CEMENT INDUSTRY

Cement is a greenish grey colored powder, made of calcined mixtures of clay and limestone.
When mixed with water becomes a hard and strong building material.

Raw Materials:
The major raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are Calcium, Silicon, Iron and
Aluminum. These minerals are used in different form as per the availability of the minerals.

Manufacture Process of Cement

The manufacturing procedures of Portland cement are described below.
● Mixing of raw material
● Burning of raw material
● Kiln phase
● Cooling process
● Final grinding process
● Packing and shipping

1. Mixing of raw material

The mixing procedure of the raw materials is done in 2 methods,

a) Dry Process
● The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the gyratory
crushers to get 2-5cm size pieces separately.
● The crushed materials are again grinded to get fine particles into a ball or tube mill.
● Each finely grinded material is stored in a hopper after screening.
● Now these powdered minerals are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix which
is then stored in silos and kept ready to be sent into a rotary kiln.
● Now the raw materials are mixed in specific proportions so that the average composition
of the final product is maintained properly.
b) Wet Process
● The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form and stored in silos.
● The clay is then washed in washing mills to remove adhering organic matters found in
clay.
● The powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels and
transfer to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the paste is formed, i.e.,
known as slurry.
● Then the slurry is led into a collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The
slurry contains around 38-40% water that is stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the
rotary kiln.
2. Burning of Raw Materials
A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot gases produced from
the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and make the cement making process more
environment-friendly. The raw materials are passed through here and turned into oxides to be
burned in the kiln.

3. Kiln Phase
The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process. Here, clinker is produced
from the raw mix through a series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide
compounds.
Though the process is complex, the events of the clinker production can be written in the
following sequence:
● Evaporation of free water
● Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components
● Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO)
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
● Reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate

2CaO + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 (declaim silicate (C2S))

3CaO + SiO2 → Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))

● Reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing constituents to form the liquid
phase

3CaO + Al2O3 → Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))

4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF))

● Formation of the clinker nodules
● Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g., sodium, potassium, chlorides, and sulfates)

4. Cooling process
● After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to 100°C-200°C
by passing air over it.
 ● At this stage, different additives are combined with the clinker to be ground in order to
produce the final product, cement.
● Gypsum, added to and ground with clinker, regulates the setting time and gives the most
important property of cement, compressive strength. It also prevents agglomeration and
coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill wall.
● Some organic substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as
grinding aids to avoid powder agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are
ethylene glycol, oleic acid and dodecyl-benzene sulphonate.
● The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save energy.

5. Final grinding process

The last stage of making cement is the final grinding process. In the cement plant, there are
rotating drums fitted with steel balls. Clinker, after being cooled, is transferred to these rotating
drums and ground into such a fine powder that each pound of it contains 150 billion grains. This
powder is the final product, cement.

6. Packing and Shipping

Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks) where it is packed in 20-40
kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in bulk quantities by trucks, trains or ships, and only a
small amount is packed for customers who need small quantities.
Application of Cement:
● It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
● It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
● It is used for water tightness of structure.
● It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars
etc.
● It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic
chemicals.
● It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
● It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts,
dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
● It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.
● It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts,
telephone cabins, roads etc.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Raw Materials:
Raw material (RM) is the primary substance which is used as an input to a production process
for subsequent modification and finally modified into a finished good. Raw materials may be in
processed or unprocessed state. Most of the times raw materials are natural resources such as
cotton, oil, rubber etc. The processed or unprocessed materials which are used to produce final
textile products are called TRM.
TRM may be of different types as follows –
● Fibre
● Yarn
● Fabric
● Dyes
● Chemicals and Auxiliaries
Manufacture Process of Textile:
1. Source Fiber:
Harvesting raw fiber and sourcing is the first step in the production of textiles. Fibers are
extracted from plant, animal, or mineral sources and processed into a continuous strand called
yarn.

2. Yarn Manufacturing:
Yarn manufacturing is the textile process of turning raw materials into yarn for use in knitting,
weaving, or crocheting. Raw materials are sorted, cleaned, and mixed together to create the final
yarn or thread.

3. Fabric Manufacturing process:

The next step is the weaving, or fabric manufacturing process. It is done by taking yarn from one
machine and transferring it to another machine in order to create a length of fabric. The fabric
production process, named weaving, is done by machines that turn the yarn into lengths, which
are then fed onto a loom with different types of threads or colors on specific sections called
harnesses. Once a length of fabric has been created, it’s removed from the looms and finally
sewn together to create a finished fabric.

4. Wet Processing:
Fabric wet processing is a process used to dye and finish textiles. The dyeing process involves
the application of colorants to fabric in order for it to become colored. The wet processing
process could be elaborate in some detail wet preparatory processes are as respectively Fabric
Inspection, Stitching, Desizing, Scouring, Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing, Finishing.

5. Garments Manufacturing process:

Sewing the parts of fabric together and checking Quality Inspection and shipment.
Applications of Textiles:

● Apparel: The term apparel is denoted for the textile material intended for the purpose of
clothing. This division basically includes innerwear, outerwear, fashion wear, function
wear for infants, children, women, and men. The basic apparel categories include pants,
shirts, overcoats, jackets, shawls, skirts, t-shirts, shorts, etc. The apparel segment is
governed mainly by the fashion industry.
● Home Textiles: Also referred to as domestics, linens, household textiles, or home
furnishing textiles. This category covers bed, bath, table and kitchen linens, floor
covering, window treatments, and outdoor furnishings. With the emergence of new and
innovative products in this category, both natural and synthetic fabrics are employed for
 their manufacturing. Cotton and cotton/polyester blends are quite breathable fabrics that
have been used widely for the production of bed sheets and pillowslips. Also, terry towels
have a high capacity to absorb, hold, and dry moisture, along with its ability to withstand
laundering and rubbing and have the same composition.
● Industrial Textiles: These fabrics are developed with particular utility. These include
filters, conveyor belts, geotextiles, building materials, tyre cords, agriculture,
fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP), synthetic turf, parachute fabrics, medical textiles, and
sports. The composition of textiles in this category is intended to be made of rubber,
thermoplastics, and other materials that can withstand stress and can bear high tensile
strength.
Thus, the textiles segment is not only limited to apparel but finds large applications in industrial
and home textiles as well.

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Petroleum is a substance that occurs naturally. It is a dark liquid. It occurs beneath the earth’s
surface. A large number of products like petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, etc derive from petroleum.
Its compounds can be separated with the help of fractional distillation.
Petroleum is a fossil fuel that was formed over millions of years through the transformation of
dead organisms, such as algae, plants, and bacteria, due to the presence of bacteria, the
decomposed organic matter got buried deeper and deeper over the years that experienced high
heat and pressure when trapped inside rock formations, converted the dead animals to petroleum
and coal. This liquefied form of dead organic matter is petroleum or crude oil.The oil extracted is
later refined to form petrol, diesel, aviation fuel, paraffin wax, lubrication oil, etc.

Raw Materials:
● Natural gas and crude oils are the basic raw materials for the manufacture of
petrochemicals.
● Secondary raw materials, or intermediates, are obtained from natural gas and crude
oils through different processing schemes. The intermediates may be light hydrocarbon
 compounds such as methane and ethane, or heavier hydrocarbon mixtures such as
naphtha or gas oil. Both naphtha and gas oil are crude oil fractions with different boiling
ranges.

Manufacture Process of Petroleum:

Deposition of petroleum occurs with natural gas in the rocks called oil wells from where it is
taken out by drilling. Refining is a process where the separation of various compounds of crude
oil occurs. Fractional distillation is a process used to separate its compounds.

Petroleum refining processes and operations can be classified into the following basic areas:
separation, conversion, treatment, formulating and blending, auxiliary refining operations
and refining non-process operations.

Separation Processes:
Crude oil is physically separated by fractionation in atmospheric and vacuum distillation towers,
into groups of hydrocarbon molecules with various boiling-point ranges, called “fractions” or
“cuts”.

Conversion Processes:
Conversion processes are done in order to convert fractions into more desirable products.
Conversion processes used to change the size and/or structure of hydrocarbon molecules include:
● decomposition (dividing) by hydro-, thermal and catalytic cracking, coking and
visbreaking
● unification (combining) through alkylation and polymerization
● alteration (rearranging) with isomerization and catalytic reforming

Treatment Processes:
Treatment involves both chemical reactions and physical separation, such as dissolving,
absorption or precipitation, using a variety and combination of processes. Treatment methods
include removing or separating aromatics and naphthenes, as well as removing impurities and
undesirable contaminants. Sweetening compounds and acids are used to desulphurize crude oil
before processing, and to treat products during and after processing. Other treatment methods
include crude desalting, chemical sweetening, acid treating, clay contacting,
hydrodesulfurization, solvent refining, caustic washing, hydrotreating, drying, solvent extraction
and solvent dewaxing.

Formulating and blending:

Formulating and blending is the process of mixing and combining hydrocarbon fractions,
additives and other components to produce finished products with specific desired performance
properties.

Auxiliary refining operations:

Other refinery operations which are required to support hydrocarbon processing include light
ends recovery; sour water stripping; solid waste, waste water and process water treatment and
cooling; hydrogen production; sulphur recovery; and acid and tail gas treatment. Other process
functions are providing catalysts, reagents, steam, air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and fuel gases.

Refinery non-process operations:

All refineries have a multitude of facilities, functions, equipment and systems which support the
hydrocarbon process operations. Typical support operations are heat and power generation;
product movement; tank storage; shipping and handling; flares and relief systems; furnaces and
heaters; alarms and sensors; and sampling, testing and inspecting.
Non-process facilities and systems include firefighting, water and protection systems, noise and
pollution controls, laboratories, control rooms, warehouses, maintenance and administrative
facilities.

Products produced in Petroleum Refining Process

● Petroleum Gas: Generally, liquefied petroleum gas is useful for domestic fuel.
● Gasoline: Procuration of petrol occurs from this fraction.
● Kerosene: It is used as domestic fuel and also as fuel in jet engines.
● Diesel oil or light oil: It is useful in the automobile industry.
 ● Heavy Oil or Lubricating Oil: This type of oil is used in making lubricating oils.
● Fuel Oil: It is essential for ships, central heating, and factories.
● Residue: We can procure products like paraffin wax, bitumen from this residue. It is
useful for making roads and roofing.

Applications of Petroleum:
The uses of petroleum are many, including gasoline, fuel oil, kerosene oil, lubricating oil,
plastics, which in turn are used for transportation, heating, light, lubricants, clothing, industrials,
and more.

POLYMER INDUSTRY

A polymer is a chemical compound or mixture of compound formed by polymerization and

consisting essentially of repeating structural units. Polymerization is a process of reacting
monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three dimensional
networks.

Raw Materials:
Plastics are polymers, which means that they are created by joining together chains of molecules
(known as monomers) to form a larger molecule than originally existed (a polymer). Polystyrene
is an example of such a material. Polymers are robust and long-lasting because of their
connections.
The main elements used to make plastics today are cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude
oil, which are all found in nature.
● Cellulose plastics are bioplastics that are produced by processing cellulose or cellulose
derivatives into plastic.
 ● The cracker plant is the first stage in the process of making plastic from natural gas for
use in manufacturing. Naptha (a crude oil-based product) and ethane (a natural gas liquid)
are converted into ethylene in cracking operations. A pipeline is then used to transfer the
ethylene generated during the cracking process to another facility where it will be
transformed into useable goods, the most often seen being polyethylene. Polyethylene,
sometimes known as polythene, is the most widely used plastic today. It is a polymer that
is mostly utilized in the packaging industry.
● Petroleum-based plastic is made up of artificial organic polymers that are derived from
natural oil and are used in virtually every facet of modern society, including the home,
the workplace, and cars.

Manufacture Process of Polymer:

Polymer manufacturing processes can be divided into;
1. In a continuous process where raw material is fed in continuously and the product flow
appears continuously e.g. extrusion, there is more efficient use of energy and it is easier
to maintain a consistent quality.
2. For batch or cyclic processes, such as moulding processes, there is a higher probability
of batch-to-batch variation and lower efficiency due to unproductive parts of the cycle
(down time).

Injection Moulding:
Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a
mold.

Process:
The injection moulding process can be conveniently divided into four phases.
● Phase 1 (Plasticisation) Transformation of thermoplastic powder or granules into a
homogeneous melt state
● Phase 2 (Injection) Transfer of melt from the plasticisation unit to all parts of the
mould cavity
 ● Phase 3 (Setting) Cooling of the melt in the mould cavity to below its heat distortion
temperature
● Phase 4 (Ejection) Opening of the mould and also removal of the finished moulding

To keep the cycle time short, some of these phases can operate in parallel, eg plasticisation for
the next cycle can occur at the same time as cooling and ejection.

Blow Moulding:
Blow molding is used when the plastic items to be created needs to be hollow. A molten tube is
created with blow molding by using compressed air, that blows up the tube and forces it to
conform to the chilled mold.

The main types of blow molding are:

● Extrusion Blow Molding (EBM)
● Injection Blow Systems (IBS)
● Injection Stretch Blow Molding (ISBM)
Their differences lie mostly in how they form the parison, the size of the parison, and how the
parison moves between the molds.

Process:
Modern blow molding is a largely automated process, allowing for the production of thousands
of parts in a short time period. The process includes the following steps:
● Plastic pellets are fed into the machine via a hopper or screw depending on the machine.
 ● Plastic melts and then gets shaped into a parison, which looks like a tube with a hole at
one end.
● Clamped in place inside the mold.
● Compressed air inflates the parison.
● The heated plastic balloons to fill the space of the mold.
● After the plastic cools, the machine opens the mold and removes the part, sending it on to
any applicable finishing, if any

Compression Moulding:
With the compression molding process, the material is squeezed into its desired shape with the
help of pressure and heat.

Process:
The process of compression moulding begins with:
● The material is placed into the mold.
● The product is heated until somewhat soft and pliable.
● A hydraulic tool presses the material against the mould.
● Once the material is hardened and has taken shape of the mould it is ejected
● The final products will require additional work, such as cutting away the flashing
● Other products will be ready immediately upon leaving the mold.
Applications of Polymer:
Polymers are widely used todays in different ways:
● Medicine: Many biomaterials, especially heart valve replacement and blood vessels, are
made of polymers like DACRON and Teflon‫۔‬
● Consumer science: Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are lightweight and
economically less expensive than the more traditional containers. Clothing, floor
covering, garbage disposal bags and packaging are other polymer applications
● Industry: Automobiles parts, wind shields for fighter planes, pipes, tanks, packing
materials, insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives matrix for compo polymer application
used in the industrial market.
● Sports: Playground equipment, various ball, golf clubs, swimming pools and protective
helmets are often produced from polymers
 FUEL INDUSTRY
Petroleum is a substance that occurs naturally. It is a dark liquid. It occurs beneath the earth’s
surface. A large number of products like petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, etc derive from petroleum.
It takes around millions of years for petroleum toDecayed due to the presence of bacteria, the
decomposed organic matter got buried deeper and deeper over the years. Over millions of years,
high temperature, high pressure, the absence of air converted the dead animals to petroleum and
coal. This liquefied form of dead organic matter is petroleum or crude oil. Crude oil is extracted
from oil wells, these wells can be very deep. The oil extracted is later refined to form petrol,
diesel, aviation fuel, paraffin wax, lubrication oil, etc. form. It is formed due to the presence of
decomposed carcasses of dead animals beneath the surface of the earth.

Raw Materials:
These are mainly crude oil and natural gas condensate.

Petroleum Refining Process

Deposition of petroleum occurs with natural gas in the rocks called oil wells from where it is
taken out by drilling. Refining is a process where the separation of various compounds of crude
oil occurs.

Fractional distillation is a process used to separate its compounds.

● Crude Oil procured from an oil well is a mixture of many liquids.

● Different temperatures evaporate a different liquid. This temperature is the boiling
point of that liquid.
● The crude oil is heated to a temperature of 400-degree Celcius, is fed in at the
bottom of the column and heated further.
● The liquid with the lowest boiling point changes into vapor first and condenses.
● At higher temperature, the next volatile liquid changes into a vapor state and rises.
 ● Different vapors rise at different temperatures and as they condense, they are
collected in different trays. Different liquids are collected in different trays. A few
gases reach the top of the column without condensing.

Products produced in Petroleum Refining Process

● Petroleum Gas: Generally, liquefied petroleum gas is useful for domestic fuel.
● Gasoline: Procuration of petrol occurs from this fraction.
● Kerosene: It is used as domestic fuel and also as fuel in jet engines.
● Diesel oil or light oil: It is useful in the automobile industry.
● Heavy Oil or Lubricating Oil: This type of oil is used in making lubricating oils.
● Fuel Oil: It is essential for ships, central heating, and factories.
● Residue: We can procure products like paraffin wax, bitumen from this residue. It is
useful for making roads and roofing.