurs, the last act of Tristan
and Isolde, and Bloch's Concerto Grosso.

UNUSUAL MODERN RHYTHMS 291

 1. Frank Martin (b. 1 8 9 0 ) : Rythmes ( U s e d by permission of Universal Edition, Theodore Presser Co., agents
for U.S.A.)

Excerpt A

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Unusual Modern Rhythms 293

294 A p p e n d i x III
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Unusual M o d e r n Rhythms 295

 2 . Leo S o w e r b y (1 8 9 5 - 1 9 6 8 ) : Proirre: A Poem for O r c h e s t r a (Published by C . C . Birchard & C o . , Boston,
Massachusetts; used by permission of Copyright awners, Eostmon School of Music, Rochester, N e w York.)

F a s t , a n d m a c h i n e l i k e (J: ts;:)

8 Fl..

Picc.

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11-111 ni.Ud
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296 Appendix III

Unusual M o d e r n Rhythms 297
 B ^ i i i i l ^ i i J J J I2A ^ A

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298 A p p e n d i x III
 3 . Luigi D a l l a p i c c o l a (b. 1 9 0 4 ) : Frommenh"; S I n f o n i a dal Balletto "Marsia" ( B y p e r m i s s i o n of C a r i s c h S . A . ,
M i l a n , Copyright 1947.)

Unusual Modern Rhythms

Excerpt B

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300 Appendix I
Unusual Modern Rhythms 301
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Appendix I
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Unusual Modern Rhythms 303

 4 . Olivier Messioen (b. 1 9 0 8 ) : Couleurs de h Cite Celeste (Copyright 1 9 6 7 by Alphonse teduc & C o . ,
1 7 5 , rue Saint Honore, Poris ler, publishers and owners.)

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304 Appendix I
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Unusual M o d e r n Rhythms 305

 5. Benjamin Britten (b. 1 9 1 3 ) : W a r Requiem (By permission of the Copyright owner, Boosey & H a w k e s Inc.)

Hut« 1 2

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Unusual M o d e r n Rhythms 307
 6 . Pierre Boulez (b. 1 9 2 5 ) : l e Visage NopffoJ (By permlssion of Heugel & Cie, A u Menestrel, 2 bis, rue
Vivienne, Paris, Copyright owner; Theodore Presser Co., agents for U.S.A.)

Excerpf A

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308 A p p e n d i x III
 Excerpt B

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Unusual M o d e r n Rhylhms 309

7. Peter Maxwell Davies (b. 1 9 3 4 ) : Five Mofets (By permission of Copyright owner, Boosey & Hawkes Inc.)
r l=ORTAS
mm

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310 Appendix I
 SOLO STRINGS SOLO STRtNGS

s
L
 APPENDIX IV

R E P R E S E N T A T I VE PROGRAMS

ONE UNIT

L e o n a r d Bernstein
V e r d i : Requiem
L e o n a r d Bernstein
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 3
Karl Böhm
Bruckner: S y m p h o n y No. 8
Colin Davis
Berlioz: Les Troyens
Wilhelm Furtwängler
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 3
H e r b e r t von K a r a j a n
Beethoven: S y m p h o n y N o . 9
Otto Klemperer
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 2
Lorin M a a z e l
R o b e r t S c h u m a n n : Das Paradies und die Peri
Kurt Masur
Beethoven: Missa Sotemnis
Willem van Otterloo
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 3
George Pretre
Berlioz: Grande messe des morts
Sir M a l c o l m S a r g e n t
Elgar: The Dream of Gerontius
Stanislaw Skrowaczewski
Penderecki: Passion and Dealh of Our Lord Jesus Christ According to Saint Luke
H a n s Swarowsky
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 9
A r t u r o Toscanini
Beethoven: Missa Sotemnis

312 A P P E N D I X IV
T W O UNITS

Leonard Bernstein
Mozart: Piano Concerto (K. 271)
Bruckner: Symphony No. 9
Karl Böhm
Beethoven: S y m p h o n y No. 6, "Pastorale"
Schubert: Symphony No. 7
Karl Böhm
Mozart: Symphony No. 24 (K. 338)
Bruckner: Symphony No. 7
Pierre Boulez
Bartok: Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celeste
Boulez: Pli sehn pli
Sir Adrian Boult
Mozart: Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), " J u p i t e r "
Holst: The Planets
Alceu Bocchino
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy: Concerto No. 1 for Piano a n d Orchestra
Villa-Lobos: Invocagao for Voices a n d Orchestra
Meredith Davies
Delius: Requiem
Walton: Belshazzar's Feast
Eifred Eckart-Hansen
N o r d h e i m Arne: Canzone per orchestra
Rovsing Olsen: Sinfonia II
Luis Hererra de la Fuente
Halfifter: Con Linda de Almeria
Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps
Herbert von K a r a j a n
Richard Strauss: Also Sprach ^arathustra
Don Quixote
Kyril Kondraschin
Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 3
Prokofieff: Symphony No. 5
Otto Klemperer
Schubert: Symphony No. 8, "Unfinished"
Bruckner: S y m p h o n y No. 5
Kurt Masur
Berg: Violin Concerto
Bruckner: S y m p h o n y No. 4, " R o m a n t i c "
Zubin M e h t a
Furtwängler: Symphonie Concerto for Piano a n d Orchestra
H i n d e m i t h : Mathis der Maler
Sir Malcolm Sargent
L a m b e r t : Summer's Last Will and Testament
Holst: The Planets

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 313

H e r m a n n Scherchen
Beethoven: Incidental Music to Egmont, O p . 84
Mahler: Symphony No. 5
George Szell
H a y d n : Symphony No. 92, " O x f o r d "
Bruckner: Symphony No. 3
George Szell
Schubert: Symphony No. 8, "Unfinished"
Mahler: The Song of the Earth
Arturo Toscanini
Beethoven: Fidelio
Leonore Overture No. 3

THREE UNITS

Claudio A b b a d o
Mozart: "Vorrei spiegarvi, oh Dio?" (soprano aria)
Berg: " L u l u " Suite
Bruckner: S y m p h o n y No. 1 (Linz version)
Karl Ancerl
S m e t a n a : Sarka
Prokofieff: Piano Concerto No. 3
Dvorak: S y m p h o n y No. 5, "New World"
Ernest Ansermet
Beethoven: Symphony No. 7
M a r t i n : Concerto for 7 W i n d Instruments, T i m p a n i , Percussion, a n d String
Orchestra
Ravel: Daphnis and Chloe
Karl Böhm
Einem: Ballade
Mozart: Sinfonia Concertante (K. 364)
Brahms: Symphony No. 1
Sir Adrian Boult
Bax: Tintagel
Mozart: Symphony No. 38 (K. 504), " P r a g u e "
Holst: The Planeis
Eleazar de Carvalho
Villa-Lobos: Lenda amerindia No. 1: Erosäo
RachmaninofF: Concerto No. 3 for Piano a n d Orchestra
Mahler: Symphony No. 4
E d g a r Cree
Bernstein: Overture to Candide
Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 3
Dvorak: Symphony No. 5, "New World"
Colin Davis
Stravinsky: Scherzo ä la Russe
Tippett: Symphony No. 2
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4

314 APPENDIX IV
 M a r c o Dusi
Lobo de Mesquita: Mass in F
de Falla: El Retablo de Maese Pedro
Stravinsky: Les Noces
Werner Egk
Berg: C h a m b e r Concerto for Violin, Piano, a n d 13 Winds
H a r t m a n n : Gesangszene to "Sodom and G o m o r r a h " by J e a n Giradoux
Egk: Orchestra-Sonata (1952)
Massimo Freccia
Respighi: The Fountains of Rome
Ravel: Piano Concerto in G
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6, " P a t h e t i q u e "
Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos
H a y d n : Symphony No. 44, " T r a u e r "
Tiessen: Die Amsel
de Falla: The Three-Cornered Hat
Hererra de la Fuente
Revueltas: Symphonie Suite " R e d e s "
Piano Concerto in A Minor, Op. 16
Brahms: Symphony No. 2
Carlo M a r i a Giulini
Francesco Bonporti: Concerto Grosso
Schubert: Symphony No. 4, "Tragic"
Ildebrando Pizzetti: Prelude to Fedra
Benjamin Grosbayne
H e n r y Franklin Gilbert: Comedy Overture on Negro Themes
Copland: Appalachian Spring
Beethoven: Symphony No. 7
Bernard Haitink
H a y d n : Symphony No. 96
Pijper: Six Symphonie Epigrams
Mahler: Song of the Earth
J o h n Hopkins
Mozart: Clarinet Concerto in A (K. 622)
M a c h a u t : Messe de Nostre Dame
Messaien: / Await the Resurrection of the Dead
Bonislaw Iwanow
Pantscho Wladigerow: Wardar
Liszt: Piano Concerto No. 1
Tchaikovsky: " T h e Nutcracker" Suite
Isaac Karabtchewsky
Mozart: Symphony No. 38 (K. 504), " P r a g u e "
Guarnieri: Toada a Moda Pualista
de Falla: Suite from El Amor Brujo
Istvan Kertesz
Bartok: Dance Suite
Kodäly: " H a r y J ä n o s " Suite
Brahms: Symphony No. 4

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 315

 O t t o Klemperer
Mozart: Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), " J u p i t e r "
Beethoven: Symphony No. 8
Stravinsky: "Pulcinella" Suite
O t t o Klemperer
Beethoven: Symphony No. 6, "Pastorale"
Casella: ScarlaUiana
Bach: B r a n d e n b u r g Concerto No. 1
O t t o Klemperer
Klemperer: Symphony in Two Movements
Brahms: Violin Concerto in D
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5
Paul Kletzki
Frank Martin: Concerto for 7 Strings
Beethoven: Violin Concerto
Mahler: Symphony No. 4
Josef Krips
H a y d n : Symphony No. 92, " O x f o r d "
Strauss: Don Juan
Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 2
Ferdinand Leitner
Bach: Concerto for Two Violins
Strauss: Also Sprach Zifcthustra
Brahms: Violin Concerto
Lorin Maazel
Prokofieff: "Classical" Symphony
Piano Concerto No. 3
Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition
Igor Markevitch
Mozart: Symphony No. 38 (K. 504), " P r a g u e "
Debussy: La Mer
Mahler: Symphony No. 1, " T i t a n "
Jean Martinon
Beethoven: Grosse Fuge, O p . 133
Piano Concerto No. 3
Nielsen: Symphony No. 4
Kurt Masur
Messaien: Oiseaux exotiques for Piano a n d Orchestra
Schubert: Music from Rosamunde
Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 4
Zubin M e h t a
Schoenberg: C h a m b e r Symphony
Mozart: Symphony No. 38, " P r a g u e "
Piano Concerto (K. 242)
Willem Mengelberg
J . C. Bach: Symphony for Two Orchestras
Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 2
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6, " P a t h e t i q u e "

316 APPENDJX IV
Eugen Mravinsky
Bartok: Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celeste
Tchaikovsky: Concerto for Violin a n d Orchestra, Op. 35
Shostakovitch: Symphony No. 5
Arthur Nikisch
Reinicke: Overture to King Manfred, Op. 93
Spohr: Violin Concerto No. 7
Schubert: Symphony No. 8, "Unfinished"
Eugene O r m a n d y
Wagner: Prelude to Die Meistersinger
Ives: Symphony No. 3, " T h e C a m p Meeting"
Mahler: Symphony No. 1
Eugene O r m a n d y
Penderecki: Threnody to Ihe Victims of Hiroshima
S c h u m a n n : S y m p h o n y No. 9, "Le Fosse Ardeatine"
Beethoven: Concerto in D for Piano a n d Orchestra (arranged by the composer
from the violin concerto)
Seiji O z a w a
Strauss: Don Juan
Takemitsu: Asterism
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4
Seiji O z a w a
Riegger: Study in Sonority
Ibert: Divertissement
Orff: Carmina Burana
Seiji O z a w a
J . C. Bach: Sinfonia in D, Op. 18
Ives: Symphony No. 4
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4
Sir Malcolm Sargent
Walton: Johannesburg Festival Overture
Sibelius: Violin Concerto
Brahms: Symphony No. 2
H a n s Schmidt-Isserstedt
Lidholm: Ritornello per Orchestra
Henze: Symphony No. 2
Blomdahl: Im Saal der Spiegel
David Serendero
Halffter: Tripartita, Op. 25
Letelier: Estaneias Amorosas
Strauss: Una Vida de Heroe
Lothar Seyfarth
Bach: Suite No. 2
Mozart: Violin Concerto in A
KallinikofF: Symphony No. 1
Stanislaw Skrowaczewski
Brahms: Symphony No. 3
Szymanowski: Symphony No. 2

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 317

 Stravinsky: " T h e F i r e b i r d " Suite
V a c l a v Smetacek
J . H . Vorisek: S y m p h o n y in D
J a n a c e k : Lachische Tänze
D v o r a k : S y m p h o n y No. 6
Georg Solti
Schönberg: Erwartung
Stravinsky: Suite f r o m Jeu de Carles
Symphony in Three Movements
WiUiam Steinberg
W e b e r n : Six Pieces for Grand Orchestra, O p . 6
Petrassi: C o n c e r t o for F l u t e a n d O r c h e s t r a
Bruckner: S y m p h o n y No. 5
Leopold Stokowski
J . S. Bach: Suite No. 2 for O r c h e s t r a
M a r t i n : Les Qualre Elements
W a l t o n : Betshazzar's Feast
Leopold Stokowski
Felix L a b u n s k i : Canto dt Aspirazione
Orff: Carmina Burana
Bartok: Suite f r o m The Miraculous Mandarin
E v g e n y Svetlanov
R a c h m a n i n o f f : The Isle of the Dead
Shostakovitch: Violin Concerto No. 2
Tchaikovsky: S y m p h o n y No. 6, " P a t h e t i q u e "
H a n s Swarowski
M o z a r t : Impresario O v e r t u r e
K a m i n s k y : Violin Concerto
M a h l e r : S y m p h o n y No. 9
A r t u r o Toscanini
M o z a r t : Magic Flute O v e r t u r e
D i v e r t i m e n t o in B Fiat
S y m p h o n y No. 35, " H a f f n e r "
Felix a n d C a r m e n W e i n g a r t n e r
Beethoven: S y m p h o n y No. 5 (Felix W e i n g a r t n e r )
S y m p h o n y No. 6 (Felix W e i n g a r t n e r )
Leonore O v e r t u r e No. 3 ( C a r m e n W e i n g a r t n e r )
Felix W e i n g a r t n e r
H a y d n : S y m p h o n y No. 2
M o z a r t : S y m p h o n y No. 41 (K. 551), " J u p i t e r "
Beethoven: S y m p h o n y No. 7

FOUR UNITS

Claudio Abbado
Vivaldi: C o n c e r t o in G M i n o r
Saint-Saens: Cello Concerto in A M i n o r

318 APPENDIX IV
 Berlioz: Roman Carnival Overture
Brahms: Symphony No. 2
Ernst Ansermet
J . S. Bach: Suite No. 4
Bartok: Cantate profane
Debussy: Epigraphes antiques
Honegger: Cantate de Noel
Sir J o h n Barbirolli
Verdi: Overture to La Forza del Deslino
Satie: Deux gfmnopedies
Britten: Sinfonia da Requiem
Dvorak: Symphony No. 7
Serge Baudo
Britten: Variations
Penderecki: 0 Fiarom Hiroszimy
Bartok: Piano Concerto No. 3
Messaien: Et expeclo resurrectionem mortuorum
Alceu Bocchino
Carlos Gomez: Prelude to Fosca
Mozart: Symphony No. 38, " P r a g u e "
Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Haydn
Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 3
Pierre Boulez
Messaien: Chronochromie
Boulez: Le Marteau sans maitre
Stockhausen: Piano Piece No. 10
Berg: Three Orchestral Pieces
Sir Adrian Boult
Walton: Scapino Overture
H a y d n : Symphony No. 86
Purcell-Woodgate: T r u m p e t T u n e a n d Air
V a u g h a n Williams: Job
Sergiu Celibidache
Cherubini: Overture to Anacreon
Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 3
Debussy: Nocturnes
Ravel: Rhapsodie Espagnole
Andre Cluytens
Weber: Oberon Overture
Brahms: Violin Concerto
Lekeu: Ophelte
Roussel: Symphony No. 3
Colin Davis
Beethoven: Leonore Overture No. 1
T i p p e t t : Ritual Dances from The Midsummer Marriage
Bartok: Piano Concerto No. 1
Elgar: Symphony No. 1

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 319

Lukas Foss
Varese: Arcana
Foss: Fantome
Zenakis: Pithoprakla
Stravinsky: Pulcinella
Wilhelm Furtwängler
Gluck: Overture to Alceste
J . S. Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 5
S c h u m a n n : Symphony No. 4
Wagner: Prelude to a n d Love Death from Tristan and Isolde
Wilhelm Furtwängler
Brahms: Variation on a Theme by Haydn
Rhapsody (Fragment from Goethe's "Harzreise im Winter")
Gypsy Songs
Symphony No. 3
Carlo M a r i a Giulini
Mozart: Divertimento (K. 251)
Piano Concerto (K. 466)
Masonic Funeral Music
Symphony No. 40 (K. 550)
M a r i a n o Grado
Ginastera: Pampeana No. 3
J a c o p o Fischer: Violin Concerto
Variations on a Tango Theme
Louis Gianneo: Pericon
Benjamin Grosbayne
Berlioz: Roman Carnival Overture
Beethoven: Symphony No. 7
Strauss: Don Juan
Stravinsky: "Firebird" Suite
Charles Groves
V a u g h a n Williams: Symphonie Impressions in the Pen Country
blgar: Cello Concerto
Peter Maxwell Davies: Worldes Blis (conducted by composer)
Walton: Belshazzar's Feast
Sir Bernard Heinze
Elgar: Introduction and Allegro, Op. 47
Webern: Symphony, Op. 21
Strauss: Metamorphoses
Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 9
Isaac Karabtchevsky
Handel: Concerto No. 2 in F
Saint-Saens: Concerto in A Minor for Cello and Orchestra, Op. 33
Villa-Lobos: Bachianas-Brasileiras No. 1
Bartok: Concerto for Orchestra
O t t o Klemperer
H a y d n : Symphony No. 103, " D r u m Roll"

320 APPENDIX IV
 Schubert: Rondo, O p . 107
Stravinsky: Symphony of Psalms
"Firebird" Suite
Berislav K l o b u c a r
Messaien: Les Offrandes OMiees
Mahler: Kindertotenlieder
Bautista: Grotesque Overture
Strauss: Don Quixote
Serge Koussevitzky
Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet Overture
Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto in A Minor
Taniev: Entracte from Orestes
Gliere: Symphony in G Minor
Serge Koussevitzky
Beethoven: Egmont Overture
J . S. Bach: B r a n d e n b u r g Concerto No. 3
Weber: Oberon Overture
Chopin: Concerto for Piano in E Minor
Ferdinand Leitner
Beethoven; Symphony No. 1
Mahler: Songs of the Wayfarer
Werder: The Laocoön
Wagner: Tannhauser Overture
Lorin Maazel
Mozart: Symphony No. 38, " P r a g u e "
Concerto in C Minor for Piano a n d Orchestra (K. 491)
Dallapiccola: Variations for Orchestra
Schoenberg: Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31
Igor Markevitch
Wagner: Lohengrin Prelude
Markevitch: Icare
S c h u m a n n : Cello Concerto in A Minor, O p . 129
Beethoven: Symphony No. 5
Zubin M e h t a
Vivaldi: " A u t u m n , " from The Seasons
Mendelssohn: Octet in A Fiat, Op. 20
Sheriff: Chaconne for Orchestra
Strauss: Till Eulenspiegel
Dimitri Mitropoulos
Mendelssohn: Ruy Blas Overture
Symphony No. 3, "Scotch"
Strauss: Don Juan
Glazounoff: Overture on Greek Themes
Pierre M o n t e u x
Dukas: La Peri
Debussy: Nocturnes
Ravel: Suite No. 2 from Daphnis and Chloe

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 321

 Chausson: S y m p h o n y
Vaclav N e u m a n n
Smetana: Overture to The Bartered Bride
Smetana: Ma Vlast
Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 2
Dvorak: Symphony No. 5 "New World"
A r t h u r Nikisch
Beethoven: Leonore Overture No. 3
Brahms: Symphony No. 1
Schubert: Symphony No. 8, "Unfinished"
Wagner: Tannhäuser Overture
Eugene O r m a n d y
Mozart: S y m p h o n y No. 31 (K. 297), "Paris"
Beethoven: Aria "Ah, perfido," O p . 65
Ravel: Scheherazade
Debussy: La Mer
Seiji O z a w a
Berlioz: Roman Carnival Overture
Mayuzuni: Toshito " S a m s ä r a "
Stravinsky: "Firebird" Suite
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4
R e i n h a r d Peters
Varese: Integrales
Moroi: Piano Concerto
G. Becker: Stabil-Instabil
Dessau: Bach Variations
Jindrich Rohan
Mozart: Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), " J u p i t e r "
Ravel: Scheherazade
Le Tombeau de Couperin
Rhapsodie Espagnole
Gennadi Rozhdestvensky
Glinka: Russlan and Ludmilla
Prokofieff: Violin Concerto No. 2
Scriabin: Prometheus for Orchestra, Chorus, Piano, a n d O r g a n
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6
Izler Solomon
Blackwood: Fantasie for Orchestra
Ginastera: Piano Concerto
Arrigo: Tre Occasioni
H i n d e m i t h : Konzertmusik
Leopold Stokowski
Bach-Stokowski: Prelude for Violin Partita No. 3
Ravel: Bolero
Ives: Unanswered Questions
Beethoven: Symphony No. 7

322 A P P E N D I X IV
Igor Stravinsky conducting his own works
Le Charit du Rossignol
Petrouchka, excerpts
Fireworks
"Firebird" Suite
Hans Schmidt-Isserstedt
Handel: Julius Caesar Overture
Haydn: Symphony No. 92, "Oxford"
ProkofiefF: Piano Concerto
Stravinsky: "Firebird" Suite
Evgeny Svetlanov
Rimsky-KorsakofF: Two excerpts from Legend of the Irwisible City of Kitezh
Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 3
ProkofiefF: "Classical" Symphony
Scriabin: Le poeme de l'extase
Arturo Toscanini
Loeffler: Memories of My Childhood
Creston: Choric Dance No. 2
Gould: Lincoln Legend
Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue

FIVE UNITS

Karl Ancerl
Smetana: The Bartered Bride Overture
Richard Meale: Images—Nagauta
Mozart: Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), "Jupiter"
ProkofiefF: Piano Concerto No. 3
Ravel: La Valse
M . E. Bigot
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6, "Pathedque"
BalakirefF: Russia
Rimsky-KorsakofF: Concerto For Piano and Orchestra
Mussorgsky: Night on Bare Mountain
Borodin: Dances From Prince Igor
Sir Adrian Boult
Strauss: Don Juan
Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 1
Arnold Bax: Symphony No. 5
Britten: Les Illuminations
Debussy: Images No. 1: Gigues
Aaron Copland conducting his own works
Fanfare for the Common Man
Appalachian Spring
Concerto For Piano and Orchestra (in one movement)
Concerto For Clarinet, String Orchestra, Harp, Piano

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 323

 " D a n c e " Symphony
Luis Hererra de la Fuente
Chavez: " I n d i a n " Symphony
Tchaikovsky: Concerto for Violin a n d Orchestra, O p . 25
Schoenberg: A Warsazu Survivor
Debussy: Nuages a n d Petes
Ravel: La Valse
Benjamin Grosbayne
Beethoven: Symphony No. 5
Deems Taylor: T h r o u g h the Looking Glass
H o w a r d Hanson: Pan and the Priest
William Grant Still: Afro-American Symphony
Sibelius: Symphony No. 5
J o h n Hopkins
Schubert: Overture to Rosamunde
Tadeusz Baird: Four Essays for Orchestra
Frank Martin: Concerto for W i n d Instruments, Strings, and Percussion
David Ahern: Ned Kelly Music
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 1, "Winter Dreams"
Josef König
Smetana: The Moldau
Suk: Serenade for Harp and Strings
Fibich: At Twilight
Novak: Suite for Orchestra
Dvorak: Husitska Overture
Richard Korn
Barber: School of Scandal
Weinzweig: Symphonie Ode
Creston: Concerto for Piano a n d Orchestra
Mennin: Symphony No. 6
Gottschalk-Kay: Tarantella for Orchestra
Joseph Krips
Mozart: Overture to Cosi Fan Tutte (K. 588)
Symphony No. 35 (K. 385), " H a f f n e r "
Exultate Jubilate (K. 165)
Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer
Mozart: Symphony No. 41 (K. 551), " J u p i t e r "
Herbert Menges C h a m b e r Ensemble
J . S. Bach: B r a n d e n b u r g Concerto No. 3
Concerto in F Minor for Piano a n d Strings
Suite No. 1 for Orchestra
Concerto in A Minor for Violin a n d Strings
Brandenburg Concerto No. 5
Pierre Monteux
Debussy: Nocturnes
Ravel: Suite No. 2 from Daphnis and Chloe
Chausson: Symphony

324 A P P E N D I X IV
 H o n e g g e r : Pacific 231
Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique
Jindrich Rohan
S m e t a n a : The Bartered Bride
Suk: Cuento de Hada, O p . 16
Allende: Concerto for Cello
M a r t i n u : S y m p h o n y No. 6
H a v e l k a : Scherzo
Sir M a l c o l m Sargent
Grieg: P i a n o C o n c e r t o in A M i n o r
H a y d n : S y m p h o n y No. 88
W a l t o n : Faqade
M e n d e l s s o h n : Scherzo in G M i n o r for O r c h e s t r a
Britten: Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Purcell

S I X OR M O R E UNITS

Ernest A n s e r m e t
H a n d e l : Concerto Grosso
Air f r o m Balthazar for S o p r a n o
M o z a r t : S y m p h o n y No. 38 (K. 504), " P r a g u e "
Benner: Des Poemes de la Mer
J a c q u e s - D a l c r o z e : Ronde Printanüre for Voice a n d O r c h e s t r a
Rimsky-Korsakoff: Scheherazade
Malcolm Arnold
Purcell: Suite f r o m Abdelazer
Bliss: Concerto for T w o Pianos
Elgar: " E n i g m a " Variations
Delius: D a n c e R h a p s o d y No. 1
A r n o l d : C o n c e r t o for 2 Pianos a n d O r c h e s t r a
W a l ton: Faqade
Britten: Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Purcell
Pierre Boulez
Stravinsky: Symphony for Wind Instruments
Berg: T h r e e F r a g m e n t s f r o m Wozzek
W e b e r n : Six Pieces for Orchestra, O p . 6
Stravinsky: Four Studies
Boulez: Le soleil des eaux
Debussy: Images
Basil C a m e r o n
H a n d e l : O v e r t u r e to The Occasional Oratorio
J . S. B a c h : P i a n o C o n c e r t o No. 5
B r a n d e n b u r g C o n c e r t o No. 3
H a n d e l : " L e t the Bright S e r a p h i m , " f r o m Samson
J . S. B a c h : B r a n d e n b u r g C o n c e r t o No. 5
H a n d e l : O r g a n C o n c e r t o in F
Granville Bantock: Two Heroic Ballads

REPRESENTATIVE PROGRAMS 325

 Holst: The Planets
Basil C a m e r o n
Sibelius: Prelude to The Tempest
En Saga
Violin Concerto in D Minor
Symphony No. 7
Arthur Bliss: Piano Concerto
Purcell-Wood: Trumpet Voluntary
Friedrich Cerha
Varräe: Hyperprism

Integrales
Ionisation
Satie: La belle eccentrique
Gymnopedies
Embryons desskhes
Suite from Reläche
Paul Paray
Ravel: Daphnis and Chloe
Don Quichotte a Dulcinee
Ma Mere l'Oye
Concerto for Piano a n d Orchestra
Pavane pour une Infante defunte
La Valse
Jose Rosa
J . Nistal: Suite argentina
C. Guastavino: La Rosa y El Sauce a n d Malambo
A. Gutierrez del Barrio: Nuestra Tierra de Paz
0. Napolitano: Cajita de müsica
S. Eisenstein: Trisaglio for Strings
Aguirre-Gaos: Two Creole Airs
A. Chazarreta: Serenata
Argentino; Valle Quinquela
1. Moreno: Quien lo dijera
Dios Filiberto: To te bendigo
Belträn-Coba: Iguazü
Sir Malcolm Sargent
Rossini: Overture to The Barber of Seville
Weber: Concertino for Clarinet a n d Orchestra
Rawsthorne: Piano Concerto No. 1
Strauss: Till Eulenspiegel
Elgar: Pomp and Circumstance
Delius: Brigg Fair
Sea Songs arranged by Sir H e n r y Wood
Arne: Rule Britannia
Parry: Jerusalem
"God Save the Q u e e n "

326 APPENDfX tV
Leopold Stokowski
Mussorgsky: Night on the Bare Mountain
Glinka: Kamannskaya
Shostakovitch: Prelude in B Fiat Minor
Stravinsky: Pastorale
Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture
Scriabin: Poem of Ecstasy
Lyadov: Russian Folk Melodies
Borodin: Polovetzian Dances
Arturo Toscanini
"Star Spangled Banner"
Beethoven: Egmont Overture
Brahms: Symphony No. 1
Harber: Adagio for Strings
Fernandez: Batuque, from Reisado do Pastoreio
Strauss: Don Juan
Ravel: La Valse
Albert Wolf
Ravel: Alhorada del Gracioso
Albeniz: Catalonia
Granados: Goyescas
Debussy: Iberia
Aresku: Suite of Four Basque Dances
Ravel: Rhapsodie Espagnole
de Falla: La vie breve
Turina: Danses fantastiques

REPRESENTATtVE P R 0 6 R A M S 327
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES

GENERAL REFERENCES

Altmann, Wilhelm, Kammermusik-Literatur-Verzeichnis (Leipzig: C. Merse-

burger, 1931); Supplement by F. Hofmeister (Leipzig: 1936).
Orchester-Literatur-Katalog (Leipzig: F. E. C. Leuckhart, 1926).
Barlow, H. and S. Morgenstern, A Dictionary of Musical Themes [instrumental
works], Introduction by J o h n Erskine (New York: Crown Publishers,
1948).
A Dictionary of Vocal Themes (New York: Crown Publishers, 1950).
Blaukopf, Kurt, Lexikon der Symphonie (Teufen, St. Call, Switzerland: Niggli
and Verkauf, 1953).
Burrows, R a y m o n d and Bessie Carroll, Symphony Themes (New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1950).
Concerto Themes: Music and Bihliographies (New York: Simon and Schus-
ter, 1951).
[The] ehester Library, Catalogues of Chamber Music and Small Scores (Lon-
don: ehester Music Publishing Company).
Clarke, Welford D., An Illustrated Dictionary of Musical Instruments with a Glos-
sary of Musical Terms (Chicago, Illinois: Hall and McCreary, 1928).
Cobbett, W . W., Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, 2 vols. (London: Oxford,
1929).
Coeuroy, Andre and Rostand, Claude, Les Chefs-d'Oeuvre de la Musique de
Chambre (Paris; Editions Le Bon Plaisir, Librarie Plön, 1952).
Cohn, Arthur, Chamber Music—Past and Present: A Comprehensive Guide (New
York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952).
Culshaw, John, The Concerto (New York; Chanticleer Press, 1950).
[TheJ Edwin A. Fleischer Music Collection in the Free Library of Philadelphia, 2 vols.
(Philadelphia; Private Print, 1933-45). Includes dates of composers, title
of each work in its original language with English translation, publisher,
Instrumentation, length of time for Performance, date of composition, In-
formation about first Performance.

GENERAL REFERENCES 331

Eulenburgs kleine Partitur-Ausgabe. Thematisches Verzeichnis (Vienna-Leipzig:
E m s t Eulenburg).
Grosbayne, Benjamin, " A Perspective of the Literature on Conducting," Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Musical Association (London: 1941-42).
Helm, Sanford M., Compiler, Catalogue of Chamber Music for Wind Instruments
(Ann Arbor: Music D e p a r t m e n t , University of Michigan, 1952).
Hill, R a l p h , The Concerto (London: Penguin Books, 1952).
Jahresverzeichnis der deutschen Musikalien und Musikschriften (Leipzig: Friedrich
Hofmeister, 1852 on).
McColvin, L. R . a n d W. Reeves, Music Libraries, 2 vols. ( L o n d o n : G r a f t o n
and Company, 1947). See especially Vol. 2.
Müller-Blattau, J . , Taschenlexikon der Fremd-und Fachwörter der Musik (Berlin:
M a x Hesse, 1951).
Mueller, J o h n Henry and K a t e Hevner, Trends in Musical Taste (Bloomington,
I n d i a n a : University of I n d i a n a Press, 1942). Discusses t r e n d s in pro-
gramming in some of the m a j o r symphony orchestras in the United
States.
M ü l l e r - R e u t e r , T h e o d o r , Lexikon der deutschen Konzert-Literatur—Ein Ratgeber
für Dirigenten, etc.. Vol. 1, 1909; Vol. 2, 1921 (Leipzig: C. F. Kahnt). In-
cludes d a t a on G e r m a n classical a n d r o m a n t i c works for orchestra and
Chamber groups, such as date of composition, Instrumentation, publica-
tion, first Performance, conductors, length of Performance, reading lists,
etc. Considers Beethoven, Berlioz, Brahms, Bruch, Draeseke, Gernsheim,
H a y d n , Mendelssohn, Raff, Reinicke, S c h u b e r t , S c h u m a n n , R i c h a r d
Strauss, Wagner.
Pazdirek, Franz, Universal-Handbuch der Musikliteratur aller Reiten und Völker
(Vienna: Pazdirek and C o m p a n y , 1904-10).
Reddick, William, The Standard Musical Repertoire with Accurate Timings (Gar-
den City, N. Y.: Doubleday a n d C o m p a n y , 1947).
Reis, Ciaire R., Composers in America (New York: Macmillan, 1947). Listing of
m a j o r works by native a n d foreign-born composers, timings, publishers,
recordings, etc.
Saltonstall, C. D. and H. C. Smith, Catalogue of Music for Small Orchestra, ed.
by O t t o E. Albrecht ( W a s h i n g t o n : Music Library Association, 1947).
O r d e r from Secretary, Association Music Division, Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C.
Sardä, Antonio, Lexico technolögico musical en varios idiomas, etc. (Madrid: Union
musical espanola, 1929). Definitions in French, G e r m a n , English, Span-
ish, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, etc.
Senechaud, Marcel, Concerts symphoniques: symphonies, oratorios, suites, concertos et
poemes symphoniques; guide ä l'usage des amateurs de musique (Lausanne:
M a r g u e r a t , 1947). Bibliography, Instrumentation, date of composition,
date of first public Performance, timing, a n d recommended readings.
Seredy, Julius S., Compiler, Analytical Orchestra Guide: A Practical Handbook for
the Profession (New York: Carl Fischer, 1929). Each item is listed accord-
ing to mood, form, tempo, duration, etc.
Swan, Alfred Julius, The Music Director's Guide to Musical Literature (New York:
Prentice-Hall, 1941). For voices and Instruments; bibliography.

332 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Ulrich, Homer, Symphonie Music: Its Evolution Since the Renaissance (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1953). Includes major symphonies, concer-
tos, overtures, Symphonie poems, ballets, and suites.
Vannes, Rene, Essai de terminologie musicale. Diclionnaire universel eomprenant plus
de 15,000 termes de musique en ilalien-espagnol-portugais-frangais-anglais-
allemand-latin et grec, disposes en un aiphabet unique (Paris: Editions Max
Eschig, 1925). Label on cover bears imprint; M. Eschig, Paris.
Veinus, Abraham, Victor Book of Concertos (New York: Simon and Schuster,
1948).
Wotton, Tom S., A Dictionary of Foreign Musical Terms and Handbook of Orchestral
Instruments (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1907).
York, T. C., Compiler, How Long Does It Play? A Guide for Conductors (London:
Oxford, 1929). Timing of many Standard orchestral works.

PROGRAM NOTES

Bagar, Robert C. and Louis Biancolli, The Concert Companion (New York:
Whittlesey House, 1947).
Biancolli, Louis, The Analytical Concert Guide (New York: Doubleday and
Company, 1951).
Downes, Olin, Symphonie Masterpieces (New York: Dial Press, 1935).
Gilman, Lawrence, Stories of Symphonie Music (New York: Harper's, 1928-30).
Orchestral Music: An Armchair Guide, compiled and edited by Edward
Cushing (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951).
Goepp, Philip H., Great Works of Music, 3 vols. in 1 (Garden City, New York:
Garden City Publishing Company, 1935).
Haie, Philip, Philip Hale's Boston Symphony Program Notes, Introduction by Gil-
man, ed. by Burk (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1935).
Kretzschmar, Hermann, Führer durch den Konzertsaal (6th ed.; Leipzig: Breit-
kopf, 1921fr; originally published 1 8 7 8 - 1 8 8 0 by A. G. Liebeskind,
Leipzig).
L Abteilung
Bänder I/IL Sinfonie und Suite
IL Abteilung
Band L Kirchliche Werke: Passionen—Messen-Hymnen—Psalmen—Motetten
—Kantaten
Band IL Oratorien und weltliche Chorwerke
Führer durch den Konzertsaal: Die Orchestermusik, begun by Hermann
Kretzschmar (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1932).
Band I. Sinfonie und Suite, von Gabrieli bis Schumann (7th ed.; edited and
completed by Friedrich Noack)
Band II. Sinfonie und Suite, von Berlioz zur Gegenwart (7th ed.; edited
and completed by Hugo Botstieber)
Band III. Das Instrumentalkonzert (by Hans Engel)
Nef, Karl, Geschichte der Sinfonie und Suite (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1921).
Newmarch, R . H., The Concert-Goers' Library of Descriptive Notes, 4 vols. in 1
(London: Oxford, 1936).
O'Connell, Charles, The Victor Book of Overtures, Tone Poems, and Other Orchestral
Works (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1950).

P R O G R A M NOTES 333
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S e a m a n , J u l i a n , ed., Great Orchestral Music: A Treasury of Program Notes ( N e w
Yorlt: R i n e h a r t a n d C o m p a n y , 1950).
Senechaud, Marcel, Concerts symphoniques: symphonies, oratorios, suites, concertos et
poemes symphoniques; guide ä l'usage des amateurs de musique ( L a u s a n n e :
M a r g u e r a t , 1947). Bibliography. I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , d a t e of composition,
d a t e of first public Performance, timing, a n d r e c o m m e n d e d readings.
Spaeth, S. G., A Guide to Great Orchestral Music ( N e w York: T h e M o d e r n
Library, 1943).
U p t o n , G. R , The Standard Concert Guide: A Handbook of the Standard Symphonies,
Oratorios, Cantatas, and Symphonie Poems for the Concert-Goer (Chicago, Illi-
nois: A. C. M c C l u r g , 1908).

JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH

Davies, J . H., " A List of D u r a t i o n s a n d Associated D a t a on Bach's Works,"
pages 411-435 in the Hinrichsen Music Book, Vol. V I I , Hinrichsen's Musical
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1952).
Pirro, Andre, L'esthelique de Jean-Sebastien Bach (Paris: Fischbacher, 1907).
Schweitzer, A l b e r t , J. S. Bach, English version by E r n e s t N e w m a n , 2 vols.
( L o n d o n : A. C. Black, 1938).
Spitta, Philipp, Johann Sebastian Bach, 2 vols. (New York: Dover Publications,
1951).
Terry, C. D., Bach's Orchestra ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d University Press, 1932).
Vetter, Walther, Der Kapellmeister Bach- Versuch einer Deutung Bachs auf Grund seines
Wirkens als Kapellmeister in Kothen ( P o t s d a m : Akademische Verlagsgesell-
schaft Athenaion, 1950).
Volbach, Fritz, " U e b e r die Orchester-Besetzung Bach'scher Werke," Allgemeine
musikalische Leitung, no. 4 ( 1 9 1 3 ) .

LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN

Beethoven's Symphonies, a r r a n g e d for p i a n o , two h a n d s , ed. a n d a n n o t a t e d by
Percy Goetchius (Boston: Oliver Ditson).
Beethoven's Nine Symphonies Fully Described and Analyzed, 2 vols., E d w i n Evans,
Sr. (London: William Reeves).
D a m r o s c h , W a l t e r , " H a n s von B ü l o w a n d t h e N i n t h S y m p h o n y , " Musical
Quarterly (April 1927). Cf. A u g u s t M a n n ' s Dr. Hans von Bülow's Prescrip-
tions for the Cure of Anti-Bülowism; also, the article in the Internationale
Musikzeitung c o n c e r n i n g August M a n n ' s Opposition to Bülow's "misread-
i n g " of t h e trio (Scherzo) in Beethoven's N i n t h S y m p h o n y a d o p t e d by
Richter a n d later conductors.
Grove, Sir George, Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies (London: Novello, 1903).
Kolisch, R u d o l f , " T e m p o a n d C h a r a c t e r in Beethoven's M u s i c , " Musical
Quarterly (New York: April a n d J u l y 1943).
Scherchen, H e r m a n n , " T h e I n d i v i d u a l Characteristics of O r c h e s t r a l Instru-
ments, as Exemplified in Beethoven's Symphonies," in The JVature of
Music (Chicago: H e n r y R e g n e r y C o m p a n y , 1951).

334 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
T h o m a s , T h e o d o r e a n d Frederick Stock, Talks about Beethoven's Symphonies
(Boston a n d N e w York; Oliver Ditson, 1930). Analytical essays with
diagrams.
Tovey, Sir D o n a l d Francis, Beelhoven ( L o n d o n : Oxford University Press, 1946).
Essays in Musical Analysis, Vol. I ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d University Press,
1935).
W e i n g a r t n e r , Felix, On the Performance of Beethoven's Symphonies ( N e w York:
E. F. Kalmus, 1939).

JOHANNES BRAHMS

B r o w n , P. A., Brahms—The Symphonies ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press,

1939).
Evans, E d w i n , Sr., Handbook to the Chamber and Orchestral Music of Brahms, 2
vols. ( L o n d o n : Reeves, 1933, 1935).
Harrison, Julius, Brahms and His Four Symphonies (London; C h a p m a n a n d Hall,
1939).

STYIE, INTERPRETATION, CRITICISM

Ansermet, Ernest, " L e Geste d u chef d ' o r c h e s t r e , " in G e a A u g s b o u r g ' s Ernest

Ansermel et l'orchestre de la Suisse romande (Lausanne; L ' A b b a y e du livre,
1943).
Berlioz, Hector, Evenings in the Orchestra, tr. R o c h e (New York: K n o p f , 1929).
Blaukopf, K u r t , Grosse Dirigenten (Teufen, St. Gall, Switzerland: Niggli a n d
Verkauf, 1953). Bibliography a n d discography.
Bukofzer, M., " O n the P e r f o r m a n c e of Renaissance Music," Proceedings of the
Music Teachers' National Association (1941).
C a r n e r , Mosco, " M a h l e r ' s R e - S c o r i n g of t h e S c h u m a n n S y m p h o n i e s , " Of
Men and Music ( L o n d o n : J o s e p h Williams, 1944). C f Felix Weingartner,
Schubert und Schumann, Vol. 2 in Ratschläge für Aufführungen klassischer Sym-
phonien (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1918).
Deldevez, E. M . E., Curiosites musicales (Paris; Firmin Didot, 1873). O n doubt-
ful passages in classical compositions a n d variants in editions.
De l'execution d'ensemble (Paris; F i r m i n Didot, 1888).
Dolmetsch, A., The Interpretation of the Music of the I7th and 18th Centuries, Re-
vealed by Contemporary Evidence ( L o n d o n : Novello, 1915).
Dorian, Frederick, The History of Music in Performance: The Art of Musical Inter-
pretation frSm the Renaissance to Our Day ( N e w York: Norton, 1942).
Failoni, Sergio, Senza Sordina ( R o m e ; Piccinelli, 1946).
Fuller-Maitland, J . A., The Consort of Music: A Study of Interpretation and Ensem-
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Furtwängler, Wilhelm, Gespräche über Musik (Zürich; Atlantis-Verlage, 1948).
English Version, L. J . L a w r e n c e ' s Concerning Music ( L o n d o n : Boosey and
Hawkes, 1953). Note C h a p t e r V.
Gelatt, R o l a n d , Music Makers ( N e w York; K n o p f , 1953). Considers, a m o n g
others, Beecham, Walter, M ü n c h , Mitropoulos, Toscanini.
Gounod, Charles, Mozart's "Don Giovanni" ( L o n d o n : Oxford, 1895).

STYIE, INTERPRETION, CRITICISM 335

H a a s , R o b e r t M a r i a , Aufführungspraxis der Musik ( W i l d p a r k - P o t s d a m : A k a -
d e m i s c h e Verlagsgesellschaft A t h e n a i o n , 1 9 2 8 - 3 2 ) . Bibliographies.
H a g g i n , D . F., Music in the Nation ( N e w York; W i l l i a m S l o a n e Associates,
1949).
H a r d y , R o s a m o n d E. M . , On the Origin and History of the Forte and Piano; The
Crescendo and Diminuendo in Origins of Musical Time and Expression ( L o n d o n :
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1938).
H a r r i s o n , J u l i u s , " T h e C o n d u c t o r ' s R o l e , " in The Musical Companion, ed. A. L.
B a c h a r a c h ( L o n d o n : V i c t o r G o l l a n c z , 1934, a n d N e w York; K n o p f ,
1935 a n d T u d o r , 1948).
H e n d e r s o n , W. J . , " F u n c t i o n s of t h e C o n d u c t o r , " The Orchestra and Orchestral
Music ( N e w York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1927).
H e r z f e l d , F r i e d r i c h , Magie des Taktstocks: Die Welt der groszen Dirigenten, Kon-
zerte und Orchester (West Berlin: V e r l a g Ullstein, 1953).
H o w e s , F r a n k , " C o n d u c t o r s a n d C o n d u c t i n g , " Füll Orchestra ( L o n d o n : M a r -
tin Secker a n d W a r b u r g , 1947).
I n g h e l b r e c h t , D. E., Comment on ne doit pas Interpreter 'Carmen,' 'Faust' et 'Pelleas'
(Paris: H e u g e l , 1933).
Diabolus in musica, esmi sur la musique et ses interpräes (Paris: C h i r o n , n.d.).
Le Chef d'orchestre et son equipe ( P a r i s ; R e n e J u l l i a r d , 1949), t r a n s l a t e d
b y G. P r e r a u e r a n d S. M a l c o l m K i r k , The Conductor's World ( L o n d o n :
P. Nevill, 1953).
Mouvement contraire. Souvenirs d'un musicien, L Vers les T e m p s H e u r e u x
( D o m a t ) ; I L Vers les T e m p s N o u v e a u x (in p r e p a r a t i o n ) .
K l i n g , H . , Der vollkommene Musik-Dirigent ( H a n n o v e r : Louis Oertel's Musik-
Verlag, 1891). C o n t a i n s reflections a n d suggestions c o n c e r n i n g t h e Inter-
p r e t a t i o n of o l d e r m u s i c a l works, errors in editions, a n d r e p r i n t s of some
of R i c h a r d W a g n e r ' s essays o n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . E n g l i s h r e v i s e d a n d en-
larged version, ed. b y S a e n g e r ( N e w York: C a r l Fischer, 1902).
Koussevitsky, Serge, " P o e t r y a n d M u s i c : M u s i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; a n d S o m e
R e m a r k s a b o u t A m e r i c a n O r c h e s t r a s , " Proceedings of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 73, no. 1, p p . 1 - 6 , S e p t e m b e r 1938.
K u f f e r a t h , M a u r i c e , L'Art de diriger, Richard Wagner et la neuvieme Symphonie.
Hans Richter et la Symphonie en 'ut' mineur. L'Idylle de Siegfried—Interpretation
et tradition (Paris; F i s c h b a c h e r , 3 r d ed., 1909).
L a l o y , Louis, The Future of Music: Coming Changes Outlined in Regard to Com-
poser, Conductor and Orchestra, tr. M r s . F r a n z L i e b i c h ( L o n d o n : W i l l i a m
Reeves, 1914).
L u a l d i , A d r i a n o , L'Arte di Dirigere. Antologia e Guida ( M i l a n : U l r i c o H o e p l i ,
2 n d rev. ed., 1949). T h e s e c o n d p a r t of t h e w o r k c o n t a i n s I t a l i a n ver-
sions of essays b y Berlioz, S c h u m a n n , W a g n e r , Sir H e n r y W o o d , W e i n -
g a r t n e r , Liszt's letter o n c o n d u c t i n g , V i t t o r i o G u i ' s How to Study an Or-
chestral Score, L a z a r e S a m i n s k y ' s The Art of the Orchestral Conductor, C h a r l e s
G o u n o d ' s The Interpretation of Mozart, a n d Tullio S e r a f i n ' s The Orchestral
Director.
M ü n c h , C h a r l e s , Je suis Chef d'Orchestre ( P a r i s : Editions d u C o n q u i s t a d o r ,
1954), English version, I Am A Conductor, tr. L e o n a r d B u r k a t ( N e w York:
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1955).

336 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Nietzsche, Friedrich, Richard Wagner in Bayreuth (Leipzig: P. Reclams, 1937).
Parry, Sir H u b e r t , Style in Musical Art ( L o n d o n : Macmillan, 1924).
Pochon, Alfred, Musique d'autrefois: Interpretation d'aujourd' hui ( G e n e v a : H e n n ,
1943).
Porges, Heinrich, Die Aufführung von Beethovens 9. Symphonie unter Richard Wag-
ner in Bayreuth, May 22, 1872 (Leipzig: C. F. K a h n t , 1872).
Prager, Sigfrid, How to Conduct Dvoräk's New World Symphony ( N e w York: E. F.
K a l m u s , 1940), Brochure.
How to Conduct Franck's Symphony in D Minor ( N e w York: E. F. K a l -
mus, 1940), Brochure.
S a i n t - S a m s , Charles Camille, Outspoken Essays (London: K e g a n Paul, Trench,
Trubner, 1922).
Saminsky, Lazare, " L ' A r t du chef d ' o r c h e s t r e , " La Revue musicale, N o v e m b e r
1, 1922. Cf. M r . Saminsky's " T h e N e w Art of C o n d u c t i n g , " in Music of
Our Day (New York: T h o m a s Y. Crowell, 1932) a n d in Lualdi's L'Arte di
Dirigere.
Schering, A r n o l d , Aufführungspraxis alter Musik (Leipzig: Q u e l l e a n d M e y e r ,
1931).
S c h u m a n n , R o b e r t , On Certain Corrupted Readings of Passages in the Works of
Bach, Mozart, Beethoven in Essays and Criticisms, tr. F. R . Ritter, first series
( L o n d o n : William Reeves, 7th ed., 1880). R e p r i n t e d in Robert Schumann,
On Music and Musicians ( N e w York: P a n t h e o n , 1952).
Seidl, Anton, Ueber das Dirigieren (Bayreuther Blätter, 1900). T h e English Ver-
sion a p p e a r s in t h e Memorial Volume to Seidl by His Friends ( N e w York:
Scribner's, 1 8 9 6 - 9 7 ) ; a n d also in The Music of the Modern World, ed. by
A n t o n Seidl a n d others ( N e w York: D. Appleton, 1895).
Shaw, George Bernard, Music in London 1890-94, 3 vols. ( L o n d o n : Constable,
1932).
London Music in 1888-89 as Heard by Corno di Bassetto ( N e w York:
D o d d , M e a d , 1937).
" S h a w on Conductors," interview with Benjamin Grosbayne {New York
Herald Tribüne, S u n d a y M u s i c Section, M a y 5, 1939).
Shore, B e r n a r d , Sixteen Symphonies, F o r e w o r d by Sir A d r i a n Boult ( L o n d o n :
Longmans, Green, 1949, a n d N e w York, 1950). Analyses by the first
violist of the BBC O r c h e s t r a f r o m t h e point of view of an orchestral
player.
The Orchestra Speaks ( N e w York: L o n g m a n s , G r e e n , 1946). A first-
h a n d report on rehearsals u n d e r some famous conductors.
Strauss, R i c h a r d , Recollections and Reflections ( L o n d o n a n d N e w York: Boosey
a n d Hawkes, 1953).
TafFanel, Paul, " L ' A r t d e diriger," in the Encyclopedie de la musique du Conserva-
toire et dictionnaire du Conservatoire (Paris: Delagrave, 1925).
T h o m s o n , Virgil, Music Right and Lefl ( N e w York: H e n r y H ö h , 1951).
State of Music (New York: William Morrow, 1939).
The Art ofjudging Music ( N e w York: K n o p f , 1948).
The Musical Scene (New York: K n o p f , 1945).
Tovey, Sir Donald Francis, A Companion to 'The Art of Fugue, J. S. Bach' (Lon-
don: Oxford University Press, 1931).

STYLE, I N T E R P R E T I O N , C R I T I C I S M 337
 A Musiaan Talks, 2 vols.: The Integrity of Music, Vol. 1; Musical Textures,
Vol. 2 (Oxford, 1941).
Beethoven, with a n editorial preface by H u b e r t J . Foss (Oxford, 1945).
Essays in Hentage of Music, " G l u c k " in Vol. 1, 1927; " S c h u b e r t "
in Vol. 2, 1934.
Essays in Musical Analysis: Vol. 1, Symphonies, 1935; Vol. 2, Symphonies
(2), 1935; Vol. 3, Concertos, 1936; Vol. 4, Illustrative Music, 1936; Vol. 5,
Vocal Music, 1937; Vol. 6, Miscellaneous Notes, Glossary, Index, 1939; Cham-
ber Music, 1944 (Oxford).
Musical Articles from Ihe Encyclopedia Britannica, 1944.
Musical Form and Matter ( O x f o r d , 1934).
Some English Symphonists: A Selection from Essays in Musical Analysis (Ox-
ford, 1941).
The Mainstream of Music and Other Essays, Introduction by H u b e r t Foss
(Oxford, 1949).
W a g n e r , R i c h a r d , Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen (Leipzig: Breitkopf,
1912-28).
Prose Works, tr. by W . A. Ellis ( L o n d o n : K e g a n , Paul, Trench, 1892-
99). Note varicus essays: " O n the R e n d e r i n g of Beethoven's N i n t h Sym-
p h o n y , " " O n F o u n d i n g a Music School in M u n i c h , " "Beethoven's Heroic
S y m p h o n y , " " T h e O v e r t u r e to C o r i o l a n u s , " " T h e O v e r t u r e to the Fly-
ing D u t c h m a n , " " T h e O v e r t u r e to T a n n h ä u s e r , " " T h e P r e l u d e to
Lohengrin." See especially Vol. 3, The Theater a n d Vol. 4, Art and Politics.
Ueber das Dirigieren (1869). This classic appears in English in both the
Ellis Version a n d in E d w a r d D a n n r e u t h e r ' s translation ( L o n d o n : Wil-
liam Reeves, 1885). A f o u r t h edition of the latter Version a p p e a r e d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in t h e Neue Zeitschrift für Musik a n d in t h e New-Torker-
Musik-Zeitung. It s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e p a r t of t h e composer's collected
works. Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen von Richard Wagner, 10 vols.
(Leipzig: E. W . Fritzch, 1871-1883).
W e i n g a r t n e r , Felix, Akkorde: Gesammelte Schriften (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1912).
Includes " U e b e r die A r t , Liszt zu D i r i g i e r e n , " " D e r D i r i g e n t , " "Felix
M o t t l , " a n d " B r a h m s , ein Meister d e r I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s k u n s t . "
Die Symphonie nach Beethoven (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 4th ed., 1897). Eng-
lish Version by A r t h u r Bles: The Symphony Writers Since Beethoven, w i t h a
N o t i c e of W e i n g a r t n e r ' s S y m p h o n y No. 5 by D. C. P a r k e r ( L o n d o n :
William Reeves, 1924). C f H u g u e s I m b e r t ' s La Symphonie apres Beethoven.
Reponse ä M. Felix Weingartner (Paris: Fischbacher, 1900), a n d M . Imbert's
" L T n c i d e n t W e i n g a r t n e r " in Le Guide musical (Brüssels), Vol. 47, No. 6,
p. 125 (February 10, 1901).
Bayreuth (1876-1896) (Berlin: S. Fischer, Ist ed., 1897; Leipzig: Breit-
kopf, 2nd rev. ed., 1904).
Ratschläge für Aufführungen klassischer Symphonien, Vol. 1 on Beethoven
(Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1906), English Version by Jessie C r o s l a n d as On the
Performance of Beethoven's Symphonies (Breitkopf, 1907; reissued by E. F.
K a l m u s , N e w York, 19,39). Vol. 2 on S c h u b e r t a n d S c h u m a n n (Breit-
kopf, 1918). Cf. Mosco C a r n e r , " M a h l e r ' s Re-Scoring of the S c h u m a n n

338 BIBLIOGRAPHIE5
 Symphonies," in Of Men and'Music (London: Joseph Williams, 1944).
Vol. 3 on Mozart (Breitkopf, 1923). There are no English versions of
Vols. 2 and 3.
lieber das Dirigieren (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1895). Reissued many times.
English Version On Conducting, by Ernest Newman (Breitkopf, 1906). Re-
issued by E. F. Kalmus, New York. French Version Sur l'art de diriger by
Emile Heintz (Breitkopf).
Weissmann, Adolf, Der Dirigent in XX. Jahrhundert (Berlin: Propyläen Verlag,
1925).
Der übermächtige Dirigent in Die Entgötterung der Musik (Stuttgart:
Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1928).
See also the prose writings of Hector Berlioz, Claude Debussy, Charles
Gounod, Rimsky-Korsakoff, Franz Liszt, Romain Rolland, Camille
Saint-Saens, Robert S c h u m a n n , R i c h a r d Strauss, Peter Tchaikovsky,
R i c h a r d Wagner, R a l p h V a u g h a n Williams, and Karl M a r i a von
Weber.
TECHNIQUE
BakaleinikoflF, Vladimir, Elementary Rules for Conducting (Nev/ York: Boosey-
Hawkes-Belvt'in, 1938).
Berlioz, Hector, The Orchestral Conductor; Theory of His Art. Various reprints of
this classic. Originally the Supplement of the composer's Grand traite
dTnstrumentation et d'Orchestration modernes, 1844. English versions include
that issued by Carl Fischer, New York, and the John Broadhouse trans-
lation (London: William Reeves, 1936).
Boult, Adrian C., A Handbook on the Technique of Conducting. Printed for the
Use of the Royal College of Music, Oxford (London: Hall the Printer,
1920 and 1939; 7th rev. ed., London: Oxford Hall, Goodwin and Tabb,
1951).
Braithwaite, Henry Warwick, The Conductor's Art (London: Williams and
Norgate, 1952).
Cahn-Speyer, Rudolf, Handbuch des Dirigierens (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1919).
Carse, Adam, Orchestral Conducting (London: Augener, 1928).
Choisey, Frank, "Faut-il diriger par coeur?" in La Revue musicale, J a n . 1,
1906. Letters from Chevillard, Wood, Strauss. C f Ferdinand Hiller's
" U e b e r das Auswendig-Dirigieren" in Musikalisches und Persönliches
(Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1876).
Clifford, Herbert, A Comprehensive Manual for Conductors (London: Boosey,
Hawkes, 1939).
Croger, T. R., Notes on Conductors and Conducting (London: W i l l i a m Reeves,
1917).
Diestel, Hans, Ein Orchestermusiker über das Dirigieren, Foreword by Richard
Strauss (Berlin: Adler, 1931).
Dolmetsch, Rudolph, The Art of Orchestral Conducting, Illustrated by T. L.
Poulton (London: Bosworth, 1942).
Finn, William Joseph, The Conductor Raises His Baton, Foreword by Leopold
Stokowski (New York: Harper's, 1944).

TECHNIQUE 339
G o l d b e c k , F r e d e r i c k , The Perfect Conductor: Listemng lo Music With Tour Eye
( N e w York: Pellegrini a n d C u d a h y , 1951).
H a r t m a n n , Rudolf, Handbuch des Korrepetierens (Berlin: Hesse, 1926).
Heesen, D. K a r l v a n , Handbook of Conducting (Rochester, N e w York: T h e
E a s t m a n School of M u s i c Series; rev. edn., N e w York: A p p l e t o n - C e n -
tury-Crofts, 1950).
H u t s c h r e n r u y t e r , Wouter, De Dirigent ( M u s i c a - B i b l i o t h e k . H i l v e r s u m : J . J .
Lispet, 3rd edn., n.d.).
Inghelbrecht, D. E., Le Chef d'orchestre et son equipe (Paris: R e n e J u l l i a r d ,
1949), translated by G. P r e r a u e r a n d S. M a l c o l m K i r k , The Conductor's
M/orW (London: P. Nevill, 1953).
K e m p t e r , M a x , Das Wesen des Dirigierens. Grundlage, System sowie Darstellung der
Taktierbewegungen in allen ihren formellen und graduellen Verschiedenheiten im
Bilde. 1. Teil. Grundlage-System mit schematischer Darstellung der Taktierbewe-
gungen (Zürich: E. K e m p t e r - L o t t , 1950). N o m o r e published.
Klebs, P a u l , Von Rhythmus und von der Technik des Dirigierens (Cassel: J . G.
O n c k e n , 1924).
K o m o r n - R e b h a n , M a r i a , Was wir von Bruno Walter lernten ( V i e n n a : W i e n e r
Singakademie Veranstaltete Ausgabe, Universal-Edition, 1936-37). A
report on M r . Walter's rehearsals of H a n d e l ' s Messiah, Beethoven's Missa
Solemms, M a h l e r ' s Eighth S y m p h o n y , a n d the Requiems by M o z a r t a n d
Verdi.
L a m b i n o n , Nikolas, Der Orchestermusiker (Berlin: G. H a a s , 1932).
Lewis, J o s e p h , Conducting without Fears, Vol. 1, Conducting—A General Survey,
1942; Vol. 2, Choral and Orchestral Conducting, 1945 ( L o n d o n : Ascherberg,
H o p w o o d a n d Crew).
M a l k o , Nikolai A n d r e e v i c h , The Conductor and His Baton, Fundamentals of the
Technic of Conducting ( C o p e n h a g e n : William H a n s e n , 1950).
Moore, Gerald, The Unashamed Accompanist ( N e w York: M a c m i l l a n , 1944).
M ü l l e r - B l a t t a u , J o s e p h , " D i e L e h r e v o m F ü h r e n u n d Folgen in C h o r u n d
O r c h e s t e r (Dirigierlehre)," P a r t s 2 1 - 2 4 o{ Hohe Schule der Musik (Pots-
d a m : A k a d . Verlag. A t h e n a i o n , 1936).
Otterstein, A d o l p h W., The Baton in Motion ( N e w York: C a r l Fischer, 1940).
Pappoutsakis, Ippocrates, Diagrams of Basic Movements in Conducting, Foreword
by Francis Findlay (Boston, Mass.: C. C. Birchard, 1943).
P e m b a u e r , Jos., Ueber das Dirigieren. Die Aufgaben des Dirigenten beleuchtet vom
Standpunkte der verschiedenen Disziplinen der Kompositionslehre (Leipzig: F. E.
C. Leuckhart, 1907).
Pfitzner, H a n s E r i c h , Werk and Wiedergabe, Vol. 3 in Gesammelte Schriften
(Augsburg: B. Filser, 1929). Counsel on rehearsal techniques.
Previtali, F e r n a n d o , Guida allo studio della direzione d'orchestra ( R o m e : De
Santis, 1951).
R e c k t e n w a l d , Fritz, Ueber das Dirigieren. Praktische Ratschläge für Kapellmeister,
Chormeister und solche die es werden wollen ( V i e n n a : Ad. Robitschek, 1929).
R o y a a r t , M . C. van de. De Orkestdirigent (Hilversum: H a r m o n i e - U i t g a v e ) .
R u d o l p h , M a x , The Grammar of Conducting: A Practical Study of Modern Baton
Technique, Foreword by George Szell ( N e w York: G. Schirmer, 1950).

340 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Scaglia, C a r l o , Guida allo studio della direzione d'orchestra ( M i l a n ; A. a n d G.
Carisch, 1929).
Scherchen, H e r m a n n , Lehrbuch des Dirigierens (Leipzig: J . J . Weber, 1929); tr.
into English by M . D. Calvoccoressi (Oxford, 6th ed., 1949) as Handbook
of Conducting. T h e S p a n i s h ed. a p p e a r e d in 1933 in R o b e r t o G e r h a r d ' s
translation as El Arte de Dirigir la Orquesta (Barcelona: Editorial Labor).
Schmid, Adolf, The Language of the Baton ( N e w York: G. Schirmer, 1937).
Schroeder, C a r l , Handbook of Conducting ( L o n d o n : Augener, 1889).
Schul Weida, R i c h a r d , Vademecum für Kapellmeister. Praktischer Anhang zu den
Klavierauszügen der Repertoire-Opern. Eine Zusammenstellung der gebräuchlichsten
Aenderungen, Einlagen und Streichungen (Leipzig: M a x Brockhaus, 1901).
Shore, Bernard, The Orchestra Speaks ( N e w York a n d L o n d o n : Longmans,
Green, 1946). A r e p o r t on r e h e a r s a l m e t h o d s a n d t e c h n i q u e s of over a
dozen famous conductors, by t h e first violist of the BBC Orchestra.
Stoessel, Albert, The Technic of the Baton, Preface by Walter D a m r o s c h ( N e w
York: Carl Fischer, 1920).
Szendrei, Alfred, Dirigierkunde (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1932).
T h i e n e m a n n , Alfred, Die Kunst des Dirigierens ( P o t s d a m - L e i p z i g : Selbst-
Unterrichts-Briefe. M e t h o d e R u s t i n . Bonnesz u n d H a c h f e l d , 3rd edn.,
1930).
T h o m a s , K u r t , Lehrbuch der Chorleitung, 3 vols. (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1948); Vol.
3 considers the orchestra.
"Ist der Taktstock n o t w e n d i g ? " in the Allgemeine Musikzeitung, No. 32,
68th year.
Wallace, William, " C o n d u c t o r s a n d C o n d u c t i n g , " in the Musical Times (Lon-
d o n : J u l y 1 through Dec. 1, 1924).
Waltershausen, H e r m a n n W o l f g a n g , Die Kunst des Dirigierens (Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1943).
Wilson, R o b e r t Barclay, The Technique of Orchestral Conducting, F o r e w o r d by
Sir D a n Godfrey ( L o n d o n : Stainer a n d Bell, 1937).
Wood, Sir Henry, About Conducting, F o r e w o r d by H u b e r t Foss ( L o n d o n : Sylvan
Press, 1945).

ORCHESTRATION AND INSTRUMENTATION

S t a n d a r d a n d recent works on I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d orchestration, w r i t t e n at
various periods, offer invaluable aid in determining questions of tone balance
a n d style, in determining errors a n d technical possibilities a t a n y given time,
a n d for related questions. T h e following list, available in English, should suf-
fice for most s t u d e n t s ' purposes. It will be n o t e d t h a t t h e r e seems to be no
a g r e e m e n t a m o n g writers c o n c e r n i n g the precise m e a n i n g of t h e two words,
Instrumentation a n d orchestration. Both have been used to m e a n a consider-
ation of the technical possibilities of I n s t r u m e n t s or of t h e a r t of c o m b i n i n g
orchestral tone colors.

Berlioz, Hector, A Treatise Upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration (French

original, 1843; tr. Clarke, L o n d o n : Novello, 1853; new ed. rev. Bennett,
1904). This classic has been b r o u g h t u p to date with valuable additional

ORCHESTRATION A N D INSTRUMENTATION 341

 examples and comment. Among such revisions and enlargements are
Widor's (in French); Weingartner's (in German); Strauss's (in German),
issued in Theodore Front's English Version in 1948 by E. F. Kalmus,
New York; Ettore Panizza's (in Italian), etc.
Carse, Adam, Historj of Orcheslration (New York: Dutton, 1925).
The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, England: Heffer,
1948).
Casella, Alfredo and Mortari, Virgilio, La Tecnica dell'Orchestra Contemporanea
(Milan: G. Ricordi, 1950). Publication in New York of English version
by Clarence Raybould announced.
Coerne, L. A., The Evolution of Modern Orcheslration (New York: Macmillan, 1908).
Corder, Frederick, The Orchestra and How to Write for Ii (London and Phila-
delphia: Curwen, 1902).
Forsyth, Cecil, Orchestralion (New York: Macmillan, 1935).
Gevaert, F. A., New Treatise on Instrumentation, tr. Suddard (Paris: Lemoine,
1909).
Hofmann, Richard, Practical Instrumentalion, 7 parts, tr. Legge (London:
Augener, 1898).
Kennan, Kent Wheeler, The Technique of Orcheslration and Orchestralion Work-
book (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1952). Bibliography.
Kirby, Percival, Kettledrums: A Book for Composers, Conductors and Keltledrummers
(London: Oxford University Press, 1930).
Kling, Henri, Orcheslration and Instrumentalion, with Hector Berlioz's The Or-
chestral Conductor—Theory of His Art, rev. and enlarged edn. by Saenger
(New York: Carl Fischer, 1902).
Kohs, Ellis B., "An Aural Approach to Orchestration" in The Musical Mercury
(New York: E. F. Kalmus, M a r c h - M a y double number, 1939).
Malipiero, G. F., The Orchestra, tr. Blom (London: Chester, 1920), Brochure.
Piston, Walter, Orchestration (New York: W. W. Norton, 1955).
Prout, Ebenezer, The Orchestra, 2 vols. (London: Augener, 1897-98).
Read, Gardner, Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices (New York and London: Pit-
man Publishing Corporation, 1953).
Rimsky-Korsakoff, Principles of Orcheslration, 2 vols., tr. Agate (Edition Russe,
Paris, 1914; reissued by E. F. Kalmus, New York, 1932). Digest form by
Adolf Schmid (New York: Boosey and Hawkes, 1950).
Widor, Charles, The Technique of Ihe Modern Orchestra; A Manual of Practical In-
strumentation, tr. Suddard (London: Williams, 1906; New York: Schu-
berth), rev. and new edn. with an Appendix by Gordon Jacob (London:
Joseph Williams, 1946).
SCHOOL ORCHESTRA

Bodegraven, Van and Wilson, Harry Robert, The School Music Conductor (Chi-
cago, Illinois: Hall and McCreary, 1942).
Carr, Raymond Norman, Building the School Orchestra (New York: G. Schirmer,
1923).
Carse, Adam, On Conducting School Orchestras (London: Augener, c. 1928), re-
printed from the Monlhly Musical Record.
The School Orchestra: Organization, Training and Repertoire (London:
Augener, 1925).

342 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
 ClifFord, Hubert, The School Orchestra: A Comprehensive Manual for Conductors
(London: Boosey and Hawkes, 1939).
Earhart, Will, The Eloquent Baton (New York: Witmark, 1931).
Gehrkens, Karl W., Essentials in Conducting (Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1919).
Twenty Lessens in Conducting (Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1919).
Geppert, H e r m a n n , Praktische Winke für den Leiter eines Schulorchesters (Mark-
neukirchen: J o h a n n e s Adler, n.d.).
Gordon, Philip, The Availability of Contemporary American Music for Performing
Croups in Htgh Schools and Colleges (New York: Teachers College, 1950).
Hawkes, F. G., Studies in Time and Tempo; A Handbook for Conductors (London:
T h e Salvationist Publishing Company, 1936).
Hindsley, M . H., School Band and Orchestra ( L o n d o n : Boosey a n d Hawkes,
1940).
Holmes, Malcolm H., Conducting an Amateur Orchestra, Foreword by Archibald
T . Davison (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1951).
Howes, Frank, The Füll Orchestra (London: Martin and Secker, 1947).
J a c o b , Archibald, Musical Handwriting, Preface by Sir Henry Wood (London:
Oxford, 1937), chapters 6 and 7 on "Orchestra Parts and Scores."
Korn, R . H., How to Organize the Amateur Band and Orchestra (New York: Carl
Fischer, 1928).
Maddy, J . E . and T . P. Giddings, Instrumental Technique for Orchestra and Band:
A Comprehensive Textbook for Organizmg and Conducting Amateur Assemblies,
with Appendices on Dance Orchestras and Repairing Instruments (Cincinnati,
Ohio: Willis Music C o m p a n y , 1926).
Mikorey, Franz, Grundzüge einer Dingierlehre (Leipzig: C. F. K a h n t , 1917).
Newton, L. G., and T . Cambell Young, The Book of the School Orchestra (Lon-
don: Oxford University Press, 1936).
Righter, Charles B., Success in Teaching School Orchestras and Bands (Minneap-
olis: Paul A. Schmitt Music Company, 1949).
Scholz, Horst-Günther, Der Laiendirigent; Anweisungen und Hilfen mit Praktischen
Beispielen (Berlin-Lichterfelde: C. F. Vieweg, 1937).
Waltershausen, Herm. W . von, Dirigent-Erziehung (Leipzig: Quelle und Meyer,
1929).
Woods, Glenn H., School Orchestras and Bands (Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1920).
Wright, Z. Porter, The School Band and Orchestra Organizer's Handbook (Cleve-
land: H. N. White Company, 1927).

SCORE-READING AND T RA N S PO S IT IO N
J o h a n n Sebastian Bach
Incomparable training in the skills of score-reading and transposition is
to be found in many of Bach's works. Problems of choice are bewilder-
ing; here are a few. Suggested procedura is to study the two-hand arrange-
ments first as written, then transposed to various keys, and then to re-
peat the procedure with open score arrangements. Where the open score
is not easily obtainable, the Student may copy it out in this Version from
the two-hand arrangement.

(1) 371 Four Part Chorales. T w o - h a n d a r r a n g e m e n t ( B r e i t k o p f or

Kalmus).

SCORE-READING AND TRANSPOSITION 343

 (2) Lieder und Arien für vierstimmigen gemischten Chor, o p e n score
(Breitkopf).
(3) Chorales, selected a n d e d i t e d by C h a r l e s N, Boyd a n d Albert
Riemenschneider. Both open a n d d o s e scores, 2 vols. ( N e w York:
G. Schirmer, 1939).
(4) Vierstimmige Kirchengesänge, open score, eight parts, edited by Wol-
d e m a r Barghiel (Berlin: Bote a n d Bock, 1932).
(5) Two and Three Part Invenlions. Of t h e m a n y editions, t h a t edited by
B e r n a d u s B o e k e l m a n ( B o s t o n M u s i c C o m p a n y ) s t a n d s out.
" P r i n t e d in DifFerent Colors for Self-Instruction."
(6) Of the various editions of The Forty-eight, two stand out in interest,
b o t h u n f o r t u n a t e l y being difficult to obtain at present. (a) Forty-
Eight Fugues for the Wohltemperirte Klavier in Score with Proper Olefs,
students' edition, edited by Charles Vincent, 2 vols. ( L o n d o n : E.
D o n a j o w s k i , 1891). (b) Joh. Seb. Bach: 16 Fugues with Änalytical
Expositions in Colors and Appended Harmonie Schemes, ed. b y Bern-
a d u s B o e k e l m a n , 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 1 2 ( N e w York: E d w a r d S c h u b e r t h ) .
R u n n i n g c o m m e n t a r y a n d analysis. A delight to t h e eye.
(7) Kunst der Fuge ( T h e Art of F u g u e ) , various editions; two h a n d a n d
open score, some both.
(8) Das Musikalische Opfer ( T h e Musical O f f e r i n g ) , recent reprint
( N e w York: E. F. K a l m u s ) .
Bernstein, M a r t i n , Score Reading; a Series of Graded Excerpts ( N e w York: M .
W i t m a r k , 1932).
D a y m o n d , Emily, Score Reading Exercises ( L o n d o n ; Novello, 1905-08), 2 pts.
Eslava, Solflge Method, ed. by J u l i a n Carrillo (New York: G. Schirmer).
Fetis, F. J . , How to Play from Score ( L o n d o n : William Reeves, 1888).
Gäl, H a n s , Directions for Score Reading ( V i e n n a P h i l h a r m o n i a Edn., 1948).
G a r d n e r , Maurice, The Orchestrator's Handbook (Great Neck, N e w York: Stagg
Music Publishing Co., 1948).
G o l d b e c k , F r e d e r i c k , The Perfect Conductor: Listening to Music With Tour Eye
(New York: Pellegrini a n d C u d a h y , 1951).
H a r d i n g , H . A., Score Reading Exercises ( L o n d o n : Weekes, 1912), 2 pts.
J a c o b , Gordon, How to Read Score ( L o n d o n : Boosey a n d Hawkes, 1944).
Kling, Henri, Transposition ( N e w York: C a r l Fischer, 1940).
Kroyer, T h e o d o r e , Der Vollkommene Partiturspieler (Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1930).
I m p o r t a n t for historical notes.
Lenz, Donald A., Transposition by Clef (Minneapolis: P a u l H . Schmitt, 1949).
L i n d e n b u r g , E d o u a r d , Comment lire une partition d'orchestre, Preface by A r t h u r
H o n e g g e r (Paris: H e u g e l , 1952).
Lovelock, William, Introduction to Orchestral Score Reading ( L o n d o n ; A. H a m -
m o n d , 1952). Exercises.
Moore, Earl V. a n d Glenn M c G e o g h , Syllabus for th^ Introduction to Music
Literature ( A n n A r b o r , M i c h i g a n : E d w a r d s Brothers, 1951). S t a n d a r d
orchestral works analyzed from the point of view of musical form.
Morris a n d Ferguson, Preparatory Exercises in Score Reading (New York: Oxford,
1931).

344 BIBLI06RAPHIES
Nott, F. J . , Score Reading Exercises (London: Weekes, 1920).
Peppin, A. H., Elementary Score Reading (London; Novello, 1909).
Reeves, Aubrey, comp., Studies in Vocal Score Reading, 2 vols. (London: Ham-
mond, 1938).
Rice, Eustace B., ed., Transposition by C/^(Boston: New E n g l a n d Conserva-
tory of Music, 1900).
Riemann, Hugo, Introduction io Playingfrom Score (London: Augener, 1902).
Rood, Louise, An Introduction to the Orchestra Score (New York: Kalmus, 1948).
Schluer, C a r l G., An Introduction to Score Reading (Bryn M a w r , Pennsylvania:
Ditson, Presser, 1950).
Singing Exercises (Solfige des solfeges) — Thirty Four Volumes containing a great num-
ber of lessons by Classical and Modern Composers; Selected and Graduated by A.
Danhauser and L. Lemoine with Additional Material by Albert Lavignac (Paris:
Henry Lemoine, and Philadelphia: Elkan-Vogel, n.d.).
Thienemann, Alfred, Partiturspiel (Potsdam-Leipzig: Bonnesz u n d Hachfeld,
n.d.).
Warriner, John, Transposition (Keyboard and Orchestral) (London: Novello, 1893).
Supplement to above (Novello, 1900?).
Simply studying the excerpts in the various texts on orchestration consti-
tutes in itself a good practica! series of graded exercises.
The Cranz Edition of m a n y classical a n d romantic orchestral scores with solo
pianoforte reduction at bottom offers the Student v a l u a b l e aid (New York:
Southern Music Publishing C o m p a n y ) .
One of the most instructive procedures in the study of score-reading is to
compare pianoforte arrangements of orchestral works with the orchestral
versions. Practically all the Standard repertory is available in both forms. Of
special interest is a composer's own two versions, e.g., many of Ravel's works,
a n d especially his orchestral Version of Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition,
with piano two-hand a r r a n g e m e n t at bottom of the füll score in the Boosey
a n d Hawkes pocket score.
ORGANIZATION
Grant, M a r g a r e t a n d H e r m a n S. Hettinger, American Symphony Orchestras and
How They Are Supported (New York: W . W . Norton, 1940).
Municipal Auditoriums a n d The Movement for Orchestras in American Cities, two
reports compiled by the Construction a n d Civic Development Depart-
ment, C h a m b e r of Commerce of the United States (Washington, D.C.,
n.d.).
Thompson, Helen M., The Community Symphony Orchestra—How to Organize and
Develop It (Charleston, West V i r g i n i a : A m e r i c a n S y m p h o n y Orchestra
League, 1952).
Zanzig, Augustus D., Starting and Maintaining a Community Orchestra, Foreword
by E. la Prade (New York: National Recreation Association, 1940).

ORGANIZATION 345
SUPPLEMENTARY B I B LI O G R A P H I E S

Pending the completion of an updated bibliography in English and the main

European languages, the author ofFers the following list of references. T h e Student
should keep his own card file and add items which he comes across from time
to time which prove of special interest and value.

TECHNIQUE
Bamberger, Carl, ed., The Conductor's Art (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965). A
collection of essays by various authorities.
Blackman, Charles, Behind the Baton (New York: Charos Enterprises, 1964). A
collection of essays about the conductor's functions.
Boulez, Pierre, Notes of an Apprenticeship (New York: Knopf, 1960).
Boult, Sir Adrian, Thoughts on Conducting (London: J . M. Dent, Phoenix House,
1963). Short bibliography.
Bowles, Michael, The Art of Conducting (Garden City, New York: Doubleday,
1959). Introduction by Sir Adrian Boult.
Busch, Fritz, Der Dirigent, ed. Grete Busch and Thomas Mayer (Zürich: Atlantis
Verlag, 1961). Introduction by Raphael Kubelik.
Cox-Ife, William, The Elements of Conducting (London: J . Baker, 1964). Foreword
by Sir Adrian Boult.
Dart, Thurston, The Interpretation of Music (London: Hutchinson's University
Library, 1954).
Dehnert, Max, Ratschläge für den Musikgruppenleiter: Ein Handbuch der Orchesterpraxis
(Leipzig: F. Hoffmeister, 1954).
Fuchs, P. P., The Psychology of Conducting (New York: M C A Music, 1970).
Green, E. A. H., The Modern Conductor: A College Text Based on the Principles of Nicolai
Malko as set forth in his T h e ConductOr and His Baton (Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, 1969). Bibliography and werk book (seating plans, termi-
nology, language chart, table of bowings).
Haas, Robert, Aufführungspraxis der Musik (Potsdam: Akademische Verlagsgesell-
schaft Athenaion, 1931).

346 SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES

K a h n , Emil, Conducting (New York: Free Press, 1965). A collection of füll scores.
Krueger, Karl, The Way of tke Conductor, His Origins, and Procedures (New York:
Scribner's, 1958).
Lewis, Joseph, Conducting without Fears (London: Ascherberg, Hopwood, a n d
Crew, 1942 and 1945). Vol. I, A General Survey; vol. II, Choral and Orchestral
Conducting.
McElheran, Brock, Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals (London:
Oxford University Press, 1966). Foreword by Lukas Foss.
Noyes, Frank, Fundamentals of Conducting ( D u b u q u e , Iowa: W. C. Brown, 1960).
Anthology of Musical Examples for Instrumental Conducting ( D u b u q u e , Iowa:
W. C. Brown, 1961). Correlated with the reference above.
Das Orchester im Urtheil berühmter Dirigenten (Berlin: Deutscher Musikverleger-
Verband, 1927).
Schieri, Fritz, " U b e r das Dirigieren asymmetrischer R h y t h m e n , " in Musiker-
kenntnis und Musikerziehung: Dankesgaben für Hans Mersann zur seinem 65. Geburt-
stage, ed. Walter W i o r a (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1958).
Stravinsky, Igor, a n d Robert Graft, Themes andEpisodes (Hew York'. Knopf, 1966).
Waters, F. E., Practical Baton Technique for Student Conductors (Chicago: G a m b l e
Hinged Music Co., 1939).
Woodbury, Ward, Leadership in Orchestral Conducting (Rochester: University of
Rochester Press, 1954). Extract in Journal of Research in Music Education 2
(Fall 1955).

SCORE-READING
Bölsche, Egon, Old Clefs (Leipzig: Edition Peters, 1952).
Bruneiii, Giulio, La Lettura della Partitura (Bologna: Edizioni Bongiovanni, 1956).
Creuzburg, Heinrich, Partiturspiel: Ein Übungsbuch in vier Bänden (Mainz: Schott,
1956-1960). Score-reading; notes in English, German, a n d French. Vol. 1,
old clefs, with musical examples from ancient composers through Mozart;
vol. II, Crossing of parts, transposing of Instruments, "scordatura," etc.; vol.
III, crossing of parts, combinations of transposing Instruments, piano tran-
scriptions of difficult notes; vol. IV, difficult transpositions of wind a n d brass
Instruments.
Katzner, Violet, ed., Symphonie Skeleton Scores (Philadelphia: Theodore Presser,
n.d.). T h e series includes Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Tchaikovsky's
Symphonies Nos. 4 a n d 6, Schubert's "Unfinished" Symphony, Franck's
Symphony in D Minor, Brahms' Symphony No. 1, a n d Mozart's S y m p h o n y
in C Minor. Synopses of form, m a i n melodic lines, etc. which the Student
should apply to other works.
Norton Critical Scores (New York: W. W. Norton). T h e series includes Mozart's
S y m p h o n y in G. Minor, Bach's C a n t a t a No. 4, Schubert's Symphony in
B Minor, a n d Stravinsky's Petrushka.
Partitura con Motazione a Suoni Reali (Milan: E. Sonzogno; Leipzig: Breitkopf u n d
Härtel). Füll orchestral scores are written already transposed with only the
treble a n d bass clefs used. Despite approval of the International Didactic
Congress held in Milan in December 1908 at the Royal Conservatory, the
idea has apparently not caught on.

SCORE-READING 347
Schiegl, H e r m a n n , and Ernst Schwarzmaier, Themensammlung musikalischer
Meisterwerke, 2 vols. (Frankfurt: Diesterweg, 1959, 1964). Vol. I, Symphonische
Musik der Klassik; vol. II, Symphonische Musik der Romantik.

THE O R C H E S T R A AND O R C H EST R A T IO N

Barzun, Jacques, Berlioz and the Romantic Century, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown,
Atlantic Monthly, 1950). In vol. II note "Berlioz—Golleague a n d Conduc-
tor" a n d the list of errors in the complete edition of scores.
Bekker, Paul, The Orchestra (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963).
Carse, A d a m , The History of Orchestration (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, a n d
Trubner, 1925; New York: Dover, 1964). S u m m a r y of the methods of
conducting orchestras from early 18th to early 19th centuries.
The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, England: W. Keffer,
1948 a n d 1968).
The Orchestra in theXVIII Century (London: W. Helfer, 1968). Bibliography.
Mueller, J o h n H., The American Symphony Orchestra: A Social History of Musical Tastes
(Bloomington: I n d i a n a University Press, 1951).
Parrott, lan, Method in Orchestration (London: Dennis Dobson, 1957). Foreword
by E d m u n d R u b b r a .
Read, Gardner, Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices (New York: Pitman, 1953).
Volbach, Fritz, Das moderne Orchester, in seiner Entwickelung, 2nd ed., 2 vols.
(Leipzig: Teubner, 1919-1921).

PROGRAM NOTES
Aronowsky, S., Performing Times of Orchestral Works (London: E. Benn, 1955).
Foreword by Percival R . Kirby.
Austin, W. W., Music in the Twentieth Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966).
Boll, Andre, a n d Emile Damais, Repertoire analytique de la musique fran^aise des
origines ä nos jours (Paris: Horizons de France, 1948).
Buschkötter, Wilhelm, Handbuch der internationalen Konzertliteratur (Berlin: W. de
Gruyer, 1961).
D e m u t h , N o r m a n , Musical Forms and Textures: A Reference Guide, 2nd ed. (London:
Barrie a n d Rockcliff, 1964).
Newmarch, Rosa, The Concert-Goer's Library of Descriptive Notes, 4 vols. (London:
Oxford University Press, 1936).
Pochon, Alfred, Musique d'autrefois, Interpretation d'aujourd'hui (Geneva: H e n n ,
1943).
R o u t h , Francis, Teach Tourself Contemporary Music (New York: Dover, 1968).
Bibliography.
Wood, Sir Henry, " A n n u a l Prospectus of the Promenade Concerts," Royal Albert
Hall, London. Composers, works, categories, soloists, conductors, a n d tim-
ings from the classics to contemporary works.

BY AND ABOUT CONDUCTORS

Conductors as a class have been very articulate. T h e following list, restricted
to English when possible, should show the Student some of the more practical
aspects of this field of h u m a n endeavor. T h e biographical volumes ränge from

348 SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES

frank invasions of privacy a n d entertaining journalism to the scholarly a n d
rewarding studies in personality a n d critical evaluation.

Beecham, Sir T h o m a s , A Mingled Chime (New York: G. P. Putnam's, 1943),

Blaukopf, Kurt, Great Conductors, trans. M i r i a m Blaukopf (London: Arco Publi-
cations, 1955). Bibliography, discography.
Boulez, Pierre, Notes of an Apprenticeship (New York: Knopf, 1969).
Brook, Donald, International Gallery of Conductors (London: Barrie a n d RockclifF,
1951>
Busch, Fritz, Pages from a Musician's Life, trans. E. Strachey (London: H o g a r t h
Press, 1933).
Damrosch, Walter, My Musical Life (New York: G. Schirmer, 1923).
Ewen, David, Dictators of the Baton (Chicago: Alliance Book Corp., 1943).
Furtwängler, Wilhelm, CoUectedEssays, trans. L. A. Fenn (London: J o h n Calder,
1967).
Concerning Music, trans. L J . Lawrence (London: Boosey a n d Hawkes,
1953). Note chapter 5.
Goosens, Eugene, Overture and Beginners: A Musical Autohiography (London:
Methuen, 1951).
Klemperer, Otto, Minor Recollections, trans. J . Maxwell (London: Brownjohn,
1964).
Krebs, Karl, Meister des Taktstocks (Berlin: Schuster u n d Loeffler, 1919).
Laser, Arthur, Das moderne Dirigent (Leipzig: Breitkopf u n d Härtel, 1904).
Mahler, Alma, Gustav Mahler: Memories and Letters, trans. Basil Creighton.
(London: J . M u r r a y , 1946).
Markevitch, Igor, Made in Italy, trans. D a r i n a Silone (Paris: Julliard, 1949).
R o n a l d , Sir L a n d o n , Myself and Others: Written Lest I Forget (London: S. Low,
Marston, 1931).
Seidl, Arthur, Moderne Dirigenten (Berlin: Schuster, 1902).
Sordet, Dominique, Douze chefs d'orchestre (Paris: Fischbacher, 1924).
Stoddard, Hope, Symphony Conductors of the U.S.A. (New York: T h o m a s Y. Crowell,
1957).
Strauss, Richard, Recollections and Reßections, trans. L J . Lawrence (London:
Boosey a n d Hawkes, 1953).
Swoboda, Henry, ed., The American Symphony Orchestra (New York: Basic Books,
1967).
Theodore Thomas: A Musical Autohiography, ed. George P. Upton, 2 vols. (Chicago:
A. C. McClurg, 1905).
Unger, Heinz, with N a o m i Walford, Hammer, Sickle and Baton: The Soviel Memoires
of a Musician (London, Cresset Press, 1939).
Walter, Bruno, Of Music and Music-Making, trans. P. H a m b u r g e r (New York:
W. W. Norton, 1961).
Theme and Variations: An Autohiography, trans. J a m e s A. Galston (New York:
Knopf, 1946).
Weingartner, Felix, Büffets and Rewards, trans. M . Wolff (London: Hutchinson,
1937). Another volume awaits publication; the composer's widow is pre-
paring his biography.

BY AND ABOUT CONDUCTORS 349

Wood, Sir Henry, My Life in Music. (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938). Introduc-
tion by Sir H u g h Allen,
Young, Percy M., World Conductors (London: Abelard-Schuman, 1966).
HISTORY AND HISTORICAL INTEREST

Carse, A d a m , Orchestral Conducting (London: Augener, 1929).

Haas, Robert, Aufführungspraxis der Musik (Potsdam: Akademische Verlagsgesell-
schaft Athenaion, 1931).
L ö b m a n n , Hugo, Z'^r Geschichte des Taktierens und Dirigierens (Düsseldorf: Schwann,
1913).
Schoenberg, Harold, The Great Conductors (New York: Simon a n d Schuster, 1967).
S c h ü n e m a n n , Georg, Geschichte des Dirigierens (Leipzig: Breitkopf u n d Härtel,
1913). M a n y seating plans of orchestras.
Wallace, William, " T h e Conductor a n d His Forerunners," The Musical Times
64-65 (1923-1924).
"Conductors a n d Conducting," The Musical Times 65 (1924).
Waltershausen, H e r m a n n Wolfgang von, Die Kunst des Dirigierens (W. de Gruyter,
1954). Bibliography; M u c h concentrated in small space: history, psychol-
ogy, technique, style.
Wooldridge, David, Conductor's World (New York: Praeger, 1970). History, criti-
cism, and discussion; interpretations of m a n y Standard works.
Young, Percy M., The Concert Tradition: From the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century
(New York; Roy Publishers, 1965). Bibliography.

THE PLAYERS' POINT OF VIEW

Antek, Samuel, This Was Toscanini (New York: V a n g u a r d Press, 1963). Foreword
by Marcia Davenport; photographs by Robert H u p k a ; discography. By
the late violinist who played under the maestro for 17 years. Includes a n
account of rehearsals.
Dickson, H a r r y S., Gentlemen: More Dolce Please (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969). T h e
Boston Symphony.
Jackson, Gerald E., First Flute, ed. David Simmons (London: J . M. Dent, Phoenix
House, 1968). Foreword by Sir J o h n Barbirolli. Reminiscences of one who
played under m a n y famous conductors.
Russell, Thomas, Philharmonie (London: Hutchinson, 1942). Introduction by
J . B. Priestly. T h e author, a violinist, discusses finances, programs, record-
ings, audiences, Instruments, players, children's concerts, a n d evolution of
the modern orchestra.
Tillis, Malcolm, Chords and Discards: The Life of an Orchestral Musician (London:
J . M . Dent, Phoenix House, 1969).

350 SUPPLEMENTARY BIBIIOGRAPHIES


(The numbers in italics indicate pages on which musical excerpts may be found.)
Abendroth, Hermann, 235
Acceleranda, 47, 51, 77
Accent, 39-40, 67-72, 100-101
Accompaniment, orchestral, 170-191
Acoustics, 9, 173, 212, 240
Alden, R a y m o n d MacDonald, 104
Alexander, Josef, Morning Prayer, 58
A Ite und Neue Musik 25 Jahre Basler Kammer-
orchester, 256
Ansermet, Ernest, 241
Apel, Willi, 105
Arkhangelsky, Alexander Andreievitch,
Day of Judgment, 105
Assemna, Marcel, 255
Attack, 23, 25-26,54-66, 184-185, 221. See
also Cuing in
Bach, J o h a n n Sebastian, 96, 142, 240, 248,
256, 258; "Ach, Gott und Herr," 91; The
Art of Fugue, 80; "Christus, der ist mein
Leben," 88; Forty-Eight, 80, 102; Irmeri-
tions and Fugues, 80; Suite No. 1 in D,
45; "Wie schön leuchtet der Morgen-
stern," 84
Bar lines, 86. See also Measure groupings
Harber, Samuel: Essay for Orchestra, 68,
116; Second Essay for Orchestra, 70, 74, 116
Bartok, Bela, Concerto for Orchestra, 116
Basel Chamber Orchestra, 255
Basel Friends of Old Music, 255
Baton: choosing, 12-13; conducting with-
out, 13-14; dropping, 14; holding,
INDEX
20-21; when conducting staccato and
legato, 102-103
Bax, Arnold, Symphony No. 3, 116
Beecham, Thomas, 231
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 142, 194-200,
205, 241, 248; Coriolanus Overture No.
3, 32, 80, 109, 181; Egmont Overture,
259; Fantasia for Pianoforte, Choir, and
Orchestra, 242; Fidelio Overtures, 259;
Grosse Fuge, 258; Leonora Overture No.
2, 38; Leonora Overture No. 3, 32, 80,
109, 181; Missa Solemnis, 94, 245, 250;
Pianoforte Concerto No. 4, 242, 243; Pi-
anoforte Concerto No. 5,242,243; Piano-
forte sonatas, 102, 258; Septet, 259;
Symphony No. 1, 23, 45, 80, 95, 242;
Symphony No. 2, 85; Symphony No. 3,
243; Symphony No. 4, 33, 96, 144-145;
Symphony No. 5, 29, 62, 242, 259;
Symphony No. 6, 59, 109, 122; Sym-
phony No. 7, 61, 62, 93, 99, 145, 157,
172, 194-200, 206; Symphony No. 8, 26,
101, 146; Symphony No. 9, 35, 64, 81,
112, 113, 128, 129, 155, 157, 158, 182,
206, 220, 242, 243, 245, 250; Violin
Concerto, 176-178; Violin Sonata No.
9, 259
Berlioz, Hector, 4, 65, 72, 130, 204, 241;
Damnation of Faust, 130; Grande Messe des
Morls, 240; L'Enfance du Christ, 72, 158,
159; "Fantastic" Symphony, 32, 51, 56,
127-173, 203; Harold tn Italy, 126, 130;
351
Berlioz, Hector (cont.) Corbani, M., 255
Roman Carnival Overture, !24, 154-155; Corona, see Holds
Romeo and Julut, 123 Couperin, Frangois, 255
Bertrand, Antoine de, 252 Crescendo, see Holds
Bizet, Georges, 206; "L'Arlesienne" Suite Criticism, 4, 5, 8, 235-236
No. 1, 57; Carmen, 187 C u i n g in, 78-80, 81-82, 183-185, 188.
Bloch, Ernest, " A m e r i c a " Symphony, 69, See also Attack
89, 116 Cut-off, 55, 87-89, 93-94
Boieldieu, Fran9ois Adrien, La Dame
Blanche Overture, 68, 98
Davison, A. T., 105
Borodin, Alexander, Symphony No. 2, 26,
Debussy, Claude, 206, 248; L'Apres-midi
28, 36, 37, 116
d'un faune, 34, 47, 116, 121, 148; La Mer,
Boston Symphony Orchestra, 244, 252
52, 116, 124, 134-136, 248; Nocturnes,
Botsford, F. H., 107
No. 2, "Fetes," 122; Six epigraphes an-
Boult, Adrian, 226, 241
tiques, 68, 116
Brahms, Johannes, 206, 240, 241; " H a y d n
Decrescendo, see Volume
Variations," 242; Hungarian Dances, 165;
Deldevez, Edouard, 109
Symphony No. 1, 50, 107, 157; Sym-
Delius, Frederick: Appalachia, 127; On
phony No. 2, 30, 37, 38, 45, 47, 81, 86,
Hearing Ihe First Cuckoo in Spring, 50, 87;
94, 133, 152-154; Symphony No. 3, 47;
Summer Night on the River, 52
Symphony No. 4, 51, 81, 91, 94, 148
Diestel, Hans, 214
Brass section, 9, 65, 222
Breath pause, 25-26, 39, 43, 47, 55, 58, d'Indy, Vincent, 240; " S y m p h o n y on a
French M o u n t a i n T h e m e , " 116
92-96
Dolmetsch, Arnold, 255
Bruch, M a x , 241
Dolmetsch, Carl, 255
Bruckner, Anton, 242, 249, 260; Sym- Dolmetsch Foundation, 253
phony No. 1, 122; Symphony No. 2, 127, Down beat, 24, 25, 56, 134, 184
128; Symphony No. 4, 23 Draeseke, 241
Bülow, Hans von, 142, 220 Dufay, Guillaume, 256
Dukas, Paul, The Sorcerer's Apprentice, 34,
142-143, 155
Cadenzas: orchestral, 166-170; solo, 166,
Duncan, Edmonstoune, 104
175, 211
Duple rhythm, see R h y t h m
Caesura, see Breath pause
Dvof-äk, Antonin: Scherzo Capriccioso, 93;
C a p p e l l a Coloniensis, 256
Slavomc Dances, 165; Symphony No. 5,
Carse, A d a m , 259
26
Casadesus, Henri, 252
Chabrier, Alexis: Espana, 124; Gwendoline
Overture, 128 Elgar, Edward, 258, 259
Chaille, Pierre, 255 End beat, 87-89, 93-95
Chambures, Countess, 255 Enesco, Georges, Rumanian Rhapsodies, 165
Charpentier, Gustave, Impressions of lialy, Entrance, see Attack
93 Eulenburg, Ernst, 107
Chausson, Ernest, Symphony in B flat, 112 Exercises: arm, 18; band and wrist, 16-18
Chevillard, Camille, 118-119
Chopin, Frederic, 159, 206, 258, 260 Faila, M a n u e l de: Concerto for Harpsi-
Cinconia, Johannes, 256 chord, 253; El Amor Brujo, 74; El Retablo
Clarion Concerts, 253 de Moese Pedro, 253
Clef-reading, 8, 209, 231 Fasano, Renato, 253
Clemens non Papa, Jacobus, 256 Faure, Gabriel, 240
Composition, as requirement for conduc- Fermata, see Holds
tor, 7 Folk songs, 107
Copland, Aaron: Appalachian Spring, 69, 74, Franck, Cesar, Symphony in D Minor, 41
108; " D a n c e " Symphony, 116 Fürtwangler, Wilhelm, 226, 234

352 INDEX
Glinka, M i c h a i l Ivanovitch, Russlan and Koussevitzky, Serge, 226, 234, 241, 242
Ludmilla O v e r t u r e , 36 Kreisler, Fritz, 235
Gluck, C h r i s t o p h W i l l i b a l d von, Iphigenia K r e t z s c h m a r , H e r m a n n , 106
in Aulls O v e r t u r e , 56
Goetschius, Percy, 106, 197 L a m b i n o n , Nikolas, 214
G o l d m a r k , K a r l , Rustic Wedding, 58 Lassus, O r l a n d u s de, 252, 256
Gonzalez, M., 255 Leclair, J e a n M a r i e , 256
G o u n o d , Charles, " J e w e l S o n g " f r o m Left h a n d , 75-80, 9 8 - 1 0 0 , 2 1 8 - 2 1 9
Faust, 188-189 Legate, 25, 27, 31, 39, 43, 50, 56, 66,
Gregorian c h a n t , 105 101-103, 130, 152, 172
G u n g l , J o s e p h , 40 L e h a r , F r a n z , 107, 165; " M e r r y W i d o w "
Waltz, 39
H a n d e l , George Frederick, 248, 252, 256 Leitner, F e r d i n a n d , 256
Hanson, Howard: "Nordic" Symphony, Leoncavallo, R u g g i e r o , Pagliacci, 28
116; S y m p h o n y No. 3, H l Levi, H e r m a n n , 4, 143
H a r m o n y , 196 Liadoff, A n a t o l C o n s t a n t i n o v i t c h : Ballade
Harris, R o y , S y m p h o n i e s Nos. 2 a n d 3, 116 de rApocalypse, 116; Eight Russlan Folk
H a y d n , F r a n z J o s e p h , 205, 241; The Crea- Songs, 116; Musical Snuff Box, 146
tion, 250; " L a R e i n e " S y m p h o n y , 26; Liszt, F r a n z , 159, 241, 248; Hamlet, 89;
S y m p h o n y No. 4, " C l o c k , " 33, 146; Second Hungarian Rhapsody, 162-165
S y m p h o n y No. 5, " L o n d o n No. 2," 88;
S y m p h o n y No. 6, " S u r p r i s e , " 31; S y m - M a h l e r , Gustav, 92, 249, 260; S y m p h o n y
p h o n y No. 11, " M i l i t a r y , " 23; Sym- No. 1, 93; S y m p h o n y No. 2, 89; Sym-
p h o n y No. 12, 92 p h o n y No. 4, 116
H e r b e r t , Victor, 107 M a r s u d a i r a , Yaritsuno, 242
Higgs, J a m e s , 80 M a r t i n , F r a n k , Petile Symphonie, 253
Hill, E. B., S y m p h o n y No. 3, 116 M a s c a g n i , Pietro, Cavalleria Rusticana, 28
H i n d e m i t h , P a u l , 253; M a t h i s der M a l e r , Massenet, J u l e s , Manon, 187-188
35, 47, 48, III M e a s u r e groupings, 151-165, 188, 196, 197
H o l d s , 28, 8 1 - 9 6 M e m o r i z a t i o n , 4 - 5 , 37, 115, 116, 152, 197,
Holst, G u s t a v : The Hymn to Jesus, 116; The 247-248
Perfect Pool, 116; The Planets, 250 M e n d e l s s o h n , Felix, 241, 242; Midsummer
H o n e g g e r , A r t h u r , Pacific 231, 123 Night's Dream O v e r t u r e , 82; Songs W i t h -
H u g h e s , Spike, 206 o u t Words, 19; S y m p h o n y No. 4, 58
M e n g e l b e r g , W i l l e m , 8, 145, 234, 258
I n g h e l b r e c h t , D. E., 118; El Greco, 119; M e t r o n o m e , 12, 19, 146
Pom le jour de la premiere neige au vieux M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t , 252
Japan, 118 M e y e r b e e r , G i a c o m o , 109; L'Africaine, 110
I n s t r u m e n t s , c o n d u c t o r ' s ability to play, 4, Miaskovsky, Nicolas, S y m p h o n y No. 7,
9-10 116
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 4, 5, 141-146, 159, 192, M i l a n , Luis, 252
198, 206 M i l h a u d , D a r i u s , The Creation of the World,
Isaac, H e i n r i c h , 256 250
Möller, H . , 107
J e n k i n s , Newell, 254 M o n t e u x , Pierre, 132, 226, 234, 240, 241
J o a c h i m , J o s e p h , 241 M o t t l , Felix, 143
J o s q u i n Des Prez, 256 M o z a r t , W o l f g a n g A m a d e u s , 205, 206,
248, 251, 260; Don Giovanni, 134, 135;
K i r k , S. M a l c o l m , 118 Magic Flute O v e r t u r e , 60, 61; Marriage of
K l e m p e r e r , O t t o , 249 Figaro O v e r t u r e , 23, 199; P i a n o C o n -
K o d ä l y , Z o l t ä n , " H a r y J a n o s " Suite, certo in A M a j o r (K.288), 174-176;
86-87 S y m p h o n y in C , " L i n z " (K.425), 51;
K o e c h l i n , Charles, Five Choraks in Middle S y m p h o n y in D, " H a f f n e r , " 31; S y m -
Age Modes, 116 p h o n y in G M i n o r (K.550), 80, 206

INDEX 353
M u c k , Karl, 226, 235, 244
M u d a r r a , 252
Musin, Ovid, 234-235
Mussorgsky, Modest, 260; The Feast, 116;
Pictures at an Exhibition, 116, 126; The
Ragamußn, 116
Nikisch, Arthur, 224, 231-232
Obrecht, J a c o b , 256
Ockeghem, J e a n , 256
O'Connell, Charles, 106
Offenbach, J a c q u e s : Orpheus in Hades, 52;
Tales of Hoffmann, 108
Opera, see Vocal music
Otten, Kees, 256
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 250, 256
Percussion section, 9, 65, 222
Phrasing, see Measure groupings
Pitch, 8-9, 85-86, 218, 221
Pizzicato, 172, 175, 222
Pochon, Alfred, 143
Poetry, in relation to music, 104
Poulenc, Francis, Concert Champetre,
Praetorius, M i c h a e l , 256
Prerauer, G., 118
Programs, 238-245, 246-250; balance in,
247; and nationalism, regionalism,
240-241; practical considerations,
239-240; principles in making, 244-245,
246-250; lengths, 241-244
Prose rhythms, 104-106, 180
Purcell, Henry, 256
Rachmaninoff, Serge, Isle of the Dead, 117
Raff, Joseph, 241
R a m e a u , Jean-Philippe, 252, 255, 256
Ravel, Maurice, 143, 144, 248; Alborado del
Gradoso, 33; Bolero, 143, 146; Daphnis and
Chloe, 69, 117, 122, 239; Miroirs, 117;
Mother Goose Suite, No. 2, 117; Spanish
Rhapsody, 108, 124, 129, 137, 168-170,
J7J; String Quartet, 117; La Valse, 239
Rebound, 24-25, 30-31, 39, 41, 102, 105,
146-147
Recitative: orchestral, 180-182; vocal,
183-191
Recktenwald, Fritz, 142
Rehearsal, 4, 120-121, 183, 216-228; a n d
attitude of conductor, 222-224; and
caliber of orchestra, 217-218; and disci-
pline, courtesy, 226-227; general proce-
dures, 219-220; other conductors',
354
224-225; pantomimic signs, 218-219;
and Players' errors, 220-222
Rehearsal hall, 212
Reiner, Fritz, 231
Reinicke, 241
Release, see Cut-off
Respighi, Ottorino, 258
Rests, 64-65, 86, 155-158; at end of meas-
ure, 184-185
Retards, 28, 47, 77, 148, 173, 202
R h y t h m , 104-119, 198; poetry and, 104;
prose and, 104-105
R h y t h m s : combined, 67-74, 120-138;
duple, 22, 36-38; shifting, 107-109,
113-117; triple, 30, 36, 38-39
Richter, Hans, 143
R i e m a n n , Hugo, 105
Rimsky-Korsakoff, Nikolai, 260: Antar,
168; Capriccio Espagnol, 168; "Golden
Cockerel" Suite, 126, 168; Mlada, 117;
100 chants nationaux russes, 107; Russian
Easter Ovenme, 70, 117, 126, 167, 168;
Sadko, 182; Scheherezade, 25, 27, 59, 82,
90, 121, 168, 181-182; Snow Maiden, 70;
253 Tsar Saltan, 117
Rossini, Gioachino, Barber of Seville Over-
ture, 59
Rubato, 159-165
R u b b r a , Edmund, 248
Sacher, Paul, 255
Safonoff, Vassily, 14
Satie, Erik, 248
Scarlatti, Alessandro, 253, 256
Schering, Arnold, 105
Schmitt, Florent, La Tragedie de Salome, 118
Schoenberg, Arnold, Von Heute auf Morgen^
117
Schola Cantorium Basiliensis, 255
Schubert, Franz, 241; Symphony No. 7,
42; "Unfinished" Symphony, 31
S c h u m a n n , Robert, 205-206, 258, 260;
Manfred Overture, 57; Pianoforte Con-
certo in A Minor, 178-179; Scenes from
Childhood, 19; Symphony No. 1, 23;
Symphony No. 4, 90, 92, 147
Score: conducting without, 14-15,
247-248; cutting, 202; editing, 205-206,
257-260; marking a n d correcting,
201-205; study a n d analysis, 192-200,
208-210; turning pages of, 76
Seating plan, 212-213, 232-233
Seidl, Anton, 3 - 4
Sevcik, Otakar, School of Violin Playing, 254
INDEX
S h a w , George B e r n a r d , 143, 144, 248, 259 T e m p o , 6 8 - 7 3 , 100, 141-150, 159-165,
Shore, B e r n a r d , 214 199-200, 220. See also T i m e - b e a t i n g ;
Shostakovitch, D m i t r i , 240 Metronome
Sibelius, J e a n , 240; Finlandia, 67; S y m - T h e o r y , as r e q u i r e m e n t for conductor, 7 - 8
phony No. 5, 47, 64, 108, III, 158 T h o m a s , C . L. Ambroise, Mignon Over-
S i g h t - r e a d i n g , 107 ture, 52
Silent bars, 38 T h o m a s , K u r t , transcription of old Ger-
Silent beats, 155-158, 184-185 m a n Song, 105
Societe des I n s t r u m e n t s Anciens, 232 T h o m a s , Theodore, 242, 231
Societe de M u s i q u e d'Autrefois, 252, 253, T i m e - b e a t i n g , 5, 16, 19; one to t h e bar,
255 3 7 - 4 0 , 71, 123-125; two to the bar,
Solfege, 8 - 9 , 193, 196, 219, 220, 221 2 2 - 2 9 , 124-126; three to the bar, 3 0 - 3 5 ,
Soloists, See A c c o m p a n i m e n t 128-129; four to the bar, 4 1 - 4 9 ,
S p a e t h , S i g m u n d , 106 126-128; five to the bar, 6 7 - 7 1 ; six to
Spiccato, 101, 204, 220 the bar, 5 0 - 5 2 ; seven to t h e bar, 7 2 - 7 4 ;
Spohr, L u d w i g , 14, 130-131; The Birth of eight to the bar, 44; twelve to the bar,
Music, 131 4 6 - 4 8 ; coalescent beats, 32, 102; inter-
Staccato, 31, 39, 45, 56, 66, 101-103, 152 p o l a t e d measures, 109-113; rests, 6 4 - 6 5 ,
S t a m i t z , J o h a n n , 253 86, 155-158, 184-185; w i t h left h a n d ,
Stokowski, Leopold, 258 7 7 - 7 8 . See also T e m p o ; M e t r o n o m e
Strauss, J o h a n n , Die Fledermaus Overture, T i m e - s i g n a t u r e , 19, 22, 30, 113-119,
159-162 121-122, 132
Strauss, J o h a n n , J r . , Perpetuum Mobile, 146 T o m m a s i n i , V i n c e n t o , 206
Strauss, J o s e p h , The Music of Ihe Spheres, Tone b a l a n c e , 195-196, 2 0 5 - 2 0 6 , 210
250 Toscanini, Arturo, 142, 143, 144, 145, 206,
Strauss, R i c h a r d , 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 , 241, 248; 224, 225, 227, 235, 238, 259
" A l p i n e " S y m p h o n y , 117; Also sprach Tovey, Sir D o n a l d , 8, 205, 206
Zarathustra, 48, 49, III, 128, 239; Don Transition b e t w e e n sections or move-
Juan, 63, 93, 110; Don Quixote, 91, 157, ments, 147-149
182, 299; Ein Heldenleben, 51, 52, 126, Transposition, 8
182, 239; Salome, 137; Till Eulenspiegel, Triple r h y t h m , see R h y t h m
101, 167, 180-181
Strauss waltzes, 40, 165 U p b e a t , 25, 32, 56, 221
S t r a v i n s k y , Igor, 113-116, 117-118, 133, Vasquez, 252
143, 144; " F i r e b i r d " S u i t e , 37, 38, 46, Vatelot, Etienne, 255
72, 73, 118, 122, 150, 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 ; Histoire Vatelot, M a r c e l , 255
du Soldat, 71, 72, 74, 113, 116, 117, 131,
V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s , R a l p h , see W i l l i a m s ,
132; Petrouchka, 72, 108, 113, 114, 115,
Ralph Vaughan
117, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129; Renard,
Verdi, Giuseppe: "Celeste A i d a , " 189-190;
117; Le Sacre du Prinlemps, 70, 71, 113,
II Trovalore, 185, 186, 187
116, 117-118, 129, 136-137, 239
V i v a l d i , Antonio, Goncerto in D M i n o r for
S t r i n g section, 9, 65, 98, 99, 222
V i o l a d a G a m b a , 253
Subdivisions, 22, 2 6 - 2 8 , 3 2 - 3 5 , 44, 4 6 - 4 8 ,
Vocal music, 28, 174, 184-185, 212
52, 128, 130, 148-149, 169-170 V o l u m e , 78, 9 7 - 1 0 1 , 149-150, 206
S u p p e , F r a n z von, 107
Sweelinck, J a n , 256 W a g n e r , R i c h a r d , 11, 97, 141, 143, 198,
S y n c o p a t i o n , 4 5 - 4 6 , 51 242, 248, 259; Flying Dutchman Overture,
S y n t a g m a M u s i c u m , 256 24, 63; Götterdämmerung, 138; Die Meister-
singer Overture, 42, 143; P r e l u d e to
Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyitch, 97, 248; Italian Parsifal, 50, 127; Rienzi Overture, 45, 64,
Caprice, 27; Oxana's Caprices, 117; The 98; Siegfried, "Forest M u r m u r s , " 128;
Seasons, 19; S y m p h o n y No. 4, 31, 122, Siegfried Idyl, 143; Tannhäuser, "Evening
172; S y m p h o n y No. 6, 71 S t a r , " 27; Tannhäuser Overture, 34;
T e l e m a n n , Georg P h i l i p p , 252 Tristan and Isolde, 68, 206

INDEX 355
Wagner, Siegfried, 143, 144
Waldteufel, Emil, 40
Walton, William, Portsmouth Point Over-
ture, 117
Waltzes, 29, 32, 39-40, 165
Weber, Carl M a r i a von, Oberon Overture,
44, 63, 91, 100
Weingartner, Felix, 6, 8, 65, 142, 144-145,
196, 205, 206, 220, 229, 234, 245, 258,
259
356
Wiener, Leo, Orchestra Suite of H u n -
garian Folk Dances, 117
Williams, C. R, Abdy, 104
Williams, R a l p h V a u g h a n , " P a s t o r a l "
Symphony, 106, 117
Woodwind section, 9, 65, 98, 99, 221, 222
Yale University, 252
Ziehrer, Karl Michael, 40
INDEX