Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

CE-402: Irrigation Engineering

Lecture 6
Design of Irrigation Canals –
Kennedy’s Silt Theory and Lacey’s
Regime Theory, Canal Lining

8th Semester (4th Year)

Civil Engineering
Spring 2024

Lecturer: Alamgir Khalil

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University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

Kennedy’s Silt Theory

➢ Kennedy did not give any equation for slope of canal. The slope is decided
according to the ground available.

➢ From the plotted longitudinal slope of the alignment, there is always a

certain range of slope that can be given to a channel at the site. For every
such slope, a separate channel can be designed to suit a given discharge.

➢ For example, when Q = 2 cumecs, N = 0.0225 and m = 1, we get the following

dimensions, for various slopes.

Slope B (m) D (m) B/D

1 in 5000 7 0.68 10.3
1 in 4000 3.2 0.85 3.8
1 in 2000 1.5 1.4 1.07

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Kennedy’s Silt Theory (cont.)

➢ Unfortunately, Kennedy’s theory provides no clue to which of channels will

be best suited for a particular discharge and type of soil.

➢ Hence, some guidance is necessary to find out which channel would suit the
need best.

➢ To provide this guidance, suitable B/D ratios were fixed in various

departments on the basis of experience.

➢ Wood’s Normal Design Table is one such criterion which was prepared in
Punjab and is very much in use.

➢ Thus, if B/D ratio is selected from the recommended values, one more
equation is available. Hence, unique design of a channel can be done,
including the bed slope using Kennedy’s theory.
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Kennedy’s Silt Theory (cont.)

Wood’s Normal Design Table : N = 0.0225

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Kennedy’s Silt Theory – Design Procedure

(Case-II) When Q, N, m and B/D are given

➢ Step # 1: Calculate A in term of D ; Let B/D = x; or B = Dx

A = BD + ZD2 Let side slope =1/2 : 1 then A = BD + ½ D2 = D2x +0.5 D2 = D2(x+0.5)

➢ Step # 2: The value of V is known in terms of D by Kennedy’s equation. i.e =>

V = 0.55 m D0.64

Substitute the values of V and A in the continuity equation and solve for D
Q = A * V = D2(x+0.5) * 0.55mD0.64
Q = 0.55m (x+0.5) D2.64
In this equation Q, m, and x are
So D = [Q/(0.55 𝑚 (𝑥+0.5))] 1/2.64
known. Hence D is determined
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Kennedy’s Silt Theory – Design Procedure (cont.)

(Case-II) When Q, N, m and B/D are given

➢ Step # 3: Knowing D, calculate B and R from the following relations

𝐵𝐷+ 𝐷2 /2
B = Dx and R= 𝐵+𝐷 √5

➢ Step # 4: Calculate the velocity V from Kennedy’s equation, V = 0.55 m D0.64

➢ Step # 5: Knowing V and R, determine the slope S and from Chezy’s and
Kutter’s equation. The equation can be solved by trial and error
1 0.00155
23 + +
𝑉= 𝑁 𝑆 𝑅𝑆
0.00155 𝑁
1 + 23 +
𝑆 𝑅 MKS system
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Kennedy’s Silt Theory – Example

(Case-II) When Q, N, m and B/D are given

Design an irrigation canal with the following data by Kennedy’s theory.

Given that Q = 14 cumecs; N = 0.0225; m =1.0 and B/D = 5.7

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Drawbacks in Kennedy’s Theory

➢ Kennedy did not realize the importance of B/D ratio.
➢ He did not define the silt grade and silt charge.
➢ He did not give any relation between velocity of flow and water surface
slope.
➢ Empirical relations between velocity, depth, hydraulic radius and slopes were
found, to determine a stable cross-section.
➢ He did not give any relation for the bed slope of the canal. The bed slope
could be adopted as per ground condition.
➢ He did not account for silt concentration and bed load separately; he
accounted all factors in one single factor ”m”.
➢ For the design of a canal, he aimed to achieve the average regime condition.
➢ For the determination of mean velocity of flow, he solely depend upon
Kutter’s equation. Thus, the limitations of Kutter’s equation were
incorporated in his theory also.
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Lacey’s Regime Theory

➢ Lacey, an eminent civil engineer of U.P. (United Provinces) irrigation department,

published his first paper through the Institution of Civil Engineers London in
1929.

➢ He carried out extensive investigations on the design of stable channels in

alluvium. On the basis of his research work, he found many drawbacks in
Kennedy’s theory (1895).

➢ It was stated by Kennedy that a channel is said to be in a state of “regime” if

there is neither silting nor scouring in the channel. But according to Lacey, even
though a channel with no silting and no scouring may actually not be in regime.
Lacey, therefore differentiated between three regime conditions;

✓ True regime
✓ Initial regime
✓ Final regime
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Lacey’s Regime Theory (cont.)

➢ Regime Conditions
A channel is said to be in regime when the following conditions are satisfied;

1) The channel is flowing in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character

as that transported.
2) Discharge is constant.
3) Silt charge is constant i.e., the amount of silt is constant.
4) Silt grade is constant.
5) Flow is uniform.

➢ Hence, a designed channel is said to be in true regime if the above conditions are
satisfied. But in practice, all these conditions can never be satisfied and therefore,
artificial channels can never be in true regime. Hence, Lacey gave the idea of
initial and final regime for actual channel.

incoherent alluvium means the loose granular material which can be scoured out as easily as it is deposited. 10
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Lacey’s Regime Theory (cont.)

➢ Initial regime – One of the conditions of attaining regime of a channel is that

there should be freedom for the channel to form its own section. Initial
regime is the state of channel that has formed its section only and yet not
secured the longitudinal slope.

➢ Final regime – If all the variables such as perimeter, depth, slope etc. are
equally free to vary and finally get adjusted according to discharge and silt
grade, then the channel is said to have achieved permanent stability, called
final regime. Regime theory is applicable to such channels only.

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Lacey’s Regime Theory (cont.)

➢ Such a channel in which all variables are equally free to vary has a tendency
to assume a semi-elliptical section.

➢ The coarser the silt, the flatter is the semi-ellipse i.e., greater is the width of
the water surface. The finer the silt, the more nearly the section attains a
semi-circle.

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Lacey’s Regime Theory (cont.)

➢ The second point which Lacey argued was that the sediment is kept in
suspension not only by the vertical component of the eddies which are
generated on the channel bed, but also by the eddies generated on the sides
of the channel. Lacey argued that the silt supporting power of a channel is
proportional to the wetted perimeter and not to its width as presumed by
Kennedy.

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Lacey’s Regime Theory (cont.)

➢ Thirdly, Lacey argued that the grain size of the material forming the channel is
an important factor and needs more attention than was given by Kennedy
(different values of critical velocity ratio (m) for different types of soils). Lacy
therefore introduced a term called silt factor “f ” in his equation and
connected it to the average particle.

➢ Permanent regime – A channel is in permanent regime when its section is

provided with a lining to protect against scouring action thereby imparting
permanency to the channel section and longitudinal slope. Regime theory is
not applicable to such channels.

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Lacey’s Regime Theory – Design Procedure

➢ The design procedure involves no trial-and-error procedure. For the channel
design, the discharge Q and mean diameter of silt particles dmm or silt factor f
should be known.

➢ Step # 1: Calculate the silt factor 𝑓 = 1.76 𝑑𝑚𝑚

Where, 𝑑𝑚𝑚 = Mean particle size in mm

➢ Step # 2: Compute velocity, V

1/6 1/6
𝑄𝑓 2 𝑄𝑓 2
𝑉= 𝑉=
140 MKS system 4 FPS system

𝑄
➢ Step # 3: Determine area, A 𝐴=
𝑉
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Lacey’s Regime Theory – Design Procedure (cont.)

➢ Step # 4: Compute wetted perimeter, P
𝑃 = 4.75 𝑄 𝑃 = 2.67 𝑄
MKS system FPS system

➢ Step # 5: Find out bed width B and depth D of the channel section since A
and P are known. The side slope of an irrigation channel is usually ½:1
𝐷2
𝐴 = 𝐵𝐷 + 𝑃 =𝐵+𝐷 5
2

𝑃 − 𝑃2 − 6.944𝐴 𝐵 = 𝑃 − 2.236𝐷
𝐷=
3.472
5 𝑉2
➢ Step # 6: Calculate hydraulic radius R, 𝑅=
2 𝑓 MKS system
3 𝑉2
𝑅=
4 𝑓 FPS system 16
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Lacey’s Regime Theory – Design Procedure (cont.)

𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷2 /2
Also calculate R from, 𝑅=
𝐵+𝐷 5

➢ Both the values of R should be the same, this will provide a numerical check
from step # 1 to 5

➢ Step # 7: Find the slope S

𝑓 5/3 𝑓 5/3
𝑆= 𝑆=
3340𝑄1/6 MKS system 1844𝑄1/6 FPS system

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Lacey’s Regime Theory – Design Procedure (cont.)

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Lacey’s Regime Theory – Example

Design an unlined channel as per Lacey’s theory for the following data;
Discharge, Q = 30 m3/s
Mean diameter of silt particles = 0.33 mm
Side Slope, ½:1

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Drawbacks in Lacey’s Regime Theory

➢ The concept of true regime is only theoretical and cannot be achieved

practically.

➢ The various equations are derived by considering the silt factor of which is
not at all constant.

➢ The concentration of silt is not taken into account.

➢ The silt grade and silt charge are not clearly defined.

➢ The equations are empirical and based on the available data from a
particular type of channel.

➢ The characteristics of regime of channel may not be same for all cases.

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Comparison of Kennedy’s and Lacey’s Theory

Kennedy’s Theory Lacey’s Theory
1) It states that the silt carried by the flowing 1) It states that the silt carried by the flowing
water is kept in suspension by the vertical water is kept in suspension by the vertical
component of eddies which are generated component of eddies which are generated
from the bed of the channel. from the entire wetted perimeter of the
channel.
2) Relation between ‘V’ & ‘D’. 2) Relation between ‘V’ & ‘R’.
3) Critical velocity ratio ‘m’ is introduced to 3) Silt factor ‘f’ is introduced to make the
make the equation applicable to different equation applicable to different channels with
channels with different silt grades. different silt grades.
4) Kutter’s equation is used for finding the 4) This theory gave an equation for finding the
mean velocity. mean velocity.
5) This theory gives no equation for bed slope. 5) This theory gives an equation for bed slope.
6) In this theory, the design is based on trial 6) This theory does not involve trial and error
and error method. method.
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Lining of Irrigation Canals

➢ Canal whose prism has been protected with impervious material mainly to stop
seepage through it, is called a lined canal.
➢ Lining of the canal means that the earthen surface of the channel is lined with
a suitable (unerodable) lining surface, such as concrete, tiles, asphalt etc.

➢ Necessity – Lining of canals is necessary:

✓ To minimize the seepage losses in canal.
✓ To increase the discharge in canal
section by increasing the velocity.
✓ To prevent erosion of bed and sides due
to high velocities.
✓ To reduce maintenance of canals.
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Advantages of Canal Lining

➢ Although the cost of construction of a lined canal is many times greater than
that of an unlined canal, yet the advantages of lining are so obvious and so
significant that construction of a canal with lining becomes financially viable.

➢ The main advantages derived by canal lining are:

✓ The lining of canals prevent seepage loss, and thus more area can be
irrigated by the water so saved. The cost of irrigation is, therefore, reduced.
✓ The lining of canal is an important anti-water logging measure as it reduces
seepage to the adjoining area.
✓ The lining provides a smooth surface. The rugosity coefficient, therefore,
decreases. The resistance to flow also decreases and hence the velocity of
flow in the lined canal increases.
✓ The increased velocity minimizes the losses due to evaporation.
✓ The increased velocity helps to provide a narrow cross section for lined
canals.
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Advantages of Canal Lining (cont.)

✓ Higher velocity prevents silting in the canal.

✓ Lining reduces maintenance costs and possibility of bank breaching due to
increased stability of section.
✓ Lining of canal prevents or reduces weed growth.
✓ Canal lining prevents water to come in contact with harmful salts during
transit.

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Disadvantages of Canal Lining

➢ The canal lining has certain disadvantages

✓ Canal lining requires a heavy initial cost.

✓ Lining being permanent, it is difficult to shift the outlets very often.
✓ It is very difficult to repair the damaged lining.
✓ A lined section is without a berm. The additional safety provided by the berm
for vehicular and pedestrian traffic is, therefore, absent in a lined canal.

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Types of Canal Lining

➢ Various types of canal linings, which are commonly adopted are:

(A) Hard Surface Linings:

✓ Concrete lining
✓ Shotcrete lining
✓ Brick lining
✓ Asphalt lining
✓ Boulder lining

(B) Earth Type Linings:

✓ Soil-Cement lining
✓ Compacted earth lining

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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Concrete Lining

➢ Best suited for main canals.

➢ High initial cost.

➢ Long life and minimum maintenance cost.

➢ A thickness of about 5 to 15 cm and

stable side slopes between 1.5:1 to 1.25:1
are adopted.

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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Concrete Lining
➢ Ghazi Barotha Hydropower Project holds
the record for the biggest concrete lined
channel in the world.

➢ The channel is 51.90 km long with a

concrete lining and design flow of up to Design flow 1,600 cumecs
1600 cumecs at a water depth of 9 m. It
Longitudinal slope 1 : 9600
has a bottom width of 58.4 m.
Length 51,906 m
➢ The Power Channel has a nearly contour Full supply depth 9m
alignment with hills on the left side and
Bed width 58.4 m
the land naturally draining towards the
Indus River on the right side. Side slope 2H : IV
Lining thickness 135 mm
https://www.wapda.gov.pk/index.php/projects/hydro-power/o-m/ghazi-barotha 28
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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Shotcrete Lining

➢ Cement sand mortar ratio of 1:4.

The thickness of this type of
lining varies from 2.5 to 6.5 cm.

➢ Wire mesh reinforcement is

clamped to the channel surface
before applying shotcrete.

➢ Convenient for lining small

sections, for repair of old linings,
and for placing linings around
curves or structures.
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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Brick Lining

➢ It consists of a single
or double layer of
brick masonry.
➢ The size of brick is
restricted to 30x15x5
cm for convenience
of handling.
➢ It is hydraulically as efficient as concrete lining.
➢ In case of failure repair can be done easily.
➢ Brick linings are by far the most widely used lining in Pakistan.

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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Asphalt Lining

➢ Controlled mixture of asphalt and

grade aggregate mixed and placed
at a high temperature of 200 oC.

➢ It is covered with a 30 cm layer of

earth material for a protection.

➢ The mix can be placed with a

machine like that of concrete.

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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Boulder Lining

➢ Suitable where stones of required

specification are available in
abundance locally.

➢ Used for lining the earthen canal

cross section.

➢ To reduce the resistance to flow, a

20 to 25 mm thick cement plaster
is provided as a finishing surface.

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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Soil-Cement Lining

➢ Soil-cement linings are constructed with mixtures of sandy soil, cement and
water, which harden to a concrete-like material.
➢ The cement content should be minimum 2-8% of the soil by volume.

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Types of Canal Lining (cont.)

Compacted Earth Lining

➢ Soil graded to obtain the

required characteristics and
containing enough fines, so as
to make it impervious, is
thoroughly compacted at
optimum moisture content.

➢ Thickness of lining 30 to 90 cm.

➢ This type of lining is used where

suitable soils are available.

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