CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

4. A chemical reaction involves only the

HISTORY AND PROPONENTS OF ATOMIC MODELS
➢ Democritus - expressed the belief that
all matter consists of very small, indivisible
particles, which he named atoms (meaning
separation, combination, or rearrangement
of atoms; it does not result in their creation
or destruction.
➢ Law of Definite Proportions

uncuttable or indivisible) states that different samples of the same

compound always contain its constituent
➢ John Dalton - formulated a precise definition of elements in the same proportion by mass.
the indivisible building blocks of matter that we
call atoms ➢ Law of Multiple Proportions

➢ Joseph John Thomson - He said that atom is a
sphere of (+) particles to which are embedded (-
) particles
Raisin- Bread Model or Plum- Pudding Model
➢ Law of Conservation of Mass
➢ Ernest Rutherford - He disproved Thomson’s
model thru “Gold Foil/ Film Experiment”
if two elements can combine to form more
than one compound, the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of
the other element are in ratios of small
whole numbers
which is that matter can be neither created
nor destroyed

He concluded the following:

atom is just an empty space, the nucleus

accounts for the (+) charge & mass of the atom
& electrons scattered around the nucleus
“Nuclear Model”

➢ Neils Bohr - “Planetary Model”

The atom consists of nucleus surrounded by ATOM AND IT’S SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
electrons traveling in circular orbits called
Subatomic Particles
orbitals
➢ Electron
➢ Erwin Schrödinger - “Quantum Mechanical
Model” Electron moves in 3D space (electron Negatively charge particle
cloud) Modern atomic structure ➢ Proton
Positively charge particle
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
➢ Neutron
1. Elements are composed of extremely small
particles, called atoms. No charge particle

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, ➢ Nucleus

having the same size, mass, and chemical a dense central core within the atom
properties. The atoms of one element are
To maintain electrical neutrality, an atom must
different from the atoms of all other
contain an equal number of positive and negative
elements.
charges.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of
more than one element. In any compound,
the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any
two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
 CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
What force holds all the parts of an atom together?
• It is the electromagnetic force of attraction
between the positive protons in the nucleus
and the negative electrons orbiting around
the nucleus that holds the atom together.
Inner Structure
• Nucleus - Small, dense, positively
charged center of the atom which
contains most of the atom’s mass
• The nucleus contains the following
subatomic particles:
➢ Protons - positively (+)
charged particles
➢ Neutrons - particles that
have no charge (neutral),
but contribute to the
atom’s mass
Proton
➢ discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year
1919 (gold foil experiment)
➢ projected alpha particles (helium nuclei) at
gold foil, and the positive alpha particles
were deflected
➢ Conclusion: protons exist in a nucleus and
have a positive nuclear charge.
➢ atomic number or proton number = number
of protons present
➢ determines an element (e.g., the element of
atomic number 6 is carbon).
Neutrons
• discovered by James Chadwick in 1932
(penetrating radiation incorporated beams
of neutral particles)
• located in the nucleus with the protons
• makeup almost all of the mass of the atom
w/ protons
• neutron number can be found by
subtracting the proton number from the
atomic mass number
• determine the isotope of an atom (often its
stability)
• number of neutrons is not necessarily equal
to the number of protons
Inner and Outer Structure of an Atom
Outer Structure
• Electron cloud - an area around
the nucleus where electrons are
likely to be found orbiting the
nucleus in several energy levels
Electron
➢ discovered by Sir John Joseph Thomson in
1897 (experiments involving cathode rays)
➢ confirmed that cathode rays are
fundamental particles that are negatively
charged (known as electrons)
➢ Robert Millikan (drop experiments) - found
the value of the e- charge
➢ located in an electron cloud (area
surrounding the nucleus of atom)
➢ usually a higher probability of finding an
electron closer to the nucleus of an atom
➢ abbreviated as e-.
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Electron: Special Rule ISOTOPES, ISOBARS AND ISOTONES

• You can’t just shove all of the electrons into Isotopes

the first orbit of an electron.
atoms of an element that have the same number of
• Electrons live in something called shells or protons and the same number of electrons but
energy levels. different numbers of neutrons
• Only so many can be in any certain shell.
• The electrons in the outer most shell of any
element are called valance electrons.

Isobars
different elements have the same atomic weight or
mass number but different atomic number

Subatomic Particles

Isotones
different elements having the same number of
neutrons
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom
of an element
Mass Number
The total number of neutrons and protons present in
the nucleus of an atom of an element
All atoms can be identified by the number of protons
and neutrons they contain.

# of protons = atomic number

# of electrons = atomic number

# of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

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ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
➢ Distribution of electrons among various
orbitals in the atom
➢ Uses numbers, letters, and numerical
superscripts
Numbers = Principal Shell
Letters = Subshell, spdf
Superscripts = number of electrons
Rules for Electron Configuration
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli)
➢ Two electrons occupying an orbital should
have opposite spins
➢ Hund’s Rule (Frederick Hund)
➢ Electrons should enter the orbitals of a
given sublevel singly with same spin before
any pairing is done.
➢ there can be at most two electrons in any
single orbital
➢ the orbitals are filled in order of increasing
energy, with no more than two electrons
per orbital
➢ Orbital diagram – each orbital is denoted by
a box and each electron by a half arrow. A
half arrow pointing up (↿) represents an
electron with a positive spin magnetic
quantum number (ms = +1/2), and a half
arrow pointing down (⇂) represents an
electron with a negative spin magnetic
quantum number (ms = -1/2).
Aufbau Principle
➢ Electron enter orbitals of lowest energy
level before filling higher energy levels
Abbreviated Electron Configuration
➢ The use of noble gas’ electron configuration
as a replacement to the corresponding
electron configuration of a given atom
Hund’s Rule (Frederick Hund)
➢ states that for degenerate orbitals, the
lowest energy is attained when the number
of electrons having the same spin is
maximized
➢ This means that electrons occupy orbitals
singly to the maximum extent possible and
that these single electrons in a given
subshell all have the same spin magnetic
quantum number
Aufbau Principle
➢ states that, hypothetically, electrons
orbiting one or more atoms fill the
lowest available energy levels before
filling higher levels (e.g., 1s before 2s).
In this way, the electrons of an atom,
molecule, or ion harmonize into the
most stable electron configuration
possible.
QUANTUM NUMBER
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• Bohr’s model - explains the energy behind
the electrons and how they move around
the nucleus.
• used on very simple elements like hydrogen
and helium (not for complex atoms)
• Scientists Louie de Broglie, Erwin
Schrödinger, and Werner Karl Heisenberg
laid the foundations of quantum
mechanical model of atoms that scientists
know and use today.
• made a huge change in the understanding
of atom
• planetary model: electrons are placed in
orbits with certainty.
 CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

• quantum mechanical model: can not say for 1 – p orbital

certain the location of the electrons (no
2 – d orbital
longer exist in orbits but are placed in
cloudlike spaces that describe their most 3 – f orbital
probable locations around the nucleus – Example: n = 3
orbitals)
L = 0 - 3s
The Quantum Mechanical Model : energy level
= 1 - 3p
• quantum mechanical model: the three-
dimensional space around the nucleus = 2 - 3d
where electrons can be most probably
found
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
• provides information about the energy of
➢ Specifies the orientation in space of the
the electrons and enables scientists to
orbital of a given energy (n) and shape ( l )
visualize the shape of each orbital of an
atom. ➢ It divides the subshell into orbitals
Energy Levels: First 5 Main Levels ➢ #of orbitals= 2 l +1
s has 1 orbital
p has 3 orbitals
d has 5 orbitals
f has 7 orbitals

Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Principal Quantum Number (n)
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6….
• Determines the energy level
• Determines the size of the orbital
• The larger the value the farther from the
nucleus
• Pauli’s exclusion Principle
• ms
• ms = + ½ or – ½
• Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of
an electron. Thus, electron can spin in one
of two directions (up or down)

Angular Momentum or Secondary Quantum

Number (l)
• It specifies the shape of an orbital with a
particular quantum number
• l=n–1
• l = 0 – s orbital