UNIT 6: REPRODUCTIVE, EXCRETORY, AND MODES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• the biological process by which new individual
organisms or offspring are produced from
their parent or parents
TWO (2) TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• does not involve the union of gametes and
involves only one parent
- GAMETES: an organism’s reproductive cells
or sex cells
o female gametes – ova or egg cells
o male gametes – sperm cells
• causes a rapid increase in the number of
organisms which are highly common in bacteria,
fungi, protists, and simple invertebrates
MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. BINARY FISSION
• the body of the parent is divided into two
approximately equal parts along either the
transverse or longitudinal axis. These divided
parts then develop into a new individual
B. BUDDING
• occurs when an individual evolves as an
outgrowth (or a bud) from the parent
C. FRAGMENTATION
• occurs when a parent breaks into two or more
parts, each part capable of becoming a complete
individual
D. SPORULATION
• occurs when numerous cells are within a cyst-
like structure after repeated nuclear divisions
A. CONJUGATION
• where two individuals fuse together, and
exchange micronuclei then separate to continue
binary fission
B. PARTHENOGENESIS
• where an unfertilized egg develops into a
complete individual
C. HERMAPHRODITISM
• where both male and female sex organs are
present in the same individual or is called a
hermaphrodite (monoecious)
D. BIPARENTAL REPRODUCTION
• involves dioecious organisms involving
separate male and female individuals, each
with its own reproductive system
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• produce, maintain, and transport sperm cells and
semen
- SPERM CELLS – male reproductive cells
- SEMEN – the protective fluid around sperm
• discharge sperm
• produce and secrete male sex hormones
MALE SEX HORMONES
a. FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) –
the pituitary gland makes the FSH necessary to
produce sperm
b. LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) – the pituitary
gland also makes LH necessary to continue the
process of spermatogenesis
c. TESTOSTERONE – the main sex hormone in
people AMAB

2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• occurs when the gametes or reproductive cells
unite
• usually involves two parents – male and female,
where each parent has a reproductive organ or
gonad (i.e., testes or ovary)
- male gonads: paired testes that produce
sperm
- female gonads: paired ovaries that produce
egg cells or ova
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE PARTS FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• the body parts that help women:
1. TESTICLES (testes)
- have sexual intercourse
• are oval-shaped organs that lie in the scrotum - reproduce
and are about the size of two large olives - menstruate
2. SCROTUM VULVA
• the loose, pouch-like sac of skin that hangs • the collective name for all the external genitals
behind the penis • mistakenly use the term “vagina” to describe all
• holds and protects the testicles (testes) female reproductive parts
• provides a sort of “climate-control system”
THE MAIN PARTS OF THE VULVA
3. EPIDIDYMIS (EXTERNAL GENITALS)
• a long, coiled tube that rests on the back of each
1. LABIA MAJORA
testicle
• large lips
• carries and stores the sperm cells that the
testicles create • enclose and protect the other external
reproductive organs
4. VAS DEFERENS
2. LABIA MINORA
• a long, muscular tube that transports mature
sperm to the urethra in preparation for • small lips
ejaculation • lie just inside your labia majora, and surround
the opening to your vagina and urethra
5. EJACULATORY GLANDS
• move through the prostate, where it collects 3. CLITORIS
fluid to add to semen • the two labia minora meet at your clitoris
• a small, sensitive protrusion that’s
6. SEMINAL VESICLE comparable to a penis in men
• are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas • covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce and
deferens near the base of the bladder is very sensitive to stimulation
• make up to 80% of the ejaculatory fluid, including
fructose 4. VAGINAL OPENING
- FRUCTOSE: an energy source for sperm and • allows menstrual blood and babies to exit
helps them move (motility) your body
• tampons, fingers, sex toys, or penises can go
7. PROSTATE GLAND inside your vagina through your vaginal opening
• a walnut-sized gland that rests below your
bladder, in front of your rectum 5. HYMEN
• adds additional fluid to ejaculate that helps • a piece of tissue covering or surrounding part
nourish sperm of your vaginal opening
• formed during development and present during
8. URETHRA birth
• the tube that carries pee from the bladder
outside of the body 6. OPENING TO THE URETHRA
• male – ejaculates semen when you reach orgasm • the hole women pee from

9. PENIS
a. ROOT – the base of the penis and attaches
to the wall of the abdomen
b. BODY (SHAFT) – has a shape like a tube
or a cylinder and consists of three internal
chambers: the two larger chambers are the
corpora cavernosa and the third chamber is
the corpus spongiosum
c. GLANS (HEAD) – the cone-shaped tip of
the penis
7. OVARIES
• are small, oval-shaped glands that are located
on either side of your uterus
• produce eggs and hormones
8. INFUNDIBULUM
• the funnel-like portion of the fallopian tube
that is closest to the ovaries
• includes finger-like structures called fimbriae
that reach out toward the ovary

9. FALLOPIAN TUBE
• are narrow tubes that are attached to the
upper part of your uterus and serve as
pathways for the egg to travel from the ovaries
to the uterus
• site of fertilization
• has a hair-like structure called cilia
10. UTERUS
• a hollow, pear-shaped organ that holds a fetus
during pregnancy
• divided into two parts: the cervix and the corpus
11. CERVIX
• the lowest part of the uterus
• opens (dilates) to allow a baby to come out
during a vaginal childbirth
12. VAGINA
• a muscular canal that joins the cervix to the
outside of the body
• can widen to accommodate a baby during
delivery and then shrink back to hold
something narrow like a tampon
FEMALE SEX HORMONES
a. ESTROGEN
• a group of steroid hormones that includes
estradiol (the most abundant of the estrogens
during the reproductive years of females)
• lead to the expression of secondary female
characteristics
b. PROGESTERONE
• often called the hormone of pregnancy
• affects the breasts and leads to milk production
and lactation
REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
• called the menstrual cycle
• MENSES – shedding of the endometrium and
bleeding
MENSTRUAL PERIOD (MENSES)
• when the endometrium sheds and bleeds to
remove the lining of the uterus in response to
low levels of estrogen and progesterone
MENOPAUSE
• marks the end of the reproductive cycle for
females
• AMENORRHEA – absence of menses
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
• eliminates nitrogenous waste
• regulates water and electrolyte balance
• maintains homeostasis
METABOLIC NITROGENOUS WASTES
• products of protein (and nucleic acid) digestion
where amino acids are processed to remove its
amine group through deamination and
transamination
- UREA: mammals, turtles, and amphibians
- URIC ACID: reptiles, insects, and snails
- TRIMETHYLAMINE OXIDE (TXO): fishes
- GUANO: bats
EXCRETION IN INVERTEBRATES
A. PROTOZOAN AND MARINE INVERTEBRATES
• CONTRACTILE VACUOLES – energy-requiring
devices that expel excess water from cells
exposed to a hypotonic environment
B. FLATWORMS
• PROTONEPHRIDIA – a network of excretory
canals that open to the outside of the body
• FLAME CELLS – bulb-like, ciliated cells along
the protonephridia
C. ECHINODERMS
• AMEBOCYTES – phagocytic cells that carry
waste to the body surface for disposal
D. ANNELIDS
• METANEPHRIDIA – each metanephridium
begins with a ciliated funnel, the nephrostome
that opens from the body cavity of a segment into
a coiled tubule
E. ARTHROPODS
• MALPIGHIAN TUBULES – blind tubules
attached to the hindgut
• ANTENNAL GLANDS – near antennae of
crayfish and crab
• COXAL GLANDS – near the bases of legs in
arachnids
 EXCRETION IN VERTEBRATES ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• made up of all the body's different hormones,
KIDNEY
regulates all biological processes in the body
• principal excretory organs of vertebrates
collecting duct GLANDS
• a mass of coelomoducts that open into a • cells or groups of cells specialized in structure
collecting duct and function to produce substances needed in
• HUMAN KIDNEY – composed of over one million bodily processes
nephrons (structural and functional unit of the
TWO (2) TYPES OF GLANDS
kidney)
1. EXOCRINE
TYPES OF KIDNEYS
• glands with ducts and release their secretions
1. PRONEPHROS onto a free surface
• contains segmented renal tubules draining into
the archinephric or pronephric duct 2. ENDOCRINE
• glands without ducts and release their
2. MESONEPHROS secretions/products directly into the blood
• an advanced form of kidney with more
HORMONES
segments than in pronephros
• the secretions or products that are carried to
3. METANEPHROS some parts of the body (target organ) where they
• unsegmented kidney where urine is carried by produce a definite physiological effect (either
a ureter to the outside excitatory or inhibitory effects).
• usually controlled in two ways: (1) negative
BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE KIDNEY feedback opposes their release, and (2)
antagonistic hormones oppose each other’s
a. RENAL ARTERY
actions
• carries blood to the kidney from the aorta

b. RENAL VEIN
• carries the filtered blood from the kidney

INTERNAL PARTS OF THE KIDNEY

a. CORTEX
• outer granulated layer

b. MEDULLA
• radially striated inner region below the cortex

c. RENAL PELVIS
• innermost space or cavity continuous with the
ureter

STAGES IN URINE FORMATION

1. FILTRATION
• blood is filtered by the glomerulus through minute
perforations that retain proteins and formed
cellular elements in the blood

2. REABSORPTION
• differential absorption of water and ions into the
blood capillaries surrounding the renal tubules

3. TUBULAR SECRETION
• urine consists of excess water, sodium, urea, and
foreign substances such as antibiotics and toxins
 PRINCIPAL ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES

GLAND HORMONE RELEASED TARGET TISSUES/ORGANS CHIEF FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

hypothalamic-releasing and
1. HYPOTHALAMUS anterior pituitary • regulate anterior pituitary hormones
inhibiting hormone
• bone and muscle growth, promotes protein synthesis,
somatotropin (STH) soft tissues, muscles, bones
and increases cell division
thyrotropin (TSH) thyroid • stimulates the thyroid gland
adrenocorticotropic hormone
adrenal cortex • stimulates adrenal cortex; involves in stress response
2. PITUITARY GLAND (ACTH)
(ANTERIOR LOBE – • TESTIS: stimulates the interstitial cells
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS) gonadotropic gonads – testis & ovary • OVARY: stimulates the formation of corpora lutea,
growth of the follicle, and ovulation
prolactin mammary glands • milk production
melanocyte-stimulation • melanin synthesis; regulates skin color in lower
melanocytes in skin
hormone (MSH) vertebrates
3. PITUITARY GLAND antidiuretic hormone (ADH) kidneys • stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
(POSTERIOR LOBE – • stimulates uterine muscle contraction; release of milk by
oxytocin uterus, mammary glands
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS) mammary glands
thyroxine and • increases metabolic rate, regulates growth and
all tissues
4. THYROID triiodothyronine development; amphibian metamorphosis; molting
calcitonin bones, kidneys, intestines • lowers the blood calcium level
5. PARATHYROID parathyroid hormone (PTH) bones, kidneys, intestines • regulates the blood calcium level
• raise blood glucose level by promoting synthesis of
glucocorticoids (cortisol) all tissues carbohydrates; protein breakdown; anti-inflammatory
and anti-allergic actions
6. ADRENAL CORTEX mineralocorticoids • reabsorb sodium and excrete potassium; maintains
kidneys
(aldosterone) water balance
gonads, skin, muscles, and • stimulate reproductive organs and bring about sex
sex hormones (steroids)
bones characteristics
epinephrine and • released in emergency situations; raise blood glucose
7. ADRENAL MEDULLA cardiac and other muscles
norepinephrine level; increase heart rate
• lowers blood glucose level; promotes formation of
8. PANCREAS (ISLETS insulin (from beta cells) liver, muscles, and adipose tissue
glycogen
OF LANGERHANS)
glucagon (from alpha cells) liver, muscles, and adipose tissue • raises blood glucose level
gonads, skin, muscles, and
9. TESTIS testosterone • promotes male sexual characteristics; spermatogenesis
bones
gonads, skin, muscles, and
estrogen • promotes female sexual characteristics; oogenesis
bones
10. OVARY
• maintains pregnancy; stimulates the development of
progesterone uterus, mammary glands
mammary glands
11. THYMUS thymosin T lymphocytes • stimulates production and maturation of T lymphocytes
• controls body rhythms; possibly involved in the
12. PINEAL GLAND melatonin brain
maturation of sexual organs