Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preservation, Waste Utilization, and Safety Assurance 1st Edition Ranendra K. Majumder

Advances in Fish Processing
Technologies : Preservation, Waste

Utilization, and Safety Assurance 1st
Edition Ranendra K. Majumder
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/advances-in-fish-processing-technologies-preservatio
n-waste-utilization-and-safety-assurance-1st-edition-ranendra-k-majumder/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Handbook of Research on Food Processing and

Preservation Technologies, Volume 5: Emerging
Techniques for Food Processing, Quality, and Safety
Assurance 1st Edition Monika Sharma (Editor)
https://ebookmeta.com/product/handbook-of-research-on-food-
processing-and-preservation-technologies-volume-5-emerging-
techniques-for-food-processing-quality-and-safety-assurance-1st-
edition-monika-sharma-editor/
Hazardous Waste Management: Advances in Chemical and

Industrial Waste Treatment and Technologies Zarook
Shareefdeen
https://ebookmeta.com/product/hazardous-waste-management-
advances-in-chemical-and-industrial-waste-treatment-and-
technologies-zarook-shareefdeen/

Preservation Technologies: Volume 2 1st Edition
processing-and-preservation-technologies-volume-2-1st-edition/
Food Processing Advances in Thermal Technologies

Kshirod Kumar Dash
https://ebookmeta.com/product/food-processing-advances-in-
thermal-technologies-kshirod-kumar-dash/
Food Processing Advances In Non Thermal Technologies
Kshirod Kumar Dash
https://ebookmeta.com/product/food-processing-advances-in-non-
thermal-technologies-kshirod-kumar-dash/
Advances in Energy and Combustion Safety and

sustainability Ashwani K. Gupta (Editor)
https://ebookmeta.com/product/advances-in-energy-and-combustion-
safety-and-sustainability-ashwani-k-gupta-editor/
Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Study: the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition Benjamin
Harrison
https://ebookmeta.com/product/cambridge-igcse-and-o-level-
history-workbook-2c-depth-study-the-united-states-1919-41-2nd-
edition-benjamin-harrison/

Preservation Technologies, Volume 4: Design and
Development of Specific Foods, Packaging Systems, and
Food Safety 1st Edition Megh R. Goyal (Editor)
processing-and-preservation-technologies-volume-4-design-and-
development-of-specific-foods-packaging-systems-and-food-
safety-1st-edition-megh-r-goyal-editor/
Food Waste Recovery: Processing Technologies,

Industrial Techniques, and Applications 2nd Edition
Charis M. Galanakis
https://ebookmeta.com/product/food-waste-recovery-processing-
technologies-industrial-techniques-and-applications-2nd-edition-
charis-m-galanakis/
ADVANCES IN
FISH PROCESSING
TECHNOLOGIES
Preservation, Waste Utilization, and
Safety Assurance
ADVANCES IN
FISH PROCESSING
TECHNOLOGIES
Preservation, Waste Utilization, and
Safety Assurance
Edited by
Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD
Amjad K. Balange, PhD
First edition published 2023
Apple Academic Press Inc. CRC Press
1265 Goldenrod Circle, NE, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW,
Palm Bay, FL 32905 USA Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 USA
760 Laurentian Drive, Unit 19, 4 Park Square, Milton Park,
Burlington, ON L7N 0A4, CANADA Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN UK
© 2023 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.
Apple Academic Press exclusively co-publishes with CRC Press, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors, editors, and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and publishers have attempted
to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any
form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC
please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Advances in fish processing technologies : preservation, waste utilization, and safety assurance / edited by Ranendra K.
Majumder, PhD, Amjad K. Balange, PhD.
Names: Majumder, Ranendra K., editor. | Balange, Amjad K., editor.
Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20220399697 | Canadiana (ebook) 20220399735 | ISBN 9781774911075 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774911082 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003300595 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Fishery processing. | LCSH: Fishery technology.
Classification: LCC SH335 .A38 2023 | DDC 664/.949—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Majumder, Ranendra K., editor. | Balange, Amjad K., editor.
Title: Advances in fish processing technologies : preservation, waste utilization, and safety assurance / edited by Ranendra
K. Majumder, PhD, Amjad K. Balange, PhD.
Description: First edition. | Palm Bay, FL, USA : Apple Academic Press ; Boca Raton, FL, USA : CRC Press, 2023. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022036439 (print) | LCCN 2022036440 (ebook) | ISBN 9781774911075 (hbk) | ISBN 9781774911082
(pbk) | ISBN 9781003300595 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Fishery processing. | Fishery technology.
Classification: LCC SH335 .A33 2023 (print) | LCC SH335 (ebook) | DDC 664/.94--dc23/eng/20220829
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036439
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036440
ISBN: 978-1-77491-107-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-77491-108-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00330-059-5 (ebk)
About the Editors
Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD

Professor and Head, Department of Fish Processing
Technology and Engineering, College of Fisheries
of Central Agricultural University (I), Lembucherra,
Tripura, India
Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD, is presently working as

Professor and Head in the Department of Fish Processing
Technology and Engineering, College of Fisheries of
Central Agricultural University (I), Lembucherra, Tripura, India. He has in
total 23 years of experience in different academic capacities, including eight
years as Professor. He has expertise in the field of ethnic and traditional fish
products of India and Bangladesh, fish biochemistry, fisheries waste manage
ment, and value addition of low-cost fish. He is also working in the field
of entrepreneurship development of youths through value addition to fish.
He has satisfactorily completed four externally funded research projects and
nine university-funded research projects. Prof. Majumder is guiding three
PhD scholars and has already guided 19 master’s theses. He has presented
papers at a number of international and national seminars. During his tenure
of academic and research life, he has publication in 35 international and 28
national journals, as well as 12 book chapters. He has developed several tech
nologies like different value-added fish products, low-cost solar tent dryers,
and consumer-friendly portable mini fish smoking kiln. Dr. Majumder’s
keen interest in ethnic fermented fish products has given him an identity in
the international arena, and he is presently working for the development of
their standards as assigned by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). Dr. Majumder earned his
doctoral degree from the Central Institute of Fisheries Education (Deemed
University), Mumbai, India.
vi About the Editors

Principal Scientist, Department of Post-Harvest Technology,
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education
(Deemed University), Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Amjad K. Balange, PhD, is currently Principal Scien

tist in the Department of Post-Harvest Technology of
the ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education (Deemed University),
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India, where he has been on the faculty for over 8
years. He also worked in the capacities of Biochemist and Assistant Professor
in the Fish Processing Technology Department of the College of Fisheries,
Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, India. He has over over 21 years in teaching,
research, and extension experience. Dr. Balange’s research and teaching
interests revolve around fish processing technology and microbiology, and
heh as published over 100 refereed journal publications in the areas of fish
post-harvest management, fish biochemistry, value addition of fish, and
fish waste management. He has supervised the completion of 10 PhD and
15 master’s research programs and is also a recipient of a fellowship for
the international PhD program from the Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince
of Songkla University, Thailand. He received an excellent doctorate thesis
award for the academic year 2008.
Contents
Contributors.............................................................................................................xi
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xv
Foreword 1............................................................................................................. xxi
Foreword 2...........................................................................................................xxiii
Preface .................................................................................................................. xxv
PART I: Advances in Fish Preservation, Processing, and

Packaging Technologies ..................................................................................1
1. Advancement in Fish Processing Technology: The Indian Scenario..........3

C. N. Ravishankar and C. O. Mohan
2. Surimi and Surimi‑Based Products.............................................................31

B. A. Shamasundar
3. Freezing of Fish and Fishery Products: Basics and Advancements .........53

K. Dhanapal and G. Praveen Kumar
4. Emerging Fish Processing and Packaging Technologies:

An Overview ..................................................................................................75
C. O. Mohan, S. Remya, K. R. Sreelakshmi, K. Elavarasan, and C. N. Ravishankar
5. Utilization of Low‑Cost Fish Through Restructured

Product‑Based Technologies ......................................................................101
Amjad K. Balange and R. P. Deepitha
6. Hydrocolloids: Application in Fish Processing to Improve

Mechanical and Functional Properties of Fish Products ........................ 117
Ranendra K. Majumder
7. Edible Packaging for Fish Preservation:

Fundamentals and Applications ................................................................139
P. Layana, R. P. Deepitha, K. A. Martin Xavier, and Amjad K. Balange
8. Disruptive Technologies: Its Scope in Seafood Processing and

Traceability of Fish Products .....................................................................161
Ajit Kumar Roy, B. M. Yadav, and S. A. Joshi
viii Contents
9. Secondary Raw Material and Low‑Cost Fish for Fish Meal

Production and Its Implications in the Animal Feed Industry ...............183
L. Narasimha Murthy, Girija G. Phadke, A. Jeyakumari, and S. Vijayakumar
PART II: Seafood Composition and Scope of Developing

High-Value Products...................................................................................201
10. Marine Fish Fatty Acids: Variation in Fatty Acid Profiles of

Pelagic and Demersal Fishes ......................................................................203
R. Ramesh and G. Venkateshwarlu
11. Endogenous Enzymes: Their Roles in Quality of Fish/Shellfish

and Their Products .....................................................................................235
Soottawat Benjakul, Avtar Singh, Thanasak Sae-Leaw, and Amjad K. Balange
12. Green Technologies for Developing High‑Value Novel Marine

Nutraceuticals: Scope and Innovations.....................................................271
Lekshmi R. G. Kumar, Niladri S. Chatterjee, and Suseela Mathew
PART III: Utilization of Fish Processing Wastes .............................................287
13. Fish Wastes: Present Status of Utilization and

Scope of Valorization ..................................................................................289
14. Production of Omega‑3 Capsules from Fish Offal: Recycling of

Resources for Sustainable Production and Consumption....................... 311
Bimal Prasanna Mohanty, Satabdi Ganguly, Arabinda Mahanty,
Tandrima Mitra, Sasmita Mohanty, and Basanta Kumar Das
15. Bioactive and Functional Nutraceuticals from Shrimp

Processing Wastes .......................................................................................321
K. A. Martin Xavier and Kasturi Chattopadhyay
16. Edible Packaging from Fishery Waste: A Future Prospective................337

Sathish Kumar Kannaiyan and J. Bindu
PART IV: Emerging Seafood Safety Concern and Quality Management .....355
17. Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria: An Emerging Seafood

Safety Concern ............................................................................................357
Jerusha Stephen, Manjusha Lekshmi, Parvathi Ammini, Binaya
Bhusan Nayak, and Sanath H. Kumar
Contents ix
18. Emerging Pathogens of Public Health Significance

Associated with Seafood .............................................................................377
L. Manjusha, H. Sanath Kumar, and Binaya Bhusan Nayak
19. Understanding Food Safety in Fish and Fishery Products .....................395

T. V. Sankar
20. Developments in Safety and Quality Management of Fish and

Fishery Products .........................................................................................427
G. Jeyasekaran and R. Jeya Shakila
PART V: Entrepreneurship Development in the Fish Processing Sector ......451
21. Entrepreneurship Initiatives in the Fisheries Post‑Harvest

Sector Through the Agribusiness Incubation Program...........................453
George Ninan
Index .....................................................................................................................493
Contributors
Parvathi Ammini
CSIR–National Institute of Oceanography, Regional Center, Kochi – 682018, Ernakulam, Kerala, India
Amjad K. Balange
Department of Post-Harvest Technology; Fish Processing Technology, ICAR-Central Institute of
Fisheries Education, Versova, Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: amjadbalange@cife.edu.in
Soottawat Benjakul
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai,
Songkhla – 90110, Thailand, E-mail: Soottawat.b@psu.ac.th
J. Bindu
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Cochin, Ernakulam, Kerala, India,
E-mail: bindujaganath@gmail.com
Niladri S. Chatterjee
Biochemistry and Nutrition Division, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin – 29,
Ernakulam, Kerala, India
Kasturi Chattopadhyay
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, Fishery Resource Harvest and Postharvest Management
Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Versova, Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra,
India
Basanta Kumar Das

ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata – 700120, West Bengal, India
R. P. Deepitha
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Versova,
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India; Division of Fisheries Science, ICAR-Central Island Agricultural
Research Institute, Garacharma, Port Blair – 744105, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
K. Dhanapal
Department of Fish Processing Technology, College of Fishery Science, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries
University, Muthukur – 524344, Andhra Pradesh, India, E-mail: kdhanpal@gmail.com
K. Elavarasan
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi – 682029, Ernakulam, Kerala, India
Satabdi Ganguly
A. Jeyakumari
Mumbai Research Center of ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, CIDCO Admin Building,
Sector I, Vashi, Navi Mumbai – 400703, Maharashtra, India
G. Jeyasekaran
Department of Fish Quality Assurance and Management, Tamil Nadu Dr. J. Jayalalithaa Fisheries
University, Tuticorin – 628008, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: jeyasekarang@gmail.com
xii Contributors
S. A. Joshi
Assistant Professor, College of Fishery Science, MAFSU, Nagpur – 440006, Maharashtra, India
Sathish Kumar Kannaiyan

ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Cochin, Ernakulam, Kerala, India
G. Praveen Kumar
Department of Fish Processing Technology, College of Fishery Science, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries
University, Muthukur – 524344, Andhra Pradesh, India
H. Sanath Kumar
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: sanathkumar@cife.edu.in
Lekshmi R. G. Kumar
Sanath H. Kumar
QC Laboratory, Post-Harvest Technology Department, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: sanathkumar@cife.edu.in
P. Layana
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Versova,
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: layanap@cife.edu.in
Manjusha Lekshmi
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: Manjusha@cife.edu.in
Arabinda Mahanty
ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata – 700120, West Bengal,
India; Crop Protection Division, ICAR – National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack – 753006, Odisha,
India
College of Fisheries, Central Agricultural University (Imphal), Lembucherra – 799210, Tripura, India,
E-mail: drrkmcof@gmail.com
L. Manjusha
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India
Suseela Mathew
Ernakulam, Kerala, India, E-mail: suseela1962@gmail.com
Tandrima Mitra
C. O. Mohan
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi – 682029, Ernakulam, Kerala, India,
E-mail: comohan@gmail.com
Bimal Prasanna Mohanty

ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata – 700120, West Bengal, India;
Fisheries Science Division – ICAR, KAB II, Pusa, New Delhi – 110012, India,
E-mail: bimal.mohanty@icar.gov.in
Contributors xiii
Sasmita Mohanty
Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, Rama Devi Women’s University,
Bhubaneswar – 751022, Odisha, India
L. Narasimha Murthy
Sector I, Vashi, Navi Mumbai – 400703, Maharashtra, India, E-mail: murthycift@gmail.com
Binaya Bhusan Nayak
Department of Post-Harvest Technology; QC Laboratory, Post-Harvest Technology Department,
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India
George Ninan
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin – 682029, Ernakulam, Kerala, India,
E-mail: georgr66jiji@gmail.com
Girija G. Phadke
Sector I, Vashi, Navi Mumbai – 400703, Maharashtra, India
R. Ramesh
Regional Research Center of ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Fish Seed Farm,
Penamaluru, Poranki P. O., Vijayawada – 521137, Andhra Pradesh, India
C. N. Ravishankar
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai 400 061, India,
E-mail: cnrs20002000@yahoo.co.in
S. Remya
Ajit Kumar Roy

Ex. Pr. Scientist and Head, Social Sciences, ICAR-CIFA, Bhubaneswar – 751002, Odisha, India,
E-mail: akroy1946@yahoo.co.in
Thanasak Sae-Leaw
Songkhla – 90110, Thailand
T. V. Sankar
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin – 682029, Ernakulam, Kerala, India,
E-mail: tvsankar.cift@gmail.com
R. Jeya Shakila
Department of Fish Quality Assurance and Management, Tamil Nadu Dr. J. Jayalalithaa Fisheries
University, Tuticorin – 628008, Tamil Nadu, India
B. A. Shamasundar
Former Professor and Head, Department of Fish Processing Technology, College of Fisheries,
Mangalore – 575002, Karnataka, India, E-mail: bashamasundar@rediffmail.com
Avtar Singh
Songkhla – 90110, Thailand
K. R. Sreelakshmi
xiv Contributors
Jerusha Stephen
Mumbai – 400061, Maharashtra, India
G. Venkateshwarlu
Education Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, KAB-II, New Delhi – 110012, India,
E-mail: venkateshwarlu.icar@gmail.com
S. Vijayakumar
Fisheries Research Station and Information Center, Buthnal, KAFSU, Bidar, Karnataka, India
K. A. Martin Xavier
Department of Post-Harvest Technology, Fishery Resource Harvest and Postharvest Management
Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Versova, Mumbai – 400061,
Maharashtra, India, E-mail: martinxavier@cife.edu.in
B. M. Yadav
Associate Professor, College of Fisheries, Dr. B. S. K. K. V., Dapoli, Ratmagiri – 415629,
Maharashtra, India
Abbreviations
ABI agri-business incubation center

ACE angiotensin-converting enzyme
AD Alzheimer’s disease
ADA American Diabetic Association
ADHD attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
ADV adenoviruses
AGVs automated guided vehicles
AHA American Heart Association
AI artificial intelligence
AMD age-related macular degeneration
AMG acetylated monoglycerides
AP active packaging
APW alkaline peptone water
ASP amnesic shellfish poisoning
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
AZP azaspiracid shellfish poisoning
BHA butylated hydroxyanisole
BHI brain heart infusion
BHT butylated hydroxytoluene
BIPs border inspection posts
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
CA competent authority
CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission
CAF conventional air freezing
CAGR compound annual growth rate
CAT cefoperazone, amphotericin B and teicoplanin
CAZ ceftazidime
CCA Central Competent Authority
CCFFP codex committee for fish and fishery products
CCFH codex committee on food hygiene
CCPs critical control points
CDC center for disease control
cDNA complementary double-stranded DNA
CFC chlorofluorocarbons
xvi Abbreviations
CFR code of federal regulations

CFTRS Central Fisheries Technological Research Station
CIFT Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
CLE Chamuang leaf extract
CMC carboxymethylcellulose
COFI committee on fisheries
COOL country of origin labeling
COVIS cholera and other vibrio information service
CP critical point
CPD cefpodoxime
CRE carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae
CSW chilled seawater
CTX cefotaxime
DAG diacylglycerol
DEAE diethylaminoethylsepharose
DES deep eutectic solvents
DG-SANTE Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety
DH degree of hydrolysis
DHA docosahexaenoic acid
DMA dimethylamine
DSP diarrhetic shellfish poisoning
DTX1 dinophysistoxin-1
DTX2 dinophysistoxin -2
EC epicatechin
ECG epicatechin gallate
ECHE ethanolic coconut husk extract
ECs edible coatings
EFs edible films
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
EGC epigallocatechin
EGCG epigallocatechin gallate
EIAs Export Inspection Agencies
EIC Export Inspection Council
EPA eicosapentaenoic acid
ESBL extended-spectrum β-lactamase
EU European Union
EVOH ethylene-vinyl alcohol
FA fatty acid
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
Abbreviations xvii
FBOs food business operators

FDA Food and Drug Administration
FFA free fatty acid
FFDCA Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
FPH fish protein hydrolysates
FPI fish protein isolate
FSMA Food Safety Modernization Act
FSMS food safety management system
FSSAI Food Safety Standards Authority of India
FVO food and veterinary office
GBF glycol/water bath freezing
GDP gross domestic product
GHPs good hygiene practices
GIF gel degradation inducing factor
GMO genetically modified organisms
GMPs good manufacturing practices
GRAS generally recognized as safe
GTE green tea extract
HA hepatitis A
HACCP hazard analysis and critical control point
HAV hepatitis A viruses
HBA hydrogen bond acceptor
HBD hydrogen bond donor
HDPP high-density polypropylene
HETE hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid
HGT horizontal gene transfer
HL headless
HP high pressure
HPAF high-pressure-assisted freezing
HPP high-pressure processing
HPSF high-pressure-shift freezing
HuNoVs human noroviruses
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICAR-CIFT ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
ICMSF International Commission for Microbiological Specifications
for Foods
IFT Institute of Food Technologists
IMP imipenemase
IoT internet of things
xviii Abbreviations
IQF individual quick freezing

ISD inspection and safety division
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IUU illegal, unreported and unregulated
JECFA Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
KGM Konjac glucomannan
LBG locust bean gum
LDL low-density lipoprotein
LOX lipoxygenase
MAE microwave-assisted extraction
MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries
MAG monoacylglycerol
MAP modified atmosphere packaging
MBLs metallo-β-Lactamases
MDR multiple drug-resistant
MFRD Marine Fisheries Research Department
MHC myosin heavy chain
MHLW Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare
MIPs modori inducing proteases
MMPs matrix metalloproteases
MMT million metric ton
MOU memorandum of understanding
MRL maximum residual limit
MRSA methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
MSC Marine Stewardship Council
MSPs matrix serine proteases
MTGase microbial transglutaminase
MUFA monounsaturated fatty acid
MW molecular weight
n-3 PUFAs n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
NAIF National Agriculture Innovation Fund
NGOs non-governmental organizations
NIID National Institute of Infectious Diseases
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service
NOAEL no observable adverse effect level
NSP neurologic shellfish poisoning
NSSP National Shellfish Sanitation Program
OFA oxygenated FA
Abbreviations xix
OIE international office of epizootics

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OXA oxacillinases
PAHs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PAI pathogenicity islands
PCA principal component analysis
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
PCDDs polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxines
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PD peeled and deveined
PE polyethylene
PEG polyethylene glycol
PL phospholipids
PLE pressurized liquid extraction
PMQR plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance
PPE pomegranate peel extract
PPO polyphenol oxidase
PRPs prerequisite programs
PSF pressure shift freezing
PSP paralytic shellfish poisoning
PTO peeled tail on
PUD peeled and un-deveined
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids
QRDR quinolone-resistance determining region
RASFF rapid alert system for food and feed
RDI recommendation daily intake
RF radio frequency
ROS reactive oxidative species
RSW refrigerated seawater
RTE ready-to-eat
SCF supercritical fluid
SDG sustainable development goal
SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
SFAs saturated fatty acids
SFE supercritical fluid extraction
SFP scombrotoxin fish poisoning
SHS switchable hydrophilicity solvent
SMS sodium metabisulfite
SS switchable solvents
xx Abbreviations
SSOPs sanitation standard operating procedures

TAG triacylglycerols
TBT technical barriers to trade
TDH thermostable direct hemolysin
TGase transglutaminase
TMAO trimethylamine oxide
TMAOase trimethylamine-N-oxide demethylase
TRH TDH-related hemolysin
TRL technology readiness level
UAE ultrasound-assisted extraction
UN United Nations
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USFDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration
VIM Verona Integron-encoded metallo-β-lactamase
WHO World Health Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
ZTMC Zonal Technology Management Center
Foreword 1
The fishery sector has witnessed the development of various innovative

approaches, particularly in the field of processing, preservation, and waste
utilization. It is the time to promote a ‘Fish for All and Forever’ movement
to augment nutritional security. Fish processing is playing a significant role
in providing safe and nutritious products free from contaminants to satisfy
consumer demand and in the promotion of export. The technological advance
ments have increased fish production from both inland and marine sectors.
Higher production needs to be coupled with much improved and efficient
post-harvest management with innovative approaches. Food loss and waste is
a serious issue globally. Fish processing waste, especially from shore-based
facilities, can cause harm to the marine environment in the surrounding area
as well as to the terrestrial environment as a potent bio-pollutant. Therefore,
recycling fish processing waste is necessary to contribute to better health of
the environment and the generation of more wealth.
The book Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preservation, Waste
Utilization, and Safety Assurance is a very good timely initiative. I hope that
the book will be a handy reference for students, researchers, entrepreneurs,
policymakers, and other stakeholders. I congratulate the Editors for their
effort in bringing out the publication.
—Trilochan Mohapatra, PhD
Secretary & Director General
Department of Agricultural Research & Education
and
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare
Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi – 110 001, India
Tel.: 23382629; 23386711; Fax: 91-11-23384773
E-mail: dg.icar@nic.in
Foreword 2
Fish was not an expensive food product until the second half of the 20th
century. The development of improved processing, packaging, and marketing
techniques has made it possible to send fish to remote areas. Until then, fish
was mostly a food eaten by people of coastal areas. Today fish is the most
expensive animal food in the world. The cost of fish per kg is much higher
than that of chicken and other animal meat.
In the 1950s many low-values fish were thrown back into the sea from
shrimp trawlers. They are usually called by-catches. But times have changed.
In many countries, these previously low-value fish enjoy a good market and
command high prices.
Fish is now considered a healthy food. It contains high amounts of
protein-rich essential amino acids. Fish is also a good source of omega-3
fatty acids, vital for the synthesis of several compounds like prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and biologically active compounds needed for human health
and medical application. Many compounds extracted from fish waste now
enjoy a good commercial market. Chitin, chitosan, and glucosamine from
shrimp shells now have an established market. Chondroitin sulfate extracted
from shark bones is now widely used for the treatment of osteoarthritis.
This book Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preserva-
tion, Waste Utilization, and Safety Assurance discusses all aspects of
fish processing. The book has 21 chapters. All the contributors are very
experienced scientists and professors. In fact, some of them have reputed
research articles in international journals to their credit.
Prof. Ranendra K. Majumder and Dr. Amjad K. Balange have done
outstanding work in organizing and editing this book. I hope this book will
be well received by students and research scientists in fish processing.
—K. Gopakumar, PhD
Professor of Eminence, Department of Food Science and Technology,
Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi, Ernakulam,
Kerala, India
Former Director, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT),
Kochi and Deputy Director General (Fisheries), Indian Council of
Agricultural Science ICAR), New Delhi, India,
E-mail: kgopa@yahoo.com
Preface
The idea of writing this book emerged from discussions with students,
researchers, and teachers working in the fisheries colleges and research insti
tutes. Being updated with new information has become the need of the hour,
and the fish processing sector globally and in India is also changing and
upgrading itself to fulfill the ever-changing demand of consumers. Fisheries
in India have become one of the important economic activities, with total
fish production of 13.42 million metric tons during 2018–2019 and export of
the fish products valued at Rs. 46,589 crores (2018–2019). With the increase
in fish production, challenges of supplying the fish in the freshest possible
state are also increasing. Consumer demand for safe, nutritious, healthy,
and conveniently ready-to-eat fish products and industry demand of zero
wastage during processing paved the way for several need-based research in
the area of preservation, processing, waste utilization, and safety assurance
of fish and fish products. This brought our attention to compiling the recent
research recommendations on various aspects of preservation, processing,
waste utilization, and safety of fish and fish products.
Fish processing industries in India had developed gradually from quite a
few freezing plants in 1950–1951 to more than 700 freezing plants by 2020.
To date, freezing and canning are the two most practiced modern methods
of fish processing in India. Though there are other advanced innovative and
minimal processing methods like high-pressure processing, freeze-drying,
pulsed light preservation, microwave preservation, pulsed electric field
processing, etc., which have been adopted by some of the developed coun
tries, it may take some time for these to be adopted by the industries in India.
Hence continuous awareness and popularization on the recent advances in
fish processing have become very important, and efforts should be made in
that direction.
The first section of the book covers the advancement in fish processing
technology, green technologies for extracting nutraceuticals, the role of
endogenous enzymes in the quality of fish/shellfish and their products,
disruptive technologies, and restructured product-based technologies. Topics
like innovative methods for the utilization of fish waste have been given due
attention. Similarly, quality and safety aspects of fish and fish products have
been covered aptly with reference to antimicrobial resistance bacteria and
xxvi Preface
developments in safety and quality management systems of fish and fish

products.
The chapters received for this book are from the eminent scientists and
teachers working in the area of fish processing for quite a good time now. All
the chapters are prepared covering the recent updates in the fish processing,
preservation, value addition, waste utilization, quality, and safety aspects of
fish and fishery products. We expect that the topics of greater significance
have been covered adequately. We also believe that this book can be a good
source of recent information for students, scientists, teachers, technologists,
and entrepreneurs working in the field of fish processing.
—Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD
Part I
Advances in Fish Preservation,
Processing, and Packaging Technologies
CHAPTER 1
Advancement in Fish Processing

Technology: The Indian Scenario
C. N. RAVISHANKAR1 and C. O. MOHAN2
1
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai 400 061, India
2
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi – 682029,
ABSTRACT
Fish and shellfishes are highly sought after due to their proven health benefits.
They are a rich source of easily digestible proteins, healthful polyunsaturated
fatty acids (FAs), and minerals. Their production, as well as consumption,
is on the rise globally. Over the years, Indian fish production has increased
many folds, and its share in export is also on the rise. However, a very large
quantity of fish produced in India is lost due to improper handling and
preservation. Loss of this highly nutritive food commodity is not good for a
country with so many undernourished populations. Improved handling and
processing, and preservation technologies are to be adopted to overcome this
loss. The present chapter provides an insight into the fish processing scenario
in India. The various methods developed for fish preservation, starting from
chilling, freezing, drying to thermal processing, extrusion, etc., are described
apart from various packaging interventions.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the years, the demand for fish has been on the rise all over the world
due to its health benefits. However, fish is highly susceptible to spoilage due
to autolysis and bacterial action when compared to other agricultural food
Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preservation, Waste Utilization, and Safety Assurance.
Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD & Amjad K. Balange, PhD (Eds.)
© 2023 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)
4 Advances in Fish Processing Technologies
products. With the advancement in modern fish-catching methods and gear

systems and improvements in the culture methods, fish production showed
a drastic increase, necessitating the adoption of post-harvest preservation
techniques. Major technological advancements in post-harvest aspects
of fish over the last six decades are in the method of fish preservation,
processing, packaging, improved attention for quality, and improvements
in processing machinery. Initially, some basic processing aspects like fish
curing, fish byproducts, fundamental microbiology of marine environments,
ice-preserved fish, and biochemical composition of fresh fish were carried
out in different organizations in India. However, there existed a wide gap in
organized research activities on fishery technology in the country even up
to a decade after our independence. A Fisheries Research Committee was
appointed by Mr. Rafi Ahmed Kidwai, Honorable Union Minister of Food
and Agriculture, in 1954 under the chairmanship of Dr. B.N. Chopra, the
then Fisheries Development Adviser, to study the gap analysis in fisheries
research. The committee studied the field situation in detail and recom
mended the formation of the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
(then named Central Fisheries Technological Research Station) with the
objective to undertake studies on craft and gear development and processing
and byproducts technology. The committee also suggested seeking expert
advice in planning the work from the Fisheries Division of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO). Though the institute was formally initiated
to meet the requirements of craft and gear development in the country for the
efficient harvest of fish resources, it was felt that Post-harvest technology is
also equally and perhaps more importantly, since the success of the former
depends on efficient and economical utilization of the harvested fish.
1.2 OLEOFICAR-CIFT IN DEVELOPMENT OF FISH PROCESSING

R
TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (ICAR-CIFT) was estab

lished as Central Fisheries Technological Research Station (CFTRS) on 29th
April 1957, and later named as CIFT in April 1961. The institute holds a
unique position as the National Center for research in harvest and post-harvest
technologies of fisheries. Since its inception, ICAR-CIFT has remained as
the premier Institution in the country which offers standardized technolo
gies for sustainable utilization of aquatic resources through preservation,
processing, and value addition. With the establishment of CIFT, particularly
Advancement in Fish Processing Technology 5
the Fish Processing Division, the export of seafood products improved as it

translated the research outcomes to the industry. Intimate contact with the
fish processing industry to solve their problems and to advise the industry
in the right direction helped the industry to reach a record export of fishery
products. Initially, only frozen shrimps were exported from India, and to
some extent, canned shrimps were exported. It was only in the late 1960s the
export of other varieties of fish, squid, cuttlefish, octopus, crabs, clams, and
mussels, mainly in frozen form, was initiated with the research backup from
the institute.
Pioneering works were carried out at ICAR-CIFT on fresh and cured fish
and fishery products to ensure them are free from chemical and microbial
hazards for safety and longer shelf life. The institute has been in the forefront
for the application of cutting edge technologies in food processing sector;
high pressure processing, pulsed light preservation, active, and intelligent
packaging are to name a few. Utilization of secondary raw materials from
fish and shellfish processing for developing high value products is one of
the key areas where ICAR-CIFT has made significant contributions. Chitin,
chitosan, chitin derivatives, oyster peptide extract, collagen chitin films,
collagen peptide, PUFA concentrate are some of the commercially successful
products for which the institute has developed and optimized technologies.
Standard protocols and packaging systems for the preservation and utiliza
tion of commercially important indigenous and exotic aquatic resources
have been developed. The achievements of the institute over the six decades
are highlighted in subsections.
1.2.1 LIVE FISHERY PRODUCTS
There is a great demand for live fish and shellfishes, the world over. These
products fetches maximum price compared to all the other forms of value
added products as it maintains freshness. The candidate species for live
transportation include high value species, cultured grouper, red snapper,
seabreams, seabass, red tilapia, reef fish, air breathing fishes, shrimp, crabs,
lobster, clams, oyster, and mussels. These are normally transported in air
cargo maintained at low temperature in order to lessen the metabolic activi
ties of the animals. Preliminary work on transportation of crabs and clams
in live condition has been attempted by the institute. For crabs, chelating
legs and other legs are tied and placed on moistened sawdust in corrugated
box, maintaining low temperature. The method proposed has helped in
transporting crab in live condition for many days. In recent days, the live
crabs are transported along with a frozen water bottle to reduce the tempera
ture without sawdust (Figure 1.1). The method is still persistent in many
parts of the country, especially in Tamil Nadu.
FIGURE1.1 Transportation of crab in live condition.
1.2.2 HANDLING OF FISH
Proper handling of fish and shellfish is of utmost importance as it affects

the quality to a greater extent. After an initial field survey and observing the
prevailing bad handling practices, the institute has taken up extensive work
on method of handling on the quality of chilled and frozen fish products.
The institute has developed better handling practices and trained the pre
processing and processing personnel across India, which helped the industry,
to a great extent. A study was undertaken to preserve fishes onboard using
refrigerated seawater (RSW) and chilled seawater (CSW) system. Initial
studies to preserve fish onboard were carried out to store oil sardine, mack
erel, prawns, seer, jewfish, and ribbonfish in refrigerated seawater (RSW).
Whole sardine and mackerel could be kept better in RSW up to 3–4 days,
compared to ice. However, blackening of meat along the backbone was a
drawback. Eviscerated sardine and mackerel developed rancidity quickly.
Eviscerated seer fish maintained better quality up to 10 days in RSW storage.
Non-fatty fishes such as jewfish and ribbonfish maintained better condition
in RSW than in ice. However, prawns developed black spot rapidly. Addition
of NaCl to RSW up to 7% did not improve the shelf life of sardine and
mackerel. Introduction of Carbon dioxide in gas form in RSW improved the
shelf life of both fatty and lean varieties of fishes. CSW was also found to
improve the shelf life of fishes. The method proposed by the institute was
adopted in the initial days for preserving the bulk quantity of fishes onboard.
However, due to the disadvantages of these methods and with the advent of
other methods of chilling, the RSW and CSW techniques are preferred less
these days. The process of hand filleting of suitable fishes has been worked
out and transferred to the industry.
1.2.3 CHILLED FISHERY PRODUCTS
Chilling is an effective method of maintaining the freshness of fish products.

This normally involves keeping fishes in melting ice or slurry ice to maintain
the fish temperature around 1–4°C, which delays the enzymatic action and
microbial activity, thereby extending the shelf life of the products. Tradition
ally, chilling is carried out using melting ice, either flake ice or crushed block
ice. Of late, slurry ice has been introduced for chilling. The institute has
studied in detail, the properties of various types of ice used for different fish
products and their advantages. A wide range of fish and shellfish products
varying from whole, headless, peeled gutted, headless gutted fish, fillets,
steaks, loins, cubes can be preserved by chilling. Shelf life of fishes from
different environment has been studied by the institute extensively. Shelf
life of 12–15 days has been achieved for seer fish and black pomfret. Indian
Mackerel and Indian oil sardine had very short shelf life in ice (3–7 days),
due to rancidity and belly bursting. Tilapia from freshwater and brackish
water showed significant difference in shelf life when stored in ice. The
former kept longer (14–15 days) than the latter (8–10 days). In general,
shrimps had a shelf life of 8 days, compared to 7–10 days for crabs and 8–9
days for cephalopods. Pre-processed crab meat was found to be acceptable
up to 6 days, whereas fresh and cooked mussel meat remained in acceptable
condition up to 3–4 days. Whole fish had better quality retention in chilled
storage compared to whole cleaned fish. Studies on quality changes of fish
preserved by using different types of ice have shown that tube ice and slurry
ice performed better in maintaining quality. Work on the sashimi-grade
tuna was also initiated in the institute as a considerable quantity of tuna is
landed in the country. It was observed that chilled products were superior
to frozen products in terms of its texture and taste, albeit limited shelf life.
Chilled storage studies of whole cleaned squid (Loligo duvauceli) indicated
a shelf life of 9 and 11 days in 12 μM polyester laminated with 75 μM low
density polyethylene flexible pouches and shrink packs, respectively. Shelf

life of cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) in skinless gutted form packed in 12 μM
polyester laminated with 75 μM low density polyethylene flexible pouches
stored under different temperature (1–2°C; 7°C and room temperature,
28°C) indicated that the shelf life of cuttlefish at room temperature was
less than a day whereas it was 18 days under ice and only 5–6 days for the
samples stored at 7°C. For fishes with thick skin, the effect of de-skinning
on the shelf life was evaluated. For de-skinned fish steaks of leather jacket
(Aluterus monoceros) packed in LLDPE and stored in iced condition, a shelf
life of 11 days was observed compared to only 7 days for steaks with skin.
As consumers prefer fresh fish products without chemical preservatives,
studies were undertaken to find alternative natural preservatives to enhance
the quality of fish. Chitosan edible coating, treatment with plant extract
and animal extracts have given considerable lead in this area. The chitosan
treatment further extended the eating quality of skinless leather jacket steaks
up to 16–19 days, compared to 11 days for control samples. Chitosan treat
ment for double fileted Indian oil sardine and ribbonfish enhanced the shelf
life considerably. Treatment with plant extracts like rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis) essential oil, curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) essential oil, ginger
(Zingiber officinale) essential oil, oregano (Origanum vulgare) essential
oil, essential oil from fresh lemongrass leaves (Cymbopogon citratus) and
lemongrass extract, extracts of sea grape (Caulerpa lentillifera), moringa
gum (Moringa oleifera), gum ghatti or Indian gum obtained from the species
Anogeissus latifolia, tragacanth gum (Astragalus spp.), guar gum from guar
beans (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), mint (Mentha arvensis) leaves, citrus
(Citrus aurantium) peels, pomegranate (Punica granatum) peel and seed
extract and grape seed extract alone or in different combinations improved
the quality and shelf life of chilled fish products as they exhibit antimicrobial
and antioxidant properties. These can be used by the industry as natural
preservatives instead of chemical preservatives which may be harmful to
human health in the long term.
1.2.4 ADVANCED PACKAGING METHODS FOR CHILLED FISHES
Survey of packaging materials used in the fish processing industry was carried
out to assess the quality of packaging materials used in the industry. Various
physical properties such as water vapor transmission rate, tearing strength,
gas permeability, bursting strength, puncture resistance, heat seal strength,
tensile strength and elongation at break of packaging materials like poly

thene, paper, laminates, and corrugated box were tested. Preliminary work
on packing the fish in ice in thermocol-lined plywood boxes developed under
the All India Coordinated Research Project showed that the containers can
advantageously be used for long distance transportation of chilled or frozen
fish (Figure 1.2). Though chilled fish products are highly appreciated by the
consumers, their limited shelf life pose a threat to long-term preservation. To
overcome this, various packaging materials including laminated packaging
materials have been tried and optimized. The normal polybag used in the
industry is LDPE with very high permeability for water and gasses which
limits the shelf life of fish products. The use of packaging materials by lami
nating two or three packaging materials will improve the properties leading
to improved shelf life. One such packaging material identified is polyester
laminated with low density polyethylene for chilled fishes, which has given
considerable improvement in the quality and shelf life of fish products. Apart
from interventions in packaging material, advanced technologies like vacuum
packaging, modified atmosphere, and active packaging (AP) technologies
have been developed by the institute, for a number of fishes. In vacuum
packaging, the air inside the package is removed by applying vacuum using
machineries. The entrapped air in the ordinary air pack will accelerate the
oxidation of fishery products and encourage the growth of aerobic spoilage
organisms. This can be minimized by adopting vacuum packaging technique.
However, it creates an anaerobic environment which encourages the growth
of anaerobic spoilers and the most dangerous Clostridium botulinum growth
and toxin production. This further can be minimized by using good quality
raw material and maintaining the temperature of storage less than 3.3°C
throughout, which prevents the growth and toxin production of anaerobic
spoiler microorganism. In Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP), the air
inside the package is replaced with favorable gasses like Carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and oxygen, depending on the fat content of the fishes. Extensive
studies on both vacuum and modified atmosphere on the fishes have been
carried out in the institute. Shelf life of ghol steaks packed under control
air packs were compared with the vacuum packaging and samples were
in acceptable condition only up to eight days for air packs, compared to
18 days for vacuum-packed samples. Shelf life of vacuum and control air
packed horse mackerel (Megalapsis cordyla) steaks packed in high impact
polypropylene trays stored at 2–4°C indicated a shelf life of 9–10 days for
control air packs compared to 14 days for vacuum-packed samples. Quality
and shelf life of mahi-mahi or dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) packed in
air and vacuum pack stored under chilled condition was undertaken. A shelf
life of 10 days was observed for air packed samples compared to 18 days
for vacuum packed samples. A combination of 60: 40 (CO2: N2) for fatty
varieties and 40: 30: 30 (CO2 : N2: O2) for lean fishes has been established.
Apart from this, different gas compositions have also been suggested for
marine, brackish water and freshwater fishes.
FIGURE 1.2 Advanced packaging (VP, MAP, and active packaging) methods developed
for fish products.
However, the vacuum packaging and MAP are cost-intensive as they

require costly equipment and pure gasses, which can be overcome by
adopting AP technology. AP techniques, mainly O2 scavenger, CO2 emitters,
antimicrobial, and antioxidant packaging material have been developed by
the institute. Quality changes of yellowfin tuna slices packed with a CO2
emitting sachet indicated a shelf life of 13 days, compared to only seven
days for air packed samples. Shelf-life studies of chilled stored ghol, mahi
mahi, and horse mackerel packed under air and with O2 absorber indicated
shelf life of 24, 24, and 20 days for active packed samples, compared to
only eight, 10 and 9–10 days for air packed samples, respectively. Shelf life
assessment of longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol) chunks packed under air and
O2 absorber during iced storage conditions indicated a shelf life of 5–6 and
9–10 days for air packed and O2 scavenger packs, respectively. Combined
effect of chitosan edible coating and AP like O2 absorber and CO2 emitters
on the eating quality of leatherjacket (Aluterus monoceros) steaks packed in

Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH) pouches was studied under chilled storage
condition. Various quality parameters assessed indicated that control fish was
in good acceptable state only up to 11 days, compared to 22 and 29 days for
CO2 emitter packs and O2 scavenger packs, respectively. Biodegradable AP
films like antimicrobial and antioxidant packaging materials were developed
using chitosan and plant extracts (Figure 1.3). Active antimicrobial packaging
films prepared from chitosan incorporated with ginger essential oil exhibited
antibacterial property against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
and extended the shelf life of barracuda by 1.6 times, compared to air packed
samples. Combination of chitosan-based antimicrobial film incorporated
with ginger essential oil and oxygen scavenger further enhanced the shelf life
of fish in chilled condition. Chitosan-based films prepared by incorporating
rosemary essential oil and oregano extract exhibited antioxidant properties
and enhanced the quality of fishes packed in these films. The studies indi
cate significant quality improvement for fishes stored using these advanced
packaging methods either alone or in combination with natural treatments
which can be adopted by the industry to improve the storage life of fish
considerably.
FIGURE1.3 Biodegradable packaging films developed by the institute using shrimp shell.
1.2.5 SOUS-VIDE PRODUCTS
Processing conditions for cook chilled and vacuum cooking, commonly

known as sous-vide, products has been optimized. Cook chilling at desired
temperature improves the shelf life of cobia (Rachycentron canadum)
considerably, compared to control samples. Shelf-life studies of sous-vide
packed cobia was 25 days, compared to only 12 days for vacuum packs.
Condiment incorporated Indian white shrimp had a shelf life of 28 days,
compared to eight and 15 days for air and vacuum packed samples in chilled
condition. Introduction of flash-frying process further enhanced the eating
quality of Indian white shrimp up to 34 days.
1.2.6 FROZEN FISHERY PRODUCTS
Freezing is an age old practice to retain the quality and freshness of fishery
products for a long time. This involves the conversion of water present in
fishery products to ice, i.e., a phase change from liquid to solid phase takes
place in freezing. This retards the microbial and enzymatic action by reducing
the water available for their action. The institute has developed methods for
freezing shrimps initially, as shrimps were the major export commodity during
the 1950s. Later, the method was extended to almost the entire spectrum of
fish species and fish based products. The institute established the advantages
of quick freezing over slow freezing, in terms of the quality changes. Slow
freezing affects the quality, whereas quick freezing preserves the quality.
Quick freezing is normally accomplished by using any of the following four
methods: air blast freezing, indirect contact freezing (plate freezing), immer
sion freezing and cryogenic freezing. Normally products are frozen till it
attains a core temperature of –18°C or lower and are stored in cold storage
maintained at this temperature. The freezing and frozen storage of fish have
been largely used to retain their sensory and nutritional properties. Frozen
products form one of the largest portions of fishery products traded all over
the world. Freezing time for different freezing methods, subsequent storage
conditions, treatments to overcome problems during storage, packaging
methods, etc., have been optimized by the institute. Wrapping with poly
ethylene increased the storage life of fishery products. Frozen storage char
acteristics of body and claw meat of crab exhibited significant differences,
claw meat having longer shelf life. Frozen storage of mussel meat showed
that cooked frozen meat kept for longer periods in better condition than the
fresh meat. The shelf life of fishes differed depending on the fat content and
period of ice storage before freezing. Generally, at a temperature of –18°C,
for sardines with 10–25% fat (dry weight basis), a shelf life of 12–16 weeks
was obtained while those with 25–40% fat (dry weight basis) had only 10
weeks of shelf life. When frozen in blocks, with heavy glaze, the raw mate
rial being very fresh, oil sardine with 20% fat (dry weight basis) remained in
good condition for 6–8 months. Tilapia from freshwater had better keeping
quality in frozen condition compared to brackish water tilapia. Freezing time
for big size fishes using air blast freezing was worked out in commercial
units, and quality changes during subsequent storage have been characterized
for various fishes. Effect of different freezing methods like plate freezing,
air blast freezing and brine freezing methods on quality of tiger shrimp
(Peneaus monodon) and Pacific white shrimp (Littopenaeus vannamei)
indicated better textural and biochemical quality for brine frozen samples
whereas salt content (NaCl) was slightly higher compared to plate and air
blast frozen samples. Effect of different freezing methods on the quality of
cultured tiger shrimp (P. monodon) and Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei)
were examined. Freezing conditions for different grades of shrimps, squids,
cuttlefish, octopus were also optimized by the institute. Studies were under
taken to minimize the thaw drip loss from shrimps and other categories of
seafood and popularized among the industry. Various chemical agents and
natural ingredients have been evaluated for this purpose. Rohu filets treated
with 1% chitosan and gelatin and packed in polyester laminated with LDPE
and frozen in air blast freezer prevented thaw drip formation considerably.
Procedure for blanching and cooking has been standardized for different
styles of shrimps and cephalopods. A re-cooking step before final packing
of crab meat prior to freezing was introduced to reduce the bacterial load.
Studies on quality comparison of Individually Quick Frozen (IQF) squid
(Loligo duvauceli) rings and cooked shrimps stored at –18°C indicated
a minimum shelf life of 18 months. Optimized recipe for shrimp samosa
incorporating varying amount of shrimp (30 to 50%) and its quality changes
during frozen storage indicated a shelf life of nine months. A wide variety of
fish, shrimp, and cephalopods in various forms are preserved in frozen form
and exported from India. Among fish products, whole, whole gutted, headed,
and gutted, fileted, loins, steaks, breaded, and battered, and minced fish are
frozen stored. Shrimp-based products ranges from head-on IQF to headless,
peeled, and deveined, peeled, and un-deveined, easy-peel shrimp, butterfly
style, stretched shrimp, skewered shrimp, breaded or tempura shrimps and
cooked shrimps. Various IQF packs of whole squid, squid tubes, squid filets,
rings, stuffed squid, cuttlefish, octopus, lobster whole and tail, sushi, and
sashimi, squid filets, pine cut blanched and cooked products, seafood mix
and analog products from surimi are frozen and marketed. Consumer retail
packs is the recent trend in the marketing of frozen products. Protocols
were developed for frozen fish steaks, fillets, and fish fingers, cleaned, and
blanched shrimps and cephalopods in consumer packs. Apart from these,
various frozen value-added ready-to-fry products like balls, cutlets, specialty
products and curry products has also been developed.
1.2.7 DRIED AND SALTED FISHERY PRODUCTS
Drying is probably one of the oldest methods of food preservation. It consists

of removal of water to a final desired concentration, which in turn reduces the
water activity of the product, thereby assuring microbial stability and extended
shelf-life of the product. In some cases, common table salt (Sodium chloride)
is also used to prolong the shelf life of fish. Salt absorbs much of the water in
the food and makes it difficult for micro-organisms to survive. Though drying
has been widely practiced in the country, scientific method of processing for
drying has not been practiced. The intervention from the institute in estab
lishing processing methods for salting and drying to ensure optimum quality
has helped the industry, to a greater extent. Generally, small-sized fishes such
as anchovies, Bombay duck, lizardfish shark, ribbonfish, threadfin bream and
lesser sardines; small freshwater fishes; medium and small-sized shrimps
are dried whole after proper washing, whereas some large species of fishes
such as sharks and catfishes are washed, degutted, and spread open to dry for
human consumption. Some fish species are also dried for use as poultry feed.
These are dried without any pre-treatment. Quality levels of dried small-sized
fishes were surveyed in various markets and the common defects identified
have been inadequate drying, contamination with sand and reddish discol
oration due to infestation with red halophilic bacteria. Remedies for these
problems have been worked out in the institute and popularized among the
stakeholders. In the majority of the countries, sun drying has been the method
predominantly used for drying. Due to poor quality, these products gener
ally fetch low prices in the local as well as international markets. However,
with the introduction of modern automatic hygienic drying techniques and
attractive packaging, it has been possible to fetch better prices for dried fish
products. A method has been standardized for preparing good quality cured
fish. In this process, after proper evisceration and cleaning, the fish is salted
in a specified way and kept in clean cement containers for about 24 h. The
salted fish is dipped in saturated brine containing 5% calcium propionate for
2–5 min., followed by drying (Figure 1.4). The dried fish is then packed in
polyethylene bags for retail marketing and in synthetic woven sacks for bulk
marketing. Effect of open sun drying and use of solar dryer on the quality of
different shrimp and fish species have been established. Drying time varied
from 10–11 h for solar drying and 20–22 h for sun dried shrimps. For fishes
like ribbonfish, jewfish, and lizardfish, drying time was 15–18 h in solar dryer
compared to 28–32 h for sun drying. Solar dried samples had good sensory
attributes and better acceptability.
FIGURE1.4 Dried fish and shellfish products hygienically prepared by the institute.
Red halophilic bacterial and fungal attacks are major issues during
the storage of cured fish. A large quantity of such processed products has
been lost every year in the country leading to financial loss and wastage of
nutritional food. A simple technique of treating with calcium propionate was
developed to overcome this defect. The treated dried fish can be kept for
8–10 months, compared to only two months in the case of untreated samples.
Commercially dried Bombay duck is very poor in quality and is usually
consumed by economically poor people. A process has been formulated to
prepare laminated Bombay duck. The fresh fish, after surface drying and
removal of head, tail, and fins is split open and dried. The dried material
is pressed through a roller press, sides trimmed and further dried to about
10% moisture level, followed by packing in polyethylene bags. Laminated
Bombay duck, thus prepared, can be stored for at least one year. The insect
infestation is another major problem in dried fish. A detailed survey on the
insect and flies of dried fish was carried out by the institute and a method to
overcome this has been established.
Jellyfish is a marine species abundant in the east and west coasts of India.
It has hitherto been unutilized even though some of the species are edible.
The institute has worked out a suitable method for processing jellyfish in
dehydrated form. In this, the umbrella portion alone is taken, trimmed,
cleaned, washed well and then treated in four solutions of salt and alum of
different concentrations and drained till the moisture content is reduced to
less than 60%. It is then graded, packed, and stored in chilled condition at
around 0°C. The method developed has been popularized in the industry and
is extensively used in Jakhau part of Gujarat with slight modifications in
which instead of umbrella alone, whole jelly fish is used.
Beche-de-mer is the commercial name for cured Holothurians, commonly
known as sea cucumbers. This is a high value dried seafood item almost
entirely exported. An improved method for processing beche-de-mer was
developed which involves evisceration of fresh sea cucumbers, cooking in
boiling water, drying, and packing in gunny bags, which has been adopted
by the industry.
1.2.8 SMOKED FISHERY PRODUCTS
Smoking is one of the most widely used traditional fish processing methods
employed in many countries to preserve fish. The preservation effect of
the smoke is a result of drying of the product during the smoking as well
as due to smoke particle absorption into the flesh. The smoke particles,
mainly phenolic compounds, carbonyl, and organic acids, being absorbed
by the product, inhibit bacterial growth on the surface of the product. The
smoke particles also have a positive effect on the taste and color of the
product and in many instances, smoking is normally practiced to improve
these sensory characteristics. Smoking conditions for different fishes
have been established by the institute and the quality attributes during
storage have been characterized. These include Indian mackerel, tuna,
rainbow trout, mahseer, clam, oyster, and freshwater fishes mainly by
hot smoking technique. Studies indicated that smoked product had better
sensory attributes and improved the shelf life. A detailed study on the
quality changes of smoked rainbow trout packed in air, vacuum, and with
O2 absorber in EVOH pouches indicated a shelf life of 53 days compared
to 49 days in vacuum and only 34 days in air packs. The improved method
for the preparation of masmin, a traditional product of Lakshadweep
Island has been established (Figure 1.5). Masmin chunks, mas flakes and
mas powder preparation is also optimized. A method was developed to
prevent the insect infestation in masmin. Due to the health risks of hot
smoked products, studies on liquid smoke have been initiated. A method
was developed to produce liquid smoke from different sources of wood.
Liquid smoke treatment for different fishes has been also optimized by
the institute.
FIGURE1.5 Hot and liquid smoked fish chunks and masmin chunks.
Design, fabrication, installation, and demonstration of different models

of eco-friendly, energy-efficient Community Fish Smoking Kilns christened
as “COFISKI” was done in several locations in the country. The installations
of COFISKI in all eight Northeastern states viz., Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, and eastern
states of Odisha and West Bengal has resulted in production of smoke-cured
fish that is microbiologically safe, hygienic, high quality, longer shelf life,
and lower carbon footprint. This has generated substantial sustainable
income for thousands of hinterland women fishers belonging to economically
under-privileged SC and ST groups. Establishment of “Mini-Fish Processing
Facility” in fisheries sector is expected to minimize post-harvest losses and
improve seafood safety, by developing entrepreneurial skills among small-
scale fishers and empower them to contribute more effectively to the needs
of multi-trillion rupee fisheries sector of the country.
1.2.9 THERMAL PROCESSED FISHERY PRODUCTS
Thermal sterilization is one of the most efficient methods of food preservation

widely practiced worldwide. The main objective of the thermal processing is
to achieve long-term shelf stability. Thermal processing generally involves
heating the food products packaged in hermetically sealed containers for a
pre-determined time at a pre-selected temperature to eliminate the pathogens
of public health significance as well as those microorganisms and enzymes
that deteriorate the food during storage. Work carried out in this area include,
fish species, both in conventional form like natural pack, oil, brine, and
sauce, to ethnic varieties like curries of regional importance (Figure 1.6).
Processes have been standardized for the production of sardine, mackerel,
tuna, and cobia canned in oil, brine, tomato sauce and in its own juice, with
satisfactory products. The product in its own juice had natural flavor and the
process was much cheaper than others. Canning of smoked sardines, canning
of frog legs in brine and tomato sauce; canning of crab meat; squid masala;
sardine curry; mackerel curry; seer fish molee; tuna curry; mussel and clam
in masala, curry, and oil medium and region-specific curries, are some of the
notable products developed. In canned crab meat in brine, blackening was
formed due to the presence of ions of copper and iron. A suitable method
was devised to control the blackening in crab canning. Canning conditions
for tuna in different mediums like oil, brine, sauce, and with vegetables like
broccoli, green peas and baby corn have been optimized. Thermal processing
of Ready-to-Eat (RTE) fish products like traditional Kerala style mackerel

curry; rohu curry; seer fish curry; seer fish molee; prawn kuruma; shrimp in
curry, brine, and natural pack, were also developed. Procedure for canning
mussel and clam meat in oil, brine, sauce, and curry medium were devel
oped. Purification methods to reduce the grit and bacterial contamination in
shucked meat of mussels and clams have been evolved. Canning of bone
less, skinless fillets of mackerel was developed. Apart from these initiatives,
canning of smoked fish products in different packaging material has been
developed. A formula has been developed for a good lacquer for coating the
cans for packing fish. The lacquer developed has good adhesive property,
hardness, flexibility, and resistance towards alkalis and acids. The lacquer
overcomes many drawbacks of other lacquers. Extensive work on retortable
pouches for RTE products have been carried out, over-pressure conditions
for processing of such products in retortable pouches have been optimized,
and many RTE products have been developed. RTE fish products fortified
with calcium, iron, and fish oil have also been developed. Process conditions
for developing a seafood mix consisting of fish and shellfishes in different
mediums were optimized. The technology has been transferred to industry
for the production of RTE products for both export and domestic markets.
FIGURE1.6 Thermal processed ready-to-eat fish products developed by the institute.
1.2.10 SPECIALTY FISHERY PRODUCTS
The institute has been instrumental in the standardization of a variety of

value-added products from low-value fishes and specialty products (Figures
1.7(a)–1.7(d)). These include fish mince, surimi, balls, cutlets, fingers,
patties, burger, coated products and many imitation products, specialty shrimp
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
s, siphonozooid; St, the short stalk. (After Kölliker.)
Sect. 3. Renilleae.—This section contains a single family Renillidae

and a single genus Renilla (Fig. 160). The rachis is expanded into a
flattened cordate form set at an angle to the peduncle, and the
zooids are confined to the dorsal surface, which is uppermost in the
natural position of the colony. The peduncle is short and does not
contain an axial skeleton. The colour of this Sea-pen is usually violet
when dried or preserved. Specimens of Renilla are very abundant in
shallow water in some localities on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of
N. America, but the genus has also been obtained from the Red Sea
and the coast of Australia. A popular name for this genus is "Sea
pansy."
Sect. 4. Veretilleae.—This section contains a number of genera in

which the bilateral arrangement of the zooids is obscured by their
gradual encroachment on the dorsal side of the axial polyp. The
rachis and peduncle are thick and fleshy, and the autozooids and
siphonozooids are irregularly distributed all round the rachis. The
genus Cavernularia is not uncommonly found in moderate depths of
water in the Indian and Pacific Ocean, and is distinguished from the
other genera by the reduction of the skeletal axis. Other genera are
Veretillum, Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean, and Lituaria, Indian
Ocean.
Fig. 161.—Cavernularia obesa. Au, autozooid; Si, siphonozooid; St, stalk. (After
Kölliker.)
CHAPTER XIV
ANTHOZOA (CONTINUED): ZOANTHARIA
Sub-Class II. Zoantharia.

The Zoantharia exhibit a great deal more diversity of form and
structure than the Alcyonaria. The sub-class is consequently difficult
to define in a few words, and it may be taken to include all the
Anthozoa which do not possess the typical Alcyonarian characters.
All the orders, with the exception of the Antipathidea and

Zoanthidea, contain genera of solitary zooids, and the orders
Edwardsiidea and Cerianthidea contain no genera that form
colonies. In the Madreporaria, Zoanthidea, and Antipathidea, on the
other hand, colonies are formed composed of a very large number of
individuals which frequently attain to a very great size. The term
"Sea-anemone" is commonly used in writing about the solitary
Zoantharia which do not form any skeletal structures, and the term
"Coral" is applied to all those Zoantharia which do form a skeleton.
In a scientific treatise, however, these popular terms can no longer

be satisfactorily employed. The "Sea-anemones" exhibit so many
important differences in anatomical structure that they must be
placed in at least three distinct orders that are not closely related,
and the organisms to which the term Coral has been applied belong
to so many organisms—such as Alcyonaria, Hydrozoa, Polyzoa, and
even Algae—that its use has become indeterminate.
Whilst these terms must disappear from the systematic part of

Zoology, they may still be employed, however, in the description of a
local fauna or coral reef to signify the soft solitary zooids on the one
hand, and the organisms, animals or plants, which form large,
massive skeletons of carbonate of lime, on the other.
The form of the solitary zooids and of the colony of zooids in the
Zoantharia, then, may be very divergent. In the Actiniaria we find
single soft gelatinous zooids of considerable size adherent to rocks
or half-buried in the sand. Among the Madreporaria we find great
branching colonies of thousands of zooids supported by the copious
skeleton of carbonate of lime that they have secreted. Among the
Antipathidea, again, we find a dendritic skeleton of a dark horny
substance, formed by a colony of small zooids that cover it like a thin
bark. The majority of the Zoantharia are, like other zoophytes,
permanently fixed to the floor of the ocean. Where the embryo
settles, there must the adult or colony of adults remain until death.
Some of the common Sea-anemones can, however, glide slowly
over the surface on which they rest, and thus change their position
according to the conditions of their surroundings. Others (the
Minyadidae) float upside down in the sea, and are carried hither and
thither by the currents. Others, again (Cerianthus, Edwardsia,
Peachia), burrow in the sand or mud at the sea-bottom.
The structure of the zooid varies considerably, but in the following

characters differs from the zooid of the Alcyonaria. The tentacles
are usually simple finger-like processes, and when they bear
secondary pinnae these can readily be distinguished from the rows
of secondary pinnules of the Alcyonarian tentacle. The number of
tentacles is very rarely eight (young Halcampa), and in these cases
they are not pinnate. The number of tentacles may be six (many
Antipathidea and some zooids of Madrepora), twelve (Madrepora),
some multiple of six, or an indefinite number. In the Thalassianthidae
and some other families of Actiniaria the tentacles are plumose, but
do not exhibit the regular pinnate form of the tentacles of Alcyonaria.
Fig. 162.—Large (A) and small (B) plumose tentacles of Actinodendron
plumosum. Large (C) and small (D) plumose tentacles of A. glomeratum.
(After Haddon.)
As regards the number of mesenteries, the Zoantharia exhibit very

great variety. It has been shown that there is frequently a stage in
their development during which there are only eight mesenteries.
This stage is usually called the Edwardsia stage. These eight
mesenteries are arranged in bilateral pairs as follows:—One pair is
attached to the body-wall and reaches to the dorsal side of the
stomodaeum, and is called the pair of dorsal directives; a
corresponding pair attached to the ventral side of the stomodaeum is
called the pair of ventral directives. The other two pairs are the
lateral mesenteries. To these four pairs are added, at the close of the
Edwardsia stage, two additional pairs, making in all twelve
mesenteries (cf. Fig. 163).
These six primary pairs of mesenteries, conveniently called the

"protocnemes" by Duerden, may be traced in the development and
recognised in the adult of the majority of Zoantharia. But the number
of the mesenteries is usually increased in the later stages by the
addition of other mesenteries called the "metacnemes." The
metacnemes differ from the protocnemes in that they usually appear
in unilateral pairs, that is to say, in pairs of which both members arise
on the same side of the stomodaeum, and the number is very
variable throughout the group. The space enclosed by a pair of
mesenteries is called an "entocoele," and the space between two
pairs of mesenteries is called an "ectocoele."
The twelve protocnemes are usually complete mesenteries, that is to

say, they extend the whole distance from the body-wall to the
stomodaeum, while the metacnemes may be complete or
incomplete; in the latter case extending only a part of the distance
from the body-wall towards the stomodaeum.
We find, therefore, in making a general survey of the anatomy of the
Zoantharia that there is no general statement to be made,
concerning the number or arrangement of the mesenteries, which
holds good for the whole or even for a considerable portion of the
genera.
The bands of retractor muscles are, as in the Alcyonaria, situated on

one face only of the mesenteries (except in the Antipathidea and
Cerianthidea), but an important character of the Zoantharia is that
the muscle bands on the ventral pair of directives are situated on the
dorsal faces of these mesenteries, and not on the ventral faces as
they are in Alcyonaria.
In the Edwardsiidea there are only eight complete mesenteries, but a

variable number of other rudimentary and incomplete mesenteries
have recently been discovered by Faurot.[392] In the Zoanthidea the
mesenteries are numerous, but the order is remarkable for the fact
that the dorsal directives are incomplete, and that, of the pairs of
metacnemes that are added, one mesentery becomes complete and
the other remains incomplete. In most of the genera of the
Antipathidea there are only ten mesenteries, but in Leiopathes there
are twelve, and as they bear no bands of retractor muscles it is
difficult to determine accurately their true relation to the mesenteries
of other Zoantharia.
Fig. 163.—Diagrams of transverse sections of 1, Alcyonarian; 2, Edwardsia; 3,

Cerianthus; 4, Zoanthus; 5, Favia; 6, Madrepora. DD, the dorsal directive
mesenteries; VD, the ventral directives; I-VI, the protocnemes in order of
sequence.
In the Cerianthidea the mesenteries are very numerous, and

increase in numbers by the addition of single mesenteries alternately
right and left in the ventral inter-mesenteric chamber throughout the
life of the individual. These mesenteries do not bear retractor
muscles.
In the Actiniaria and Madreporaria, with the exception of the genera

Madrepora, Porites, and a few others, there are also very many
mesenteries. The two pairs of directives are usually present, but they
may not occur in those zooids that are produced asexually by fission
(see p. 388). The metacnemes are frequently formed in regular
cycles, and in many genera appear to be constantly some multiple of
six (Fig. 163, 5).
In Madrepora and Porites[393] the two pairs of directives and two

pairs of lateral protocnemes are complete; the other two pairs of
protocnemes are, however, incomplete; and metacnemes are not
developed (Fig. 163, 6).
The stomodaeum is usually a flattened tube extending some

distance into the coelenteric cavity and giving support to the inner
edges of the complete mesenteries; in many of the Madreporaria,
however, it is oval or circular in outline. In most of the Actiniaria there
are deep grooves on the dorsal and ventral sides of the
stomodaeum, but in Zoanthidea the groove occurs on the ventral
side only and in the Cerianthidea on the dorsal side only. In the
Madreporaria these grooves do not occur or are relatively
inconspicuous.[394] In the Alcyonaria the siphonoglyph exhibits a
very marked differentiation of the epithelium (see Fig. 148, p. 334),
and the cilia it bears are very long and powerful. It has not been
shown that the grooves in the Zoantharia show similar modifications
of structure, and they are called by the writers on Zoantharia the
sulci. There is no difference in structure, and rarely any difference in
size, between the dorsal sulcus and the ventral sulcus in the
Actiniaria, and the use of the word—sulculus—for the former is not to
be commended.
The mesenteries bear upon their free edges the mesenteric

filaments. These organs are usually more complicated in structure
than the corresponding organs of the Alcyonaria, and the dorsal pair
of filaments is not specialised for respiratory purposes as it is in that
group.
In many genera the mesenteric filaments bear long, thread-like

processes—the "acontia"—armed with gland cells and nematocysts
which can be protruded from the mouth or pushed through special
holes (the "cinclides") in the body-wall.
The gonads in the Zoantharia are borne upon the sides of the
mesenteries and are usually in the form of long lobed ridges instead
of being spherical in form, and situated at the edges of the
mesenteries as they are in the Alcyonaria.
Nearly all the zooids and even the colonies of the Zoantharia are
unisexual, but some species, such as Manicina areolata (Wilson),
Meandrina labyrinthica (Duerden), Cerianthus membranaceus, and
others, are hermaphrodite. Mr. J. S. Gardiner has recently given
reasons for believing that the genus Flabellum is protandrous.
Skeleton.—The soft tissues of the Zoantharian zooids may be

supported or protected by hard skeletal structures of various kinds.
In the Zoanthidea and the Actiniaria there are many species that
have no skeletal support at all, and are quite naked. These seem to
be sufficiently well protected from the attacks of carnivorous animals
by the numerous nematocysts of the ectoderm, and perhaps in
addition by a disagreeable flavour in their tissues. Anemones do not
seem to be eaten habitually by any fish, but cases have been
described of Peachia hastata being found in the stomach of the Cod,
and of Edwardsia in the stomach of the Flounder.[395] On the
Scottish coasts Anemones are occasionally used with success as a
bait for cod.[396] The body-wall of Edwardsia, however, is protected
to a certain extent by the secretion of a mucous coat in which grains
of sand and mud are embedded. Some Anemones, such as Urticina,
Peachia, and others, lie half-buried in the sand, and others form a
cuticle, like that of Edwardsia, to which foreign bodies are attached.
Cerianthus is remarkable for constructing a long tube composed of a

felt-work of discharged nematocysts mixed with mud and mucus, into
which it retires for protection. In the Zoanthidea the body-wall is
frequently strengthened by numerous and relatively large grains of
sand, which are passed through the ectoderm to lie in the thick
mesogloea.
In the Madreporaria a very elaborate skeleton of carbonate of lime is

formed. In the solitary forms it consists of a cup-shaped outer
covering for the base and column of the zooid called the "theca," of a
series of radial vertical walls or "septa" projecting into the
intermesenteric chambers carrying the endodermal lining of the
coelenteric cavity with them, and in some cases a pillar, the
"columella," or a series of smaller pillars, the "pali" projecting
upwards from the centre of the base of the theca towards the
stomodaeum. In the colonial forms the theca of the individual zooids
is continuous with a common colonial skeleton called the
"coenosteum." This is solid in the Imperforate corals, and it supports
at the surface only a thin lamina of canals and superficial ectoderm.
In the Perforate corals, however, the coenosteum envelopes and
surrounds the canals during its formation, and thereby remains
perforated by a network of fine channels. In the colonial
Madreporaria the skeletal cups which support and protect the zooids
are called the "calices."
The skeleton of the Antipathidea is of a different nature. It is

composed of a horny substance allied to keratin. When it is old and
thick, it usually has a polished black appearance, and is commonly
termed "black coral." The surface of this kind of coral is ornamented
with thorny or spiny projections, but it is never perforated by calices
or canal systems. It forms a solid axis for the branches of the corals,
and all the soft parts of the zooids and coenosarc are superficial to it.
It was formerly considered that this type of coral, which shows no

trace of the shape and form of the living organisms that produce it, is
of a different character to the calcareous skeleton which exhibits
calices, septa, pores, and other evidence of the living organism, and
it was called a "sclerobase" to distinguish it from the "scleroderm" of
the Madreporaria.
It is now known that both the sclerobasic skeleton and the

sclerodermic skeleton are products of the ectoderm, and
consequently these expressions are no longer in general use.
Asexual reproduction in the Zoantharia may be effected by

continuous or discontinuous fission or gemmation.
In the Edwardsiidea, Actiniaria, and Cerianthidea, that is to say in the

animals popularly known as Sea-anemones, asexual reproduction
does not commonly occur, but nevertheless a good many instances
of it are now known in individual genera. In Actinoloba (Metridium),
for example, Parker has described a case of complete longitudinal
fission, and Duerden states that it occurs in the West Indian
Anemones Actinotryx and Ricordea. A still more remarkable form of
asexual reproduction known as transverse fission has been
described in the genus Gonactinia.[397] In this case, the body of the
Anemone becomes constricted in the middle, a circlet of tentacles is
formed below the constriction, and division takes place. The upper
half floats away with the original tentacles and stomodaeum and
becomes attached by the base in another place; the lower half
remains behind and develops a new stomodaeum, mesenteric
filaments, and sexual organs. In some of the Actiniaria another form
of asexual reproduction occurs, known as "Pedal laceration." In the
common British Actinoloba, for example, so often kept in aquaria, the
pedal disc sometimes spreads on the glass or rock upon which the
animal rests, in the form of a thin membrane or film of an irregular
circular shape, nearly twice the diameter of the column. As the
Anemone glides along, the film remains behind and breaks up into a
number of hemispherical droplets, which in a few days develop
tentacles, a mouth, mesenteries, and the other organs of a complete
and independent Anemone. A similar method of reproduction has
been observed in several species of Sagartia. A true process of
discontinuous gemmation has also been observed in Gonactinia, in
Corynactis, and in Actinoloba.
Fig. 164.—Longitudinal fission of Actinoloba. (After Agassiz and Parker.)
In the Madreporaria, Zoanthidea and Antipathidea, the usual method

of reproduction to form the colonies is continuous gemmation. The
new zooids that are added to the colony as it grows arise as buds,
either from the superficial canals of the coenenchym, or from the
base or body-wall of the older zooids. In these cases the young
zooids acquire the same number of mesenteries, and the same
characters of the stomodaeum as the original parent. Some further
particulars of asexual reproduction in the Madreporaria are given on
p. 387.
The sexual reproduction of a great many species of Zoantharia has

now been observed. The eggs are, as a general rule, ripened in
batches, and fertilisation is effected before their discharge from the
body. In some cases the sexual condition is seasonal. In temperate
climates the generative organs ripen in the spring and summer
months, and remain small and relatively inconspicuous in the colder
weather; but British Sea-anemones, when kept in an aquarium and
regularly fed, will breed nearly all the year round. The corals of the
tropics living in warmer water of a more regular temperature show
considerable variety in their breeding habits. Thus Duerden found
that colonies of Favia, Manicina, Siderastraea and Porites are fertile
at nearly all times, whereas colonies of Madrepora, Orbicella and
Cladocora were rarely so. In nearly all cases the fertilisation is
effected, and segmentation of the ovum occurs within the body of the
parent, the young Zoantharian beginning its independent life as an
oval or pear-shaped ciliated larva.
There are a great many cases among the Actiniaria in which the
embryos are retained within the coelenteron, or in special brood
pouches of the parent (p. 379), until a stage is reached with twelve
or more tentacles.
The oval or pear-shaped larva swims about for a few days or hours,
and then settles down on its aboral end. In swimming, the aboral end
is always turned forwards. In the larva of Lebrunia coralligens and
Rhodactis sancti-thomae, a distinct sense organ has been observed
upon the aboral extremity, and a similar but less distinct organ on the
larva of Actinia equina. These organs are of considerable interest, as
they are probably the only specialised sense organs known to occur
in the Zoantharia.
The larvae of Zoantharia present, as a rule, very little variation from

the type described, and live but a short time if they fail to find a
suitable place for fixation. The colour is usually white and opaque,
but in some species the endoderm may be coloured yellow by
Zooxanthellae (cf. pp. 86, 125).
The larvae of the Cerianthidea, however, are remarkable and

exceptional. After the larva of these animals has passed through the
gastrula stage, a certain number of mesenteries and tentacles are
formed, and it rises in the water to live a pelagic life of some
duration. This larva is known as Arachnactis, and is not unfrequently
found in the plankton.
The character of the food of the Zoantharia varies with the size of
the zooids, the occurrence of Zooxanthellae in the endoderm, and
local circumstances; but in general it may be said to consist mainly
of small living animals.
Sea-anemones kept in an aquarium will readily seize and devour

pieces of raw beef or fragments of mussel that are offered to them;
but they may also be observed to kill and swallow the small
Crustacea that occur in the water. When a living animal of a
relatively small size comes within range of the tentacles, it appears
to be suddenly paralysed by the action of the nematocysts and held
fast. The tentacles in contact with it, and others in the neighbourhood
but to a lesser extent, then bend inwards, carrying the prey to the
mouth. The passage of the food through the stomodaeum is effected
partly by ciliary, and partly by muscular action, and the food is then
brought to the region of the mesenteric filaments where it is rapidly
disintegrated by the digestive fluids they secrete. Any unsavoury or
undigested portions of the food are ejected by the mouth.
Very little is known concerning the food of the Madreporarian Corals.

Many investigators have noticed that the zooids of preserved
specimens very rarely contain any fragments of animal or plant
bodies that could possibly be regarded as evidence of food. It is
possible that many Corals derive a part, perhaps in some cases a
considerable part, of their nourishment from the symbiotic
Zooxanthellae (pp. 86, 125) which flourish in the endoderm; but it is
improbable that in any case this forms the only source of food
supply. The absence of food material in the cavities of the zooids
may perhaps be accounted for by the fact that nearly all the Corals
are fully expanded, and therefore capable of catching their food only
at night. Corals are usually collected during the daytime, and
therefore during the period of rest of the digestive organs.
It is true that nearly all Corals do exhibit Zooxanthellae in their

endoderm, but there are some species from which they are nearly or
wholly absent, such as Astrangia solitaria and Phyllangia americana
on the West Indian reefs,[398] and the Pocilloporidae. The absence
of any signs of degeneration in the tentacles or digestive organs of
those corals with Zooxanthellae as compared with those without
them suggests, at any rate, that the Zooxanthellae do not supply
such a large proportion of the food necessary for the support of the
colonies as to warrant any relaxation of the efforts to obtain food by
other means. Mr. Duerden found that when living Annelids are
placed upon the tentacles of a living Siderastraea—a genus with
Zooxanthellae, the tentacles at once close upon them and prevent
their escape. The general conclusion seems to be, therefore, that the
Madreporarian Corals feed upon small animals in much the same
way as the Sea-anemones, whether they have Zooxanthellae or not,
but that in general they feed only at night.
Age.—It is known that Sea-anemones kept in an aquarium and

regularly fed will live for a considerable number of years without
showing signs of weakness or failing health. Dalyell kept in an
aquarium a specimen of Actinia mesembryanthemum, which lived for
sixty-six years and then died a natural death; and specimens of
Sagartia, still living, are known to be about fifty years old.[399] The
unnatural conditions of life in an aquarium may have favoured the
longevity of these specimens, and it would not be reasonable to
conclude from these records that the average life of a full-grown
Anemone on the rocks is more than thirty or thirty-five years, and
perhaps it is a good deal less.
As regards the Madreporarian Corals, we know but little concerning

their duration of life. An examination of any living coral reef is
sufficient to convince an observer that the power of asexual
reproduction of the colonial forms is not unlimited; that colonies, like
individuals, have a definite span of life, and that they grow old,
senile, and then die a natural death if spared in their youth from
accident and disease. Mr. Gardiner has calculated that the duration
of life in solitary Corals like Flabellum is about twenty-four years, in
colonial forms such as Goniastraea, Prionastraea, Orbicella, and
Pocillopora, from twenty-two to twenty-eight years.
Order I. Edwardsiidea.
This order contains only a few genera and species of small size
living in shallow water in various parts of the world. In external
features they closely resemble several genera of the Actiniaria,
particularly those belonging to the family Halcampidae. The
distinguishing character of the order is to be found in the system of
mesenteries. In all the species only eight mesenteries are complete,
namely, the first two pairs of protocnemes, and the two pairs of
directives (Fig. 163, 2), and these usually support such large and
powerful muscle-bands that they appear to be the only mesenteries
present. A careful examination of transverse sections, however,
reveals the fact that other mesenteries are present. The fifth and
sixth pairs of protocnemes seem to be invariably represented, and
two or three pairs of metacnemes can also be traced in some
species.
The tentacles are variable in number. In Edwardsia beautempsii, for

example, they may be 14-16 in number, arranged in a single row
round the oral disc. In E. timida they vary from 20 to 24. The normal
number appears to be eight tentacles of the first cycle,
corresponding to the eight primary inter-mesenteric chambers, plus 6
or 12 tentacles, corresponding with the chambers limited by the
more rudimentary mesenteries,—making a total of 14 or 20
tentacles; but by the suppression of the two primary dorso-lateral
tentacles, or by the addition of tentacles of another cycle, the actual
number is found to vary considerably. The Edwardsiidea are not
fixed to the bottom, but are usually found deeply embedded in sand,
the aboral extremity being pointed and used for burrowing purposes.
The general colour of the body is yellow or yellowish brown, but it is
partly hidden by a short jacket of mud or sand and mucous
secretion. The oral crown frequently shows beautiful colours. De
Quatrefages relates that in Edwardsia beautempsii the oral cone is
golden yellow, and the tentacles, transparent for the greater part of
their extent, terminate in opaque points of a beautiful yellowish red
colour.
Fig. 165.—Edwardsia beautempsii. Nat. size. (After de Quatrefages.)
Fam. 1. Edwardsiidae.—Several species of this family have been

found in the British area. They are very local in their distribution, but
sometimes occur in great numbers.
Edwardsia beautempsii occurs in shallow water near the shores of

the English Channel and has been found in Bantry Bay; and E.
carnea and E. timida have also been found in the Channel. E. tecta
is a recently described species from the S. Irish coast, and E. allmani
and E. goodsiri are found in Scottish waters.
Fam. 2. Protantheidae.—This family, constituted for the reception of

three remarkable genera, is now usually included in the order
Edwardsiidea on the ground that not more than eight mesenteries
are complete.
The genus Gonactinia exhibits the very exceptional character of

having a thick layer of muscles in the body-wall (cf. Cerianthidea, p.
409), and it is also remarkable for the frequency with which it
reproduces itself asexually by longitudinal and, more rarely, by
transverse fission. It has been found in Norway, the Mediterranean,
and on the reefs of New Caledonia. The other genera of the family
are Oractis from California, and Protanthea from the coast of
Sweden.
Order II. Actiniaria.
This order contains nearly all the animals popularly known as Sea-
anemones. They are usually found in shallow water, attached by a
broad basal disc to shells, stones, or sea-weeds. In the
Halcampidae, however, the aboral extremity ends in a blunt point as
in the Cerianthidea and Edwardsiidea, and the animals live half-
buried in sand or mud. The Minyadidae of the southern oceans are
pelagic in habit, floating near the surface of the sea with the mouth
turned downwards. They are supported in the water by a bladder,
formed by an involution of the pedal disc, and filled with gas.
Many of the Sea-anemones are found in symbiotic association with

other animals. The common Adamsia of the British coasts is found
on whelk shells containing hermit crabs. The crab is probably
protected from the attacks of some of its enemies by the presence of
the Anemone, which in its turn has the advantage of securing some
fragments of the food captured and torn to pieces by the crab. The
association, therefore, seems to be one of mutual advantage to the
messmates. It is a noteworthy fact that in these associations the
species of Sea-anemone associated with a particular hermit crab is
nearly always constant. Thus in the English Channel, Adamsia
palliata is almost invariably found associated with Eupagurus
prideauxii, and Adamsia rondeletii with Eupagurus bernhardus. But,
perhaps, the most remarkable association of this kind is to be seen
in the case of the little shore crab of the Indian Ocean, Melia
tesselata, which invariably holds in each of its large claws a small
Sea-anemone. Möbius, who originally described this case, relates
that when the crab is robbed of its Anemone it appears to be greatly
agitated, and hunts about on the sand in the endeavour to find it
again, and will even collect the pieces, if the Anemone is cut up, and
arrange them in its claw.[400]
Another very interesting association is that of certain fish and

Crustacea with the large Sea-anemones of the tropical Australian
coast.[401] Thus Stoichactis kenti almost invariably contains two or
more specimens of the Percoid fish Amphiprion percula. This fish is
remarkable for its brilliant colour, three pearly white cross-bands
interrupt a ground plan of bright orange-vermilion, and the ends of
the cross-bands as well as the fins are bordered with black. In
another species a prawn of similar striking colours is found. These
companions of the giant Anemones swim about among the tentacles
unharmed, and when disturbed seek refuge in the mouth. It has
been suggested that these bright and attractive animals serve as a
lure or bait for other animals, which are enticed into striking distance
of the stinging threads of the Anemone, but how the commensals
escape the fate of the animals they attract has yet to be explained.
In a considerable number of Sea-anemones, such as Actinoloba

marginata and A. dianthus, some species of Sagartia, Actinia cari,
Anemonia sulcata, and Calliactis parasitica, the fertilisation of the
eggs and their subsequent development take place in the sea water.
[402] In a great many others, such as Bunodes (several species),
Cereactis aurantiaca, Sagartia troglodytes, Bunodactis gemmacea,
etc., the embryos are discharged into the water from the body-cavity
of the parent, at a stage with six or twelve tentacles. In the Arctic
species of the genera Urticina and Actinostola, however, the
embryos are retained within the body of the parent until several
cycles of tentacles are developed, and in Urticina crassicornis the
young have been found with the full number of tentacles already
formed. In Epiactis prolifera from Puget Sound, the young Anemones
attach themselves to the body-wall of the parent after their
discharge, and in Epiactis marsupialis, Pseudophellia arctica,
Epigonactis fecunda, and other species from cold waters, the young
are found in numerous brood sacs opening in rows on the body-wall.
It is not known for certain how these embryos enter the brood sacs,
but it is possible that each sac is formed independently for a young
embryo that has settled down from the outside upon the body-wall of
the parent. The most specialised example of this kind of parental
care in the Sea-anemones is seen in Marsupifer valdiviae from
Kerguelen, in which there are only six brood sacs, but each one
contains a great many (50-100) embryos.
The wonderful colours of our British Sea-anemones are familiar to
most persons who have visited the sea-side. The common Actinia
mesembryanthemum of rock pools, for example, is of a purple red
colour. The base is usually green with an azure line. Around the
margin of the disc there are some twenty-five turquoise blue
tubercles. On each side of the mouth there is a small purple spot,
and the numerous tentacles forming a circlet round the mouth are of
a pale roseate colour. Nothing could be more beautiful than the
snowy-white Actinoloba dianthus or the variegated Urticina
crassicornis.
Similar wonderful variety and beauty of colour are seen in the Sea-
anemones of other parts of the world. Thus Saville Kent[403] in
describing a species of the gigantic Stoichactis of the Australian
Barrier Reef says, "the spheroidal bead-like tentacles occur in
irregularly mixed patches of grey, white, lilac, and emerald green, the
disc being shaded with tints of grey, while the oral orifice is bordered
with bright yellow."
The order Actiniaria contains a large number of families, presenting

a great variety of external form and of detail in general anatomy. The
definitions of the families and their arrangement in larger groups
have presented many difficulties, and have led to considerable
differences of opinion; and even now, although our anatomical
knowledge has been greatly extended, the classification cannot be
regarded as resting on a very firm basis. The families may be
grouped into two sub-orders:—
Sub-Order 1. Actiniina.—The tentacles are simple and similar, and

there is one tentacle corresponding to each intermesenteric chamber
(endocoel).
Sub-Order 2. Stichodactylina.—The tentacles are simple and

similar, or provided with teat-like or ramified pinnules. One or more
tentacles may correspond with an endocoel, and there may be two
kinds of tentacles (marginal and accessory) in the same genus.
Sub-Order 1. Actiniina.
Fam. 1. Halcampidae.—This family is clearly most closely related to
the Edwardsiidea. There are, however, twelve complete mesenteries
of the first cycle, and a second cycle of more or less incomplete
mesenteries. The tentacles are usually twelve in number, but may be
twenty or twenty-four. There is no pedal disc, but the base is swollen
and rounded or pointed at the end.
The genus Halcampa includes a considerable number of small

species occurring in the shallow waters of the temperate northern
hemisphere, and of the Kerguelen Islands in the south. Three British
species have been described, of which Halcampa chrysanthellum
alone is common. The larva with eight tentacles and eight
mesenteries has been found living on the Medusa Thaumantias.
Peachia is a genus containing Anemones of much larger size (10-25

cm.). It is remarkable for the very large siphonoglyph on the ventral
side of the stomodaeum, prolonged into a papillate lip projecting
from the mouth called the "conchula." The genera Scytophorus from
150 fathoms off Kerguelen and Gyractis from Ceylon, although
showing some remarkable peculiarities of their mesenteric system,
appear to be closely related to this family.
Ilyanthus mitchellii is a large Anemone with a vesicular base, forty-

eight tentacles and mesenteries, occurring in the English Channel,
but it is not very common. It is usually placed in a separate family,
but is in many respects intermediate in character between the
Halcampidae and the Actiniidae.
Fam. 2. Actiniidae.—This family contains some of the commonest

British Sea-anemones. There is a large flat pedal disc by which the
body is attached to stones and rocks. The body-wall is usually
smooth, and not perforated by cinclides. The edge of the disc is
usually provided with coloured marginal tubercles. There are no
acontia.
Actinia.—This genus contains the widely distributed and very

variable species Actinia mesembryanthemum, one of the
commonest of the Sea-anemones found in rock pools on the British
coast. The colours of this species are often very beautiful (see p.
379) but variable.
Anemonia is a genus with remarkably long tentacles which are not

completely retractile. A. sulcata (sometimes called Anthea cereus) is
very common in the rock pools of our southern coasts.
Bolocera tuediae is, next to Actinoloba dianthus, the largest of the

British Anemones. It has very much the same colour as the common
varieties of Actinia mesembryanthemum, but the body-wall is
studded with minute, rounded warts. It is found between tide marks
in the Clyde sea-area, but usually occurs in deeper water.
Fam. 3. Sagartiidae.—This family includes several genera with a

contractile pedal disc, with the body-wall usually perforated by
cinclides, and provided with acontia.
The genera may be arranged in several sub-families distinguished

by well-marked characters. Among the well-known Sea-anemones
included in the family may be mentioned:—
Sagartia troglodytes, a very common British species found in hollows

in rocks. It is usually of an olive green or olive brown colour, and the
upper third or two-thirds of the body-wall is beset with numerous pale
suckers. Adamsia palliata has a white body-wall spotted with bright
red patches, and is associated with the hermit crab Eupagurus
prideauxii.

Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preservation, Waste Utilization, and Safety Assurance 1st Edition Ranendra K. Majumder

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preservation, Waste Utilization, and Safety Assurance 1st Edition Ranendra K. Majumder

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advances in Fish Processing

Technologies : Preservation, Waste

Handbook of Research on Food Processing and

Hazardous Waste Management: Advances in Chemical and

Handbook of Research on Food Processing and

Food Processing Advances in Thermal Technologies

Advances in Energy and Combustion Safety and

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Handbook of Research on Food Processing and

Food Waste Recovery: Processing Technologies,

Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD

Ranendra K. Majumder, PhD, is presently working as

Amjad K. Balange, PhD

Amjad K. Balange, PhD, is currently Principal Scien­

PART I: Advances in Fish Preservation, Processing, and

1. Advancement in Fish Processing Technology: The Indian Scenario..........3

2. Surimi and Surimi‑Based Products.............................................................31

3. Freezing of Fish and Fishery Products: Basics and Advancements .........53

4. Emerging Fish Processing and Packaging Technologies:

5. Utilization of Low‑Cost Fish Through Restructured

6. Hydrocolloids: Application in Fish Processing to Improve

7. Edible Packaging for Fish Preservation:

8. Disruptive Technologies: Its Scope in Seafood Processing and

9. Secondary Raw Material and Low‑Cost Fish for Fish Meal

PART II: Seafood Composition and Scope of Developing

10. Marine Fish Fatty Acids: Variation in Fatty Acid Profiles of

11. Endogenous Enzymes: Their Roles in Quality of Fish/Shellfish

12. Green Technologies for Developing High‑Value Novel Marine

PART III: Utilization of Fish Processing Wastes .............................................287

13. Fish Wastes: Present Status of Utilization and

14. Production of Omega‑3 Capsules from Fish Offal: Recycling of

15. Bioactive and Functional Nutraceuticals from Shrimp

16. Edible Packaging from Fishery Waste: A Future Prospective................337

17. Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria: An Emerging Seafood

18. Emerging Pathogens of Public Health Significance

19. Understanding Food Safety in Fish and Fishery Products .....................395

20. Developments in Safety and Quality Management of Fish and

PART V: Entrepreneurship Development in the Fish Processing Sector ......451

21. Entrepreneurship Initiatives in the Fisheries Post‑Harvest

Basanta Kumar Das

Sathish Kumar Kannaiyan

Bimal Prasanna Mohanty

Ajit Kumar Roy

ABI agri-business incubation center

CFR code of federal regulations

FBOs food business operators

IQF individual quick freezing

OIE international office of epizootics

SSOPs sanitation standard operating procedures

The fishery sector has witnessed the development of various innovative

developments in safety and quality management systems of fish and fish

Advancement in Fish Processing

products. With the advancement in modern fish-catching methods and gear

1.2  OLEOFICAR-CIFT IN DEVELOPMENT OF FISH PROCESSING

ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (ICAR-CIFT) was estab­

the Fish Processing Division, the export of seafood products improved as it

1.2.1 LIVE FISHERY PRODUCTS

FIGURE1.1 Transportation of crab in live condition.

1.2.2 HANDLING OF FISH

Proper handling of fish and shellfish is of utmost importance as it affects

1.2.3 CHILLED FISHERY PRODUCTS

Chilling is an effective method of maintaining the freshness of fish products.

density polyethylene flexible pouches and shrink packs, respectively. Shelf

Amjad K. Balange, PhD, is currently Principal Scien

1.2 OLEOFICAR-CIFT IN DEVELOPMENT OF FISH PROCESSING

ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (ICAR-CIFT) was estab

FIGURE1.1 Transportation of crab in live condition.

tensile strength and elongation at break of packaging materials like poly

FIGURE1.6 Thermal processed ready-to-eat fish products developed by the institute.