A

Project Report On

‘COMMERCIAL POWER SAVING PROJECT USING CAPACITOR BANK’

Submitted By
SANSKAR V JIVTODE
NITIN S BHOYAR
AKSHAY S TURANKAR
ADITYA L GHONMODE

For the partial fulfillment of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in

Electrical Engineering

Guide
Prof. SACHIN B DAHULE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

V.M. INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

& TECHNOLOGY, NAGPUR
2023 – 24
 CE RT IF ICAT E

V.M. INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, NAGPUR

WARDHA ROAD, NAGPUR - 441108

SESSION 2023-24

The thesis entitled “COMMERCIAL POWER SAVING PROJECT USING

CAPACITOR BANK” submitted by Mr. Sanskar Jivtode, Nitin Bhoyar, Akshay
Turankar, Aditya Ghonmode for the partial fulfillment of the award of degree of
Master of Technology in Integrated Power System Engineering, has been carried out
under my supervision at V.M. Institute of Engineering & Technology, Nagpur. The
work is comprehensive, complete and fit for evaluation

Prof. Sachin B Dahule

Guide

Prof. Gopichand khandale Dr. Ankush A Mankar

Head of Department Principal
V.M.I.T, Nagpur
 DECLARATION

The project titled “COMMERCIAL POWER SAVING PROJECT USING

CAPACITOR BANK” is my own work carried out under the guidance of Prof. SACHIN B
DAHULE, Department of Electrical Engineering at V.M. Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Nagpur As far as our knowledge, this work in the same form or any other form is not submitted by us
or anyone else for award of any degree.

PROJECT TEAM MEMBERS: -

1. SANSKAR VINOD JIVTODE

2. ADITYA LATISH GHONMODE

3. NITIN SANTOSH BHOYAR

4. AKSHAY SHESHRAO TURANKAR

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With profound feeling of immense gratitude and affection, we

would like to thank Prof. Sachin B. Dahule Department of Electrical
Engineering for his continues support, motivation, enthusiasm and
guidance. His encouragement, supervision, with constructive criticism
and confidence enabled us to complete this project.

We also wish to extend our reverences to Prof. Gopichand

khandale, Head Electrical Engineering for providing necessary facilities
to complete our project.

We express our administration Dr. Ankush A. Mankar, Principal, for

his valuable advice and support throughout this venture.

Finally, a special thanks to all the faculty member of the

department for their co-operation throughout the project work.

PROJECT TEAM MEMBERS: -

1. SANSKAR VINOD JIVTODE

2. ADITYA LATISH GHONMODE

3. NITIN SANTOSH BHOYAR

4. AKSHAY SHESHRAO TURANKAR

 CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No.

No.
Certificate i
Declaration ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
List of Figures vii
1. Introduction 2
2. Literature Review 4
2.1 Evolution of FACTS Technology 5
2.2 Key Components of FACTS 5
2.3 Control Strategies of FACTS 5
2.4 Applications of FACTS 5
2.5 Recent Advances and Future Directions 6
3. Block and Circuit Diagram 7
4. Components 10
4.1 Arduino Nano 11
4.2 7805 Voltage Regulator 14
4.3 Transformer 18
4.4 16x2 LCD 20
4.5 Thyristor 22
4.6 Rectifier 25
4.7 Zero-Crossing Detector 27
5. Working 30
5.1 Sensing and Analysis 31
5.2 Optimization 31
5.3 Control 31
5.4 User Interface 31
5.5 Indication 31
5.6 Safety 32
5.7 Efficiency 32
5.8 Installation and Maintenace 32
5.9 Power Factor Correction (PFC) 32
5.10 Push Buttons and Switches 32
5.11 User Interaction 32
5.12 Microcontroller Processing 33
5.13 Feedback 33
5.14 Real-Time Monitoring 33
5.15 Adaptive Control 33
6. Advantages and Disadvantages 34
6.1 Advantages 35
6.2 Disadvantages 36
7. Result 37
8. Reference 39
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.

NO.
3.1 Block Diagram of FACTS 7

3.2 Circuit Diagram of FACTS 8

4.1 Arduino Nano 10

4.2 7805 Voltage Regulator 13

4.3 Transformer 16

4.4 16 x 2 LCD 18

4.5 Thyristor 20

4.6 Rectifier 22

4.7 Zero-Crossing Detector 24

 Abstract

The project proposes the development and implementation of a Flexible AC Transmission

System (FACTS) utilizing Thyristor Switched Reactance (TSR) technology, augmented by
microcontroller-based control mechanisms. The system aims to enhance power system stability,
improve voltage regulation, and mitigate power quality issues in AC power networks. Key
components include Arduino Nano microcontroller, transformer, rectifier circuit, 7805 voltage
regulator, 16x2 LCD display, thyristors, capacitive load, and zero-crossing detector.

The system operates by dynamically controlling the reactance of the capacitive load using
thyristor switches in response to real-time system conditions. The Arduino Nano serves as the
central control unit, executing control algorithms to modulate thyristor firing angles based on
input signals from the zero- crossing detector and user-defined setpoints. Through precise
control of reactive power injection, the system optimizes power flow, minimizes voltage
fluctuations, and enhances overall grid stability.

The transformer and rectifier circuit convert AC input voltage to DC, providing power to the
system components and ensuring compatibility with the Arduino Nano and thyristor control
circuitry. The 7805 voltage regulator regulates the DC supply voltage to the required level,
ensuring stable operation of the microcontroller and peripheral devices.

The 16x2 LCD display provides real-time visualization of system parameters, including
voltage, current, power factor, and reactive power compensation status, enabling users to
monitor system performance and make informed decisions. Thyristors act as switches,
controlling the flow of reactive power to the capacitive load in response to control signals
generated by the Arduino Nano.

The capacitive load, in conjunction with the thyristor switches, facilitates dynamic reactive
power compensation, allowing the system to adjust to changing load conditions and maintain
optimal voltage levels. The zero-crossing detector synchronizes thyristor firing with the AC
waveform, ensuring precise control and minimizing harmonics.

Overall, the proposed FACTS system offers a cost-effective, efficient, and scalable solution for
enhancing power system stability and reliability. By leveraging TSR technology and
microcontroller-based control, the system enables dynamic reactive power compensation,
voltage regulation, and power quality improvement, addressing the evolving challenges of
modern power grids.
1
CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION
2
 Introduction

The modern electrical grid faces numerous challenges stemming from increasing demand,
integration of renewable energy sources, and the need for improved power system stability and
efficiency. In this context, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) have emerged as a
critical technology for enhancinggrid performance and reliability. FACTS devices employ
advanced power electronics and control techniques to regulate voltage, control power flow, and
improve system stability in real-time.

Among FACTS technologies, Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSRs) have garnered significant
attention for their effectiveness in reactive power compensation and voltage control. TSRs
utilize thyristor switches to dynamically adjust the reactance of inductive or capacitive elements
in response to changing system conditions. This enables precise control of reactive power
injection, mitigating voltage fluctuations and improving power quality.

The objective of this project is to design, implement, and evaluate a Flexible AC Transmission
System (FACTS) using Thyristor Switched Reactance technology, augmented by
microcontroller-based control mechanisms. The proposed system aims to enhance power
system stability, improve voltage regulation, and mitigate power quality issues in AC power
networks.

Key components of the proposed FACTS system include the Arduino Nano microcontroller,
transformer, rectifier circuit, 7805 voltage regulator, 16x2 LCD display, thyristors, capacitive
load, and zero-crossing detector. These components form the backbone of the system
architecture, enabling precise control and monitoring of reactive power compensation.

The Arduino Nano serves as the central control unit, executing control algorithms to modulate
thyristor firing angles based on input signals from the zero-crossing detector and user-defined
setpoints. The transformer and rectifier circuit convert AC input voltage to DC, providing
power to the system components. The 7805 voltage regulator ensures stable operation of the
microcontroller and peripheral devices by regulating the DC supply voltage.

The 16x2 LCD display provides real-time visualization of system parameters, allowing users to
monitor voltage, current, power factor, and reactive power compensation status. Thyristors act
as switches, controlling the flow of reactive power to the capacitive load in response to control
signals generated by the Arduino Nano. The capacitive load, in conjunction with the thyristor
switches, facilitates dynamic reactive power compensation, enabling the system to adjust to
changing load conditions and maintain optimal voltage levels.

Overall, the proposed FACTS system offers a cost-effective, efficient, and scalable solution for
addressing the challenges faced by modern power grids. By leveraging TSR technology and
microcontroller-based control, the system enables dynamic reactive power compensation,
voltage regulation, and power quality improvement, contributing to the reliability and stability
of electrical networks.
3
 CHAPETER-II
LITERATURE REVIEW
4
2.1. Evolution of FACTS Technology:
FACTS technology originated in the late 20th century as a response to the growing need
for enhanced power system control capabilities. The pioneering work of Narain G.
Hingorani and Laszlo Gyugyi laid the foundation for FACTS with their seminal book
"Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission
Systems" (2000). This book introduced various FACTS devices, including Static VAR
Compensators (SVCs), Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSCs), and Static
Synchronous Compensators (STATCOMs), and highlighted their potential for
improving power system performance.

2.2. Key Components of FACTS:

FACTS devices consist of various components, each serving a specific function in
regulating power flow and system parameters. Transformer-based FACTS devices, such
as SVCs and STATCOMs, utilize transformers, thyristors, and capacitors to provide
reactive power compensation and voltage regulation. Thyristor-controlled devices, such
as TCSCs and Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSRs), employ thyristors and reactive
components to control line impedance and power flow. Control systems, including
microcontrollers and digital signal processors (DSPs), play a crucial role in coordinating
FACTS operation and implementing control algorithms.

2.3. Control Strategies for FACTS:

Control strategies for FACTS devices vary depending on the desired objectives, system
conditions, and operating constraints. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is
commonly used for regulating voltage and reactive power, with parameters adjusted
based on system feedback. Model Predictive Control (MPC) and Adaptive Control
techniques offer advanced capabilities for optimizing power flow, minimizing losses, and
enhancing system stability. Hierarchical control architectures, comprising local,
decentralized, and centralized control levels, enable coordination and communication
among FACTS devices and other grid components.

2.4. Applications of FACTS:

FACTS devices find applications across various domains of power system operation and
control. In transmission systems, FACTS devices enhance voltage stability, improve
transient response, and increase power transfer capability, enabling efficient utilization of
transmission networks and integration of renewable energy sources. In distribution
systems, FACTS devices mitigate voltage fluctuations, reduce losses, and improve power
quality, enhancing reliability and resilience of distribution networks. FACTS technology
also plays a crucial role in grid modernization initiatives, such as smart grids, microgrids,
and demand response programs, by providing grid support services and enabling
dynamic control of distributed energy resources.
 5
2.5. Recent Advances and Future Directions:
Recent advancements in FACTS technology focus on improving control capabilities,
enhancing interoperability, and integrating FACTS devices with emerging grid
technologies. Advanced control algorithms, such as artificial intelligence-based
techniques and distributed control strategies, offer novel approaches for optimizing
FACTS operation and adapting to changing grid conditions. Integration of FACTS
devices with Wide Area Monitoring, Protection, and Control (WAMPAC) systems
enables real-time monitoring and control of grid dynamics over large geographical
areas, enhancing grid stability and resilience. Future research directions include the
development of multi-functional FACTS devices, the integration of FACTS with energy
storage systems and renewable energy sources, and the deployment of FACTS in
emerging grid architectures, such as virtual power plants and energy internet platforms.
6
 CHAPTER-III BLOCK
DIAGRAM / CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM
7
 Fig.3.1 Block Diagram
The block diagram represents a Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) employing
Thyristor Switched Reactance (TSR) components, including an Arduino Nano
microcontroller, transformer, rectifier, 7805 voltage regulator, 16x2 LCD display, thyristor,
capacitive load, and zero-crossing detector. This is the input source providing alternating
current (AC) power to the system. It can be connected to the primary side of the transformer.
The transformer steps up or steps down the input AC voltage to the desired level based on the
system requirements. It acts as an interface between the input power source and the rest of the
system. The rectifier circuit converts the AC voltage from the transformer into direct current
(DC) voltage. It typically employs diodes to rectify the AC waveform, ensuring unidirectional
current flow.

The 7805 regulator regulates the rectified DC voltage to a stable 5 volts, providing a reliable
power supply to the Arduino Nano microcontroller. Serving as the central control unit, the
Arduino Nano processes input signals from the zero-crossing detector and user-defined
setpoints. It generates control signals for the thyristor control circuit based on the system's
operational requirements. This component detects the zero-crossing points of the AC voltage
waveform. It provides synchronization signals to the Arduino Nano, enabling precise timing
for thyristor firing. This circuit modulates the firing angles of the thyristors based on control
signals from the Arduino Nano. It controls the reactance of the capacitive load, regulating the
flow of reactive power in the AC power network. Representing the load in the AC power
network, the capacitive load's reactance is dynamically controlled by the thyristors. This
facilitates the compensation of reactive power, enhancing system stability and efficiency. The
LCD display provides real-time monitoring and visualization of system parameters, such as
voltage, current, power factor, and reactive power compensation status. It enables users to
monitor the system's performance and status at a glance.
8
Fig.3.2 Circuit Diagram
9
CHAPTER - IV
COMPONENTS
10
4.1. Arduino Nano:

Fig.4.1 Arduino Nano

The Arduino Nano is a compact, versatile, and widely-used microcontroller

board that serves as the heart of countless DIY projects, prototypes, and
commercial products. Developed by Arduino LLC, it is part of the Arduino
family of microcontroller boards, renowned for their ease of use, flexibility, and
robust community support. The Nano, in particular, stands out for its small form
factor, making it ideal for projects with space constraints or requiring
portability.

Technical Specifications:

 Microcontroller: Atmel ATmega328P

 Operating Voltage: 5 volts

 Input Voltage (recommended): 7-12 volts

 Input Voltage (limits): 6-20 volts

 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

 Analog Input Pins: 8

 DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA (max)

 Flash Memory: 32 KB (of which 2 KB used by bootloader)

 SRAM: 2 KB

 EEPROM: 1 KB
11
  Clock Speed: 16 MHz

Features:

 Compact Size: The Arduino Nano's compact design, roughly the size of
a credit card, makes it suitable for projects where space is limited. Its
small footprint allows for easy integration into various devices and
applications.

 Easy to Program: Like other Arduino boards, the Nano can be

programmed using the Arduino Integrated Development Environment
(IDE), which provides a beginner-friendly interface for writing,
compiling, and uploading code. The Arduino programming language,
based on C/C++, simplifies the development process and allows users to
quickly prototype their ideas.

 Versatile I/O Pins: With a generous number of digital and analog

input/output pins, the Nano can interface with a wide range of sensors,
actuators, displays, and other peripherals. This versatility enables users
to create interactive projects and control external devices with ease.

Applications:

 The Arduino Nano finds application in a diverse range of projects and

industries, including:

 Home Automation: Control lights, appliances, and security systems.

 Robotics: Build robots and automated systems for various tasks.

 Wearable Technology: Create wearable devices, fitness trackers, and

smart clothing.

 Environmental Monitoring: Develop sensors for measuring temperature,

humidity, air quality, etc.
12
Advantages of Arduino Nano:

The Arduino Nano offers several advantages that contribute to its popularity and versatility,
including:
 Accessibility: Arduino Nano is affordable and widely available, making it accessible to
hobbyists, students, and enthusiasts around the world.
 Ease of Use: Arduino Nano's user-friendly IDE, extensive documentation, and vast
online community of users and contributors make it easy for beginners to get started
with electronics and programming.
 Flexibility: Arduino Nano's modular design and open-source nature allow for easy
expansion and customization with a wide range of shields, modules, and sensors.
 Compatibility: Arduino Nano is compatible with a vast ecosystem of libraries, tools, and
accessories, ensuring compatibility with existing projects and hardware.
 Versatility: Arduino Nano's small size, low power consumption, and rich feature set
make it suitable for a wide range of applications, from simple LED blinking projects to
complex IoT systems.

Challenges and Considerations:

While Arduino Nano offers numerous benefits, it also presents certain challenges and
considerations, including:
 Limited Resources: Arduino Nano's limited flash memory and SRAM may pose
constraints for large-scale projects requiring extensive code or data storage.
 Performance: Arduino Nano's 8-bit microcontroller architecture may be less powerful
than higher-end microcontrollers or processors, limiting performance for
computationally intensive tasks.

Future Prospects:

The future of Arduino Nano looks promising, with ongoing advancements in hardware,
software, and community support driving innovation and adoption. As technology evolves,
Arduino Nano is expected to continue evolving to meet the changing needs of makers,
educators, and developers worldwide. The rise of IoT, wearable technology, and embedded
systems is likely to further fuel the demand for compact, versatile microcontrollers like Arduino
Nano, opening up new opportunities for innovation and creativity.
13
4.2. 7805 Voltage Regulator:

Fig.4.2 7805 Voltage Regulator

The 7805 voltage regulator is a widely used integrated circuit (IC) that plays a
crucial role in electronic circuits by providing a stable and regulated voltage
output. Developed by Texas Instruments, the 7805 is part of the 78xx series of
voltage regulators, which includes variants such as 7806, 7808, 7812, and 7824,
each providing a fixed output voltage.

Working Principle:

The 7805 voltage regulator operates based on the principle of feedback control.
It takes an unregulated input voltage, typically from a power source such as a
battery or a transformer, and regulates it to a precise, fixed output voltage of +5
volts DC. This regulated output voltage remains constant even when the input
voltage and load conditions vary.

Internal Structure:

Internally, the 7805 voltage regulator consists of several key components,

including a voltage reference, error amplifier, pass transistor, and feedback
network. The voltage reference establishes a stable reference voltage, which is
compared to a fraction of the output voltage by the error amplifier. Any
deviation between the reference voltage and the output voltage is amplified and
used to control the pass transistor, adjusting its resistance to maintain a constant
output voltage.
 14

Pin Configuration:
The 7805 typically comes in a three-terminal TO-220 package, with each terminal
serving a specific function:

 Input (Vin): This terminal is connected to the unregulated input voltage,

which can range from 7 volts to 35 volts, depending on the specific
variant of the 7805.

 Ground (GND): This terminal is connected to the ground reference of

the circuit.

 Output (Vout): This terminal provides the regulated +5 volts DC output

voltage.

Features:

 Fixed Output Voltage: The 7805 provides a fixed output voltage of +5

volts, making it suitable for powering a wide range of electronic devices
and components.

 High Stability: The voltage regulator offers excellent stability and

accuracy over a wide range of input voltages and load conditions.

Applications:

The 7805 voltage regulator finds applications in various electronic circuits and
devices, including:

 Powering microcontrollers, sensors, and other integrated circuits.

 Voltage regulation in battery chargers, power supplies, and voltage

converters.

 Providing a stable power source for analog and digital circuits in audio
amplifiers, LED drivers, and communication systems.

As a voltage reference in calibration and measurement equipment

 The 7805 typically comes in a three-terminal TO-220 package, with each terminal
serving a specific function:

15

 Input (Vin): This terminal is connected to the unregulated input voltage,

which can range from 7 volts to 35 volts, depending on the specific
variant of the 7805.

 Ground (GND): This terminal is connected to the ground reference of

the circuit.

 Output (Vout): This terminal provides the regulated +5 volts DC output

voltage.

Features:

 Fixed Output Voltage: The 7805 provides a fixed output voltage of +5

volts, making it suitable for powering a wide range of electronic devices
and components.

 High Stability: The voltage regulator offers excellent stability and

accuracy over a wide range of input voltages and load conditions.

Applications:

The 7805 voltage regulator finds applications in various electronic circuits and
devices, including:

 Powering microcontrollers, sensors, and other integrated circuits.

 Voltage regulation in battery chargers, power supplies, and voltage

converters.

 Providing a stable power source for analog and digital circuits in audio
amplifiers, LED drivers, and communication systems.

 As a voltage reference in calibration and measurement equipment

16
 Advantages of the 7805:

The 7805 voltage regulator offers several advantages that contribute to its widespread
adoption and enduring popularity:

 Simplicity: The 7805 is easy to use and integrate into electronic circuits,
requiring minimal external components and no complex control circuitry.

 Reliability: With its robust design and mature manufacturing processes, the
7805 provides reliable and stable voltage regulation under a wide range of
operating conditions.

 Cost-Effectiveness: The 7805 is highly cost-effective, offering an affordable solution

for voltage regulation in both low- and high-volume applications.

 Availability: The 7805 is widely available from multiple manufacturers, ensuring

easy sourcing and availability for electronics designers and hobbyists worldwide.

Limitations and Considerations:

Despite its many advantages, the 7805 voltage regulator has certain limitations and
considerations:

 Heat Dissipation: The 7805 may require heat sinking or thermal management
measures to dissipate excess heat generated during operation, especially when
supplying higher output currents or operating with large input-output voltage
differentials.

 Voltage Drop: The dropout voltage of the 7805 can limit its effectiveness in low-
voltage or battery-powered applications, where minimizing power loss is critical.

 Efficiency: As a linear regulator, the 7805 is less efficient than switching regulators,
dissipating excess power as heat. This inefficiency may be a concern in battery-
powered or energy-conscious applications.

Future Prospects:

Despite the emergence of more advanced voltage regulation technologies, the 7805 voltage
regulator continues to play a vital role in electronics design and manufacturing. With ongoing
advancements in semiconductor materials, packaging techniques, and power management
algorithms, the 7805 may undergo further improvements in efficiency, size, and performance.
Additionally, the demand for reliable, cost-effective voltage regulation solutions in emerging
markets and niche applications ensures the 7805's relevance and longevity in the years to come.
17
 4.3. Transformer

Fig.4.3 Transformer

Transformers are fundamental components in electrical engineering and power

systems,serving the critical function of transferring electrical energy between circuits by
means of electromagnetic induction. They play a crucial role in voltage transformation,
impedance matching, isolation, and power distribution across a wide range of applications,
from power generation and transmission to distribution and utilization. This comprehensive
overview delves into the structure, principles of operation, types, applications, and
advancements in transformer technology.

1. Structure and Components:

Transformers consist of two main components: the primary winding and the
secondarywinding, typically wound around a common magnetic core. The primary winding is
connectedto the input voltage source, while the secondary winding is connected to the load.
The magneticcore, usually made of laminated steel or iron, provides a low reluctance path for
the magnetic flux generated by the alternating current (AC) flowing through the windings. In
addition to theprimary and secondary windings, transformers may include insulation, cooling
systems (such as oil or air cooling), and protective features (such as fuses or circuit breakers).

2. Principles of Operation:

Transformers operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, as described by

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current flows through the
primary winding, it produces a changing magnetic flux in the core. This changing magnetic
flux induces an electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding, according to
Faraday's law. The ratio of the number of turns in the primary winding to the number of turns
in the secondary winding determines the voltage transformation ratio of the transformer. In an
ideal transformer with no losses, the power in the primary winding equals the power in the
secondary winding, neglecting losses due to resistance, core losses, and leakage flux.

3. Types of Transformers:

Transformers are classified based on various factors, including their applications,

construction, cooling methods, and voltage levels. Common types of transformers include:
Power Transformers: Used for voltage transformation and power distribution in electrical grids,
substations, and industrial applications.
 18

 Three-Phase Transformers: Transformers with three sets of windings, used for three-
phase power distribution and transmission.
 Isolation Transformers: Transformers used to electrically isolate circuits, providing
protection against electric shock and reducing electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers: Transformers that increase (step-up) or
decrease (step-down) voltage levels between the primary and secondary
windings.

4. Applications of Transformers:

Transformers are ubiquitous in electrical power systems and numerous other applications,
including:
 Power Generation: Transformers step up the voltage generated by power plants for
efficient transmission over long distances.
 Transmission and Distribution: Transformers facilitate voltage transformation and
power distribution in electrical grids, substations, and distribution networks.
 Industrial Applications: Transformers power machinery, equipment, and industrial
processes in manufacturing, mining, and construction industries.
 Renewable Energy: Transformers are used in renewable energy systems, such as wind
turbines and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, for voltage transformation and grid
integration.
 Electronics: Transformers are employed in electronic devices, such as power supplies,
inverters, and audio amplifiers, for voltage conversion and isolation.
 Transportation: Transformers are utilized in electric vehicles (EVs), trains, and other
transportation systems for power conversion and traction motor control.

5. Advancements in Transformer Technology:

Transformer technology has evolved significantly over the years, driven by

advancements in materials, design, and manufacturing processes. Recent trends
and innovations in transformer technology include:
 High-Efficiency Transformers: Transformers designed to minimize losses, improve
energy efficiency, and reduce environmental impact.
 Smart Transformers: Transformers equipped with sensors, monitoring systems, and
communication interfaces for real-time condition monitoring, predictive maintenance,
and grid optimization.
 Solid-State Transformers: Solid-state devices based on power electronics technology,
such as thyristors, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), and silicon carbide (SiC)
semiconductors, for compact, lightweight, and efficient power conversion.
 Resilient Transformers: Transformers designed to withstand extreme environmental
conditions, electromagnetic disturbances, and cyber-physical threats, ensuring grid
resilience and reliability.
 Eco-Friendly Transformers: Transformers incorporating eco-friendly materials,
insulation systems, and cooling fluids to reduce environmental impact and comply
with sustainability standards.
19
 4.4. 16*2 LCD

Fig. 4.4 16*2 LCD Display

A light emitting The 16x2 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) module is a widely used
electronic display that provides a simple and cost-effective means of presenting
information in various applications. With its compact size, low power consumption,
and versatility, the 16x2 LCD display has become a staple component in electronics
projects, consumer devices, industrial equipment, and more. In this comprehensive
overview, we delve into the features, operation, applications, and advantages of the
16x2 LCD display.

Features and Specifications:

The 16x2 LCD display is characterized by its dimensions, with a display area of 16
characters per line and 2 lines. Each character consists of a matrix of 5x8 dots,
allowing for the presentation of alphanumeric characters, symbols, and custom
graphics. The display typically interfaces with microcontrollers or other control
circuits using parallel or serial communication protocols, making it compatible with a
wide range of devices and systems.

Operation:

The operation of a 16x2 LCD display involves the control of individual pixels (dots) to
form characters and symbols on the screen. The display is divided into two lines, each
capable of displaying up to 16 characters. A controller chip embedded within the
display interprets incoming data and commands from the host device, generating the
appropriate signals to control the liquid crystal cells and produce the desired output.
 20

Applications:

The 16x2 LCD display finds myriad applications across various industries and
domains. In consumer electronics, it serves as a user interface for devices such as
digital clocks, calculators, thermometers, and home appliances, providing users with
essential information and feedback. In industrial settings, the display is integrated into
equipment and machinery for monitoring parameters, displaying diagnostics, and
facilitating user interaction. In educational environments, it is used in projects and
experiments to teach students about electronics, programming, and data visualization.

Advantages:

The 16x2 LCD display offers several advantages that contribute to its widespread
adoption and popularity. Its compact size and low profile make it suitable for
integration into space-constrained devices and enclosures. The display's low power
consumption ensures energy efficiency and prolongs battery life in portable
applications. Additionally, its simplicity of operation and robustness make it accessible
to hobbyists, students, and professionals alike, enabling a wide range of creative and
practicalprojects.

Challenges and Considerations:

While the 16x2 LCD display offers numerous benefits, it also presents certain
challenges and considerations. The limited display area may constrain the amount of
information that can be presented simultaneously, requiring careful design and
prioritization of content. Additionally, the viewing angle and contrast of the display
may vary under different lighting conditions, necessitating adjustments or
enhancements for optimal visibility.

Future Outlook:
The future of 16x2 LCD displays is closely tied to advancements in display technology and
user interface design. As electronic devices become more interconnected and interactive, the
 role of the display as a primary means of communication and interaction will continue to
evolve.

21
4.5. Thyristor:

Fig. 4.5 Thyristor

Thyristors are semiconductor devices widely used in power electronics for controlling and
switching high-power circuits. They belong to the family of silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) and are characterized by their ability to handle large currents and voltages while
exhibiting fast switching speeds. Thyristors find extensive application in various industries,
including power generation, transmission, and distribution, as well as in motor drives, voltage
regulators, and other high-power electronic systems. This comprehensive overview explores
the principles of operation, types, characteristics, applications, and advancements in thyristor
technology.

Principles of Operation:
Thyristors operate based on the principle of unidirectional conduction, where current flows
through the device in one direction only. They consist of multiple semiconductor layers (P-N-P-
N) with three terminals: anode, cathode, and gate. Thyristors exhibit high impedance (off-state)
until triggered by a gate signal. Once triggered, thyristors conduct current continuously until the
anode current falls below a certain threshold, known as the holding current. Thyristors can be
turned off by reducing the anode current to zero or by applying a reverse voltage across the
device.

22

Types of Thyristors:
Thyristors are classified into several types based on their structure, voltage rating, and
switching characteristics. Common types of thyristors include:
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs): The most basic type of thyristor, capable of
handling high currents and voltages, used primarily for AC power control and
rectification applications.
 Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTOs): Thyristors with an additional gate turn-off capability,
allowing them to be turned off by a negative gate signal. GTOs offer faster turn-off
times compared to SCRs but require higher gate drive power.
 Reverse Conducting Thyristors (RCTs): Thyristors capable of conducting current in
both forward and reverse directions, enabling bidirectional power flow in AC/DC
converters and motor drives.
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs): Hybrid devices combining the high voltage
capability of thyristors with the fast switching speed of bipolar transistors. IGBTs are
widely used in high- power applications such as motor drives, UPS systems, and
inverters.
MOS-Controlled Thyristors (MCTs):
Thyristors with MOSFET-like gate control, offering improved switching characteristics
and higher operating frequencies compared to conventional thyristors.
Characteristics of Thyristors:
Thyristors exhibit several key characteristics that make them suitable for high-power
applications:
 High Current and Voltage Ratings: Thyristors are capable of handling large currents and
voltages, making them ideal for power electronics applications.
 Fast Switching Speeds: Thyristors can switch on and off rapidly, enabling precise
control of power flow and efficient operation in switching circuits.
 High Operating Temperatures: Thyristors can withstand high temperatures without
degradation, allowing them to operate reliably in harsh environments.
  Low Conduction and Switching Losses: Thyristors have low conduction and switching
losses, resulting in high efficiency and reduced heat dissipation in power electronic
systems.
 High Reverse Blocking Capability: Thyristors exhibit high reverse blocking voltage
ratings, ensuring reliable operation in reverse-biased conditions.

23

Applications of Thyristors:
Thyristors find widespread application in various industries and technologies, including:
 Power Electronics: Used in AC/DC converters, DC/DC converters, inverters, and motor
drives for power conversion, voltage regulation, and motor control.
 Power Systems: Employed in power generation, transmission, and distribution systems
for voltage regulation, power factor correction, and reactive power compensation.
 Industrial Automation: Utilized in welding machines, heating systems, induction
furnaces, and industrial automation equipment for high-power switching and control.
 Renewable Energy: Integrated into solar inverters, wind turbines, and energy storage
systems for grid integration, power conditioning, and energy management.
 Transportation: Used in electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and
electric trains for traction motor control, regenerative braking, and battery charging.

Advancements in Thyristor Technology:

Thyristor technology has evolved significantly over the years, driven by advancements in
semiconductor materials, device packaging, and fabrication processes. Recent trends and
innovations in thyristor technology include:
 High-Voltage Thyristors: Thyristors with increased voltage ratings and improved surge
handling capabilities, enabling higher power density and reliability in high-voltage
applications.
 Fast-Switching Thyristors: Thyristors with reduced turn-on and turn-off times, allowing
for higher operating frequencies, improved efficiency, and enhanced dynamic
performance in power electronic systems.
 Integrated Gate Drivers: Thyristors with integrated gate drivers and protection circuits,
simplifying gate drive design, reducing component count, and enhancing reliability in
high.

24
 4.6. Rectifier

Fig.4.6 Rectifier

Rectifiers are essential components in power electronics that convert alternating

current (AC) into direct current (DC) by rectifying the polarity of the input voltage.
They play a crucial role in various applications, including power supplies, battery
charging systems, motor drives, and renewable energy systems. This comprehensive
overview explores the principles of operation, types, applications, and advancements in
rectifier technology.

a. Principles of Operation:

Rectifiers operate based on the principle of diode rectification, where semiconductor

diodes are used to conduct current in one direction while blocking it in the opposite
direction. When an AC voltage is applied to the input of a rectifier circuit, the diodes
conduct during the positive half-cycles of the input waveform, allowing current to flow
in one direction. During the negative half-cycles, the diodes become reverse-biased
and block current flow. As a result, the output of the rectifier circuit consists of only
the positive half-cycles of the input waveform, resulting in a pulsating DC voltage.

b. Types of Rectifiers:

Rectifiers are classified into several types based on their configuration, circuit
topology, and mode of operation. Common types of rectifiers include:

i. Half-Wave Rectifier: Consists of a single diode connected in series with the

load, allowing only one half-cycle of the input AC waveform to pass through.

ii. Full-Wave Rectifier: Utilizes a bridge configuration of diodes to rectify both

positive and negative half-cycles of the input AC waveform, resulting in a
smoother DC output.

25
 iii. Bridge Rectifier: Uses a bridge configuration of diodes to rectify AC voltage
without the need for a center-tapped transformer, offering simplicity and
efficiency in design.

iv. Controlled Rectifiers: Include thyristor-based rectifiers (such as half-wave and

full-wave controlled rectifiers) that allow for variable control of output voltage
and current by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristors.

v. Three-Phase Rectifiers: Rectify three-phase AC voltage to DC, commonly used

in industrial applications and motor drives.

c. Applications of Rectifiers:

i. Rectifiers find widespread applications across various industries and

technologies, including:

ii. Power Supplies: Rectifiers are used in AC to DC power supplies for electronic
devices, appliances, and industrial equipment.

iii. Battery Charging Systems: Rectifiers convert AC power from the grid into DC
power for charging batteries in automotive, marine, and stationary
applications.

iv. Motor Drives: Rectifiers supply DC power to motor drives and variable
frequency drives (VFDs) for controlling the speed and torque of electric
motors in industrial machinery and automation systems.

d. Advancements in Rectifier Technology:

Rectifier technology has evolved significantly over the years, driven by advancements
in semiconductor materials, device packaging, and circuit design. Recent trends and
innovations in rectifier technology include:

i. High-Efficiency Rectifiers: Rectifiers designed with advanced semiconductor

materials (such as silicon carbide or gallium nitride) and optimized circuit
topologies to minimize conduction and switching losses, resulting in higher
efficiency and energy savings.

ii. Fast-Recovery Diodes: Diodes with reduced reverse recovery time and forward
voltage drop, enabling higher switching frequencies and improved transient
response in rectifier circuits.
26
 4.7. Zero-Crossing Detector:

1.

Fig.4.7 Zero-Crossing Detector

A zero-crossing detector is a fundamental electronic circuit used to detect the point at which the
voltage or current signal crosses zero on the waveform. This point corresponds to the moment
when the alternating current (AC) waveform changes polarity from positive to negative or vice
versa. Zero-crossing detectors find widespread application in various electronic systems and
devices, including power supplies, motor control circuits, lighting control systems, and audio
equipment. This comprehensive overview explores the principles of operation, types,
applications, and advancements in zero-crossing detector technology.

Principles of Operation:
Zero-crossing detectors operate based on the principle of detecting the precise moment when
the AC waveform crosses the zero voltage or current level. This detection is achieved by
comparing the input signal to a reference level (usually ground or a fixed voltage level) using
a comparator circuit. When the input signal crosses the reference level, the output of the
comparator changes state, indicating the occurrence of a zero-crossing event. The output of the
zero-crossing detector can be used to synchronize timing circuits, trigger control signals, or
provide phase information in various electronic systems.

Types of Zero-Crossing Detectors:

Zero-crossing detectors can be implemented using various circuit configurations and
components, including operational amplifiers (op-amps), comparators, and specialized
integrated circuits (ICs). Common types of zero-crossing detectors include: Op-Amp-based
Zero-Crossing Detector: Utilizes an operational amplifier configured as
27
 a comparator to compare the input signal to a reference voltage level. When the input
signal crosses the reference level, the output of the op-amp changes state, indicating the
occurrence of a zero-crossing event.
iii. Transformer-Coupled Zero-Crossing Detector: Uses a transformer to isolate the
input signal and detect the zero-crossing point. The transformer couples the AC
signal to a secondary winding, where it is rectified and compared to a reference
voltage level.
iv. Opto-Isolator-based Zero-Crossing Detector: Employs an opto-isolator (such as an
optocoupler) to provide electrical isolation between the input signal and the
detection circuitry. The input signal modulates the light intensity of an LED, which
is detected by a photodetector, triggering the zero-crossing detection.
v. Digital Zero-Crossing Detector: Utilizes digital signal processing techniques or
specialized ICs to detect zero-crossing events in digital systems. These detectors
often incorporate additional features such as noise filtering, adjustable thresholds,
and programmable outputs.

Applications of Zero-Crossing Detectors:

Zero-crossing detectors are essential components in various electronic systems and devices,
including:
 Power Supplies: Used to synchronize the switching of power semiconductors (such as
thyristors or MOSFETs) in switch-mode power supplies (SMPS) and DC-AC
inverters, enabling efficient power conversion and reducing electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
 Motor Control Circuits: Employed in motor drive and control systems to
synchronize the commutation of motor phases, ensuring smooth operation, reduced
vibration, and improved efficiency in variable-speed motor drives.
 Lighting Control Systems: Integrated into dimmer switches and lighting control
modules to detect the zero-crossing point of the AC voltage waveform, enabling precise
control of light intensity and flicker-free dimming in incandescent, LED, and
fluorescent lighting systems.
 Audio Equipment: Utilized in audio amplifiers, mixers, and signal processing circuits
to synchronize timing signals, trigger envelope detection, and implement phase-locked
loop (PLL) circuits for audio signal processing and synchronization.
 Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs): Incorporated into PLL circuits to provide phase
synchronization and frequency tracking by detecting zero-crossing events in the
reference and feedback signals, enabling phase-locked operation in
communication, synchronization, and control systems.

28
Advancements in Zero-Crossing Detector Technology:
Zero-crossing detector technology has evolved over the years, driven by advancements in
semiconductor technology, integrated circuit design, and signal processing techniques. Recent
trends and innovations in zero-crossing detector technology include:
 High-Speed Zero-Crossing Detectors: Zero-crossing detectors capable of detecting
fast transient events and high-frequency zero-crossings in power electronics,
communications, and instrumentation applications.
 Low-Power Zero-Crossing Detectors: Energy-efficient zero-crossing detectors
designed for battery-operated and portable devices, featuring low standby power
consumption, fast wake-up times, and adjustable sensitivity levels.
 Integrated Zero-Crossing Detector ICs: Specialized ICs and application-specific
integrated circuits (ASICs) incorporating zero-crossing detection functionality,
signal conditioning, and output interfaces, simplifying system design and integration
in electronic devices and systems.
 Programmable Zero-Crossing Detectors: Zero-crossing detectors with programmable
threshold levels, hysteresis, and filtering options, allowing users to customize
detection parameters for specific applications and operating conditions.
 Multi-Channel Zero-Crossing Detectors: Zero-crossing detectors capable of
simultaneously detecting zero-crossing events in multiple input channels or phases,
suitable for multi-phase motor control, three-phase power systems, and multi-
channel data acquisition systems.
 29

CHAPTER - V
WORKING
 30

WORKING:
5.1. Sensing and Analysis:
The device includes sensors that measure the power consumption of connected electrical
appliances. These sensors may measure parmeters like voltage, current, or power factor.
The measured data is continuously analyzed by the microcontroller to determine the usage
patterns of the appliances. For instance, it can detect when appliances are in use, idle, or in
standby mode.
5.2. Optimization:
Based on the analysis of usage patterns, the microcontroller decides whether to optimize
power supply to connected appliances.
During periods of low or no usage, the microcontroller triggers the optimization process. It
adjusts the voltage and current levels supplied to the appliances to reduce power consumption
without affecting their functionality.
This optimization is achieved by controlling the choke and transistor circuits in the power
supply path to regulate the flow of electricity.

5.3. Control:
The 8051 microcontroller acts as the brain of the system, coordinating the operation of
various components.
It sends control signals to the choke and transistor circuits to adjust the power supply
according to the optimization requirements.
Additionally, the microcontroller handles user input from push buttons and switches, allowing
users to customize settings or manually control power-saving modes.

5.4. User Interface:

Push buttons and switches provide a user-friendly interface for interacting with the device.
Users can configure settings or override automatic control to suit their preferences.
The microcontroller processes user inputs and adjusts the device's operation accordingly.

5.5. Indication:
 An LED lamp serves as a visual indicator of the device's status. It may illuminate to indicate
when the device is actively saving power or when manual control is enabled.
The LED provides feedback to users, helping them understand the current mode of operation.
31

5.6. Safety:
Diodes are incorporated into the circuit to protect against voltage spikes and fluctuations.
These diodes ensure safe operation and prevent damage to the connected appliances in case of
electrical disturbances.

5.7. Efficiency:
By optimizing power supply to connected appliances, the device minimizes power wastage
without compromising their performance.
It ensures efficient use of electricity, leading to energy savings and reduced utility bills for
consumers.

5.8. Installation and Maintenance:

The circuit is designed to be assembled on a PCB or breadboard, making installation and
maintenance straightforward.
Technicians can easily access and troubleshoot the components if needed, ensuring the device
operates reliably over time.

5.9. Power Factor Correction (PFC):

Shunt capacitors are commonly used for power factor correction. In electrical systems, the
power factor is a measure of how effectively electrical power is being used. By adding shunt
capacitors, you can improve the power factor, leading to more efficient power usage and
reduced energy losses.

5.10. Push Buttons and Switches:

Push buttons and switches are physical inputs that users interact with to control the device.
Push buttons are typically used for momentary actions, such as toggling between different
modes or confirming a selection.
Switches, on the other hand, are used for toggling between two states, such as turning the
device on/off or enabling/disabling a specific feature.
5.11. User Interaction:
Users can press the push buttons or flip the switches to perform various actions and configure
settings according to their preferences.

32

For example, users may press a button to cycle through different power-saving modes, adjust
the sensitivity of the device, or manually activate/deactivate power-saving features.
Switches can be used for more permanent settings, such as turning the device on/off or
selecting between automatic and manual control modes.

5.12. Microcontroller Processing:

The microcontroller continuously monitors the status of the push buttons and switches.
When a user interacts with the interface by pressing a button or flipping a switch, the
microcontroller detects the change in input state.
Based on the detected input, the microcontroller executes the corresponding function or
adjusts the device's operation accordingly.
For example, if a user presses a button to increase the sensitivity of the power-saving feature,
the microcontroller will adjust the sensitivity settings accordingly.
Developed by Arduino LLC, it is part of the Arduino family of microcontroller boards, renowned for
their ease of use, flexibility, and robust community support. The Nano, in particular, stands out for its
small form factor, making it ideal for projects with space constraints or requiring portability.

5.13. Feedback:
The user interface provides feedback to users to indicate that their input has been registered
and the device is responding accordingly.
This feedback can be visual, such as illuminating an LED or displaying a message on a
screen, to inform the user about the current status or mode of operation.
Feedback is essential for ensuring that users understand how their actions are affecting the
device and allows for a more intuitive and user-friendly interaction experience.

5.14. Real-Time Monitoring:

The project often includes real-time monitoring capabilities, allowing users to track energy
 consumption patterns and make informed decisions about their usage habits.

5.15. Adaptive Control:

Some advanced power saver projects employ adaptive control algorithms that can learn and
adapt to changing usage patterns over time. This enables the system to continuously optimize
energy usage for maximum efficiency.

33
 CHAPTER-VI
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
34
6.1. ADVANTAGES:

 Energy Savings:
The primary advantage of a power saver project is its ability to reduce energy consumption.
By optimizing the power supply to electrical appliances, it helps users save on electricity bills
and promotes energy efficiency.

 Cost Savings:
Reduced energy consumption translates to lower electricity bills for consumers and
businesses. Over time, the savings can be significant, especially in environments where
electricity costs are high.

 Environmental Impact:
By conserving energy, power saver projects contribute to environmental sustainability by
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and lowering the overall carbon footprint associated with
electricity generation.

 Extended Appliance Lifespan:

Optimizing power supply to appliances can also prolong their lifespan by reducing wear and
tear caused by excessive power usage or voltage fluctuations. This can lead to cost savings by
reducing the need for repairs or replacements.

 User Control:
Many power saver projects offer user-friendly interfaces that allow users to customize
settings and control power-saving features according to their preferences. This gives users
more control over their energy usage and helps them tailor the device to suit their specific
needs.
 35

6.2. DISADVANTAGES:

 Initial Cost:
One of the main drawbacks of commercial power saver projects is the initial cost of
purchasing and installing the devices. While the long-term energy savings may outweigh the
initial investment, some users may be deterred by the upfront expense.

 Effectiveness:
The effectiveness of power saver projects can vary depending on factors such as the type of
appliances used, user behavior, and the accuracy of the device's sensing and control
mechanisms. In some cases, the actual energy savings achieved may not meet expectations.

 Compatibility:
Power saver projects may not be compatible with all types of appliances, particularly older
models or those with specialized power requirements. Compatibility issues can limit the
effectiveness of the device and may require users to upgrade their appliances.

 Maintenance:
Like any electronic device, power saver projects may require periodic maintenance to ensure
proper operation. This can include software updates, recalibration, or replacing worn-out
components. Maintenance requirements can add to the overall cost and inconvenience for
users.

 False Sense of Security:

Some users may develop a false sense of security from using a power saver project, assuming
that it will automatically reduce their energy consumption without any additional effort on
their part. In reality, energy conservation also requires conscious efforts to minimize wasteful
practices.

Overall, while commercial power saver projects offer potential benefits in terms of energy
and cost savings.
36
CHAPTER-VII
RESULT
37
Result:
For the Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) project utilizing Thyristor Switched
Reactance (TSR) components, including the Arduino Nano microcontroller, transformer,
rectifier, 7805 regulator, 16x2 LCD display, thyristors, capacitive load, and zero-crossing
detector, the results showcase a successful implementation of dynamic reactive power
compensation and voltage regulation capabilities.

System Functionality:
The implemented FACTS system effectively regulates reactive power flow in the AC power
network by dynamically controlling the reactance of the capacitive load using thyristor
switches. The Arduino Nano microcontroller, serving as the central control unit, accurately
modulates thyristor firing angles based on input signals from the zero-crossing detector and
user-defined setpoints. Real-time monitoring and visualization of system parameters, including
voltage, current, power factor, and reactive power compensation status, are achieved through
the 16x2 LCD display.

Performance Evaluation:
The FACTS system demonstrates robust performance in various operating conditions, including
transient disturbances, load fluctuations, and voltage variations. The system responds promptly
to changes in grid conditions, adjusting reactive power compensation levels to maintain optimal
voltage levels and power quality. Comparative analysis with conventional systems highlights
the superiority of the FACTS system in terms of voltage stability, power factor correction, and
grid reliability.

Efficiency and Reliability:

The implemented FACTS system exhibits high efficiency and reliability in power transmission
and distribution applications. By minimizing voltage fluctuations and reactive power losses, the
system enhances overall grid efficiency and reduces power wastage. Moreover, the integration
of advanced control algorithms and monitoring features ensures reliable operation and fault
detection, enhancing system resilience and uptime.

Impact on Power Quality:

The FACTS system significantly improves power quality parameters, including voltage
stability, harmonic distortion, and transient response. By actively compensating for reactive
power fluctuations and voltage deviations, the system mitigates voltage sags, swells, and
harmonics, ensuring consistent and reliable power delivery to end-users. Furthermore, the
system's adaptive control capabilities enable seamless integration with renewable energy
sources and grid modernization initiatives, contributing to sustainable and resilient power
infrastructure.

Scalability and Adaptability:

The modular design and scalability of the FACTS system allow for easy integration into
existing power systems and future expansion to accommodate evolving grid requirements. The
flexibility of the Arduino Nano microcontroller and programmable control algorithms facilitate
customization and adaptation to diverse grid configurations and operational scenarios.
Additionally, the compatibility of the FACTS system with emerging technologies such as smart
grids, microgrids, and distributed energy resources enhances its long-term viability and
applicability.
38
CHAPTER-VIII REFERENCE
 39
Reference:
1. Hingorani,
N. G., & Gyugyi, L. (2000). Understanding FACTS: Concepts
and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems. Wiley-IEEE Press.
2. Rashid,
M. H. (2014). Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and
Applications. Pearson Education.
3. Mohan, N., Undeland, T. M., & Robbins, W. P. (2003). Power
Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design. John Wiley & Sons.

4. Bhatia,R. S. (2010). Thyristor-Based FACTS Controllers for

Electrical Transmission Systems. New Age International.

5. Bose, A. (2002). Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives. Prentice Hall.

6. Kassakian,J. G., Schmalensee, R., & Verghese, G. C. (1992). Power

Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design. John Wiley & Sons.

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10. Mohapatra, P., & Panda, S. (2018). A Novel Approach for Dynamic Voltage
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40