Strength of Materials

Chapter 5: Axial deformation

5.1. Saint‐Venant’s Principle

➢ Stress concentrations: the increased normal stress magnitudes near P and near the fixed base.

This occurs in the vicinity of holes, grooves, notches, and other changes in shape.

➢ The peak stresses may be several times the average stress; however, the maximum stress

diminishes rapidly as the distance from the point where the load is applied increases.

➢ The localized stresses and deformations have little effect on the overall behavior of a body.

Rectangular bar subjected to compressive force

Normal stress distributions on sections

5.2. Deformations in Axially Loaded Bars

➢ The normal strain along the length of the bar is assumed to have a constant value when a bar
of uniform cross section is axially loaded by forces applied at the ends (two‐force member).

➢ The axial deformation may be expressed in terms of stress or load as:

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𝜎𝐿
𝛿 = 𝜀𝐿 =
𝐸
𝐹𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
▪ The axial member must be:

▪ Homogeneous (i.e., E is constant),

▪ Prismatic (i.e., has a uniform cross‐sectional area A), and

▪ Has a constant internal force (i.e., is loaded only by forces at its ends).

Note 1:
If the member is subjected to axial loads at intermediate points (i.e., points other than the ends) or

if it consists of various cross‐sectional areas or materials, then the axial member must be divided

into segments that satisfy the three requirements just listed. For compound axial members

consisting of two or more segments, the overall deformation of the axial member can be

determined by algebraically adding the deformations of all the segments:

𝐹𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝛿 = ∑𝑖
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖
Here, Fi, Li, Ai, and Ei are the internal force, length, cross‐sectional area, and elastic modulus,

respectively, for individual segments i of the compound axial member.

Note 2:
For those cases in which the axial force or the cross‐sectional area varies continuously along the
length of the bar, the above equations are not valid.
Thus,
𝐹 (𝑥)
𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐴(𝑥)𝐸
𝐿 𝐿 𝐹 (𝑥)
𝛿 = ∫0 𝑑𝛿 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐴(𝑥)𝐸
▪ Applies only to linear‐elastic material (since Hooke’s law was assumed)
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Example 5.1: The compound axial member shown consists of a solid aluminum [E = 70 GPa]

segment (1) 20 mm in diameter, a solid aluminum segment (2) 24 mm in diameter, and a solid

steel [E = 200 GPa] segment (3) 16 mm in diameter. Determine the displacements of points B, C,

and D relative to end.

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Example 5.2. A steel [E = 30,000 ksi] bar of rectangular cross section consists of a uniform‐
width segment (1) and a tapered segment (2), as shown. The width of the tapered segment varies
linearly from 2 in. at the bottom to 5 in. at the top. The bar has a constant thickness of 0.50 in.
Determine the elongation of the bar resulting from application of the 30 kip load. Neglect the
weight of the bar.

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5.3. Deformations in a System of Axially Loaded Bars

➢ Many structures consist of more than one axially loaded member, and for these structures,

axial deformations and stresses for a system of pin‐connected deformable bars must be

determined.

➢ In the analysis of statically determinate structures consisting of homogeneous, prismatic axial

members, we begin with a free‐body diagram showing all forces acting on the key elements

of the structure. Then, we investigate how the structure as a whole deflects in response to the

deformations that occur in the axial members.

➢ A homogeneous, prismatic member (a) is straight, (b) has a constant cross‐sectional area,

and (c) consists of a single material (so it has exactly one value of E)

Example 5.3. The assembly shown consists of rigid bar ABC, two fiber‐reinforced plastic (FRP)
rods (1) and (3), and FRP post (2). The modulus of elasticity for the FRP is E = 18 GPa.
Determine the vertical deflection of joint D relative to its initial position after the 30 kN load is
applied.

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Example 5.4. A tie rod (1) and a pipe strut (2) are used to support a 50 kN load, as shown. The
cross‐sectional areas are A1 = 650 mm2 for tie rod (1) and A2 = 925 mm2 for pipe strut (2). Both
members are made of structural steel that has an elastic modulus E = 200 GPa.
1. Determine the normal stresses in tie rod (1) and pipe strut (2).
2. Determine the elongation or contraction of each member.
3. Sketch a deformation diagram that shows the displaced position of joint B.
4. Compute the horizontal and vertical displacements of joint B.

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5.4. Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Members

Structures and systems are classified as:

➢ Statically determinate: equations of equilibrium are sufficient for the determination of axial

forces in the members and reactions at supports. There are enough equilibrium equations to

solve for all of the unknowns in the system.

➢ Statically indeterminate: the equations of equilibrium alone are not sufficient for the

determination of axial forces in the members and reactions at supports. There are not enough

equilibrium equations to solve for all of the unknowns in the system.

The general solution process can be organized into a five‐step procedure:

Step 1—Equilibrium Equations:

Equations expressed in terms of the unknown axial forces are derived for the structure on the

basis of equilibrium considerations.

Step 2—Geometry of Deformation:

The geometry of the specific structure is evaluated to determine how the deformations of the

axial members are related.

Step 3—Force–Deformation Relationships:

The relationship between the internal force in an axial member and its corresponding elongation

Step 4—Compatibility Equation:

The force–deformation relationships are substituted into the geometry‐of‐deformation equation

to obtain an equation that is based on the structure’s geometry, but expressed in terms of the

unknown axial forces.

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Step 5—Solve the Equations:

The equilibrium equations and the compatibility equation are solved simultaneously to compute

the unknown axial forces.

Note; Geometry of Deformations for Typical Statically Indeterminate Axial Structures

➢ Coaxial or parallel axial members

𝛿1 = 𝛿2

𝛿1 = 𝛿2 + 𝑔𝑎𝑝

𝛿1 + 𝑔𝑎𝑝 = 𝛿2

➢ Axial members connected end to end in series

𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = 0

𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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➢ Axial members connected to a rotating rigid element.

𝛿1 𝛿2
=
𝑎 𝑏

𝛿1 𝛿2
=−
𝑎 𝑏

𝛿1 + 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝛿2
=
𝑎 𝑏

Example 5.5. A 1.5 m long rigid beam ABC is supported by three axial members, as shown in

the figure. A concentrated load of 220 kN is applied to the rigid beam directly under B. The axial

members (1) connected at A and at C are identical aluminum alloy [E = 70 GPa] bars, each

having a cross‐sectional area A1 = 550 mm2 and a length L1 = 2 m. Member (2) is a steel [E =

200 GPa] bar with a cross‐sectional area A2 = 900 mm2 and a length L2 = 2 m. All members are

connected with simple pins. If all three bars are initially unstressed,

determine

1. the normal stresses in the aluminum and steel bars, and

2. the deflection of the rigid beam after application of the 220 kN load.

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Example 5.6. A steel pipe (1) is attached to an aluminum pipe (2) at flange B. The pipes are

attached to rigid supports at A and C, respectively. Member (1) has a cross‐sectional area A1 =

3,600 mm2, an elastic modulus E1 = 200 GPa, and an allowable normal stress of 160 MPa.

Member (2) has a cross‐sectional area A2 = 2,000 mm2, an elastic modulus E2 = 70 GPa, and an

allowable normal stress of 120 MPa. Determine the maximum load P that can be applied to

flange B without exceeding either allowable stress.

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5.5. Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation

The temperature change ΔT creates normal strains:

𝜀𝑇 = 𝛼∆𝑇

The deformation resulting from a temperature change is:

𝛿𝑇 = 𝜀𝑇 𝐿 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿

Note: If an axial member is allowed to elongate or contract freely, temperature change creates no

stress, the stresses can result in an axial member if elongation or contraction is inhibited.

➢ Force–Temperature–Deformation Relationship

The relationship between internal force and axial deformation developed include the effects of

temperature change is:

𝐹𝐿
𝛿= + 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿
𝐴𝐸

Example 5.7. A 20 mm diameter steel [E = 200 GPa; α = 12.0 × 10−6/°C] rod is held snugly
between rigid walls, as shown. Calculate the temperature drop ΔT at which the shear stress in the
15 mm diameter bolt becomes 70 MPa.

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Example 5.8. An aluminum rod (1) [E = 70 GPa; α = 22.5 × 10−6/°C] and a brass rod (2) [E =

105 GPa; α = 18.0 × 10−6/°C] are connected to rigid supports, as shown. The cross‐sectional

areas of rods (1) and (2) are 2,000 mm2 and 3,000 mm2, respectively. The temperature of the

structure will increase. Determine the temperature increase that will close the initial 1 mm gap

between the two axial members. Compute the normal stress in each rod if the total temperature

increase is 60°C.

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Example 5.9. A pin‐connected structure is loaded and supported as shown. Member BCDF is a
rigid plate. Member (1) is a steel [E = 200 GPa; A1 = 310 mm2; α = 11.9 × 10−6/°C] bar, and
member (2) is an aluminum [E = 70 GPa; A2 = 620 mm2; α = 22.5 × 10−6/°C] bar. A load of 6
kN is applied to the plate at F. If the temperature increases by 20°C, compute the normal stresses
in members (1) and (2).

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