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Advances in Design Simulation and
Manufacturing VI Proceedings of the

6th International Conference on Design
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Notes in Mechanical Engineering 1st
Edition Vitalii Ivanov Editor Justyna
Trojanowska Editor Ivan Pavlenko
Editor Erwin Rauch Editor Ján Pite■
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Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on
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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Vitalii Ivanov · Justyna Trojanowska ·

Ivan Pavlenko · Erwin Rauch ·
Ján Piteľ Editors
Advances in Design,
Simulation and
Manufacturing VI
Proceedings of the 6th International
Conference on Design, Simulation,
Manufacturing: The Innovation
Exchange, DSMIE-2023,
June 6–9, 2023, High Tatras, Slovak
Republic - Volume 1: Manufacturing
Engineering
Series Editors
Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Francesco Gherardini , Dipartimento di Ingegneria “Enzo Ferrari”, Università di
Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
Vitalii Ivanov, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Machines and Tools,
Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine
Mohamed Haddar, National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia
Editorial Board Members

Francisco Cavas-Martínez , Departamento de Estructuras, Construcción y Expresión
Gráfica Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
Francesca di Mare, Institute of Energy Technology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum,
Bochum, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
Young W. Kwon, Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Aerospace
Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering and Applied Science, Monterey, CA,
USA
Justyna Trojanowska, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
Jinyang Xu, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) publishes the latest developments
in Mechanical Engineering—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research
reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNME. Volumes
published in LNME embrace all aspects, subfields and new challenges of mechanical
engineering.
To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact the Springer
Editor of your location:
Europe, USA, Africa: Leontina Di Cecco at Leontina.dicecco@springer.com
China: Ella Zhang at ella.zhang@springer.com
India: Priya Vyas at priya.vyas@springer.com
Rest of Asia, Australia, New Zealand: Swati Meherishi at swati.meherishi@springer.
com
Topics in the series include:
• Engineering Design
• Machinery and Machine Elements
• Mechanical Structures and Stress Analysis
• Automotive Engineering
• Engine Technology
• Aerospace Technology and Astronautics
• Nanotechnology and Microengineering
• Control, Robotics, Mechatronics
• MEMS
• Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
• Dynamical Systems, Control
• Fluid Mechanics
• Engineering Thermodynamics, Heat and Mass Transfer
• Manufacturing
• Precision Engineering, Instrumentation, Measurement
• Materials Engineering
• Tribology and Surface Technology
Indexed by SCOPUS and EI Compendex.

All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.
To submit a proposal for a monograph, please check our Springer Tracts in Mechanical
Engineering at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/11693
Vitalii Ivanov · Justyna Trojanowska ·
Ivan Pavlenko · Erwin Rauch · Ján Pitel’
Editors
Advances in Design,
Simulation and
Manufacturing VI
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference
on Design, Simulation, Manufacturing:
The Innovation Exchange, DSMIE-2023,
June 6–9, 2023, High Tatras, Slovak Republic -
Volume 1: Manufacturing Engineering
Editors
Vitalii Ivanov Justyna Trojanowska
Sumy State University Poznań University of Technology
Sumy, Ukraine Poznań, Poland
Ivan Pavlenko Erwin Rauch

Sumy State University Free University of Bozen-Bolzano
Sumy, Ukraine Bolzano, Italy
Ján Pitel’
Technical University of Košice
Prešov, Slovakia
ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-32766-7 ISBN 978-3-031-32767-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32767-4
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
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Preface
This volume of Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering contains selected papers

presented at the 6th International Conference on Design, Simulation, Manufacturing:
The Innovation Exchange (DSMIE-2023), held in High Tatras, Slovak Republic, on
June 6–9, 2023. The conference was organized by the Sumy State University, Techni-
cal University of Košice, and International Association for Technological Development
and Innovations, in partnership with Poznan University of Technology (Poland), Kielce
University of Technology (Poland), University of West Bohemia (Czech Republic),
Association for Promoting Innovative Technologies—Innovative FET (Croatia), and
Society for Robotics of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina).
DSMIE Conference Series is the international forum for fundamental and applied
research and industrial applications in engineering. The conference focuses on research
challenges in the fields of Manufacturing Engineering, Materials Engineering, and
Mechanical Engineering, addressing current and future trends in design approaches,
simulation techniques, and manufacturing technologies, highlighting the growing role
of smart manufacturing systems, artificial intelligence, standards-based integration, and
innovations implementation to the transition to sustainable, human-centric, and resilient
engineering solutions. DSMIE brings together researchers from academic institutions,
leading industrial companies, and government laboratories worldwide to promote and
popularize the scientific fundamentals of engineering.
DSMIE-2023 received 135 contributions from 14 countries around the world. After
a thorough peer-review process, the Program Committee accepted 66 papers written by
259 authors from 12 countries. Thank you very much to the authors for their contri-
bution. These papers are published in the present book, achieving an acceptance rate
of about 49%. Extended versions of selected best papers will be published in scientific
journals: Management and Production Engineering Review (Poland), Journal of Engi-
neering Sciences (Ukraine), Advances in Thermal Processes and Energy Transformation
(Slovak Republic), Assembly Techniques and Technology (Poland), and a special issue
of Machines (Switzerland) “Innovations in the Design, Simulation, and Manufacturing
of Production Systems” and Materials (Switzerland) “Novel Approaches in the Design,
Simulation, and Manufacturing for Processes and Systems”.
We would like to thank members of the Program Committee and invited external
reviewers for their efforts and expertise in contributing to reviewing, without which it
would be impossible to maintain the high standards of peer-reviewed papers. Eighty-
three Program Committee members and ten invited external reviewers devoted their time
and energy to peer-reviewing manuscripts. Our reviewers come from around the world,
representing 17 countries, and are affiliated with 39 institutions.
Thank you very much to the keynote speakers: Prof. Fazel Ansari (Vienna University
of Technology, Austria), Prof. Michał Wieczorowski (Poznan University of Technol-
ogy, Poland), and Prof. Alexander Hošovský (Technical University of Košice, Slovak
Republic).
vi Preface
The book “Advances in Design, Simulation and Manufacturing VI” was organized
into two volumes according to the main conference topics: Volume 1—Manufacturing
Engineering and Volume 2—Mechanical and Materials Engineering. Each volume is
devoted to research in design, simulation, and manufacturing in the main conference
areas.
The first volume consists of four parts. The first part includes recent developments
in smart manufacturing. It presents intelligent solutions for sensor selection in plant
retrofitting. This part also includes improving machine vision systems for collabora-
tive assembly applications. Recent developments in digital twins for industrial robotics,
robotic arms in a virtual environment, and designing a workplace in virtual and mixed
realities are presented in this part. The evolution of competence management in man-
ufacturing industries and digital business models is also discussed. Finally, the first
part includes studies on recent developments in digital and information technologies
according to the Industry 4.0 strategy.
The second part includes studies in information management systems, particularly
ensuring quality management at manufacturing enterprises, improving information man-
agement systems, and perspectives of lean management. Studies in increasing the pro-
duction process efficiency in new production facilities, implementing intelligent trans-
port systems, and improving logistics analysis are additionally presented. Moreover, this
part also analyzes the impact of standardized reusable packaging on supply chain design
and environmental efficiency.
The third part of manufacturing technology is devoted to modeling and surface modi-
fication of steel by laser radiation, fabrication and post-processing of metal products, and
verifying additively manufactured and bulk metals. It presents studies in implementing
computer-aided joint design systems, applying information technologies to ensure qual-
ity characteristics of the working surfaces during mechanical processing, and improving
the quality of cutting tools based on convolutional models. This part also includes recent
developments in contact processes during drilling, microcutting of titanium alloys and
steel during grinding, and substantiation of chip removal models during milling. More-
over, issues regarding the stress-deformed state of the cylinder liner’s working surface,
turning threads for drill pipes, surface relief formation in peripheral end milling, and
just-in-time gear grinding wheel dressing are presented. Studies in material removal
for aluminum alloys and surface roughness assessment during the milling of pure and
carbon black-reinforced polypropylene materials are discussed in this part. Finally, the
third part proposes ways to improve drives for a multi-operational milling machine,
automatic workpiece clamping mechanisms of lathes to expand technological capabil-
ities, and an impact of solid lubrication on the diamond grinding characteristics for
difficult-to-machine materials.
The fourth part regarding engineering education is based on studies in a dual edu-
cational system for the professional training of workers and the entrepreneurial mindset
development of engineering students. A digital twin for remote learning is also pro-
posed in this part. Finally, this part proposes a professional and creative competencies
formation model for engineers based on information and digital technologies.
We appreciate the partnership with Springer Nature, iThenticate, EasyChair, and our
sponsors for their essential support during the preparation of DSMIE-2023.
Preface vii
Thank you very much to DSMIE Team. Their involvement and hard work were
crucial to the success of the conference.
DSMIE’s motto is “Together we can do more for science, technology, engineering,
and education”.
June 2023 Vitalii Ivanov

Justyna Trojanowska
Ivan Pavlenko
Erwin Rauch
Ján Pitel’
Organization
Steering Committee
General Chair
Vitalii Ivanov Sumy State University, Ukraine
Co-chair
Jozef Zajac Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Co-chairs, Program Committee Chairs
Michal Hatala Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic

Oleksandr Liaposhchenko Sumy State University, Ukraine
Co-chairs, Publication Chairs
Ivan Pavlenko Sumy State University, Ukraine

Justyna Trojanowska Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Co-chairs, Organizational Chairs
Svetlana Radchenko Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic

Khrystyna Berladir Sumy State University, Ukraine
Oleksandr Gusak Sumy State University, Ukraine
Program Committee
Katarzyna Antosz Rzeszow University of Technology, Poland

Michal Balog Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Yevheniia Basova National Technical University “Kharkiv
Polytechnic Institute”, Ukraine
Frantisek Botko Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Ricardo Branco University of Coimbra, Portugal
x Organization
Dagmar Caganova Comenius University Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Emilia Campean Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Yelizaveta Chernysh Sumy State University, Ukraine
Olivian Chiver Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Vasile G. Cioata Polytechnic University of Timisoara, Romania
Olaf Ciszak Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Radu Cotetiu Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Ivan Cvitic University of Zagreb, Croatia
Predrag Dasic High Technical Mechanical School of
Professional Studies, Trstenik, Serbia
Yuliia Denysenko Sumy State University, Ukraine
Oleksandr Derevianchenko Odessa Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Sergey Dobrotvorskiy National Technical University “Kharkiv
Tygran Dzuguryan Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland
Milan Edl University of West Bohemia, Czech Republic
Sulaymon Eshkabilov North Dakota State University, USA
Mathieu Gautier University Lyon, France
Jakub Grabski Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Marek Gucwa Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland
Ihor Hurey Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Jozef Husar Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Maryna Ivanova National Technical University “Kharkiv
Lydmila Kalafatova Donetsk National Technical University, Ukraine
Gennadii Khavin National Technical University “Kharkiv
Lucia Knapcikova Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Kateryna Kostyk National Technical University “Kharkiv
Agnieszka Kujawinska Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Yaroslav Kusyi Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Maria Lazar University of Petrosani, Romania
Dmytro Levchenko Lodz University of Technology, Poland
Slawomir Luscinski Kielce University of Technology, Poland
Jose Mendes Machado University of Minho, Portugal
Ole Madsen Aalborg University, Denmark
Angelos Markopoulos National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Organization xi
Dariusz Mazurkiewicz Lublin University of Technology, Poland

Mykola Melnychuk Lutsk National Technical University, Ukraine
Ronald L. Mersky Widener University, USA
Viktor Molnar University of Miskolc, Hungary
Roland Iosif Moraru University of Petrosani, Romania
Dmitriy Muzylyov State Biotechnological University, Ukraine
Marek Ochowiak Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Oleh Onysko Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of
Oil and Gas, Ukraine
Vitalii Panchuk Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of
Oil and Gas, Ukraine
Ján Pitel’ Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Grigore Marian Pop Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Oleksandr Povstyanoy Lutsk National Technical University, Ukraine
Erwin Rauch Free University of Bolzano, Italy
Andrii Rogovyi National Technical University “Kharkiv
Joanna Rosak-Szyrocka Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland
Alessandro Ruggiero University of Salerno, Italy
Vira Shendryk Sumy State University, Ukraine
Dusan Simsik Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Vadym Stupnytskyy Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Antoni Swic Lublin University of Technology, Poland
Anastasiia Symonova Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National
University, Ukraine
Marek Szostak Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Valentin Tikhenko Odessa Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Volodymyr Tonkonogyi Odessa Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Piotr Trojanowski West Pomeranian University of Technology,
Poland
Musii Tseitlin National Technical University “Kharkiv
Alper Uysal Yildiz Technical University, Turkey
Leonilde Rocha Varela University of Minho, Portugal
George-Christopher Vosniakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Christain Willberg German Aerospace Center, Germany
Jerzy Winczek Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland
Szymon Wojciechowski Poznan University of Technology, Poznan
Jinyang Xu Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Oleg Zabolotnyi Lutsk National Technical University, Ukraine
xii Organization

Volodymyr Zavialov National University of Food Technologies,
Ukraine
Przemyslaw Zawadzki Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Predrag Zivkovic University of Nis, Serbia
Invited External Reviewers
Pawel Bun Poznan University of Technology, Poland

Bartosz Gapinski Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Nikolaos Karkalos National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Jakub Kascak Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Panagiotis Karmiris Obratanski National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Emmanouil Lazaros Papazoglou National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Sugar Ioan Radu Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Dariusz Sedziak Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Natalya Shramenko Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine
Robert Sika Poznan University of Technology, Poland
DSMIE Team

Ján Pitel’ Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Svetalna Radchenko Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic
Contents
Smart Manufacturing
Sensor Selection for Smart Retrofitting of Existing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Dmytro Adamenko
Machine Vision Systems for Collaborative Assembly Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Vladyslav Andrusyshyn, Vitalii Ivanov, Ján Pitel’, Kamil Židek,
and Peter Lazorik
Digital Twins for Industrial Robotics: A Comparative Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

David Fait and Václav Mašek
A CANVAS Based Assessment Model to Evaluate SMEs Readiness

for Digital Business Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Manuel Holzner, Erwin Rauch, Guido Orzes, and Dominik T. Matt
PLC Control of a 2-Axis Robotic Arm in a Virtual Simulation Environment . . . . 50

Martin Pollák, Marek Kočiško, and Karol Goryl
Evolution of Competence Management in Manufacturing Industries . . . . . . . . . . 60

Markus Steinlechner, Fazel Ansari, and Sebastian Schlund
Designing a Workplace in Virtual and Mixed Reality Using the Meta

Quest VR Headset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Adrián Vodilka, Marek Kočiško, Simona Konečná, and Martin Pollák
Digital and Information Technologies in Metrology 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Michał Wieczorowski, Justyna Trojanowska, and Oleksandr Sokolov
Information Management Systems
Quality Management at the Manufacturing Enterprise: Repair Processes

Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Yuliia Denysenko, Filip Górski, Olaf Ciszak, Khrystyna Berladir,
and Pavlo Kushnirov
Impact of Standardized Reusable Packaging on a Supply Chain Design

and Environmental Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Damian Dubisz, Paulina Golinska-Dawson, and Adam Kolinski
xiv Contents
Agile Framework as a Key to Information Management Systems Delivery . . . . . 113

Bohdan Haidabrus, Janis Grabis, Oleksandr Psarov,
and Evgeniy Druzhinin
Perspectives of Lean Management Using the Poka Yoke Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Jozef Husár, Stella Hrehova, Piotr Trojanowski,
Szymon Wojciechowski, and Vitalii Kolos
Agile in the Context of Manufacturing SMEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Angelina Iakovets, Michal Balog, and Kamil Židek
Efficiency of the Production Process in the New Production Facility . . . . . . . . . . 142

Matúš Matiscsák, Peter Trebuňa, Marek Kliment, Marek Mizerák,
and Jozef Trojan
Implementation of Intelligent Transport Systems in an Urban

Agglomeration: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Joanna S˛ek, Piotr Trojanowski, Łukasz Gilewicz, Bartosz Gapinski,
and Artem Evtuhov
Tracking of Trucks Using the GPS System for the Purpose of Logistics
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Peter Trebuňa, Marek Mizerák, Miriam Pekarčíková, Marek Kliment,
and Matúš Matiscsák
Manufacturing Technology
Preliminary Study of Mass Material Removal for Aluminum Alloy by Low

Pressure Abrasive Water Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Frantisek Botko, Jozef Zajac, Svetlana Radchenko, Dominika Botkova,
and Dagmar Klichova
Analysis of Microcutting of VT8 Titanium Alloy and 12Cr2Ni4A Steel

During Grinding with Cubic Boron Nitride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Tatiana Chumachenko, Oleksandr Derevianchenko, Tatiana Nikolaieva,
Yevhen Omelchenko, and Alla Bespalova
An Impact of the Cutting Fluid Supply on Contact Processes During

Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Eshreb Dzhemilov, Eskender Bekirov, Alper Uysal,
and Ruslan Dzhemalyadinov
Contents xv
Modeling and Surface Modification of AISI 321 Stainless Steel

by Nanosecond Laser Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Sergey Dobrotvorskiy, Borys A. Aleksenko, Mikołaj Kościński,
Yevheniia Basova, and Vadym Prykhodko
Improvement of the Quality of Wear Zones for Cutting Tools Textures

Classes Recognition Based on Convolutional Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Oleksandr Fomin, Oleksandr Derevianchenko, Natalya Volkova,
and Natalia Skrypnyk
Conductivity Measurement Verification of Additively Manufactured

and Bulk Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Matúš Gel’atko, Michal Hatala, Radoslav Vandžura, Martin Kasenčák,
and Dušan Mandul’ák
Substantiation of Chip Removal Models During Milling of Closed Grooves . . . . 238

Oleksandr Gnytko and Anna Kuznetsova
Surface Roughness Assessment After Milling of Pure and Carbon Black

Reinforced Polypropylene Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Ahmet Hakan Akin, Yusuf Furkan Yapan, Yaroslav Kusyj, Vitalii Ivanov,
and Alper Uysal
Improvement of a Two-Stage Drive for Multioperational Milling Machine . . . . . 264

Oleg Krol, Volodymyr Sokolov, and Petko Tsankov
Information Technologies of the Analysis for Models to Ensure Quality

Characteristics of the Working Surfaces During Mechanical Processing . . . . . . . 274
Maksym Kunitsyn, Anatoly Usov, and Yuriy Zaychyk
CAD, Laser Powder Bed Fusion Fabrication and Post-processing

of Customized Metal Dental Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Dmytro Lesyk, Oleksandr Lymar, Vitaliy Dzhemelinskyi,
Dariusz Grzesiak, and Bartosz Powalka
Just in Time Gear Grinding Wheel Dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Natalia Lishchenko, Garret O’Donnell, Vasily Larshin,
Artem Mochuliak, and Sergey Uminsky
Generalized Method for Rational Selection of Parameters for Interference

Fits Using Computer-Aided Joint Design Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Vladimir Nechiporenko, Valentin Salo, Petro Litovchenko,
Vladislav Yemanov, and Stanislav Horielyshev
xvi Contents
Surface Relief Formation in Peripheral End Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Yuri Petrakov, Yuri Danylchenko, Serhii Sapon, and Maksim Sikailo
Improvement of the Automatic Workpiece Clamping Mechanism of Lathes

to Expand Technological Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Borys Prydalnyi
An Impact of Solid Lubrication on the Diamond Grinding Characteristics

of Difficult-to-Machine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Elena Sevidova, Aleksandr Rudnev, Magomediemin Gasanov,
Alexey Kotliar, and Oksana Titarenko
The Stress-Deformed State of the Cylinder Liner’s Working Surface . . . . . . . . . . 347

Ihor Shepelenko, Yakiv Nemyrovskyi, Oleksandr Lizunkov,
Ivan Vasylenko, and Ruslan Osin
Turning of NC10 Threads for Drill Pipes: Theoretical Study

of the Designed Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Oleh Onysko, Volodymyr Kopei, Yaroslav Kusyj, Olena Kornuta,
and Iryna Schuliar
Engineering Education
Dual Educational System of Professional Training of Future Skilled

Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Andrii Kalenskyi, Tetiana Gerliand, Svitlana Kravets,
Dmytro Homeniuk, and Viktor Nagayev
A Digital Twin for Remote Learning: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

Kateryna Kovbasiuk, Jakub Demčák, Jozef Husár, Alexander Hošovsky,
and Vratislav Hladký
A Model of Formation of Professional and Creative Competences

for Engineers Based on Information and Digital Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Viktor Nagayev, Viktoriia Vertegel, Galyna Nagayeva,
Oksana Kovalenko, and Olena Smihunova
Entrepreneurial Mindset Development in Engineering Students Through

a Business Canvas Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Olena Titova, Tetiana Ishchenko, Liudmyla Yershova, Ljudmila Bazyl,
and Viktoria Kruchek
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

Smart Manufacturing
Sensor Selection for Smart Retrofitting
of Existing Plants
Dmytro Adamenko(B)
University of Duisburg-Essen, 1, Lothar Street, 47057 Duisburg, Germany

dmytro.adamenko@wago.com
Abstract. The chemical, process, and energy generation industries are essential
production industries worldwide. However, these traditionally powerful industrial
sectors have been under ever-increasing cost pressure in recent years, so the com-
panies are continuously trying to improve wage- and energy-intensive products
as well as services through the use of digitalization of production processes, e.g.,
to use operational data to optimize processes by tailoring them to customer needs
and, at the same time, cutting operation and production costs. The machines and
equipment in these industries are typically operated for several decades and can-
not be directly integrated into the newly developed digitized processes. One of the
possibilities to perform a so-called smartification of the machines and equipment
is to retrofit them with sensors and data processing hardware. The present paper
presents a methodology for the systematic selection of sensors for retrofitting
existing and operating plants. For this purpose, the requirements for the selec-
tion process have been established. The advantages and disadvantages of existing
methods for sensor selection are presented and analyzed. Subsequently, a new
methodology for sensor selection is presented and successfully validated in the
retrofit process of an existing and still operating for 20 years 900 kW wind turbine.
Keywords: Sensors · Plant Retrofit · Predictive Maintenance · Digitalization ·

Industrial Growth
1 Introduction
Asset-intensive industries such as chemicals, oil and gas, mining, metals, pulp and paper,
and power production have been turning to new technologies to increase the reliability
and availability of their equipment while keeping maintenance costs under control [1].
Using digital tools and advanced analytics capabilities alongside traditional lean tech-
niques, they aim to predict and prevent equipment failures, increase labor productivity,
and streamline the management of external contractors [2].
Recent studies show that maintenance expenses account for a large portion of the
vulnerable operating costs of manufacturing companies and can be as high as 25% of
operating costs [3]. So, 82% of the companies have faced unplanned machine break-
downs in recent years. For 40% of plant operators, one hour of downtime cost more than
e1 million [4]. Thus, maintenance is a large part of the cost-intensive activities that can
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

V. Ivanov et al. (Eds.): DSMIE 2023, LNME, pp. 3–12, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32767-4_1
4 D. Adamenko
be optimized, and maintenance costs are the only type of cost that can be influenced
after a plant has been put into operation [5].
Maintenance is often planned at specific intervals based on manufacturer recom-
mendation or operator experience. Industry 4.0 approaches and any process monitoring
generally require a meaningful process variable that allows conclusions to be drawn
about the current status of the production process or a machine [6]. Condition-based
maintenance ensures full utilization of the service lifecycle of systems and components
and saves additional maintenance work due to more frequent service downtimes. The
prerequisite for the realization of the condition-based maintenance approach is the avail-
ability of actual process data, which must be measured and transferred for evaluation
with the help of sensors and supporting hardware to the virtual models [7] that can
describe the behavior and simulate the remaining useful life of the system so that predic-
tive maintenance can be realized [8]. The transition from preventive to condition-based
maintenance strategies becomes necessary to meet the described requirements [9].
In factories, assets are kept in operation as long as they continue producing high-
quality products [10]. It is not unusual to see machines working for several decades still
in use on the shop floor [11]. Older machinery is usually in good condition but do not
have the necessary infrastructure to collect the measurement data and derive from it the
condition of the components. Investments in older equipment allow users to maximize
functionality with new sensors and software features. Due to the extremely high cost
of new machines, retrofit is being considered. Investments in modernizing equipment
result [12] in a higher utilization [13] of existing assets [14] have also been considered.
Sensor selection is often based on machine operator experience and sensor manufac-
turer expertise. However, it is not always clear which measurements must be measured
and how they must be performed. Since machines and equipment with a variety of com-
ponents can be exposed to different mechanical, electrical and other loads, selecting
the correct sensor becomes a great challenge, as the resistance and compatibility of the
measurement principle of sensors with the environmental conditions must be ensured.
Another challenge [15] is to find a method suitable for multiple machines [16] within a
single shopfloor [17].
2 Literature Review
Scientific works and industrial practice have established that the digitization of industry
and the transformation of production processes are necessary to secure the competitive-
ness of companies [18]. The long service lives and significant investments in machinery
and equipment have led to the formation of a market for their upgrade through additional
or replacement components. This market is constantly growing, and its turnover in 2021
is estimated at 45 billion dollars [19].
One of the main challenges of the retrofit process is the strong heterogeneity of
machines within a single shopfloor, so each machine requires its retrofit methodology.
Some of the global industrial companies, such as ABB [20], Festo [21], or TROX [22],
offer specialized retrofit kits that adapt the older systems of these manufacturers and
provide the corresponding functional extensions.
Still, no holistic method for retrofitting existing machines and systems can be trans-
ferred to several machines presented. From the practical examples in the literature and
Sensor Selection for Smart Retrofitting of Existing Plants 5
presented retrofit concepts [13, 23], a generally applicable scheme for the process of a
retrofit was extracted. The general retrofit process roughly consists of three steps [24].
First, the decision to implement the retrofit is to be made based on an analysis of oper-
ating, investment, and operating costs with predictive maintenance [25]. Subsequently,
the selection of the components that are relevant for securing the plant operation and
characteristic measured variables that can indicate a possible failure of defined compo-
nents takes place [26]. At the end of the process, the actual state of the plant or machine
is acquired, and sensors, hardware, and suitable mounts for attaching selected additional
components are selected [27].
Selection of sensors for the producing machines and plants is challenging because
many factors and requirements must be considered. A series of conflicting objectives
arise when instrumenting a plant with a wide variety of transducers. Sensor systems
with high sensitivity are desired so that a change in a physical process variable results in
the most significant change in the sensor’s output variable. Often, this requires a certain
proximity to the active point. The closer measurements are made to active components,
the less favorable the environmental conditions for sensors often become. Depending
on the distance from the active point, sensors are stressed by high temperatures, vibra-
tions, or the effects of process fluids [6]. The selection is complicated by a multitude of
sensors on the market with different operating principles, measurement characteristics,
and specific necessary environmental conditions to ensure the reliable measurement and
transmission of the signal.
For the realization of an optimal sensor selection, the requirements for the selection
process were established. These were derived from the available sensor selection methods
of Löpelt [28], VDMA [29], Hesse [30], Meß [31], and Classe [32], but also from the
context of the entire retrofit process. The most important of these has been summarized
in Table 1. Subsequently, the requirements were mapped to the considered methods.
The sensor selection approaches presented in the literature differ to some extent
in the intended use for which they were designed and cover a wide range of sensor
selection tasks. So, the approaches of Löpelt and VDMA focus on the retrofit processes.
The methods of Hesse, Meß, and Classe focus on sensor selection for new designs.
The known approaches require very application-dependent, specific information that
is dependent on the product requirements and, apart from abstract recommendations for
activities such as those offered in the well-known approaches to retrofitting and sensor
selection, can hardly be presented in a generally valid way in their diversity. The situation
is similar to reformulating the sensor task into a measurand to be recorded, for which a
high level of metrological experience may be necessary.
Table 1. Fulfillment of requirements for the retrofit process by known methods.
Requirements Löpelt VDMA Hesse Meß Classe

+ fulfilled ◯ partially fulfilled - not fulfilled
1 The methodology is continuous and holistic, so a + + ◯ + ◯
link path between categories and sensors is given
(continued)
6 D. Adamenko
Table 1. (continued)
Requirements Löpelt VDMA Hesse Meß Classe

+ fulfilled ◯ partially fulfilled - not fulfilled
2 The methodology considers the disturbances of the - - - - -
measurement process and provides suitable
physical measurement principles for the defined
task
3 The method considers key characteristics of sensors ◯ + ◯ ◯ -
and measurand, i.e., measurement type,
measurement range, environmental and installation
conditions, signal and safety requirements
4 The method has been validated for a retrofit process ◯ + - - -
As the level of knowledge progresses, the requirements evolve differently from

the initial decision point. According to Löpelt, a mutually supportive process between
requirements creation and sensor selection is encouraged by broadening the field of
view to include different solution approaches. A similar importance is attributed to this
concept in the approaches of Meß and Classe. However, the difficulty in successfully
implementing it is a working system that alerts the user that the requirements set cannot
be met, so there must be requirements correction because no sensor meets the require-
ments. At this point, a computer-based method can be helpful, which makes the deeper
expertise of the user not indispensable to performing filtering tasks. Also, the analysis
of the different treatments of the sensor selection process by different approaches can
be helpful for the most suitable sensor selection process.
Installation conditions, such as available installation space, possible mounting tech-
niques, or existing interfaces, play an essential role in sensor selection. For this reason,
each of the approaches presented here deals with this topic separately. Especially with
the background of retrofitting existing technical systems, the design restrictions are often
clearly defined [29]. Thus, in some cases, different focal points and associated strengths
and weaknesses emerge, which, as mentioned earlier, is also partly due to the design
situation being addressed. Any method could not fulfill the requirement to define the
suitable measurement principles for the current task. The approaches offer the potential
to complement each other and to extend them by further thoughts to define requirements
for a new method.
3 Research Methodology
The present paper aims to derive the methodology for sensor selection while considering
the conditions of the existing machinery and production processes. To achieve this, the
requirements for the sensor selection process are first established, the known methods
[28–32] for sensor selection are analyzed concerning the requirements, and an optimized
procedure for sensor selection is derived. The better suitable process is to be judged based
on more requirements being fulfilled compared to the known methods. Variables to be
measured and the operating and plant conditions are assumed to be known from previous
steps of the retrofit process.
For the realization of the sensor selection, a 5-step methodology was proposed. The
central aspect of the developed methodology should be the interaction between sensor
selection and coordination with the functional structure or the requirements and, thus,
the integration of loops. Therefore, following the argumentation in the previous chapter,
the arrangement of the steps is chosen as far as possible. So, the list of requirements for
the sensor can be completed meaningfully. Using the integration of a permanent result
display, and the thus guaranteed traceability of the exclusion steps in the configurator
operation, this can be facilitated by the computer-aided procedure. An adjustment should
be made if no result remains according to the display before the requirements list is
processed. To facilitate operation, user access to selection steps that have already been
run through should it be possible to make specific corrections, after which the results are
updated without restarting the configurator. The selection process is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Sensor selection process.
At the beginning of the process, the value to be measured, the installation space, and
the ambient condition should be known. The sequence starts with the selection of the
measurand. For this purpose, the user is presented with a list of common, industry-typical
physical values in which the one required for the measurement task can be searched.
This is important because, after each step, an exclusion of sensors takes place, in this
case those that are not suitable for measuring the measurand. If required, the database
can be extended to include other measured variables and other characteristics. In the
same step, the user enters the required measuring range by selecting a minimum and
maximum value in the appropriate unit. The configurator compares this input with the
entered measuring ranges of the sensor database to reject sensors that do not fit. Thus, all
sensors with minimum values that are above the entered minimum value and maximum
values that are below the entered maximum value will not be considered further.
In the requirements for the measurement process, the signal properties required to
fulfill the measurement task are queried on a measurement-quantity-specific basis. Most
cases should include linearity, resolution, accuracy, or hysteresis. However, it is not
advisable to generalize this selection for all measurement quantities since the technical
8 D. Adamenko
requirement criteria also change due to differences in the measurement strategy. The
sensor’s bandwidth determines whether the measurement task can be fulfilled concern-
ing technical requirements. Instead of the bandwidth, however, response times are an
essential feature for temperature sensors. In this step, the input is made via the required
value in the respective unit. In the same step, the conditions at the measurement location
are described. The user is offered to describe the possible influences on the measurement
location. In order to select a sensor according to the available space and the electrical con-
nection requirements, mounting conditions are also requested in this step. This includes
the size of the sensor, the type of connection, the type of mounting, and the supply
requirement. This information can usually be obtained from the data sheets provided
by the manufacturers. At this step of the developed methodology, the material proper-
ties (magnetic, conductive, and insulating) and environmental conditions (temperature,
pressure, visibility and light conditions) are also recorded and queried.
In the next step, the results are filtered for environmental disturbance variables.
According to VDMA, relevant environmental variables that can influence the quality
of the measurement are temperature, vibration and shock loads, ambient pressure, light
radiation, contact with media, and electromagnetic fields. Classe, Hesse, and Hering
supplement this list with dust and dirt particles, explosive environments, and radioac-
tive radiation. Furthermore, the behavior with respect to electromagnetic interference
and the effect of external interference fields on the radiation of a sensor are classified.
The information on vibration and shock resistance refers to the ability of the sensor to
withstand these loads mechanically without suffering damage.
Fig. 2. Selected environmental disturbances for defined sensing principles.

A total of 45 disturbance variables, summoned from sensor principles handbooks

were assigned to 19 different measurement principles. These were categorized by envi-
ronmental, geometry, material and measurement dynamic disturbances. An excerpt from
the table for the environmental disturbances is shown in Fig. 2.
4 Results and Discussion
Within the framework of the developed methodology, all disturbance variables that usu-
ally lead to impaired measurement results on the sensor product ready for use have been
recorded. This means that disturbances inherent in the active principle but compensated
for standards in the sensor design are not included in the list. These are less interesting
for sensor selection than for sensor manufacturing. Some of the listed items can also
be assigned to the measurand-dependent characteristic conditions, such as the division
of the ambient temperature into the corresponding ranges of low (lower than −30 °C),
high (above 50 °C), and normal temperatures. The same categorization has also been
performed for ambient pressure.
After filtering the sensors resistant to the disturbance variables, the information in
the last step concerns the preference of the output signal or desired communication
interfaces. As a result of the safety analysis of the system, ideally performed by the user,
information about the effect severity of a sensor system failure is available. In order to
support the redundant arrangement of the sensor system that may be deemed necessary
by this analysis result, the configurator solution can offer the advantage of suggesting
several sensors, even of different operating principles, after the selection process has
been run through. This can be the case if several sensors are available after using the
configurator.
Suppose no sensor is available as a result of the selection according to the strict
exclusion principle. In that case, it is possible to carry out a utility value and weak point
analysis of the sensors that are not one hundred percent suitable using user access to
all steps in retrospect to weigh up the extent to which non-optimal circumstances can
be accepted. Naturally, knock-out criteria should be defined for this purpose, which
immediately excludes sensors in case of non-compliance.
In order to design how cataloging could look like considering the mentioned distur-
bance variables, advantages, and influencing factors of manufacturer sensors, a scheme
according to Roth [33] is used in the following. Accordingly, a division of the information
into main, outline, and access parts takes place to ensure clarity and quick information
access. A difference to the definition of a construction catalog after Roth is that the
approximate completeness is fulfilled only conditionally with the cataloging of man-
ufacturer sensors. Although the compilation aims to be prepared for many different
applications, complete coverage of all products on the market is not intended in this
framework. The one-dimensional structure is intended to serve as a uniform structure.
First and foremost, the outline section contains the measured variable to which the
following contents are related. As central, immediately to be considered further outline
criteria apply against the background of the installation of the sensor into an existing
product, the present or constructively still to be realized kind of the event change. The
latter is assigned to the material of the measuring object and the permissible switching
10 D. Adamenko
distance. The permissible materials are partially one-sided and not mutually exclusive.
Like the sensing distances, whose structured arrangement would be arbitrary due to the
different specifications of either a fixed value or a range, they do not assume a clear
structuring function. Nevertheless, they occur in the outline part because of the close
connection to the event change and their characteristic as a measurand-specific condition.
Thus, a different outline part would be required for each measurand.
The main part consists of the sensor model and the associated operating principle.
The access part contains the other properties queried in the configurator mode, via the
selection of which the most favorable solution for prevailing environmental conditions
and interfaces can be found. The access part is subdivided into requirements for the
equipment to fulfill the measuring task. In this case, only the frequency range, disturbance
variables, environmental influences, installation conditions, which include the electrical
connection and the supply voltage, and the type of output signal.
Validation of the developed methodology has been realized with the retrofit of
an operating wind turbine. The variables to be measured were defined as rotational
speed, wind speed, wind acceleration, and elongation of the tower. The environmental
conditions were recorded and evaluated with a questionnaire.
The validation showed that suitable sensors could be found with the developed
methodology because corresponding models are available in the library. In the use cases
for the four defined measurands, only sensors were identified that could meet the techni-
cal requirements for measurement or were similar or even identical to the design of the
sensors already in use. The sensors issued in these four cases and not considered suit-
able for the task were too oversized regarding functional properties and, therefore, not
worth the potential cost and installation effort to the system operator. In the future, this
problem could be counteracted by an additional display of the cost boundary conditions
during the sensor output by the configurator for a convenient overview or the query of
the intended service life.
The selection of the search criteria thus seems to provide a reliable function in
most of the present examples, apart from the few points mentioned. It was left to the
user to collect the necessary data to work through the individual steps to find suitable
manufacturer products without additional search effort and information requirements.
In some cases, the decision already made by the responsible team of the company was
confirmed, or, especially in the case of acceleration and wind speed measurement, the
field of vision was extended to equally possible alternatives. No reason was given as to
why the sensor types that were not used had not been applied so far. The compilation of
the questions needed for the configurator arose from the orientation on the steps of the
developed method, which suggests that even without using a configurator, the procedure
can lead to the successful finding of a suitable sensor.
5 Conclusions
The great importance of sensors emerges from the strategies discussed for the approach
to retrofit measures and the requirements for systems to be retrofitted. Examining the
strategies showed that integrating a detailed methodology for sensor selection in this
context is still outstanding. Such a methodology, intended to support the planner of a
retrofit, was developed and presented. It is based on the conditions and structures of a
plant and, with the help of task-related requirement queries, limits the possible sensor
selection according to the exclusion method.
In particular, the intensive treatment of disturbance variables dependent on the active
principle represents an essential supplement to existing approaches in the developed
method. The detailed treatment of measurand-specific trade-offs in sensor selection,
which is not addressed in every approach or is touched upon superficially, was a crucial
filtering process during the validation.
The validation results demonstrate that the developed method can be suitable for
gathering information about the plant structure and requirements needed for a sensor
selection for industrial applications, given a previously defined metric. By integrating
sensors into existing plants, it is possible to gather essential knowledge about the process
and advance the digitization of operations. On the way to a configurator that can cover
a wide range of possible use cases, collecting comprehensive information about various
measurement situations beyond the examples covered in the validation is still pending.
Acknowledgment. This work was supported by the German Federal Ministry for Economic
Affairs and Energy within the Central Innovation Program for SMEs.
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Machine Vision Systems for Collaborative
Assembly Applications
Vladyslav Andrusyshyn1,2(B) , Vitalii Ivanov1,2 , Ján Pitel’1 , Kamil Židek1 ,

and Peter Lazorik1
1 Technical University of Košice, 1, Bayerova Street, Prešov 080 01, Slovak Republic
vladyslav.andrusyshyn@tuke.sk
2 Sumy State University, 2, Rymskogo-Korsakova Street, Sumy 40007, Ukraine
Abstract. The collaboration of robots with workers in production is one of the

most discussed topics within the framework of the Industry 4.0 concept. Collab-
orative production cells have increased flexibility and adaptability to production
conditions because of combining the advantages of a human and a robot and
expand the list of tasks that can be automated. However, the widespread adoption
of collaborative robots in manufacturing is hampered by open questions about the
safety of workers and ease of use. Machine vision systems allow collaborative
robots to work more closely with the environment and endow them with basic
cognitive functions. That is why this article is devoted to analyzing the use of
machine vision systems in modern collaborative assembly cells. The authors ana-
lyzed scientific works in machine vision systems, described practical examples
of their application, and catalogs of popular manufacturers to evaluate current
propositions in machine vision systems. As a result, the main areas of application
of machine vision systems were formed, their classification was presented, and
recommendations for choosing an optimal machine vision system were proposed.
In addition, the obtained recommendations were used in the practical case when
analyzing the equipment of the collaborative assembly line of the SmartTech-
Lab laboratory of the Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies of the Technical
University in Kosice.
Keywords: Industry 4.0 · Smart Assembly Line · Human-Robot Collaboration ·

Collaboration Safety · Visual Inspection System · Process Innovation ·
Sustainable Manufacturing
1 Introduction
Collaborative robots and their implementation in production are an essential part of the
Industry 4.0 concept [1]. Collaborative robots offer increased flexibility and mobility
than classical industrial robots [2] and can also simplify or increase the productivity
of applications where classic industrial robots were previously used. According to IFR
statistics [3], as of 2021, 39,000 collaborative robots were installed. Compared to 2020,
sales increased one and a half times; compared to 2017, more than three and a half times.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32767-4_2
14 V. Andrusyshyn et al.
At the same time, the percentage of collaborative robots compared to the total number
of industrial robots sold in 2017 is 2.75%, and this ratio for 2021 is 7.54%.
Despite the increased popularity of collaborative robots in production, the relative
share of installations of collaborative robots is currently low. The authors noted that one
of the reasons for the slow introduction of collaborative robots is the need to ensure a high
level of worker safety [4]. In addition to physical safety, the mental safety of the worker
must also be ensured to reduce worker anxiety and stress during the human-machine
interaction by making the interaction more accessible and intuitive [5]. Moreover, it is
necessary to simplify the work with modern technologies due to the lack of qualified
workers. According to the survey, both enterprises that have implemented the Industry
4.0 technologies and enterprises that are just planning to modernize production feel a
lack of qualified workers [6], negatively affecting the speed of spreading the Industry 4.0
concept. Due to the presence of open questions in collaborative robotics, this area is still
open for new research, methodology development, and definition of basic requirements.
The authors chose machine vision systems as a field of study. Machine vision sys-
tems have become one of the fundamental robotics technologies at the adaptation stage
of information collection technologies (Robotics 2.0) and environment perception tech-
nologies (Robotics 3.0). The use of sensors (including cameras) and the correct analysis
of their readings increase the adaptability and autonomy of industrial robots. Moreover,
without information from sensors, it is impossible to realize the concept of Industry 4.0
[7] fully.
This work is devoted to studying machine vision systems that can solve safety prob-
lems and simplify the work with collaborative robots, endowing them with basic cogni-
tive functions, like parts recognition. The theoretical part of the article will be devoted
to a brief overview of machine vision systems, their role in modern collaborative cells,
and practical examples of their application will be considered. As a practical part, a case
study of using a machine vision system in a collaborative cell to increase its flexibility
will be considered.
2 Literature Review
Machine vision systems in collaborative applications perform many tasks, such as
object detection, sorting, robot control, visual inspection, barcode identification, con-
trol of employee movement, supervision identifying defects, tracking, reporting, etc.
[8]. Speaking of using machine vision systems to increase the flexibility of production
cells, the authors [9] proposed a deep reinforcement learning algorithm for grasping
using machine vision. The perspective of studies in this field is that such algorithms
will allow capturing various objects with high efficiency and minimal human involve-
ment, including objects that did not participate in the training of the neural network.
Moreover, the scientific developments in data exchange between robots will allow the
exchange of experience in grasping various objects. In the future, work in this area can
significantly increase robotic systems’ flexibility and performance [7]. The authors [10]
proposed and verified a complex for grasping objects in a cluttered environment, which
consists of a novel gripper with controlled rigidity, a depth camera, and a computer that
can identify a suitable position for capturing correctly. Moreover, big companies are
Machine Vision Systems for Collaborative Assembly Applications 15
interested in conducting scientific research in grasping objects with undefined shapes

or locations. So, for example, the Amazon Picking Challenge is dedicated to grasping
objects with an unknown location in a limited time. The participants’ experience who
won this challenge is described in [11]. The authors [12] suggested using several 3D
cameras to detect the positions of randomly placed objects in a basket. Using multiple
cameras will help to get a better view of the environment, remove background noise
and avoid occlusions, which is especially critical for small objects. The study [13] also
notes that the presence of occlusions is a challenge for machine vision systems. The
paper proposed an approach based on a convolutional neural network that can detect
objects with partial occlusion. Also, the complexity of programming prevents the wide
spread of robotics, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises. The authors [14],
as part of their participation in the KUKA Innovation Award 2016, have developed a
system for developing robot task plans that is simple, flexible, powerful, and reliable.
The research was verified using an RGB-D camera and collaborative robots Universal
Robotic UR5 and KUKA LBR iiwa 14 R820. Also, machine vision systems can help to
perform complex technical challenging tasks. The authors [15] proposed a solution for
tracking and grasping falling objects. The solution uses a stereo vision system for image
acquisition and a high-speed dual-mode visual tracking algorithm that can work with a
partially observed trajectory and makes it possible to determine the capture point.
The use of machine vision systems for visual inspection has been well-researched,
and many applications have already been introduced into production. However, the
demand for scientific research in visual inspection remains due to the increasing require-
ments for flexibility and adaptability of production. The authors [16] proposed using a
machine vision system and an unsupervised machine learning method to study the mor-
phology of melt pools in the laser powder bed fusion process. The proposed solution
will confirm the presence or absence of defects in the melt pool, such as balling, under-
melting, and keyholing porosity. The authors [17] developed a method for detecting
loosened bolts in an assembly based on machine vision and machine learning systems,
which can work in real-time. In addition, the proposed method is not demanding signifi-
cant computing power. The authors [18] developed an image-processing algorithm using
deep learning to check wine bottles in real time. The authors use a Gaussian filter to limit
random noise and remove unrelated backgrounds to achieve real-time performance.
Moreover, machine vision systems are an essential element of collaborative cells.
Machine vision systems in collaborative cells can train the robot by demonstration,
communicate with the operator through gestures, and ensure safety [19]. Moreover,
machine vision systems allow these tasks to be performed using a single device, which
is an advantage. Thus, the authors [20] proposed a gesture detection module with a
library of human-robot physical interaction to provide safety and intuitive interaction
with the robot. Concerning safety research, authors [21] proposed and tested in practice
an optimization-based robot control algorithm to avoid obstacles without slowing down.
The features of this work are that the algorithm considers the entire human body and
the entire surface of the robot, including the end effector. This algorithm can increase
efficiency if there is enough space for maneuvering. Further work will focus on predicting
human behavior to obtain a smoother robot trajectory. The authors [22] proposed a
collision detection system, among the advantages of which are scalability and accounting
for the robot’s end effector. Also, the system can consider potential changes in the
workspace [23], such as the movement of other people and machines, if there is data for
training the neural network. As a future work, the authors consider the algorithm fitting
for the work of several people with a robot and a person with several robots.
As a result, scientific research in machine vision systems aims to improve existing
image processing algorithms, develop new ones to optimize task performance or expand
the technological capabilities of machine vision systems.
3.1 Introduction to Classification of Machine Vision Systems
The optimal choice of a machine vision system is based on a comprehensive analysis

of the application, after which it will be possible to obtain a list of requirements for the
machine vision system. During the analysis of the application, it is necessary to identify
the type of application (providing safety, increasing flexibility, or providing quality con-
trol), size of controlled space, production conditions (lighting, air and surface dirtiness,
optical parameters of the environment, etc.), parameters of the controlled object (optical
properties, surface condition, geometric parameters, the speed of its movement relative
to the machine vision system, etc.). After that, reducing the list of available solutions
is necessary, leaving only suitable solutions for efficiently executing the application. To
perform this task, it is required to analyze the properties and features of machine vision
systems and identify their relationship with the requirements obtained earlier during the
application analysis. The final step is to choose a machine vision system based on the
acquired properties of the machine vision system, its local price, and availability.
The authors have identified a list of machine vision systems’ main properties and
features related to the requirements of modern assembly collaborative sites. The machine
vision system consists of the following elements: an image sensor, a vision processing
device, a lens, lighting, and communications components [24]. Only image sensors and
vision processing devices will be considered in this paper since their optimal choice is
essential to ensure the application’s quality and performance.
3.2 Parameters of Image Sensors
There are 1D, 2D, and 3D machine vision systems available on the market. 1D machine
vision systems analyze a linear region instead of an area analysis since these systems
have one row of photodiodes. Based on their properties, they are most often used to detect
objects and control them continuously (e.g., while moving on a conveyor). Information
processing algorithms (which provide cropping, de-distorting, and joining images in the
correct order) make it possible to form a 2D image, and the image width can be unlimited.
In addition, providing sufficient and more uniform light will be necessary due to the need
to reduce the exposure time when shooting in dynamic conditions, which is much easier
when using 1D machine vision systems [25]. Also, 1D machine vision systems are used
for high-resolution visual inspection. These systems can scan moving objects at high
frequency, while the weight resolution of 1D machine vision systems can be from 512 to
12888 pixels [26]. Among the industrial applications of these systems is the continuous
control and analysis of sheet materials on the conveyor, such as paper, plastic [27],
polymers [28, 29], and steel sheets.
2D machine vision systems are the most common because of their universality. They
have a photosensitive matrix consisting of many rows of photodiodes. Therefore, they
are optimal for working with static objects and without needing to work with height
information. Also, they are the easiest to use. Among the limitations are sensitivity
to light intensity and poor contrast, which in turn is solved by installing additional
filters or using image processing algorithms, as well as the presence of parallax. Typical
examples of using 2D machine vision systems are determining objects’ coordinates for
further capture by an industrial robot, quality and size control, reading characters from
packages, monitoring, ensuring worker safety, etc. [30].
Matrices of 2D machine vision systems can be designed to produce monochrome
and color images. The main difference between monochrome and color matrices is that a
monochrome matrix captures the entire incident light beam on each photodiode, regard-
less of the length of the wave. In contrast, in color matrices, light is captured by groups
of pixels with additional color filters that transmit only a specific color (green, blue,
or red). Then the missing color components are calculated by interpolation algorithms
based on data from surrounding photodiodes [31]. Based on this, monochrome matrices
work faster, have a more significant resolution and greater detail level, and work better
in poor lighting conditions [32]. As a result, monochrome cameras remain the preferred
choice, while color cameras are recommended when information about the color of an
object is needed.
In addition, matrices of 2D machine vision systems can be with global or rolling
shutters. In a rolling shutter matrix, individual photodiodes or groups of photodiodes
begin and end the absorption of a light beam. In contrast, in the global shutter matrix, all
photodiodes begin to receive light simultaneously but end sequentially. Rolling shutter
sensors are cheaper but do not work well in dynamic environments [33, 34], distorting
moving objects’ images. As a result, global shutter systems are recommended, especially
in dynamic scenes [35].
3D machine vision systems provide a 3D digital model of the area or object being
scanned and can optionally overlay a 2D color image for a complete object representation.
Also, this type of camera usually is less sensitive to environmental conditions. But due to
the complexity of the design and the high cost of components, this is the most expensive
type of machine vision system.
Typical practical applications of 3D machine vision systems include object size
control with height inclusive, object scanning and digitization (reverse engineering),
defect detection, and safety control of collaborative cells.
The importance of choosing the proper resolution of the machine vision system
should be noted. A study [36] during the practical test of the proposed safety solution
revealed a relationship between the quality of the application execution and the camera
resolution. But cameras that offer higher resolution come at a higher cost. As a result,
paying attention to the application responsibility, the difference between the minimum
and maximum controlled element that needs to be controlled simultaneously, and the
budget is recommended. Based on this, choose the machine vision system. Also, as
mentioned above, the maximum resolution of a camera sensor depends on its type. So,
in some cases, it will be necessary to change the machine vision system with another
type of camera or use several machine vision systems to control different parameters.
3.3 Parameters of Vision Processing Devices

The machine vision processing device is responsible for pre-processing and post-
processing. The availability of image processing tools separates vision sensors from
machine vision systems [37]. Pre-processing is necessary for the optimal preparation of
input images, while post-processing is used to refine and improve the output results. From
this, it turns out that the more pre- and post-processing tools the controller can perform,
the more flexible the machine vision system is. On the other hand, controller perfor-
mance requirements are growing, affecting its price. Therefore, for the optimal choice
of a machine vision system, it is necessary to choose the set of necessary tools to com-
plete the task successfully with a price in mind. Since 2D and 3D cameras use different
sets of pre-processing and post-processing tools, they will be considered separately.
Among the common and widely used pre-processing tools for 2D cameras are the
binarize tool, edge detection tool, pixel correction tool, and stretch tool. Tools for post-
processing according to defined parameters are divided into tools for detecting the posi-
tion of an object, comparing object properties, measuring object geometry, counting
the number of objects, and identifying objects. Tools for detecting the position of an
object can be based on the detection of a contour, edges, a cylindrical surface, and text.
Tools for detecting the position of an object can be used to determine the position of the
object’s local coordinate system relative to the global coordinate system of the machine
vision system. As tools for comparing object properties, the comparison of brightness,
contrast, color, contour, and pattern, as well as determining the area and counting pixels
by color, can be used. These tools help to determine the presence or absence of an object
and to check its properties, for example, checking for correct packaging and labeling or
the presence of damages). Tools for measuring the geometry of an object can determine
linear, angular, and diametrical dimensions, determine the number of faces and their
properties, and are designed to check the correct dimensions, orientation, and current
state of a part or assembly. Object counting tools work on edge recognition and help
determine the number of occurrences of a given object in an image. Object identification
tools use barcodes, matrix codes, and text recognition.
As a pre-processing for 3D cameras, the stretch tool or distortions removal tool [38]
can be used. For 3D cameras with defined parameters, object position detection, object
properties comparison, object geometry measurement, and object counting are available.
Tools for detecting the position of an object, comparing object properties, and counting
the number of objects can be based on the detection of a specified 3D model or the
3d model with simple geometric shapes (cube, cylinder, etc.). Tools for measuring the
geometry of an object can determine linear, angular, and diametrical dimensions, as well
as dimensions between planes and 3D models in three axes, which is not available for
2D cameras.
In addition, the vision processing device is responsible for automatically adjusting
shooting parameters, such as autofocus, auto white balance, auto gain control, auto
color adjusting, auto exposure, etc. These tools are especially useful in case of frequent
changeovers (in case of single-piece flow) or in the case of a dynamically changing

environment in which events cannot be predicted in advance (for example, to ensure the
safety of a collaborative cell).
Also, there are solutions in the machine vision market with NVIDIA Jetson mod-
ules or similar platforms which make it possible to run applications using artificial
intelligence and neural networks (Allied Vision solutions, Basler solutions, Baumer AX
series). Examples of these solutions are providing the operator’s safety in a collaborative
assembly, visual quality control based on an operator’s subjective assessment, and object
recognition.
An example of choosing machine vision systems for the SmartTechLab laboratory will
be considered as a practical verification of the obtained methodology. SmartTechLab
laboratory is located at the Faculty of Manufacturing Technology with a seat in Prešov
of the Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic. A more detailed description of
the laboratory is available in previous work [39].
The laboratory is dedicated to teaching students the key technologies of the Industry
4.0 concept, research, and development work. The key equipment of the laboratory is the
collaborative assembly line (Fig. 1). In this example, it is planned to configure a line for
the assembly of switches (Fig. 2a). Since the switch consists of many parts (Fig. 2b), there
are problems with tool accessibility, small part sizes, and complex assembly steps (for
example, installing a spring). Collaborative assembly is preferable to full automation.
Fig. 1. The collaborative assembly line.

Fig. 2. Switch: a – assembled; b – exploded view.
The assembly of the switcher consists of the following stages: incoming inspection,
assembly, and final inspection. During the incoming inspection, it is necessary to ensure
that the base part of the switcher is correctly installed on the holder and that there are no
external defects. The holder enters the field of view of the camera on the conveyor at low
speed. In addition, it is allowed to stop the conveyor to perform the inspection operation
since the bottleneck of the system is the assembly operation. Based on this, the system
can be considered static. In addition, when choosing equipment for the laboratory, the
focus should be more on flexibility and versatility than on performance. The fact that the
base part is monotonous and dimpled makes the verification process more complicated.
The 3D machine vision system is the optimal choice for these production conditions.
Because the system is static, 1D machine vision systems are not the optimal choice. In
Fig. 3. Incoming inspection: a – camera vision system; b – application.

addition, for a 3D machine vision system, the monotony of a part will not be an issue,
unlike 2D machine vision systems. In addition, information about the height of the part
will help determine the correct installation of the part on the holder. A machine vision
system with a structured light sensor was chosen, as it can create a high-resolution model,
works well with small parts, is relatively cheap, and works well with monotonous parts.
Based on the analysis of available solutions, it was decided to choose the Keyence CA-
H048CX machine vision system (Fig. 3a). A 3D model comparison tool and a profile
measurement tool were used to check the geometric parameters and the correct height
of the profile (Fig. 3b).
During collaborative assembly, the robot must be able to determine the exact coordi-
nates of parts and pre-assemblies since a person can accidentally or deliberately change
their position. Because there are small parts that are involved in the assembly, it can be
critical to capture them. Since the system is static, and there is no need to determine the
colors of the workpieces, a monochrome 2D machine vision system is the optimal choice.
Since ABB YuMi is used as the collaborative robot, ABB offers a force-controlled col-
laborative gripper with an integrated Cognex AE3 machine vision system. Compared to
an installation in a fixed place, the machine vision system built into the gripper has more
flexibility since it is possible to change the inspection location freely, and there are no
issues with dead zones. The process of controlling the position of the base part is shown
in Fig. 4a. The circle finder is used as a tool for the controller (Fig. 4b).
Fig. 4. Machine vision system of the collaborative robot: a – general view; b –application.
After the assembly, it is necessary to perform a visual inspection of the final product.
All remarks about the statics of the system during the incoming inspection are applicable
to the final inspection control. However, unlike the input control, the appearance of the
assembly will be checked, so there is no need for measurements in the three-dimensional
plane. Moreover, since the assembly elements are only black and white, there will be
high contrast for even monochrome cameras. Based on the description of the inspection
conditions, it is optimal to use a monochrome 2D machine vision system. Keyence CA-
H048MX was chosen for the final inspection (Fig. 5a). The process of carrying out the
final inspection of the assembly is shown in Fig. 5b, which compares the original pattern
with the current one.
Fig. 5. Final inspection: a – camera vision system; b – application.
Regarding research in this direction, the authors [8] presented an overview of the
application of machine vision systems in smart factories, including considerations of
collaborative applications. Still, they did not consider the choice of hardware. The authors
[40] provided information about the features of the choice of agricultural machine vision
systems. As a result, this study has a scientific novelty and describes the features of the
choice of machine vision systems for smart factories with collaborative production cells.
5 Conclusions
This article examined the main areas of application of machine vision systems for col-
laborative assembly cells and their place in the Industry 4.0 concept. The experience
of using machine vision systems in collaborative cells was also systematized, and the
market of machine vision systems was analyzed. The scientific novelty of this work lies
in the fact that recommendations on the optimal choice of machine vision systems for
collaborative areas were received. These recommendations were tested in a case study
when choosing machine vision systems for the robotic collaborative assembly cell of the
SmartTechLab laboratory (Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with a seat in Presov,
Technical University in Kosice). The practical value of this study lies in the fact that the
received recommendations will allow researchers and engineers to simplify and speed
up the decision-making process on the optimal choice of machine vision systems for lab-
oratories and production lines, which may include collaborative robots. The limitations
of this article include focusing only on the main elements of machine vision systems
(image sensors and vision processing devices), as well as on the main parameters of the
elements (for example, parameters such as aperture, image storage method, etc. were
not considered). In future work, the authors consider a more detailed analysis of the
application of machine vision systems in security and an analysis of other elements of
machine vision systems, such as lighting and lenses.
Acknowledgment. This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development
Agency under contract No. APVV-19-0590, and also by the projects VEGA 1/0700/20
and KEGA 022TUKE-4/2023 granted by the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and
Sport of the Slovak Republic, and The NAWA Ulam Programme under the grant number
BPN/ULM/2022/1/00045. The results were partially obtained within the Joint Ukrainian-Slovak
R&D Project for the period of 2022–2023 granted by the Slovak Research and Development
Agency (SK-UA-21-0060) and Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine (State Reg. No.
0122U002657). The scientific results were partially obtained within the research project “Ful-
fillment of tasks of the perspective plan of development of a scientific direction “Technical sci-
ences” Sumy State University” ordered by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine
(State Reg. No. 0121U112684). This research was partially supported by the International
Association for Technological Development and Innovations.
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Digital Twins for Industrial Robotics:
A Comparative Study
David Fait and Václav Mašek(B)
University of West Bohemia, Univerzitní 8, 301 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic

vmasek@kks.zcu.cz
Abstract. The paper aims to compare NX Mechatronic Concept Designer (MCD)

and Tecnomatix Process Simulate (TPS) and their suitability for simulating mecha-
tronic machines in digital twinning. A Digital Twin (DT) is a virtual model that
serves as a real-time digital counterpart of a physical object or process. Compared
to a conventional simulation, it differs in its ability to model the behavior of the
actual counterpart from many points of view and with much greater complex-
ity. Digital Twins have a crucial role in the Fourth Industrial Revolution but are
also used in different areas like meteorology, traffic simulation in smart cities,
and civil engineering. Digital Twins in industrial engineering help maintain the
optimal pace of assembly lines, flexibly adapt production, increase manufactur-
ing process efficiency, and generate cost-effective products. Increasing usage of
IoT solutions drives the Digital Twin market, which is growing exponentially.
The paper discusses the two software packages’ possibilities, advantages, and dis-
advantages and proposes the methodology and philosophy of making DT. The
contribution of this work is to compare the possibilities of making mechatronic
devices for educational and research purposes from scratch through to their final
implementation.
Keywords: Digital Twin · Mechatronic Concept Designer · Process Simulate ·

Virtual Commissioning · Process Innovation
1 Introduction
The development of Industry 4.0 ideas supports the growth of Digital Twin technol-
ogy, particularly in the manufacturing sector. It can be characterized as a two-way data
integration between a physical and a virtual machine [1]. Intelligent manufacturing
solutions use information from production processes to enhance individual and overall
industrial production. Most of the time, the most expensive part of production is the
human workforce.
A Digital Twin is a virtual model of a physical object. It models the object’s whole
lifecycle and uses real-time data sent from sensors on the object to simulate the behavior
and monitor operations [2]. This method combines traditional mechanical engineering,
mechatronics, computer science, and artificial intelligence. Engineers can evaluate the
functionality of industrial concepts without creating a prototype due to the advanced sim-
ulation of the machine. Early correction of mistakes greatly minimizes the costs needed

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32767-4_3
Digital Twins for Industrial Robotics: A Comparative Study 27
for any modifications during a machine’s operational time. Manufacturing processes

are complicated and involve significant data generation, conversion, storage, and pro-
cessing. In these circumstances, simulations have become crucial and extremely useful.
Digital Twin technology can be utilized to create cost-effective products for customers,
maintain optimal production processes, and increase manufacturing efficiency.
Efficient and correct Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) plays a significant man-
ufacturing role. It allows the use of data from all life stages of the product supply chain,
from design and manufacturing, sales, and usage to decommissioning, to improve the
next product iteration [3, 4] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Influence on Design and Cost in the Product Design and Process Planning [4].
Digital Twins and PLM software can also predict the product’s lifecycle before
manufacturing. Siemens is one of the producers of PLM software and offers a whole
PLM solution. However, smaller companies typically cannot afford the entire portfolio
and are limited to only essential SW (software) [5].
This paper compares SW, which could be used for simulations of the main part of the
manufacturing process. The study compares the simulation of educational and research
models of assembly lines that can serve as a benchmark because they are in the fuzzy
area between design and commissioning.
2 Literature Review
During the design of mechatronic devices, it is necessary to consider the increasing
complexity of the manufacturing machines. Since a mechatronic device comprises
mechanical, electrical, and software parts, the number of potential failures is increased
[6].
One of the most widely used development models is the “V-Model” (Fig. 2). It shows
a product’s lifecycle from the requirements analysis to the final commissioning. Figure 2
shows the full version of the V-Model for designing mechatronic devices. For purely
mechanical devices, the V-Model is simplified [7].
28 D. Fait and V. Mašek
Fig. 2. V-Model for Mechatronic Devices [8, translated from 9].
The left part of the diagram shows the problem specification, analyses, and design
phase. The bottom part shows prototype testing and problem-solving (DTs are most
beneficial in this part). The right part shows integration tests, Hardware in the Loop
(HIL) testing, debugging, and preparation for commissioning [7].
One of the main advantages is avoiding errors in the control code. Testing a code
on a physical mechatronic system is complicated because every mistake can lead to
a crash. This is significant, especially for manufacturing machines, because they must
move various components simultaneously, making crashes sometimes hard to predict
[10]. However, the DT is not just that. Another essential part is physics simulation and
line layout optimization by a real-time two-way flow of the data between the physical
and digital models of the studied system. Correction of errors [11] during the operational
phase of the lifetime [12] is also costly [1, 4, 13].
The educational assembly lines were chosen as practical examples because all the fea-
tures of the programs could be easily demonstrated. The machine was designed in sec-
tions. Simulation SW (Process Simulate or Mechatronic Concept Designer) that allows
users to define 3D models and all their movements, sensors, physical attributes, and
input/output signals was used for the mechatronics design [4].
This paper compares DT creation of the assembly lines for education and research
purposes, described in the following sections. Digital Twins are especially suitable for
Digital Twins for Industrial Robotics: A Comparative Study 29
education not only to understand the concept and the methodology of making DTs but
also for co-simulation purposes in Totally Integrated Automation (TIA) Portal program-
ming. So each student has access to the device. Even though it is just a digital model, it
suits the purpose well enough. Then we establish a connection with the TIA Portal, where
DT can be used as a surrogate model of the real Hardware to create robotic manipulators.
The work aims to make a functional DT and compare the possibilities of different
software not just from a functionality point of view but also with the stress on educational
purposes, user-friendliness, and the possibility of simulating real-life machine parts,
similar to the solution presented in [13]. Another study goal is to discuss areas in the
V-Model covered by combining the MCD and TPS with TIA Portal. It is also necessary
to define which areas are covered by mentioned SW and deserve increased attention.
A further aim is also to compare both programs and provide recommendations for the
further development of the system engineering process.
3.1 Mechatronic Concept Designer
An assembly line MecLab (Fig. 3) prepared by the company FESTO was used for
NX Mechatronic Concept Designer. It consists of three separate stations that can be
combined and/or used separately. The first one consists of a pneumatic gripper that can
manipulate the part from one position to the second. The second part is the conveyor
with a separating actuator that can push the part from the conveyor to the slide. The
third part is the press that connects two manipulated parts. MecLab’s goal is to teach
students automation technology through realistic, practical examples that are also simple
to understand. Students can grasp new concepts or enhance their knowledge by compar-
ing the digital simulation and the actual machine and understand the fundamentals of
electrical and control design [14].
Fig. 3. Model of the assembly line.
3.2 Process Simulate
A manipulation line shown in Fig. 4 was used for the Tecnomatix Process Simulate. It
was designed at the Department of Machine Design for education in automation and fluid
30 D. Fait and V. Mašek
mechanism control using PLC. The device contains all the basic automation elements: a
conveyor, linear and angular pneumatic drive, both bistatic and monostatic valves, two
infrared position sensors and end position sensors, and two gravity conveyors. When
the part is at the end of the conveyor, it is pushed by the pneumatic drive and slides
to the position gripped by a magnetic actuator attached to the linear drive. Then it is
manipulated above the second slide and slides back on the conveyor.
Fig. 4. Model of the manipulation line [contains parts from 15].
3.3 TIA Portal
Defining the physical and mechanical properties of the various machine parts is the
first step in creating a Digital Twin of a machine. It models the dynamic behavior
and interactions of several components. TIA Portal enables a control program to be
programmed. DT can be combined with the PLC SimAdvanced for the code function
assessment. Finally, it can be connected to a PLC and used in a program control [16].
In this part, the main areas of the SW comparison are covered. They can be divided into
the following categories:
• Physics and reality reflection

• Kinematics settings
• Sensors
• Others
Another random document with
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TABLES
It would, no doubt, be very satisfactory if all the tables throughout
the kingdom were of one uniform pattern, and more than one
attempt has been made to bring about this desirable state of things.
But such efforts have not been successful because the owners of the
many thousand tables already in existence are naturally unwilling to
spend money in alterations. And, again, individual tastes will
constantly tend to develop typical differences.
The question of the size of the pockets first reached an acute form
at the time when the championship was being frequently played for
between Messrs. J. Roberts, jun., W. Cook, and Joseph Bennett.
The deadly effect of the spot stroke on a large pocket table was
clearly recognised, and fears were already entertained that unless
some radical alteration were made, all-round play would become
neglected, and that the public would soon weary of watching a single
stroke indefinitely repeated.[6]
A committee of the leading players thereupon decided that in
future all matches for the championship should be played upon a
table with pockets three inches at the fall of the slate, with the
billiard spot a little nearer to the top cushion, and with a smaller Ｄ.
This last alteration, looking to the fact that the deliberate intention of
the committee was to discourage, if not kill, the spot stroke, seems
curiously illogical. If the spot is to go, something must be encouraged
in its stead; obviously, all-round play must be developed. Why, then,
cramp in any way the latitude up till then given to a player when
playing from hand?
The subsequent history of the pockets is an
interesting commentary on the labours of the
committee. As they had expected, the spot stroke
Fig. 11 soon failed to draw, and for exhibition purposes it is,
in 1895, as dead as Julius Cæsar. But the tight pocket
failed to gain popularity. Here and there a more than
usually gifted amateur erected one for his own amusement; in one or
two instances an enterprising billiard-room proprietor, who had
other tables to fall back upon, tried one for an experiment. But these
tables are and must be, for all time, caviare to the general. The
reduced Ｄ has never found a place on ordinary tables, so that the
result of the committee’s work is that the spot has gone, and the
championship match, if there ever be one, must be played with the
three-inch pocket.
Fig. 12
Quite recently another attempt to secure uniformity has been

made by the Billiard Association. Their committee, recognising the
fact that the public would have nothing to say to a tight pocket, and
taking a 3⅝-inch pocket as a fair average size, caused templates to
be made of those dimensions, and decided that tables made with
pockets accurately fitted to the aforesaid templates should be called
‘Standard Association Tables.’ In two minor respects these pockets
differ slightly from what, for want of a better word, we may call
‘ordinary’ pockets—first, the shoulders of the cushions are struck
with a rounder curve; second, the outer edge of the fall of the slate at
the middle pocket falls slightly within the inner line of the cushion,
as shown in fig. 11, where A A is the line of the cushion, C the cloth,
and P the middle pocket. From this sketch it will be seen that the
difficulty of middle-pocket jennies is sensibly increased.
Fig. 13
Drawings of the Championship pockets (figs. 12, 13) and the

Standard Association pockets (figs. 14, 15) are here inserted in order
that the reader may compare them for himself. The drawings of the
Championship pockets are taken direct from the templates in the
possession of Messrs. Burroughes & Watts, and those of the
Standard pockets from templates the property of Messrs. Wright &
Co.
An intending purchaser has, then, to decide for himself whether he
will have a Standard pocket table; an ordinary 3⅝-pocket table (and
in this case the pockets of different makers will vary slightly in size
and shape); or, lastly, a 3–inch pocket Championship table.
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Whichever may be the pattern selected, the purchaser, if he is

really fond of the game, ought to get a good table well up to ‘club’
quality. If money is no object, elaborately carved tables can be
bought up to 300l. or so; but for the purposes of billiards all the
carving is unnecessary. Let the bed be a thoroughly strong one, the
slates of the best quality, the cushions according to the maker’s best
pattern, the cloth the best of its kind, and the woodwork plain.
A plan of a billiard-table is given on p. 75, in order that the terms
used in connexion with the table may be fully set forth; it is drawn on
the scale shown below-⁹⁄₂₀ in. = 1 ft.
Fig. 16
ORDINARY TABLE
(i) Billiard spot 12¾ in. from face (or nearest point) of the top
cushion.
(ii) Radius of semicircle of Ｄ, 11½ in.
(iii) Baulk-line, 29 in. from face of bottom cushion.
CHAMPIONSHIP TABLE
(i) 12½ in. (ii) First 9½ in. then 10 in. (iii) 28 in.
It is essential to the true running qualities, as well as to the lasting
qualities of the table, that the frames (which few people ever see)
should be exceedingly strong, thoroughly well seasoned, and
accurately levelled. The slightest warping of these frames is fatal to
the preservation of the table, and they are made, for this country at
any rate, of the most carefully selected red deal. If the table is
intended for the tropics, mahogany or teak should be used. As soon
as the frames are bolted to the legs (which, by the way, are erected on
an absolutely level base), they are carefully trimmed over with a long
plane, and, until the straight-edge fairly meets the frames all over, in
whatever direction it may be tried, the bed is not ready for the slate.
Fig. 17
Slates come from the Penrhyn or Aberdovey quarries, as the case

may be. Some makers prefer one quarry, others another. After they
have been rough-hewn to size and thickness, they are passed through
a planing machine, which reduces the surface to a rough level. They
are then put into another machine and cut to size, each slate being
now 2 ⅖ feet wide and 6 feet 1½ in. long. Then the five slates[7]
necessary to make a table bed are laid together upon a solid level
bed, and ‘floated’ with coarse sand; then fine sand is used, and yet
finer, till the face is brought to a polish. Meanwhile, every inequality
is carefully tried down, so that before the slates leave the ‘banker,’ as
it is called, the straight-edge must touch them fairly all over.
References to Diagram
B, B, B, B. Bed of table.
Cushion 1. Top cushion.
Cushion 2. Right top side cushion.
Cushion 3. Right bottom side cushion.
Cushion 4. Bottom cushion.
Cushion 5. Left bottom side cushion.
Cushion 6. Left top side cushion.
D. The Ｄ.
L, L. Baulk-line.
P1. Left top pocket.
P2. Right top pocket.
P3. Right middle pocket.
P4. Right bottom pocket.
P5. Left bottom pocket.
P6. Left middle pocket.
p, p, p, ..., Pocket plates.
S1. The spot, or the billiard spot.
S2. Pyramid spot.
S3. Centre spot.
4
S . Left spot of the Ｄ.
5
S . Centre spot of the Ｄ.
6
S . Right spot of the Ｄ.
Holes are bored in the sides of the slates and metal dowels leaded
into one side, as shown in the sketch (fig. 17), so that each slate may
fit into the next, and then large holes are drilled out on the underside
of the slates and steel nuts leaded in to take the long screws which
fasten the cushions firmly to the slates (fig. 18).
Fig. 18
On the underside of each slate a bevel about two inches wide is

made, in order that a chisel may be slipped between the slates to
separate them when dismantling a table; and if one is far away from
professional assistance, and is obliged to take down a table according
to one’s own lights, it is well to look carefully for this bevel, and it
may save many a cracked slate.
Various thicknesses are used, from, say, 1⅛ inch up to and over
two inches, the general principle being that, the thicker the bed is,
the quieter the balls run. But, as in most other things, there is a
reasonable limit, because the weight of the slates increases so
enormously with the increased thickness, that beyond two inches in
thickness they become very difficult to handle, and the risk of
damage in transport is more than proportionately increased.
Therefore, one may call two inches a reasonable maximum, and
1⅝ in. a fair minimum for the thickness of slates.
CUSHIONS
No part of the table has undergone such radical changes in the last
forty years as the cushion. Billiard-players of even twenty-five years’
experience are already beginning to forget the miseries they endured
in the early days in endeavouring to make a respectable shot from
under the old high cushions, and a school of billiard-players is
rapidly growing up who will never realise the difficulties their fathers
encountered.
I am permitted by the courtesy of Messrs. Burroughes & Watts to
insert four drawings from ‘Billiards Simplified,’ which show the
difference of the stroke from under the cushion—fig. 19 in 1826; fig.
20 in 1837; fig. 21 in 1869; fig. 22 in 1895.
The more the player’s cue is elevated from the horizontal, the more
difficult it becomes to direct the course of the ball, and with the old
high cushions it was no easy matter for an ordinary player whose ball
was tight under the cushion to hit another ball at the length of the
table.
But it is not only for the reduction in the height of the cushions
that we have to thank the makers at the present time. The early
rubber cushions were exceedingly sensitive to cold, and unless the
greatest care and trouble were taken with them they became hard,
untrue, and useless; and if they were once allowed to get ‘frozen,’ as
it was called, they never regained their original elasticity. Five and
twenty years ago it was the exception and not the rule to find a
country-house table worth playing on; now, thanks to modern
improvements, no one need despair of keeping his table in excellent
order.
Vulcanite specially prepared was
at one time recommended for
country-house cushions. But
although cushions of that material
were unaffected by frost, they were
slower and deader than ‘native’
rubber cushions, and soon became
Fig. 19 unpopular. The makers have at last Fig. 20
found a way of preparing cushions
so that with ordinary care they can
be kept true and fast in all weathers, and it is possible, and indeed
usual, to play in the country with the same kind of cushions as are
used in the leading London clubs.
The manufacture of these cushions is a delicate
piece of work; but one may say generally that the
rubber is applied to the backing in thin strips, one
‘pasted’ on the top of another with some liquid
preparation of india-rubber similar to, if not the
Fig. 21 same as, the stuff one uses to mend a hole in wading-
stockings.
For those who wish to go deeper
into the subject, a day at the Patent Office Library
and a careful study of the various patents obtained
by the principal makers with reference to the
manufacture of cushions will prove an interesting
piece of research, and will place the scientific reader Fig. 22
in possession of information which for obvious
reasons could not properly be included in the
present work.
As we write, rumours of a pneumatic cushion ‘which is to
supersede all others’ are widely current in the billiard world; but
when one remembers the number of fair-seeming patents that have
never got further than the Patent Office Library aforesaid, it would
be premature to express any opinion upon the cushions until they
have been thoroughly submitted to the two practical tests of time and
play.
CLOTHS
The bulk of the cloth comes from Stroud, although a good deal is
manufactured in Yorkshire, and the finest quality is passed through
two steel rollers, while a sort of knife like a mowing machine removes
a considerable part of the long nap. This is the kind of cloth that one
sees upon the tables used for exhibition matches. It would be
unsuitable for a club because, having a comparatively short nap, it
would soon be rubbed smooth and bare by the incessant play, and
the brushing and ironing such play involves. For country houses,
however, it is the very thing. The short nap which renders it
unsuitable for clubs makes it easily manageable in a private house; it
requires a minimum of ironing; and even if the table be left to itself
for some time, there will be no staring nap to be seen when next the
table is used.
For clubs the next quality, with longer nap, is more useful; more
brushing and more ironing are required, but the cloth is better fitted
to resist the everlasting friction of the player’s hands and the
incessant brushing that becomes, owing to the chalk from many cues,
an almost hourly function.
And here, notwithstanding all that has been said and written about
the subject, let me say that the ironing in club-rooms is in most
instances very much overdone. It is not altogether the marker’s fault;
members complain that the table is running slow, and on goes the
iron as a matter of course, generally far too hot. Nearly every marker
will tell you that the iron is no use unless it is thoroughly hot; what
he means is, that he cannot get the glaze upon the cloth without it;
but the proper answer is that nobody wants, or ought to want, the
glaze, and that it is directly detrimental to scientific billiards. The
cooler you can use the iron and keep the table in order, the better for
the life of the cloth and the better for the club play.
At the seaside, or in any damp climate, constant ironing becomes a
necessity, in order to thoroughly dry the cloth, but even under such
circumstances there is no necessity to scorch it.
A good cloth can be told by the feel only; it should be firm and
leathery, closely woven, and not too elastic.
In such an important matter as a cloth, however, a purchaser
would be well advised to place himself unreservedly in the
manufacturers’ hands, and leave the selection to them.
TO ERECT A TABLE
Having fixed upon a suitable foundation (and for this a competent
architect should be consulted), stand the legs up in the places they
will occupy; fit the frames (which are all numbered) into the
mortices, and screw the frames to the legs with the long bolts
provided for the purpose.
At this stage it will be well to set about levelling, before the weight
of the slates comes upon the bed, and if you get your wedges in now,
you can more readily knock them a little further when the table is
completely put together than if you had left them to be inserted last
of all.
Having thus got the bed level, lift the slates on carefully, and lay
them on the bed an inch or two apart. Place the centre slate
accurately in position, slide the next one up against it, and enter the
dowels of the one into the corresponding holes of the other fairly and
squarely; proceed in like manner with the other slates till they are all
joined. If there be any cracks in the upper edges of any of the slates,
fill them in with plaster of Paris.
Lay on the cloth, taking care that the right side is uppermost, that
the nap runs from what is to be the bottom of the table towards the
top, and that the cloth is square to the table. Go to the top of the
table, drive in a couple of tacks,[8] and then go to the bottom of the
table, pull the cloth tight, and drive in two more tacks on the middle
line. Then stand at one of the middle pockets, pull the cloth a little
towards you, and tack it lightly on each side of the pocket; next go
over to the opposite middle pocket, pull the cloth tight and tack it as
before. Then at each of the middle pockets in succession take a good
handful of cloth and a good pull and tack what you get underneath
the pocket. Smooth out the cloth over the fall of these pockets, but do
not at present trouble about a wrinkle or two, as they will be
smoothed out later. Get somebody to hold the cloth firmly at the
middle pocket, and go yourself to the corner pocket and pull along
the side of the table, using considerable strength; proceed in like
manner with the other corner pockets. If all this has been done
carefully, neatly, and firmly, the cloth ought to be well stretched the
length and breadth of the table. The amateur will find the greatest
difficulty in getting the cloth to lie smooth along the sides and ends
of the table, and especially at the fall of the pockets, for the cloth
must be humoured so as to come fair over the pockets without
creasing. This is a work of time, trouble, and neat-handedness; you
must not hurry; take plenty of time, plenty of tacks, and by degrees
success may be attained.
Covering the cushions with cloth is such an exceedingly difficult
and delicate operation that it should not be attempted by an
amateur; very few workmen can cover a cushion as it should be
covered, and, therefore, it is useless to describe the operation. It will
be found prudent to order the makers to cover the cushions before
sending them out; indeed, some clubs abroad have two sets of
cushions, so that while one set is in use the other may be in England
for repairs.
And now to put the cushions on the table. Take care that you have
each one in its proper place (the cushions will be all numbered); fit
them all firmly on so that the holes in the woodwork exactly coincide
with the holes in the slates; push in the bolts and screw them all up
hand tight. Don’t screw one as tight as you can at first, or you will
strain the cushion and the nut, but when you have got them all fairly
tight, set them up with the brace as tight as your strength will allow,
taking care that each is similarly treated. With modern steel cushions
it must be remembered that slots have to be dealt with instead of
holes, and therefore the position of the cushions must be carefully
measured, or one pocket will be larger than another.
Having screwed up the cushions quite tight, fit in the pocket plates
and pass the long thin screws up from below through the woodwork
of the cushions and screw all tight. (Some modern cushions are fixed
with what are called invisible pocket plates; these have to be put into
the cushions before the latter are fixed). Modern pockets are made
with holes at the side closed by an india-rubber ring, so that the balls
can be taken out without putting the hand into the pockets. These are
an improvement on the old pattern, for the shoulders of the cushions
will last longer and will not be pulled out of shape.
It now only remains to get the table quite level. Work the level
about and correct any slight errors by slightly jacking up the low
part, and by pushing the wedges under the nearest legs further
home. Rather under-compensate at first, because if you overdo the
thing at all, you will find yourself obliged to go on overdoing it till
your table is eventually raised appreciably above the regulation
height, which should be 2 ft. 8 in. from the floor to the cloth, not to
the top of the cushions.
If obliged to put up or superintend the erection of the lighting
apparatus, remember that the flame is generally three feet from the
cloth.
One more word of advice. If you can secure an expert to erect your
table, never do the work yourself; but if you cannot command such
aid, the foregoing hints may be of service.
The spots should be of thin court plaster, and should be carefully
stuck on the places shown in the diagram, p. 75.
Pipeclay, white chalk, black chalk, or a lead pencil can be used for
marking a baulk-line; and, whichever you select, remember to mark
the lines lightly or the cloth will soon become grooved and damaged.
Pipeclay, which is the least likely to damage the table, has the
drawback that it very easily rubs out, and, in consequence, involves
constant ruling, so that, on the whole, a lead pencil carefully and
lightly used can be recommended.
If the table be a Championship one, the position of the afore-
mentioned spots and lines requires modification, as shown on p. 73.
BRUSHING AND IRONING
It is impossible to overestimate the value of continual and regular
brushing. With one of the finest quality cloths, unless the climate be
damp, once or twice a week at the outside will be enough for the iron,
if the brush is used as it should be. At the conclusion of play the
brush should always be used freely and at once, so that all the chalk
marks may be removed before they are rubbed through the cloth.
Remember always to use the brush with the nap—that is, from the
bottom towards the top of the table.
To iron a table properly, place the iron at A C (fig. 23), and then
take it steadily along the table from A to B. Lift it off; then go back to
the bottom again; put the iron down at C E, and take it along the table
from C to D. Then go from E to F; and finally from G to H. Proceed
then in a similar manner with the other side of the table. Avoid as
much as possible letting the iron come into contact with the cushion.
It will be observed that the iron in the sketch is put down
diagonally, the reason being that if, when ironing the breadth next to
the side cushion, the iron comes in contact with the shoulder of the
middle pocket, it will slide on harmlessly and not damage the
cushion. If it were held squarely, the sharp edge of the iron might cut
the cloth of the cushion.
Bear well in mind that if at any time the cloth is turned end for
end, the brushing and ironing will have, as before, to go with the nap,
and will, therefore, start from the top end of the table and proceed
towards the bottom.
Fig. 23
Let the iron be too cold rather than too hot. It is easy to go over the
table a second time, and after a little experience the proper
temperature will become known. If the cloth be once scorched it will
never be satisfactory. Therefore:
Rule 1.—Never put an iron on the cloth until you have practically
satisfied yourself that it is not too hot.
Rule 2.—Never iron an unbrushed cloth.
UNDERSIZED TABLES
Tables can be bought 10 ft. by 5 ft., 9 ft. by 4½ ft., and so on down
to 6 ft. by 3 ft. There are also combination tables which serve as
dining-tables as well, and they seem to answer very well in small
houses.
For the earnest student a so-called ‘spot stroke’ table 6 ft. by 3 ft.,
which is really a section of the top of a full-sized table, made after the
fashion of the sketch (fig. 24), will afford an immense amount of
amusement and practice; for, in addition to the ‘spot,’ the top of the
table game, ‘rail’ cannons, &c., can be practised. The pattern of the
spot stroke table is a matter of fancy and cost; the side A, B, C need
have neither cushion nor pocket.
Fig. 24
If the small tables do not satisfy the ambition of the player, he has
yet another course open—viz. to get a French table, and seriously
study the cannon game in all its phases; and signs are not wanting
that this beautiful game, as it is becoming better known, is finding
favour with advanced players.
It may not be generally known by the vast army of people who rent
furnished houses for a few months at a time that billiard-tables can
be hired from the leading makers by the week or the month, the rate
being from, say, 2l. 2s. to 3l. 3s. a month, with a small payment in
addition to cover erecting and dismantling. Lighting and all fittings
are, of course, included in the above charges, and thus, without the
expense of purchase, a billiard-table can be brought within anyone’s
reach.
Before leaving the subject of tables, an ingenious modification of
an old arrangement whereby the balls are automatically returned
from the pockets to the baulk end of the table may be mentioned. It
has been patented by Messrs. Orme & Sons, and will be found a
convenience where no marker is kept, specially in practising losing
hazards from baulk. For spot, or top of the table play, it is
inconvenient; but the drawback of having to return to baulk for the
ball after each hazard may be remedied by placing a plug or false
bottom into each top pocket (failing anything better, a pocket
handkerchief will do), so that the ball may be removed in the usual
way. Mr. Rimington-Wilson has devised a mode of meeting this
difficulty, and Messrs. Orme have acquired the right to use his
patent.

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Advances in Design Simulation and

Manufacturing VI Proceedings of the

Advances in Design Simulation and Manufacturing VI

Advances in Design Simulation and Manufacturing IV

Recent Advances in Intelligent Manufacturing: Select

Advanced Manufacturing Processes II: Selected Papers

Sustainable Manufacturing and Design (Woodhead

13th Chaotic Modeling and Simulation International

14th Chaotic Modeling and Simulation International

Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on

Vitalii Ivanov · Justyna Trojanowska ·

Editorial Board Members

Indexed by SCOPUS and EI Compendex.

Ivan Pavlenko Erwin Rauch

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

This volume of Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering contains selected papers

June 2023 Vitalii Ivanov

Vitalii Ivanov Sumy State University, Ukraine

Jozef Zajac Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic

Co-chairs, Program Committee Chairs

Michal Hatala Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic

Co-chairs, Publication Chairs

Ivan Pavlenko Sumy State University, Ukraine

Co-chairs, Organizational Chairs

Svetlana Radchenko Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic

Katarzyna Antosz Rzeszow University of Technology, Poland

Dagmar Caganova Comenius University Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Dariusz Mazurkiewicz Lublin University of Technology, Poland

Jozef Zajac Technical University of Košice, Slovak Republic

Invited External Reviewers

Pawel Bun Poznan University of Technology, Poland

Khrystyna Berladir Sumy State University, Ukraine

Sensor Selection for Smart Retrofitting of Existing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Machine Vision Systems for Collaborative Assembly Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Digital Twins for Industrial Robotics: A Comparative Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

A CANVAS Based Assessment Model to Evaluate SMEs Readiness

PLC Control of a 2-Axis Robotic Arm in a Virtual Simulation Environment . . . . 50

Evolution of Competence Management in Manufacturing Industries . . . . . . . . . . 60

Designing a Workplace in Virtual and Mixed Reality Using the Meta

Digital and Information Technologies in Metrology 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Information Management Systems

Quality Management at the Manufacturing Enterprise: Repair Processes

Impact of Standardized Reusable Packaging on a Supply Chain Design

Agile Framework as a Key to Information Management Systems Delivery . . . . . 113

Perspectives of Lean Management Using the Poka Yoke Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Agile in the Context of Manufacturing SMEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Efficiency of the Production Process in the New Production Facility . . . . . . . . . . 142

Implementation of Intelligent Transport Systems in an Urban

Preliminary Study of Mass Material Removal for Aluminum Alloy by Low

Analysis of Microcutting of VT8 Titanium Alloy and 12Cr2Ni4A Steel

An Impact of the Cutting Fluid Supply on Contact Processes During

Modeling and Surface Modification of AISI 321 Stainless Steel

Improvement of the Quality of Wear Zones for Cutting Tools Textures

Conductivity Measurement Verification of Additively Manufactured

Substantiation of Chip Removal Models During Milling of Closed Grooves . . . . 238

Surface Roughness Assessment After Milling of Pure and Carbon Black

Improvement of a Two-Stage Drive for Multioperational Milling Machine . . . . . 264

Information Technologies of the Analysis for Models to Ensure Quality

CAD, Laser Powder Bed Fusion Fabrication and Post-processing