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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Anna Orlova
David Cole Editors
Advances in
Dynamics
of Vehicles on Roads
and Tracks II
Proceedings of the 27th Symposium
of the International Association
of Vehicle System Dynamics,
IAVSD 2021, August 17–19, 2021,
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Series Editors
Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Francesco Gherardini , Dipartimento di Ingegneria “Enzo Ferrari”, Università di
Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
Vitalii Ivanov, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Machines and Tools,
Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine
Editorial Board Members

Francisco Cavas-Martínez , Departamento de Estructuras, Construcción y
Expresión Gráfica Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
Francesca di Mare, Institute of Energy Technology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum,
Bochum, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
Mohamed Haddar, National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia
Young W. Kwon, Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Aerospace
Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering and Applied Science, Monterey, CA,
USA
Justyna Trojanowska, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
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Anna Orlova David Cole
•
Editors
Advances in Dynamics
of Vehicles on Roads
and Tracks II
Proceedings of the 27th Symposium
of the International Association of Vehicle
System Dynamics, IAVSD 2021,
August 17–19, 2021, Saint Petersburg, Russia
123
Editors
Anna Orlova David Cole
Emperor Alexander I Saint-Petersburg Department of Engineering
State Transport University University of Cambridge
St. Petersburg, Russia Cambridge, UK
ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-07304-5 ISBN 978-3-031-07305-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07305-2
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
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Preface
This volume contains the official proceedings of the 27th IAVSD Symposium on
Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, which took place on August 17–19,
2021, at the Emperor Alexander I St. Petersburg State Transport University in
Saint-Petersburg, Russia. In 2021 due to COVID-19 ongoing pandemic, the
Symposium was organized in online format.
The main objective of the International Association for Vehicle System
Dynamics (IAVSD, see www.iavsd.org) is to promote the development of, and
applications in the field of ground vehicle system dynamics. The IAVSD
Symposium on Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks is a leading interna-
tional symposium bringing together researchers, scientists and engineers from
academia and industry to present and exchange their latest ideas and results. These
biennial symposia, held at various locations around the world, have contributed
greatly to a better understanding of ground vehicle system dynamics-related
problems.
The organizers of the 27th Symposium were the Department of Railway Cars
and Railcars’ maintenance at the Emperor Alexander I St. Petersburg State
Transport University, Scientific Center “Vagony”, All-Union Research and
Development Center for Transportation Technology (Saint-Petersburg, Russia), all
being organizations working in the field of rail vehicle dynamics.
The symposium was attended by 235 delegates from 20 countries and five
continents (Asia, Australia, Europe and North America). Most participants joined
the symposium from China (41), Sweden (36), Japan (24), UK (21), Germany (20),
Italy (20), Austria (19), France (9), Australia (9), Russia (8) and USA (8). Each day
of the symposium started with a plenary session and an invited state-of-the-art
presentation (40 minutes). These state-of-the-art papers have been published in the
journal Vehicle System Dynamics (Taylor & Francis), volume 59, issue number 7
(July 2021) and may be accessed at https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/nvsd20/59/7
(free access until February 2022). The presentations were divided into four parallel
sessions with various themes on road and railway vehicle dynamics.
v
vi Preface
In total, 233 abstracts were submitted, after review by the International Scientific
Committee 155 were accepted for Oral or Poster Presentations. There were 35
Poster Workshop presentations (20 on Road, 15 on Rail) plus a Workshop on the
Results and Outcome of the Switches & Crossings Benchmark 2020. Out of those,
after peer review by the members of International Scientific Committee and orig-
inality check, 118 full papers were selected for publication in this book, which
represents the official conference proceedings.
We expect that this volume of the Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,
published by Springer Nature, will serve as a timely reference guide and a source of
inspiration for scientists and engineers in the field of ground vehicle system
dynamics.
The Local Organization Committee was composed of Anna Orlova, Yuri
Boronenko, Alexander Tretyakov, Vladislav Zakharov, Tamara Chirkova, Yulia
Strelchenya, Igor Kiselev, Olesya Gimazetdinova, Tatyana Antonova, Ekaterina
Narkizova, Alexander Vorobyov, Tatyana Belgorodtseva and Andrey Velichko.
The symposium was supported by the professional conference software IVA with
Andrey Velichko, Anfisa Dauksha, Boris Poliakov, Ekaterina Poliakova, Artem
Gusev, Maksim Panchenko and Anastasia Kabanova being the session moderators.
We would like to thank the members of the IAVSD 2021 International Scientific
Committee, the members of the IAVSD 2021 Local Organizing Committee, and all
the 235 delegates for making IAVSD 2021 a success.
February 2022 Anna Orlova

David Cole
Organization
Program Chairs
Anna Orlova United Wagon Company, Russia
David Cole University of Cambridge, UK
International Scientific Committee

Mehdi Ahmadian Virginia Tech, USA
Luis Baeza Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
Mats Berg KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Igo Besselink TU Eindhoven, Netherlands
Stefano Bruni Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Fredrik Bruzelius VTI/Chalmers University of Technology,
Sweden
Hugues Chollet Gustave Eiffel University, France
Colin Cole CQUniversity, Australia
Lars Drugge KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Johannes Edelmann TU Wien, Austria
Robert Frohling Transnet Freight Rail, South Africa
Peter Gaspar MTA SZTAKI, Hungary
Tim Gordon University of Lincoln, UK
Patrick Gruber University of Surrey, UK
Artem Gusev The All-Union Research and Development
Center for Transport Technology, Russia
Shinichiro Horiuchi Nihon University, Japan
Davor Hrovat UCSD, USA
Wei Huang National Research Council, Canada
Simon Iwnicki University of Huddersfield, UK
Matthijs Klomp Volvo Cars, Sweden
Mathias Lidberg Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
Shihui Luo Southwest Jiaotong University, China
vii
viii Organization
Olga Markova Institute of Technical Mechanics of NASU and

SSAU, Ukraine
Masao Nagai JARI, Japan
Jens Nielsen Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
Huei Peng University of Michigan, USA
Manfred Plöchl TU Wien, Austria
Oldrich Polach Independent Consultant and Assessor,
Switzerland
Andrei Protopopov JSC “VNIKTI” Subsidiary of Russian Railways,
Russia
Jochen Rauh Mercedes-Benz AG, Germany
Klaus Six Virtual Vehicle, Austria
Maksym Spiryagin Central Queensland University, Australia
Annika Stensson Trigell KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Alexander Tretiakov Petersburg State Transport University, Russia
Hans True DTU, Denmark
Eric Tseng Ford Motor Company, USA
Jun Wang Tongji University, China
Nicholas Wilson Transportation Technology Center INC, USA
Huimin Wu WRI Consulting, USA
Makoto Yamakado Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Japan
Sergey Zakharov SC “Railway Research Institute”, Russia
Wanming Zhai Southwest Jiaotong University, China
Contents
Rail: Active suspensions, Control and Monitoring

Multi-degree of Freedom Dynamic Vibration Absorber of the
Carbody of High-Speed Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Yu Sun, Jinsong Zhou, Dao Gong, Taiwen You, and Qiushi Wang
Active Modal Control of an Innovative Two-Axle Vehicle with
Composite Frame Running Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Rocco Libero Giossi, Anton Shipsha, Rickard Persson, Per Wennhage,
and Sebastian Stichel
A Research Facility for the Next Generation Train Running Gear
in True Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Andreas Heckmann, Daniel Lüdicke, Alexander Keck, and Björn Goetjes
Implementation of Steering Control of Full Scale Railway Vehicle
Assembling Independently Rotating Wheels with Negative Tread
Conicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Yu Wang, Shihpin Lin, Ronak Prateek, and Yoshihiro Suda
Improvement of High-Speed Vehicle Vertical Ride Comfort with
Semi-active Primary Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Bin Fu, Binbin Liu, Egidio Di Gialleonardo, Stefano Alfi,
and Stefano Bruni
Railway Bogie Diagnostics Using Machine Learning and Bayesian
Net Reasoning Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Bernhard Girstmair and Thomas Moshammer
Condition Monitoring and Evaluation of Railway Vehicles Using
New Index Values Consisting of Wheel Load and Lateral Force . . . . . . 60
Sora Sakanishi, Shihpin Lin, Yu Wang, and Yoshihiro Suda
ix
x Contents
Validation of a Driverless Railway Vehicle Control Unit Algorithms

Through Real-Time Vehicle Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Michele Vignati, Nicola Debattisti, Maria Laura Bacci,
and Davide Tarsitano
Traction Control Algorithms Versus Dynamic Performance in Light
Rail Vehicle Design Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Esteban Bernal, Maksym Spiryagin, Ingemar Persson, Sanjar Ahmad,
Qing Wu, and Colin Cole
Data-Driven Robust Control for Railway Driven Independently
Rotating Wheelsets Using Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient . . . . . . . . 88
Juyao Wei, Zhenggang Lu, Zhe Yang, Yang He, and Xiaochao Wang
Demonstration of a Digital Twin Framework for Model-Based
Operational Condition Monitoring of Crossing Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Marko D. G. Milošević, Björn A. Pålsson, Arne Nissen,
Jens C. O. Nielsen, and Håkan Johansson
Adhesion-Based Maximum-Seeking Brake Control for Railway
Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Christoph Schwarz, Tobias Posielek, and Björn Goetjes
Experimental Study of Magnetic Levitation Vehicle System Based
on Flexible Levitation Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Qin Li and Gang Shen
Polygonal Wheel Detection of Railway Vehicles Based
on VMD-FastICA and Inertial Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Bo Xie, Shiqian Chen, Kaiyun Wang, Yunfan Yang, and Wanming Zhai
Rail: Pantograph-Catenary Dynamics, Continuous Rail monitoring

Research on Dynamic Characteristics of the APM 300 Current
Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Gang Wang, Lihui Ren, Yuanjin Ji, Han Leng, and Youpei Huang
Active Control Strategy of Pantograph Coupling with Rigid Catenary
Considering the Time Delay in Sensor and Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Wenyan Qi, Jiangwen Wang, Guiming Mei, and Weihua Zhang
Continuous Monitoring of Rail Corrugation Growth Using
an In-Service Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Jihad Karaki, Leonardo Faccini, Egidio Di Gialleonardo,
Claudio Somaschini, Marco Bocciolone, and Andrea Collina
Coupled Models with Contact Kinematics for Pantograph-Catenary
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Bilal M. Abduraxman, Christopher Ward, Will Midgley, Tim Harrison,
and Roger Goodall
Contents xi
Rail: Running Performance, Safety and Derailment Analysis

Study on Longitudinal Stability of Single-Carbody Low-Floor Tram . . . 181
Youpei Huang, Dao Gong, Yuanjin Ji, Han Leng, Gang Wang,
and Lihui Ren
Effect of Wheel Polygonal Wear on Express Freight Train Running on
the Bridge in the Crosswind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Jingcheng Wen, Zhenggang Lu, Qi Li, and Keyu Yue
An Experimental Investigation of Potential Causes for Car-Body
Hunting Motion of High-Speed Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Xin Ding, Chao Chang, Yongsheng Li, Hongquan Wang, Jinan Liu,
Liang Ling, and Kaiyun Wang
A Study on the Mechanism of Carbody Shaking Phenomenon
of High-Speed Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Heng Zhang, Xin Ding, Chao Chang, Wanxiu Teng, Tao Liu, Liang Ling,
and Wanming Zhai
Comparison of Articulated and Conventional Passenger Train
Dynamic Characteristics at Various Motion Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Olga Markova, Helena Kovtun, and Victor Maliy
Features of the Aerodynamics of the Undercar Space of the
High-Speed Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Poliakova Ekaterina
Geometric Criterion for Flange Climb Derailment and IWS-Based
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Yuqing Zeng, Nicholas Wilson, William Lundberg, Russell Walker,
Xinggao Shu, and MaryClara Jones
Influence of Ground and Milled Rail Profiles on Ride Comfort . . . . . . . 247
Lars-Ove Jönsson, Babette Dirks, and Pär Söderström
Rail: Track and Bridges Modelling

Wheelset-Track Dynamic Interaction Modelling with Frequency-
and Preload-Dependent Stiffness and Damping of Resilient Track
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Andrea Collina, Roberto Corradi, Egidio Di Gialleonardo, and Qianqian Li
Long-Term High-Speed Train–Track Dynamic Interaction Analysis
Using a Moving Train–Track Interaction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Yan Xu, Caijin Yang, Zhendong Liu, Weihua Zhang,
xii Contents
Prediction of Differential Track Settlement in Transition Zones Using

a Non-Linear Track Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Kourosh Nasrollahi, Jens C. O. Nielsen, Emil Aggestam, Jelke Dijkstra,
and Magnus Ekh
Dynamic Performance of High-Speed Train Running on
Large Span Cable-Stayed Bridge Subjected to Temperature-Induced
Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Ruoyu Li, Zhaoling Han, Shengyang Zhu, Qinglie He, and Wanming Zhai
Rail Acceleration Induced by Train Pass-by—Field Measurements
and Validation of a Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Peter Torstensson, Emil Aggestam, Michele Maglio, Jens C. O. Nielsen,
Tomas Jerson, Mikael Ögren, and Anders Genell
Rail: Traction and Braking

Dynamic Features of Motor Electrical System in Locomotive Under
Excitations of Wheel Polygonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Ziwei Zhou, Maksym Spiryagin, Zaigang Chen, Esteban Bernal,
Colin Cole, and Peter Wolfs
Full-Scale 3D Heavy Haul Train-Track Dynamics
Modelling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Qing Wu, Maksym Spiryagin, and Colin Cole
Investigation on How Rail Surface Self-cleaning Changes the
Locomotive Traction Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Sundar Shrestha, Maksym Spiryagin, Valentyn Spiryagin,
Esteban Bernal Arango, Qing Wu, Colin Cole, and Ingemar Persson
What is the Right Way to Model Traction Power Distribution in
Complex Heavy Haul Locomotive Models? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Maksym Spiryagin, Peter Wolfs, Qing Wu, Colin Cole,
and Tim McSweeney
Rail: Vehicle Design and Components

Single Axle Running Gear with Nonlinear Axle Guidance Stiffness . . . . 355
Rickard Persson, Rocco Libero Giossi, and Sebastian Stichel
Modelling Friction Stick-Slip in Heavy Haul Draft Gears . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Colin Cole, Qing Wu, and Maksym Spiryagin
An Improved Air Spring Model for Pantograph on the
High-Speed Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Jiurui Liu, Ning Zhou, Andrea Collina, Marco Carnevale,
and Weihua Zhang
Contents xiii
Simulation and Experimental Assessment of the Dynamic

Performance of Articulated Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Anna M. Orlova, Ekaterina A. Rudakova, Denis V. Shevchenko,
Artem V. Gusev, and Maxim A. Kudryavtsev
Utilisation of Gyroscopic Damper to Improve Dynamic Stability and
Steering in a Railway Vehicle with Independently Rotating Wheels . . . . 397
Ronak Prateek, Shihpin Lin, Yu Wang, Keisuke Shimono, Yoshihiro Suda,
and Yohei Michitsuji
Methodology to Determine the Limits for Loading Distributions on an
Individual Wagon and a Consist of Wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Yanquan Sun, Qing Wu, Maksym Spiryagin, and Colin Cole
Model Updating of Flexible Vehicle Body Based on Experiment Modal
Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Taiwen You, Jinsong Zhou, Dao Gong, and Wenjing Sun
Rail: Vehicle - Track Interaction

The Impact of New Running Gear Technologies upon Vehicle-Track
Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Simon Iwnicki and Roger Goodall
Methodology to Gain Statistical Insights into the Effects of Operating
Conditions on Railway Vehicle Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Anna Pichler, Josef Fuchs, Bernd Luber, and Florian Semrad
Method of Continuous Registration of Dynamic Processes of
Interaction Between Rolling Stock and Railway Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Yuri Boronenko, Rustam Rahimov, Alexander Tretyakov,
Maria Zimakova, and Anton Petrov
A Model for Predicting the Evolution of Vertical Vehicle-Track
Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Nishant Kumar, Claudia Kossmann, Stephan Scheriau, and Klaus Six
A Fast Co-simulation Approach to Vehicle/track Interaction with
Finite Element Models of S&C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Demeng Fan, Michel Sebès, Emmanuel Bourgeois, Hugues Chollet,
and Cédric Pozzolini
Monitoring of Alignment Level (AL)and Cross Level (CL) Track
Geometry Irregularities from Onboard Vehicle Dynamics
Measurements Using Probabilistic Fault Classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Rohan Kulkarni, Anna De Rosa, Alireza Qazizadeh, Mats Berg,
Egidio Di Gialleonardo, Alan Facchinetti, and Stefano Bruni
xiv Contents
Rail: Wheel and Rail Contact, Adhesion, Wear, Damage

Realistic Worst-Case Adhesion Characteristics Causing Maximum
Wheel-Set Axle Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Alexander Meierhofer, Gottfried Simon, David Simunek,
Franz-Josef Weber, and Klaus Six
An Extension of FASTSIM for Steady State Non-Hertzian Contact . . . . 500
Aquib Qazi, Michel Sebès, Hugues Chollet, Honoré Yin,
and Cédric Pozzolini
Gradient Index Profile, a Novel Idea for Predicting Equivalent
Conicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Ingemar Persson and Lars-Ove Jönsson
Wear Concentration Index: An Alternative to the Target T-gamma
in Railway Wheel Profile Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Yunguang Ye and Markus Hecht
A Finite Element Thermomechanical Analysis of Polygonal Wear . . . . . 533
Chunyan He, Zhen Yang, Pan Zhang, Shaoguang Li, Meysam Naeimi,
and Zili Li
Fast Computation of Wear Distribution Over Contact Patch . . . . . . . . . 542
Binbin Liu and Stefano Bruni
A Fast, Reliable and Practical Method to Predict Wheel Profile
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Dietmar Hartwich, Gabor Müller, Alexander Meierhofer, Danijel Obadic,
Martin Rosenberger, Roger Lewis, and Klaus Six
Modified Wear Modelling for Fast Wear Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Shaoyao Chen, Carlos Casanueva, Saeed Hossein-Nia,
Study on Potential Evolution Mechanisms of OOR Wheels
at Trams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Florian Zehetbauer, Johannes Edelmann, Manfred Plöchl,
and Florian Magerl
Road: Suspension
Data-driven Modeling Approach for Control Design of a Variable-
Geometry Suspension System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Dániel Fényes, Balázs Németh, and Péter Gáspár
Kinematic Versus Elasto-Kinematic Model of a Twistbeam
Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Abel Arrieta Castro and Georg Rill
Contents xv
A Computationally Efficient Multibody Simulation Model

of a Suspension System Including Elastokinematic Properties . . . . . . . . 606
Jan-Lukas Archut, Raphael Cleven, Martin Wahle, Mathias Hüsing,
and Burkhard Corves
A Structured Approach to Analyzing Vehicle Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Girish Radhakrishnan, Claude Rouelle, I. J. M Besselink,
and Pedro Calorio
Multi-objective Optimization of Suspension Kinematics of a
Race Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Ariel Gustavo Avi, Andrea Piga Carboni, and Claude Rouelle
Active Pitch Control for Prevention of Passenger Falling Over
in Autonomous Shuttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Toshihiro Hiraoka, Kiyoshi Kato, Keisuke Shimono, and Yoshihiro Suda
The Effect of Heat Transfer on Hydro-Pneumatic Springs . . . . . . . . . . . 664
Herman A. Hamersma and P. Schalk Els
Comparison of the Performance of Different Active Suspension
Architectures Equipped with Linear Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Kerem Bayar and Banu Çiçek Büyüker
Road: Heavy vehicles

Two-Way Coupled Aerodynamics and Vehicle Dynamics Crosswind
Simulation of a Heavy Ground Vehicle in Winter Road Conditions . . . 701
Tural Tunay, Lars Drugge, and Ciarán J. O’Reilly
Wheelbase Influence on Performance of Tractor-Semitrailer
Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
Sogol Kharrazi, Fredrik Bruzelius, Bruno Augusto, and Mattias Hjort
Improved Lateral Performance of a Long Combination Vehicle Based
on Artificial Flow Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Shammi Rahman, Timothy Gordon, Qingwei Liu, Yangyan Gao,
Leon Henderson, and Leo Laine
Cold Judder in Tractor Drivelines: An Essential Model for Stability
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Manuel Tentarelli, Stefano Cantelli, Alessandro De Felice,
and Silvio Sorrentino
A Model for Energy Consumption in Heavy Vehicle Braking . . . . . . . . 747
Pontus Fyhr, Toheed Ghandriz, and Leon Henderson
xvi Contents
On the Control Allocation Performance of Longer Combination

Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
Aria Noori Asiabar, Timothy Gordon, Yangyan Gao, Leon Henderson,
and Leo Laine
Road: Vehicles on virtual Rails

An Autonomous Driving Control Strategy for Multi-trailer
Articulated Heavy Vehicles with Enhanced Active Trailer Safety . . . . . 769
Amir Rahimi, Wei Huang, Tarun Sharma, and Yuping He
Lateral Control of a Trackless Road Tram ‘ART’ Using Multi-axle
Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Qingwei Liu, Timothy Gordon, Sheng Zhou, Shammi Rahman, Peng Jin,
Xiaocong Liu, and Lei Xiao
Gantry Virtual Track Train: Analysis of Vehicle Architecture
and Path-Tracking Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Han Leng, Lihui Ren, and Yuanjin Ji
A New Active-Steering Control System for the Running Control of the
Articulated Virtual Rail Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
Dehua Zhang, Caijin Yang, and Weihua Zhang
Road: Vehicle Dynamics Analysis

Design of the Vehicle Cornering Response Based on the Map of
Achievable Performance: Preliminary Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
Mariagrazia Tristano and Basilio Lenzo
Graphical Methods for Road Vehicle System Dynamics Analysis . . . . . . 827
Matthijs Klomp
Study of Different Steering Feedback Models Influence During
Remote Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
Lin Zhao, Mikael Nybacka, Lars Drugge, Jonas Mårtensson,
Saurabh Vyas, Chirag Savant, Wenliang Zhang, and Robin Palmberg
Experimental Identification of a Driver Steering Control Model
Incorporating Steering Feel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
Tenghao Niu and David Cole
Probabilistic Estimation of Occupant Body Motion for Investigating
Discomfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
Samer Abdelmoeti and David Cole
Contents xvii
Road: Driver-Vehicle Dynamics, Ride Comfort

Evaluation of Motion Sickness Prediction Models for Autonomous
Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Ilhan Yunus, Jenny Jerrelind, and Lars Drugge
Motion Cueing for Winter Test Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
Henrik Hvitfeldt, Lars Drugge, and Jenny Jerrelind
Integrated Active Seat Suspension for Enhancing Motion Comfort . . . . 902
Georgios Papaioannou, Xing Zhao, Efstathios Velenis, Jenny Jerrelind,
and Lars Drugge
Performance Analysis of Decoupled Control of Active Chassis and
Seat Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
Ivan Cvok, Joško Deur, H. Eric Tseng, and Davor Hrovat
Anti-jerk Control Approach to Improve Ride Comfort of a Half-Car
Model Using Aerodynamic Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
Ejaz Ahmad and Iljoong Youn
Road: Tires, Road Surfaces

Optimisation of Suspension and Tyre Parameters for Minimum Tyre
Wear, Enhanced Comfort and Improved Vehicle Handling . . . . . . . . . . 935
Georgios Papaioannou, Jenny Jerrelind, and Lars Drugge
On Rolling Resistance of Bicycle Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
Malte Rothhämel
Experimental Validation of a Semi-physical Modelling Approach
of the Influence of Tyre Rotation on the Vertical Tyre Force
Transmission and Tyre Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
Martin Schabauer, Andreas Hackl, Christoph Scherndl,
Wolfgang Hirschberg, and Cornelia Lex
Simplified Turn Slip Modeling by a Parallel Magic Formula Model . . . 966
I. J. M. Besselink, M. H. M. Baart, and H. Nijmeijer
Qualifying Road Maintenance Friction Measurements for Use
in Autonomous Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
Thorsten Lajewski, Jochen Rauh, and Steffen Müller
Low-Cost Surface Classification System Supported by Deep Neural
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
Ignacio Sánchez, Juan M. Velasco, Juan J. Castillo, Miguel Sánchez,
and Juan A. Cabrera
Generation of a Reduced, Representative, Virtual Test Drive for Fast
Evaluation of Tire Wear by Clustering of Driving Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Lars Muth, Christian Noll, and Walter Sextro
xviii Contents
Simulation of a Truck Tyre Using a Viscoplastic Constitutive Rubber

Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Jukka Hyttinen, Rickard Österlöf, Lars Drugge, and Jenny Jerrelind
Modelling and Validation of the TMeasy Tyre Model for Extreme
Parking Manoeuvres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Tilman Bünte, Georg Rill, Julian Ruggaber, and Jakub Tobolář
Development of a Method for Measuring Rolling Resistance at
Different Tyre Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
Lisa Ydrefors, Mattias Hjort, Sogol Kharrazi, Jenny Jerrelind,
and Annika Stensson Trigell
On Tuning Methods for Classical Control of Longitudinal Wheel Slip
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
Mathias Metzler and Shilp Dixit
Road: Motorcycles
Motorcycle Multibody Models for eCall Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Matteo Bova, Matteo Massaro, and Fabio Mazzarella
Investigations of Motorcycle Mid-Corner Instability Using a Three
Degree-of-Freedom Minimal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Alexander E. Schramm, Luca Leonelli, and Silvio Sorrentino
Modeling of the Vertical Dynamics of a Kick e-Scooter on Distributed
Road Irregularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Michele Asperti, Michele Vignati, and Francesco Braghin
Motorcycle Driveline Stability in a Minimal Model Including Roll
Angle During a Braking Maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Alexander E. Schramm, Luca Leonelli, and Silvio Sorrentino
Comparison of FWS and RWS for Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV)
with Active Tilting Mechanism on Obstacle Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Tetsunori Haraguchi, Tetsuya Kaneko, and Ichiro Kageyama
Electric Scooter Dynamics – From a Vehicle Safety Perspective . . . . . . 1102
Florian Klinger, Manuel Klinger, Johannes Edelmann, and Manfred Plöchl
One-Dimensional Thermal Model and Temperature Estimation for a
MotoGP Class Motorcycle Carbon Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Federico Bonini, Gionata Manduchi, Nicolò Mancinelli,
and Alberto Martini
Contents xix
Road: Vehicle Control, Estimation, Monitoring

Control Design Framework for Automated Vehicles Using
an Advanced Feedback Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
Tamás Hegedűs, Balázs Németh, and Péter Gáspár
A Path Planning and Tracking Framework Based on Model Predictive
Control for Autonomous Vehicle Obstacle Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
Lu Xiong, Zhiqiang Fu, Dequan Zeng, Zixuan Qian, and Bo Leng
Joint Optimization of Transmission and a Control Allocator to
Minimize Power Losses in Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
Juliette Torinsson, Mats Jonasson, Bengt Jacobson, and Derong Yang
Exploring Model Complexity for Trajectory Planning of Autonomous
Vehicles in Critical Driving Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
Wenliang Zhang, Lars Drugge, Mikael Nybacka, Jenny Jerrelind,
Zhenpo Wang, and Junjun Zhu
A Nonlinear Model Predictive Control Based Evasive Manoeuvre
Assist Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
Gijs van Lookeren Campagne and Derong Yang
Development of Torque Vectoring Controller Tuned with Neural
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
Viktar Beliautsou and Aleksandra Fedorova
Safety of Use Analysis for Autonomous Driving Functions Under
Laboratory Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
André Hartwecker, Steffen Müller, and Christian Schyr
A Fuzzy Sensor Fusion Sideslip Angle Estimation Algorithm
Combining Inertial Measurements with GPS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
Michele Vignati, Edoardo Sabbioni, Tommaso Chemello,
and Cornelia Lex
Calibration of Front Wheel Odometry Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207
Máté Fazekas, Péter Gáspár, and Balázs Németh
Enhanced Safety and Monitoring Microprocessor Concept for a
Steer-By-Wire System in Autonomous Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218
Minglu Li and Lutz Eckstein
Road: Electric Vehicles, Transmissions

Concepts for the Enhancement of Driving Safety of Electric Vehicles
Without Wheel Individual Rear Axle Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
Tobias Loss, Simon Peter, Patrick Schwarz, Armin Verhagen,
and Daniel Görges
xx Contents
A Generalized Approach to Virtual Driveline Systems for E-Vehicle

Operation Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
Vladimir Vantsevich and Jesse Paldan
A Regenerative Braking Strategy for Independently Driven Electric
Wheel Accounting for Contemporary Use of Electric and Hydraulic
Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256
Michele Vignati, Mattia Belloni, Edoardo Sabbioni,
and Davide Tarsitano
Modeling and Control Strategy Design for a Transmission System
with Electric Disconnect Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
Mingzhi Lin and Tongli Lu
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279

Rail: Active suspensions, Control
and Monitoring
Multi-degree of Freedom Dynamic Vibration
Absorber of the Carbody of High-Speed Trains
Yu Sun1,2(B) , Jinsong Zhou2 , Dao Gong2 , Taiwen You2 , and Qiushi Wang2
1 Postdoctoral Station of Mechanical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China
1410745@tongji.edu.cn
2 Institute of Rail Transit, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China
Abstract. A multi-degree of freedom dynamic vibration absorber (MDOF DVA)

to suppress the vibration of the carbody of high-speed trains is proposed. The
MDOF DVA is installed under the carbody, the natural vibration frequency of
which are designed as a dynamic vibration absorber for lateral motion, bouncing,
rolling, pitching, and yawing of the carbody. A high-speed train dynamics model
including an under-carbody MDOF DVA is established. Based on the virtual exci-
tation method, the vibration control effect on each DOF of the MDOF DVA on the
carbody is analyzed. Results show that the MDOF DVA can absorb the vibration
of the carbody in multiple degrees of freedom.
Keywords: High-speed trains · Multi-DOF dynamic vibration absorber ·

Under-chassis device · Parameter optimization
1 Introduction
Vibration has a negative effect on high-speed trains. Improving the ride quality and
providing a better ride experience to passengers is the goal of vibration control research of
carbody. Dynamic vibration absorber (DVA) [1–3] is a classical passive control element,
which is widely used in bridge, aviation and other engineering fields. Recently, some
scholars use the control mechanism of DVA to suppress the vibration of the rail vehicle
system. Gong et al. [4] proposed to design an underframe device as a DVA of the
vehicle body to suppress the elastic vertical bouncing vibration of the carbody. By the
same principle, a method of multi-mode vibration control for carbody by using the on
board and suspended devices as DVAs was studied [5]. Takahiro et al. [6] designed the
longitudinal vibration of the frame as a DVA for the vertical bending vibration of the
carbody. It proved that the method can effectively reduce the vibration of the carbody
by numerical simulation analysis and experimental research. Shi et al. [7] modeled
the carbody as an Euler-Bernoulli beam and apply DVA theory to restrain the elastic
vibration of carbody for high-speed electric multiple unit. The advantage of elastic
vibration suppression method was verified by a laboratory test on the full-scale test rig.
Ref. [8] proposed a two-degree-of-freedom DVA under high-speed carbody to absorb
the bouncing and pitching vibration of the carbody. Based on Ref. [8], this research
further proposed a multi-degree of freedom DVA (MDOF DVA) that uses one object to
simultaneously absorb multiple degrees of freedom of vibration of carbody.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

A. Orlova and D. Cole (Eds.): IAVSD 2021, LNME, pp. 3–7, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07305-2_1
4 Y. Sun et al.
2 Establishment of a High-Speed Train Dynamic Model

A high-speed train dynamic model is established to analyze the vibration suppression
performance of the MDOF DVA of the carbody, the schematic diagram of which is shown
as Fig. 1. The model has 28 DOFs that includes four wheelsets which consider the lateral
motion and yawing (4 × 2 DOFs), two bogies, one carbody and one MDOF DVA which
consider lateral motion, bouncing, rolling, pitching, and yawing (5 × 4 DOFs). In the
simulation analysis, it is assumed that the wheelset is close to the rail surface in the
vertical direction, and the vertical irregular excitation is applied through the axle box.
The lateral irregularities are imposed by the wheel-rail linear contact relationship.
Fig. 1. Dynamic model of the high-speed train
The completed dynamic model is obtained as:
M Ÿ + C Ẏ + KY = Dw Yw (1)
where M, C and K are the mass matrix, damping matrix and stiffness matrix of the
vehicle system, respectively. Dw strands for excitation input matrix, and Y w strands for
the track irregularity.
Track irregularity is the main input excitation of the vehicle system during the oper-
ation of the high-speed train. Track irregularity excitation is input to the vehicle system
through the wheelsets, and there is a time delay between each wheelset. The acceleration
power spectral density (PSD) of each DOF is applied to evaluate the vibration of the
carbody for investigating the vibration absorption performance of MDOF DVA. The
calculate method is
S = ω4 ψY ∗ Y T ψ T (2)
where (·)∗ strands for conjugate matrix, (·)T strands for transpose matrix, S is the accel-
eration PSD of each DOF of the carbody, ψ is a coordinate transformation matrix. Y is
related to vehicle system parameters, excitation input matrix and input time delay. The
expression of Y is
−1
Y = −ω2 Mt + jωCt + Kt Dw Td SFF (ω) (3)
Multi-degree of Freedom Dynamic Vibration Absorber of the Carbody 5
where Dw is excitation input matrix, Td is input time delay matrix, SFF (ω) is the PSD
of track irregularity. The high-speed track irregularity is adopted in the model [9], the
vertical and lateral PSD of which are as follow:
Av c
Sv ()= 2 (4)
+2r 2 +2c
Aa c
Sa ()= 2 (5)
+2r 2 +2c
where is spatial circular frequency(rad/m), Av is 4.032 × 10–7 m rad, Aa is 2.119 ×

10–7 m rad, c is 0.8246 rad/m, r is 0.206 rad/m.
3 Optimal Design of MDOF DVA of the Carbody
Genetic algorithm is utilized to optimize the parameters of the MDOF DVA. Considering
that the installation height of the DVA is usually close to the bottom of the carbody, the
installation height parameter hsee can be set to a constant value. Limited by installation
space, the half of the longitudinal lex and lateral spans l ey and the installation stiffness
k ex , k ey , k ez of the three directions need to set a constraint range. The optimize objective
function and constraints can be set as

5
min g(x) = βi · max(Si )
i=1 (2)
hsee = 0.3, 2 ≤ lex ≤ 6, 0.8 ≤ ley ≤ 1.6, 104 ≤ kex ≤ 107 ,
s.t.
104 ≤ key ≤ 107 , 104 ≤ key ≤ 107
where S i strands for the power spectrum density (PSD) of each DOF of the carbody, βi
is weight coefficient.
The optimized natural vibration frequency and the installation parameters of the
MDOF DVA can be obtained according to the optimization steps as shown in Table 1(a)
and Table 1(b), respectively.
Table 1(a). Natural vibration frequency of the MDOF DVA
Freedom Vibration shape Natural frequency of

MDOF DVA(Hz)
1 Lateral motion 0.971
2 Bouncing 0.859
3 Rolling 0.545
4 Pitching 1.26
5 Yawing 1.75
6 Y. Sun et al.
Table 1(b). Installation parameters of MDOF DVA
Parameter Value Unit

k ex 2.70 × 105 N/m
k ey 5.58 × 104 N/m
k ez 4.37 × 104 N/m
l ex 4.77 m
l ey 1.60 m
(a) lateral motion (b) bouncing (c) rolling
(d) pitching (e) yawing

Fig. 2. PSD of each DOF of the carbody. dash line: without MDOF DVA; solid line: with
optimized MDOF DVA.
The acceleration PSD of the carbody by numerical calculation that adopted the
optimized MDOF DVA is shown in Fig. 2. The acceleration PSD of the carbody without
DVA is added in the figure as comparation analysis. In the simulation, the installation
damping ratio of the DVA is set as 0.06. Figure 2 (a) and (b) illustrate that after the MDOF
DVA applied, the maximum of the lateral motion and bouncing acceleration PSD change
from one to two equal values, indicating that the lateral motion and bouncing modes are
achieved the optimal vibration absorption. The maximum of the lateral motion decreases
by 92.2%. The maximum of the bouncing mode decreases by 84.6%. It can be seen from
Fig. 2 (c) that the rolling vibration mode has a certain vibration absorption effect, but it
is not optimal. This is because the rolling vibration is coupled with lateral motion, which
makes it difficult to optimize both at the same time. Figure 2 (d) demonstrates that the
pitching vibration is well suppressed. Combined with all the figures in Fig. 2, it can be
Multi-degree of Freedom Dynamic Vibration Absorber of the Carbody 7
found that the MDOF DVA can absorb multiple vibration modes of the carbody at the
same time, and some of them can achieve optimal vibration absorption.
4 Conclusions
In this paper, a MDOF DVA is proposed to suppress the rigidity vibration of high-
speed trains. A high-speed train dynamic model is established, and a MDOF DVA that
simultaneously absorbs the lateral motion, bouncing, rolling, pitching and yawing vibra-
tions is designed. The lateral motion, bouncing and pitching can achieve the best vibra-
tion absorption performance at the same time. The results show that MDOF DVA can
effectively absorb the rigid vibration of the carbody.
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Active Modal Control of an Innovative Two-Axle
Vehicle with Composite Frame Running Gear
Rocco Libero Giossi(B) , Anton Shipsha, Rickard Persson, Per Wennhage,

KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 10044 Stockholm, Sweden

roccolg@kth.se
Abstract. Within the Shift2Rail projects Pivot2 and NEXTGEAR, an innovative

Metro vehicle with single axle running gear and only one suspension step is pro-
posed. A composite material running gear frame is developed to be used both as
structural and as suspension element. The design with only one suspension step
can significantly degrade the passengers ride comfort. Thus, active modal control
is implemented both in lateral and vertical direction to increase the performance of
the system. The running gear frame is modelled in Abaqus® as well as the carbody.
Structural modes of both elements are implemented in SIMPACK®. A hydraulic
actuator model is developed in Simscape®, where two pressure-controlled valves
are used to control the pressure inside the chambers of a double acting hydraulic
cylinder. A co-simulation environment is then established between SIMPACK®
and Simulink®. The vehicle is running with speeds between 10 and 120 km/h.
Active modal control makes it possible to maintain ride comfort levels of conven-
tional bogie vehicles with this innovative single axle and single suspension step
running gear, promising substantial weight savings of about 400 kg/m. The single
axle running gear solution with active comfort control developed here can be an
attractive alternative to bogies, providing reduced Life Cycle Costs.
Keywords: FE model · Structural modes · Active control · Ride comfort ·

Hydraulic actuator modelling
1 Introduction
Within the Shift2Rail projects Pivot2 and NEXTGEAR, an innovative Metro vehicle
with single axle running gear and only one suspension step is proposed to reduce the
tare weight per meter. A composite material running gear frame is developed to be used
both as structural and as suspension element. The frame is made to incorporate the
anti-roll bar. The design with only one suspension step can significantly degrade the
passengers ride comfort. Thus, active control is implemented both in lateral and vertical
direction to increase the performance of the system, i.e. improving the ride comfort,
while maintaining the benefits of a reduced vehicle weight.
As described in [1], different approaches can be used to actively control vibration
performance in railway applications. One major distinction can be made between active
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07305-2_2
Active Modal Control of an Innovative Two-Axle Vehicle 9
and semi-active approaches, where, in both cases, the objective is the control of the
carbody motion. Among active approaches, Yusof et al. in [2] and Qazizadeh et al. in
[3] proved the effectiveness of modal active control in vertical direction and Orvnäs
et al. in [4] in lateral direction with simulations and field tests. As shown by different
authors and summarized in [1], active suspensions require more power in comparison
to semi-active ones but the improvement brought by the active approach is higher in
terms of comfort performance. Due to the poor ride comfort of the proposed vehicle,
where standard dampers are implemented, (with a comfort index around 5 according to
EN12299 [5] at 100 km/h), a fully active approach is chosen.
The key elements of the innovative vehicle, connection frame, carbody and actuators
are modelled to represent as closely as possible a real case application. To do so, both the
connection frame and the carbody are modelled in Abaqus and exported to SIMPACK.
Regarding the carbody, rigid models cannot be considered sufficient when dealing with
comfort evaluation. At the same time, as stated by Tomioka et al. in [6], a simple beam
model is not enough to represents the flexural modes of the carbody. Thus, the non-
existing carbody is created as FE model by trying to match expected eigenfrequencies
[8, 9]. The hydraulic actuator is instead created in the Simscape environment where the
non-linearities of hydraulic fluids are easily considered.
2 The Innovative Vehicle
The innovative vehicle proposed here, and first introduced in the Shift2Rail project
Run2Rail [7], has the objective of reducing tare weight per meter of standard bogie
vehicles. The proposed solution is meant to substitute the S8000 vehicle in Metro Madrid
line 10. To do so, a vehicle with only one suspension step is considered. A further
improvement in the weight is given by the adoption of a composite material frame as
connection between carbody and wheelsets promising a total reduction in tare weight
per meter of about 400 kg. The frame has additionally to function as anti-roll bar. In
Fig. 1 this flexibility is shown through the first roll eigenmode (Table 2).
2.1 Connection Frame
The U-shaped connection frame was developed to connect the carbody and the wheelsets.
In Fig. 2, the frame design is shown together with the connection points to the carbody and
the wheelset. The connection points are named after the corresponding elements, AB –
Axleboxes (housings for the wheel axle bearings), CS – Coil springs and RB – Rubber
bushes.
The frame is made of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), a high-performance
composite material. The utilization of this material significantly improves the frame’s
structural efficiency thanks to its excellent mechanical performance-to-weight ratio and
high fatigue strength.
The frame was developed to work both as structural and as suspension element, with
incorporated anti-roll functionality. To meet strict design requirements on the frame
strength and stiffness properties, a series of FE analyses was performed using the com-
mercially available software Abaqus. The FE analyses of the frame were coupled with
10 R. L. Giossi et al.
Fig. 1. Vehicle first roll eigenmode: a) vehicle motion in SIMPACK, b) leading connection frame
motion (absolute displacement contouring) and c) trailing connection frame motion (vertical
displacement contouring)
multi-body dynamic simulations of the entire vehicle using SIMPACK. After several
design/analysis iterations, the frame topology was optimized to achieve target values
of the stiffness and high strength to weight ratio. In Fig. 3, a distribution of the failure
index according to the Tsai-Hill criterion is shown in the frame subjected to exceptional
loads both in vertical and lateral direction. The maximum failure index in the frame
was analyzed as 0.69, which is below 1.0 and means that the design meets the strength
requirements.
Fig. 2. Connection frame with attachment points (CAD model)

Fig. 3. Distribution of the failure index according to Tsai-Hill criterion under exceptional loads,
with the maximum value of 0.69
2.2 Carbody
Due to the absence of an existing carbody, properties as realistic as possible were assumed
to increase the fidelity with a real case scenario in terms of comfort evaluation. The
carbody is designed to match expected eigenfrequencies [8, 9] as well as geometric and
physical properties. To do so, the carbody is designed to have a cross section of 3x3 m
and a length of 12 m. Three doors and four windows for each side, and a ventilation
hole on the roof are considered. Equipment masses are artificially added to lower the
carbody center of gravity. In the same manner, carbody-frame connection units are added
to provide connection points in SIMPACK (Fig. 4). Mass, center of gravity position in
vertical direction above the rail and the first five eigenfrequencies imported in SIMPACK
are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Carbody properties
Mass [kg] C.o.g. [m] Vertical Torsion [Hz] Rhombic Second Lateral
bending [Hz] bending bending
[Hz] [Hz] [Hz]
12964 1.7 11.03 12.34 13.17 17.61 21.00
2.3 Actuator
A total of six actuators are implemented in the vehicle, four in vertical direction and two
in lateral direction. The vertical actuators are placed inside the coil springs located at
the end of the U-shaped connection frame, while the lateral actuators directly connect
the carbody to the cross-beam element of the frame. A representation of the actuators
location is given in Fig. 5 (Right). With this configuration, the six actuators will be able
to effectively control the rigid body modes of the carbody.
Fig. 4. Carbody design in Abaqus
Fig. 5. Hydraulic actuator scheme (Left) and actuators location (Right)

In order to represent a realistic case scenario, the hydraulic actuators used to control
the vehicle are modelled in the Simscape environment. Each actuator is composed by a
double acting hydraulic cylinder in which each chamber is separately controlled by an
independent circuit communicating with a common reservoir. Each circuit is composed
by a pump, a check valve and a pressure-controlled valve (see Fig. 5 (Left)). The latter
can vary the pressure in the circuit proportionally to a command current giving the
possibility of freely controlling the pressure inside each chamber.
In the co-simulation, the Simscape module solves the non-linear equations related to
the actuator dynamics and provides the actuators input forces to SIMPACK. Neverthe-
less, to properly calculate the response of the actuator to the vehicle stimuli, two service
signals (carbody and connection frame velocity) are needed from SIMPACK creating
a natural feedback loop in the co-simulation environment between Simulink and the
M.B.S. program.
3 Simulation Scenario and Control System

To evaluate the effectiveness of the controlled system in improving the comfort, the
vehicles is run at constant speed on a 1000 m tangent track with ERRI_High track
irregularities [10]. The vehicle speeds are chosen to be from 10 km/h to the maximum
allowable speed of 120 km/h with a step of 10 km/h, creating a simulation scenario of 12
cases. For each simulation scenario a Genetic Algorithm (GA) optimization is applied
to identify the gains of a modal controller. The fit function is set to be the mean value
between front, center and rear comfort indexes calculated as per EN12299 standard [5]:

wd rms 2 wd rms 2 wb rms 2
NMV = 6 axp95 + ayp95 + azp95 . (1)
3.1 Control System

Different control algorithms can be used to control the vehicle motion in vertical and
lateral direction [1]. Among them, co-located modal velocity feedback is considered
since it is simple to implement, and it relies on few and easily accessible measurements.
At the same time, modal control requires the knowledge of the eigenmodes of the system.
The eigenmodes of the innovative vehicle are identified in SIMPACK using the
actuators as excitement source and the acceleration sensors as measurement points. The
sensors are placed in the carbody in the same location as the actuator’s connection point.
Thus, the mode shape matrix shown in Table 2 is found. Here, each mode is scaled with
respect to its maximum. For the control purpose only the first 5 modes (the rigid body
ones) are considered. In fact, controlling the rigid body modes will positively influence
the flexible ones [11]. Different techniques that can further improve the flexible modes
behavior, such as dynamic separation of equipment masses from the carbody [12], are
not considered here.
The modal control is implemented by controlling the command currents of the
pressure-controlled valves as:

ivalve = −[ϕ][K][ϕ] T
z̈dt, (2)
where, [ϕ] is the mode shape matrix, [K] is the diagonal gain matrix, and z̈ is
the carbody accelerations vector (both vertical and lateral). Moreover, · represents the
combination of the integration function (1/s) and a high-pass filter with cut-off frequency
of 1 rad/s to disregard quasistatic behaviors. In Fig. 6 the control scheme is shown, where
only one acceleration measurement and one actuator are shown. Here the service signals
needed to simulate the actuator behavior are shown too.
Table 2. Scaled mode shapes of the system.
Mode Roll Yaw Roll Pitch Bounce Ver. B Tors. Rhom. Sec. Lat.
name 1 2 B. B.
Frequency 0.94 1.83 2.01 2.54 2.68 11.03 12.34 13.17 17.61 21.00
[Hz]
Damping 0.03 0.96 0.05 0.02 0.02 1.82 1.00 1.12 4.31 1,17
ratio
Front left 0.9 0 0.3 1 1 0.9 1 0 −0.1 0.5
Front right −0.9 0 −0.3 1 1 0.7 −0.9 0 0 −0.2
Rear left 0.9 0 0.3 −1 1 0.9 −0.9 0 0.1 1
Rear right −0.9 0 −0.3 −1 1 1 0.9 0 0 −0.2
Lateral −1 1 −1 0 0 0 0.6 −1 0 −0.3
front
Lateral −1 −1 −1 0 0 0 – 0.6 −1 0 −0.3
rear
Fig. 6. Control scheme
Once the control scheme has been implemented, for each considered speed, the gains
of the control matrix [K] are optimized with a GA procedure using the fit function based
on Eq. 1. Thus, a speed varying gain matrix of 5 gains by 12 velocities is identified. In
practice, a look-up table can be used to interpolate the required gains for any vehicle
speed.
4 Results
The optimization procedure described in Sect. 3.1 is applied to the innovative vehicle
described in Sect. 2. In Fig. 7, the effectiveness of the controller in reducing carbody
acceleration is shown in terms of power spectral density. The results show the front and
center part of the carbody vertical acceleration for the human sensible frequency range
up to 30 Hz. The selected vehicle speed is 80 km/h being the most travelled speed on
Metro Madrid line 10.
The detailed comfort evaluation is shown in Fig. 8. Here, it is possible to see that the
actively controlled vehicle is below the acceptance level for comfortable ride expressed
in the EN12299 standard in terms of comfort index for all the studied velocities. Nev-
ertheless, a difference appears when vertical and lateral ride comfort are analyzed
separately.
Front Centre
0 0
Passive
-20 Active -20
-40 -40
Acc. Amplitude [dB]
Acc. Amplitude [dB]

-60 -60
-80 -80
-100 -100
-120 -120
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 7. Power spectral density of the carbody vertical acceleration in the front and center part
with the vehicle running at 80 km/h.
The continuous comfort value in lateral direction (Fig. 8 (bottom- right)) shows low
acceleration levels without any significant increase with speed while the value in vertical
direction (Fig. 8 (bottom- left)) increases with the vehicle speed. This is particularly
evident in the carbody center where the first bending mode plays a key role. The three
lowest flexible modes are in the sensible frequency range for comfort in vertical direction,
but they cannot be directly controlled by the defined active system. The difference
between the vertical and lateral behavior may lead to a perceived poorer comfort in
vertical direction due to the absence of an equal lateral counterpart.
Despite the above-mentioned problem, the modal active controller is capable of
significantly improving the starting condition where passive dampers are implemented.
In Table 3, the mean value of the comfort index between the passive and active vehicles
for each speed group is compared. The comparison shows what improvement an active
suspension can bring.
5 Conclusions
An innovative two-axle vehicle with only one suspension step has been proposed to
substantially reduce the tare weight per meter with respect to standard vehicles. To further
improve the weight reduction and incorporate the anti-roll bar, otherwise a separate
Fig. 8. Optimization results: comfort index (top), continuous vertical comfort (bottom-left) and
continuous lateral comfort (bottom-right)
Table 3. Summary of comfort index (NMV ) per speed range: active vs passive system
Speed range 10 – 30 km/h 40 – 60 km/h 70 – 90 km/h 100 – 120 km/h

Passive NMV 0.66 1.93 4.04 5.39
Active NMV 0.20 0.72 1.35 2.07
Improvement 70% 63% 67% 62%
element, a composite material U-shaped frame is introduced as connection element

between the carbody and the wheelsets.
Due to the poor ride comfort of the vehicle with conventional suspension elements, an
active control system is adopted. To increase the fidelity of the simulations to a real case
scenario the hydraulic actuators, modelled in Simscape, and a flexible carbody, modelled
in Abaqus, are implemented in a Simulink-SIMPACK co-simulation environment.
A fully active modal control is then developed and optimized with a GA procedure
having the comfort index evaluated with the EN12992 standard as fit function. The
optimization is done separately for 12 velocities between 10 to 120 km/h with the vehicle
running on a tangent track of 1000 m.
Results show that the active control is effective in reducing the comfort index of
the innovative vehicle to satisfactory levels. Nevertheless, a difference appears when
vertical and lateral ride comfort are analyzed separately. The continuous comfort value
in lateral direction shows low acceleration levels without any significant increase with
speed when the value in vertical direction increases with the vehicle speed. This aspect
may be improved by dynamic mass separation of equipment from the carbody or by

considering a control algorithm based on more measurements.
The proposed vehicle with active system has the capability of substantially reducing
the tare vehicle weight per meter while maintaining acceptable comfort in the vehicle,
potentially creating an alternative for bogie vehicles in metro lines systems.
Acknowledgments. This project has received funding from the Shift2Rail Joint Undertaking
under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement
(No. 777564). The content of this paper reflects only the author’s view, and the JU is not responsible
for any use that may be made of the information it contains.
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(2011)
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gent and comfortable rail vehicles, deliverable 3.2 – new actuation systems for conventional
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10. Bergander, B., Kunnes, W.: ERRI B176/DT 290: B176/3 Benchmark Problem, Results and
Assessment. Tech. report, Eur. Rail Res. Inst. (1993)
11. Sugahara, Y., Kojima, T.: Suppression of vertical vibration in railway vehicle carbodies
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A Research Facility for the Next
Generation Train Running Gear in True
Scale
Andreas Heckmann(B) , Daniel Lüdicke, Alexander Keck, and Björn Goetjes
Institute of System Dynamics and Control, German Aerospace Center (DLR),

Münchener Str. 20, 82234 Wessling, Germany
andreas.heckmann@dlr.de
Abstract. The running gears of DLR’s long-term project Next Genera-

tion Train utilize independently rotating wheels with mechatronic track
guidance, direct drives close to the wheels and are optimized for low
weight. On the basis of encouraging research results so far, DLR decided
to design and build a true scale prototype of the NGT running gear and
use it as a research facility. It is the intention to improve, validate and
demonstrate the mechanical and mechatronic design, sensor and actua-
tor lay-out step by step and finally approach the Technology Readiness
Level 6. By the end of 2022, this prototype will be put into operation
considering low speed scenarios up to max. 5 m/s at an in-house inte-
gration test rig. This is the current task, which is reported on in the
paper. However, this work is supposed to prepare advanced performance
experiments up to 350 km/h on external roller rigs and at railway test
tracks later on.
1 Background and Motivation

The long-term research project Next Generation Train (NGT) [1] considers run-
ning gears with independently rotating and driven wheels (IRW). This configu-
ration offers the capability of almost perfect steering along curves and facilitates
continuous floors even on the lower level of a double-deck carbody, which would
have to be stepped for a conventional wheelset axle.
However, the task of guidance along the track or the lateral dynamics of the
IRW, respectively, relies on active control that is intended to guarantee safety,
stability and robustness and to minimize wear and noise, cf. [2,3]. Until the
near past, the control design as a major research topic was intensively inves-
tigated in theory and in multi-body simulation, while hardware demonstration
was performed using a 1:5 scale experimental running gear, see e.g. [4].
On the basis of the encouraging research results so far, DLR decided to
design and build a true scale prototype of the NGT running gear and use it as a
research facility. Related objectives are to improve, validate and demonstrate the
mechanical and mechatronic design, as well as the sensor and actuator lay-out
step by step and finally approach the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 6.
c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07305-2_3
NGT Running Gear Research Facility 19
The first project phase includes production and individual qualification of

all components and their assembly. This phase will be concluded until the end
of 2022 by demonstrating the mechatronic guidance capabilites in low speed
scenarios at the in-house integration test rig. These scenarios are supposed to
prepare advanced performance experiments on external roller rigs and at outdoor
railway test tracks in later project stages.
This paper introduces the NGT running gear design in Sect. 2, the in-house
integration test rig is presented in Sect. 3, while the structure of the mechatronic
guidance control is given in Sect. 4. Section 5 is dedicated to simulation and
implementation scenarios tailored to showcase the running gear capabilites. A
short summary and an outlook conclude the paper.
2 Running Gear Design Principles and Features
Fig. 1. Sketch of the conceptual design of the NGT running gear.
Figure 1 showcases the conceptual design of the NGT running gear. The
axle bridge carries the wheels and the electric drives and is capable of rotating
around a virtual pivot constituted by the arrangement of two guiding rods. These
guiding rods and the primary suspensions connect the axle bridge to the frame
which in turn is linked to the carbody or integration test rig, respectively, by
secondary suspensions and push and pull rods.
The design of the axle bridge is tailored to have low floors even in double-deck
trains. The guidance function is accomplished by applying differential torques
to the wheel drives that initiate a yaw motion of the axle bridge. This way, the
running gear is capable of steering into curves and counteract disturbances, e.g.
20 A. Heckmann et al.
introduced by rail irregularities. Wear and noise reduction are additional benefits
that are targeted.
The electrical engines are permanent magnet synchronous motors that
directly drive the wheels without gears. They provide 180 kW and 2050 Nm,
each. They are spring-mounted to the axle bridge in order to reduce the unsprung
mass, improve the track-friendliness and protect the engines from highly dynamic
track excitations.
The overall weight of the complete running gear amounts to 3000 kg, which is
the result of an elaborate optimization in order to reduce the weight and reserve
as much payload capacity as possible [5].
3 Integration Test Rig
Fig. 2. Rendering of the NGT running gear assembled at its integration test rig.
Figure 2 presents a rendering of the assembled NGT running gear based on

its CAD design. The specific components of the integration test rig, i.e. the cage,
the reference measurement frame and the rollers that represent the rails, are kept
in white in order to focus the visual attention to the actual running gear.
Due to conditions given by the building where the test rig is to be located, the
overall weight of the complete configuration is specified not to exceed 5000 kg.
Compared to industrial wheelset roller rigs that may weigh 7.6 · 105 kg, see e.g.
[6] or even complete vehicle roller rigs, see e.g. [7] and [8, Ch. 19], this offers the
opportunity to transport the complete facility and exhibit it at pertinent fairs.
With this background, the diameter of the rollers have been specified to only
600 mm. The assumption that the associated stronger coupling of the yaw and
vertical motion of the running gear requires additional control considerations
compared to the flat track situation turned out to be irrelevant so far, but
will be kept under investigation. Two alternative rail gauges can be manually
adjusted, namely 1435 and 1465 mm.
The integration test rig is dedicated to the assembly and initial implemen-
tation of the running gear. It is the main objective to ensure that all sensors
provide signals and all actuators deliver torques as they are supposed to, before
costly measurement sessions at external roller rigs are allocated. This is why
the maximum running speed is limited to 5 m/s. Advanced configurations such
as independently rotating right and left rollers in order to emulate the running
along curves, the introduction of lateral roller excitations or sophisticated vibra-
tion isolation measures are also not considered.
A magnet particle roller service brake that provides up to 820 Nm and an
additional fail safe brake are attached to the roller axle. The replacement of the
service brake by a motor drive has been taken into account for later upgrades.
Initially, coil springs are installed as secondary suspensions and are capable
of applying vertical loads up to 135 kN. In the course of the project, it is intended
to replace these coil springs by active components.
The automation and real-time environment of the research facility is equipped
to cope with about 200 measurement channels that are provided for operational
and reference purposes.
4 Control Structure
The research facility is dedicated to the active lateral guidance of the NGT
running gear, which relies on two subtasks:
– The lateral position of the running gear with respect to the track center line
is an important measurement in order to organize lateral guidance, but is dif-
ficult to measure in daily operation on a real track. This is why observation of
this quantity has been proposed in [9] and will be prototyped in true scale at
the research facility. Three alternative sensor configurations and three differ-
ent nonlinear filter algorithms, the Extended Kalman Filter, the Unscented
Kalman Filter and the Ensemble Kalman Filter have been analyzed with
promising results in previous research efforts, cp. [10].
– The guidance function for the NGT running gear utilizes differential torques
applied by the wheel drives. The set-up and validation of the control of these
torques is a major challenge. Two alternative control approaches, namely
state feedback and nonlinear dynamic inversion control, are to be compared
with respect to performance and robustness in future research activities, cp.
[4,11].
Fig. 3. Basic control structure of the NGT running gear.
Figure 3 displays the specific control structure as it is used to generate the

simulation results below. The observer here employs only three measurement
signals, namely the angular velocities of the left and the right wheel, ωl and ωr ,
the yaw angle of the axle bridge ψ. This basic sensor configuration is proven to
be sufficient in order to provide observability of the system. The incorporation of
additional signals such as the yaw rate ψ̇ and the lateral acceleration ÿ improves
the accuracy of the observation due to sensor fusion, but is not discussed in this
paper. The Extended Kalman Filter algorithm provides the observation ŷ of the
lateral position y, and of the other states ẏ, ψ and the yaw angle rate ψ̇ as well,
cp. [9].
Feedback of the estimated state values with coefficients ky , kẏ , kψ and kψ̇ is
applied to control the differential torque τ according to (1):
⎡ ⎤
ŷ
⎢ ŷ˙ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
τ = ky (vR ), kẏ (vR ), kψ (vR ), kψ̇ (vR ) ⎢ ⎥ . (1)
⎣ ψ̂ ⎦
˙
ψ̂
Since the system characteristic strongly depend on the running velocity vR , these
coefficients are scheduled with respect to vR , e.g. ky = ky (vR ).
The prefilter in Fig. 3 incorporates the set-point or demand value y ∗ to effect
the equilibrium and steady state solution of the closed loop, see [12, Sec. 6.2].
5 Simulation Scenarios for the Implementation

Four different simulation scenarios have been defined in order to provide a basis
for the following activities:
– the design of the integration test rig,
– the set-up of the associated real-time environment,
– the comparison of the different observation and control approaches and
– the demonstration of the running gear capabilities.
Fig. 4. Simulation results of Scenario 2.
The scenarios that are currently used for virtual tests in multi-body simulation
consider
Scenario 1: straight running of the running gear along the track center line,
Scenario 2: straight running, but with lateral offset to the track center line,
Scenario 3: artificial hunting motion with various speeds and frequencies and
Scenario 4: stochastic transient trajectories to emulate rail irregularities.
In the simulations presented below, observer, control and a detailed multi-
body model of the running gear including the integration test rig are simulated
in closed loop. They are organized as a co-simulation of the multi-body code Sim-
pack and MatlabTM , where the observation and control algorithms are prepared
to be used in the real-time environment later on.
The upper plot of Fig. 4 shows the running gear running centered at 5 m/s
speed, before the lateral offset of 3 mm is commanded to be reached within 0.3 s.
The second plot below presents the estimation error |y − ŷ| and the control error
|y − y ∗ |.
Figure 5 presents results of a simulation of Scenario 4. It is associated to
the excitations that are introduced by rail irregularities on a real track. How-
ever, the rollers of the integration test rig are not capable of reproducing these
excitations. In order to nevertheless analyze the control performance for given
disturbances, Scenario 4 is defined in the following way: stochastic irregularities
are not represented by the associated motion of the rollers, but introduced by
transient set-point variations of the lateral control, instead. Again, the running
Fig. 5. Simulation results of Scenario 4.
gear runs at 5 m/s in the simulation to which Fig. 5 refers to. The control error
here reaches values up to 0.3 mm.
These scenarios illustrate an important aspect: the guidance system allows
the lateral position to be freely determined within the track channel. In this way,
wear can not only be reduced, but the control is also capable of ruling, at which
point of the profile the wheel touches the rail and where wear takes place. This
offers the opportunity to control the profile accuracy of the wheel as well and to
reduce the costs associated to reprofiling efforts.
6 Summary and Outlook
The promising results of previous research on the NGT running gears motivated
the decision of the DLR to build a true scale prototype and use it as research
facility on mechatronic guidance. With this background, the paper introduces the
design features of the NGT running gear and discusses its initial implementation
and commissioning using an in-house integration test rig.
After successful operations in low speed scenarios in 2022, advanced perfor-
mance tests with speeds up to 350 km/h on external test rigs are scheduled to
take place in 2023 and 2024. Plans to mount the running gear to a railway vehicle
and extend these experiments on real test tracks as well already exist.
The prototype is supplied with many sensors for operational use and reference
purposes. In addition, elaborate physical models of the running gear persist, since
they have been used for the design lay-out in simulation and will be employed
for observation and control in operation. Hence, it is an obvious step to combine
physical models and measurement data and to develop a digital twin. Therefore,
the NGT running gear is an ideal equipment for further research on how to
monitor vehicles and infrastructure.
Advanced control approaches beyond guidance e.g. associated to adhesion
management and wheel slip protection are as well promising research fields to
be tackled by the research facility in the future.
Appendix
The tables below list the parameter values that are applied to generate the
simulation results presented in Sect. 5. The reference coordinate system is located
at the top of the rollers, centralized in lateral, i.e. in y-direction and z-axis
pointing downwards. The positions are specified in reference position with a
vertical preload of 126 kN, applied by prestressing the secondary suspensions
(Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4).
Table 1. Values of the state feedback control for vR = 5 m/s, see (1).
ky kẏ kψ kψ̇
5 4 4
9.5 · 10 2.3541 · 10 3.7225 · 10 8.3412 · 102
Table 2. Inertia properties of the simulation model components.
Mass Principal moments of inertia Center of gravity

Axle bridge 740 kg {624.4, 305.4, 498.7} kgm2 {0.02, 0, −0.411} m
2
Wheel 490 kg {35.9, 61, 35.9} kgm {0, ±0.768, −0.49} m
Motor stator 110 kg {18.75, 29.25, 19.5} kgm2 {0, ±0.9475, −0.49} m
Motor rotor 110 kg {6.25, 9.75, 6.5} kgm2 {0, ±0.9475, −0.49} m
2
Frame 570 kg {467, 410, 758} kgm {0, 0, −0.657} m
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Twice a week I tramped into town and spent the night in the native
cafés listening to the alluring singing of Andalusian songs to the
accompaniment of lute and mandolin. It was interesting to note that
Spanish and French words and musical phrases were slipping into
the native melodies. Some day a wonderful new music is destined to
come out of North Africa.
The life was a little lazy. I did not plunge deep enough down into the
native ways to touch the depths of that tribal opposition to other
opposing groups which gave strength and meaning to their common
existence.
So I lived on the edge of the native life, among them, but not one of
them. I could have become a member by marrying into a family, as
my two Senegalese friends had done. But religion was an obstacle. I
did not want to take a backward step in that direction. I had
interesting conversations with my friend Sidi Abdallah, a poet, who
was educated in Egypt and was conceded by the natives to be the
most highly educated and broad-minded Moroccan of the town. He
assured me that Islam was all-embracing and could accommodate
free-thinkers. It was he who started me off on the great story of
Antar, informing me of the high-lights that were not hinted of in the
Encyclopedia Britannica. He told me too that the father of free-
thought was the Moslem, Averrhoës, who lived in Spain in the twelfth
century; that he was the real founder of pantheism and of modern
European free thought. And he told me his story, how he was
imprisoned and flogged by the Caliph of Cordova, because he had
said that the Caliph had no divine authority.
Sidi Abdallah was very eloquent. He resented the Christian
representation of Islam as the religion of the sword. It was the
religion of social equality, for all humanity, he said. It was the liberal
and liberating religion, when the orthodox Christians were
persecuting dissident Christians and pagans. Arabia was a land of
refuge for the dissident Christians and Jews and pagans fleeing
Christian persecution. "Our great Prophet dreamed of a religion of
reconciliation in a world where all men would be like brothers,
worshipping the same God," he said. "Take the Guinea fetishists, for
example; they are primitive magicians and steeped in superstition,
yet we accept and tolerate them as Moslems because they
acknowledge Mohammed as the prophet."
All that Sidi Abdallah said was fine and vastly illuminating. I had a
better conception of Islam after knowing him. The philosophy was all
right, but the fact was that Islam, as it was practiced in North Africa
when I observed it, was intolerant and fanatic. The Moors frankly
admitted that perhaps Morocco was the most fanatically Islamic
country in the West.
It was better, I thought, to live as I did without getting too deeply
involved, and thinking too much, because I experienced more of
purely physical happiness than at any time in my life.
When Carmina and I separated she circulated the report that I
disliked white people. The natives were puzzled about that, because
large numbers of them are as white as some Spanish and French. In
the Riff and other mountain regions there are blue-eyed and blonde-
haired types resembling Nordics, except that they are rather
bronzed. But they are all remarkably free of any color obsessions or
ideas of discrimination. They are Africans. The others are roumi or
Europeans. So they thought that Carmina meant that I did not like
the roumi or Europeans. And that did not displease them. They
opened their doors wider for me. And I did not mind the report, for I
was not particularly interested in European society in North Africa.
But I did have "white" friends (if the Moors do not object to the use of
that phrase) from the white colony. They were all Americans, some
of whom are interestingly friendly to colored people abroad. They
delighted in flaunting their intimacy with colored persons in the face
of the smug European colony. Also there were visitors from Europe.
My first and oldest French friend, Pierre Vogein, came to see me in
1932. He and his wife had come over the previous summer, but I
was away in Xauen. Also Max Eastman and his wife, Eliena
Krylenko, visited me the same year. And there came some of the
Gertrude Stein young men. Carmina's young man had been a kind of
protégé of Gertrude Stein. Carmina said she had been welcome at
Gertrude Stein's at first. But when she and the young man became
seriously enamored of each other, Gertrude Stein grew cold to them.
Carmina said she could not understand Gertrude Stein being a
novelist, for she seemed almost incapable of understanding life. She
said Miss Stein saw black as black and white as white, without any
shades, and so it was impossible to understand one like herself, for
she was neither black nor white. She said Miss Stein did not seem to
realize that chameleon was a fundamental feature of life; that
serpents shed their skins and even the leopard might change its
spots for a woman. But Miss Stein was reactionary: she did not
believe in change.
Carmina was considered one of the most intellectual women in
Harlem. Carmina said that Gertrude Stein reproached her young
man, telling him that if he were seriously interested in Negroes he
should have gone to Africa to hunt for an authentic one. Carmina
said she did not know what more authentic than herself Miss Stein
desired. For besides having some of the best white blood mingled
with black in her veins, which were blue, she came from the best
Negroid middle-class stock, and Gertrude Stein was also only
middle-class.
An interesting couple of visitors from Paris was Monsieur Henri
Cartier-Bresson, and his friend, an American colored woman. He
was a Norman, and a painter and photographer. He had studied at
Oxford and had a suggestion of upper-class English something
about him. He had a falsetto voice which was not unpleasant, but it
wasn't so pleasant to listen to it reiterating that its possessor could
fancy only Negro women because he preferred the primitive. That
falsetto voice just did not sound authentic and convincing to me.
And if a white man is fond of black women, why should he be
declaring his liking to me! The penchant of white men for black
women is nothing new. It has given the world an arresting new type
of humanity, generally known as mulatto. M. Bresson had hunted all
over West Africa in search of the pure primitive. And he had returned
to Paris to find an American brown woman nearly twice his age and
as sophisticated as Carmina, but not so pretty.
M. Bresson brought his lady over to lunch at my house. I was living
alone then like an ascetic, which I found necessary to the completion
of a new book. But I asked Mr. Charles Ford over to meet my guests.
He came in his bathing suit, walking his way down the peninsular
strip which lay between the river and the bay, and swimming over to
my house. He took one look at the pair and left. The lady said, "He
smells like a down-home." I said, "Yes, but he's not a cracker." Later
Ford explained that his precious artistic sense of the harmony of
form and rhythm had suffered too great a shock.
Our conversation turned upon M. Bresson's unwillingness to carry on
with his father the business of an industrialist. M. Bresson's colored
lady thought that he would be more interesting as a business man
than as a modern photographer. She said he was not so artistic as
he was plain lazy; that he was so lazy he wouldn't even pick up his
pajamas from the floor.
I said that there at the head of Africa in Morocco, hard by the ancient
civilized Mediterranean, the natives did not worry about pajamas.
Going to bed was an effortless thing. And I asked M. Bresson
whether among the pure primitives (if there were any left) in the
middle or the bottom of Africa, one had to worry about pajamas. Or if
one might be satisfied with a broad banana leaf. M. Bresson was not
so sure. He had returned all the way to Paris to find his pure
primitive and bring her to Morocco to show me. Well, in less than a
couple of years I heard of M. Bresson in Mexico with a Mexican girl.
Perhaps when his protracted period of adolescence has passed he
will finally finish like a cool Norman and practical Frenchman by
marrying a woman of his country and his class.
I am a little tired of hearing precious bohemian white men protesting
their admiration and love for Negro women and the rest. Yet many of
them are shocked at the idea of intimacy between a black man and a
white woman, because of their confused ideas of erotic attraction.
Perhaps I am hypercritical in detecting a false accent in their
enthusiasm. But it strikes me as being neither idealistic or realistic. I
know it is a different thing from the sympathy and friendship that the
humane and tolerant members of one group or nation or race of
people feel for the members of another. And I know it is different
from that blind urge of sexual desire which compelled white men to
black women during the age of black slavery in the Occident (and
perhaps in Africa today), and created an interesting new type of
humanity. The performance of such men was not actuated by false
and puerile theories of sex. I have a certain respect for them. But
these nice modern faddists—they give me a feeling of white lice
crawling on black bodies.
The most interesting visitor of them all was the American writer and
protégé of Gertrude Stein, Charles Henri Ford, who published a
queer book of adolescence in Paris under the rather puritan title of
The Young and Evil. Young Mr. Ford suddenly dropped in upon me
one day when a group of tribesmen were killing a steer in my
garden. They cooked the liver in the yard and roasted some of the
meat on skewers and invited him to join us in the feast. He was like a
rare lily squatting in among the bearded and bournoused natives,
and he enjoyed it. When he left in the evening I gave him a chunk of
meat from what had been given to me.
He had been in Italy with a Cuban girl. When they came to Madrid
she found a young Spanish lover and the three of them came on to
Tangier. He came to see me soon again and I invited some of the
younger Moors and a few fatmahs to meet him. They all rather liked
him. They said he looked wonderfully like the cinema portraits of
Marlene Dietrich.
He came again and again, evidently liking my little isolated house on
the river. He was likable enough, and we gave a few native parties
for him. The young men brought their lutes and mandolins and sang
Andalusian melodies, and the girls danced. One evening Mr. Ford
came over early and excitedly told me that the young men were
bringing a very beautiful fatmah—prettier than any he had seen at
my place. I said I couldn't think of any pretty girl of that class whom
Mr. Ford knew and I had not seen before. He said he felt certain I
hadn't seen her. So we waited expectantly until the carriages arrived
with the party. When the girl unveiled she turned out to be the first
little one who had worked for me when I arrived in Tangier. We were
both very surprised. She had lost the quaint native freshness of our
earlier acquaintanceship and already she had developed like a fine
and hardened cashew-nut. She was not aware that the joy-makers
were bringing her to my new place. But she was not in the slightest
embarrassed. She established herself as temporary hostess as well
as guest and was just as charming in the rôle as she had been
efficient as a little housekeeper.... Our fiesta lasted two days. The
Moroccans are a magical barbaric people, if one isn't too civilized to
appreciate the subtlety and beauty of their barbaresques. When at
last I decided to return to America, in homage to them I indited: "A
Farewell to Morocco."
Oh wistful and heartrending earth, oh land
Of colors singing symphonies of life!
Myself is like a stone upon my spirit,
Reluctant, passing from your sunny shore.
Oh native colors,
Pure colors aglow
With magic light.
Mysterious atmosphere whose elements,

Like hands inspired by a magnetic force,
Touched so caressingly my inmost chords,
How strangely I was brought beneath your spell!
But willingly
A captive I
Remained to be.
Oh friends, my friends! When Ramadan returns

And daily fast and feasting through the night,
With chants and music honey-dripping sweets,
And fatmahs shading their flamenco feet,
My thoughts will wing
The waves of air
To be with you.
Oh when the cannon sounds to breaks the fast,

The children chorus madly their relief,
And you together group to feast at last,
You'll feel my hungry spirit there in your midst,
Released from me
A prisoner,
To fly to you.
And when you go beneath the orange trees,

To mark and serenade the crescent growth,
With droning lute and shivering mandolin
And drop the scented blossoms in your cups!
Oh make one tune,
One melody
Of love for me.
Keeping your happy vigil through the night,

With tales and music whiling by the hours,
You may recall my joy to be with you,
Until the watchers passed from house to house
And bugle call
And muffled drum
Proclaimed the day!
When liquid-eyed Habeeb draws from the lute

A murmur golden like a thousand bees,
Embowelled in a sheltering tropic tree,
With honey brimming in the honeycomb,
The tuneful air
Will waft the sound
Across to me.
Notes soared with the dear odor of your soil

And like its water cooling to my tongue,
Haunting me always like a splendid dream,
Of vistas opening to an infinite way
Of perfect love
That angels make
In Paradise.
Habeeb, Habeeba, I may never return
Another sacred fast to keep with you,
But when your Prince of months inaugurates
Our year, my thoughts will turn to Ramadan,
Forgetting never
Its tokens
Unforgettable.
—Mektoub.
XXIX
On Belonging to a Minority Group
IT was in Africa that I was introduced to Nancy Cunard—an
introduction by mail. Years before, when I saw her at a studio in
Paris, she had been mentioned as a personage, but I had not been
introduced. In Africa I received a pamphlet from Miss Cunard entitled
Black Man and White Ladyship. The interesting pamphlet gave
details about the Cunard daughter establishing a friendship with a
Negro musician, of which the Cunard mother had disapproved.
Miss Cunard wrote that she was making a Negro anthology to
dedicate to her Negro friend, and asked me to be a contributor. I
promised that I would as soon as I found it possible to take time from
the novel I was writing. That started an interesting correspondence
between us.
Although I considered the contents of the Nancy Cunard pamphlet of
absorbing interest and worthy of publication, I did not admire the
style and tone of presentation.
After some months, Miss Cunard informed me that she was traveling
to New York, and from there to the West Indies, including Jamaica.
She asked me if I could introduce her to anybody in Jamaica who
could put her in touch with the natives. I addressed her to my eldest
brother, who is well-placed somewhere between the working masses
and the controlling classes of Jamaica and has an excellent
knowledge of both. From Jamaica Miss Cunard wrote again that she
had landed in paradise after the purgatory of New York, where she
was put in the spotlight by the newspapers, when it was discovered
that she was residing in Harlem among the Negroes. My brother
invited her to his home in the heart of the banana, chocolate, and
ginger region of Jamaica, and she stayed there two weeks with her
Negro secretary. Both she and her secretary wrote extolling my
brother's hospitality and the warmth and kindliness of the peasants.
Miss Cunard said she particularly liked my brother's face, and she
sent me a snapshot of him.
Meanwhile I had come to the point of a breakdown while working on
my novel in Morocco; and besides I was in pecuniary difficulties.
Nevertheless I wrote an article for Miss Cunard's anthology and
forwarded it to her on her return to France. Miss Cunard
extravagantly praised the article and said it was one of the best and
also that I was one of the best, whatever that "best" meant. She said
she would use it with a full-page photograph of myself which was
done by a friend of ours, the photographer, Berenice Abbot.
However, she did not accompany her praise by a check, and I
requested payment. I was in need of money. Miss Cunard replied
that she was not paying contributors and that my article was too long
after all. She was doing the book for the benefit of the Negro race
and she had thought that every Negro would be glad to contribute
something for nothing. She had suffered and sacrificed a fortune for
Negroes, she said.
I comprehended Miss Cunard's way of reasoning. Yet in spite of the
penalty she had to pay for her interest in the Negro, I did not
consider it my bounden duty to write for her without remuneration.
Miss Cunard would have been shocked at the idea of asking the
printers and binders to print and bind her charitable book without
remuneration. But in spite of her ultra-modern attitude toward life,
apparently she still clung to the antiquated and aristocratic and very
British idea that artists should perform for noble and rich people for
prestige instead of remuneration.
I might say that I too have suffered a lot for my knowledge of, and
contact with, the white race. Yet if I were composing an anthology of
the white hell, it never would have occurred to me that all
sympathetic white writers and artists owed me a free contribution. I
suppose it takes a modern white aristocrat to indulge in that kind of
archaic traditional thinking.
As Miss Cunard would not pay for my article, I requested its return.
She said she was going to take extracts from it. I forbade her to
touch it. That made her mad, comme une vache enragée. My brother
also was supposed to do an article on the Jamaica banana industry
for Miss Cunard. He decided not to. And suddenly Miss Cunard did
not like his face any more. She wrote that he was big and fat.
In her pamphlet Black Man and White Ladyship the reader gets the
impression that the Cunard daughter enjoys taking a Negro stick to
beat the Cunard mother. Miss Cunard seemed to have been ultra-
modern in ideas and contacts without alarming Lady Cunard, who
was a little modern herself. Then Miss Cunard became aware of the
Negro by way of jazz in Venice. And soon also she was made aware
that her mother would not accept her friendship with a Negro. Other
white women have come up against that problem. It is not merely a
problem of people of different races; people of different religions and
of different classes know the unreasonableness and the bitterness of
it. The mother Cunard drastically reduced the income of the daughter
Cunard. The daughter replied with the pamphlet Black Man and
White Ladyship, which was not published for sale but probably for
spite. In telling the story of her friendship, Miss Cunard among other
things ridicules her mother's American accent. Yet the American
Negroes she professes to like speak the same language as her
mother, with slight variations.
Writing in her strange, heavy and ineffectual giant of a Negro
anthology, Miss Cunard has this to say of me: "His people [the
characters of my novels] and himself have also that wrong kind of
race-consciousness; they ring themselves in."
The statement is interesting, not so much from the narrow personal
as from the broader social angle of a minority group of people and its
relationship to friends who belong to the majority group. It leaves me
wondering whether it would be altogether such a bad thing if by
ringing itself in closer together, a weak, disunited and suppressed
group of people could thereby develop group pride and strength and
self-respect!
It is hell to belong to a suppressed minority and outcast group. For to
most members of the powerful majority, you are not a person; you
are a problem. And every crusading crank imagines he knows how
to solve your problem. I think I am a rebel mainly from psychological
reasons, which have always been more important to me than
economic. As a member of a weak minority, you are not supposed to
criticize your friends of the strong majority. You will be damned mean
and ungrateful. Therefore you and your group must be content with
lower critical standards.
A Fannie Hurst who is a best seller is interested in Negro literature.
She is nice to Negro writers and artists. She visits among Negroes.
She engages a Negro secretary. And finally she writes a trashy novel
of Negro life. Negro critics do not like the novel. Fannie Hurst thinks
they are ungrateful. I suppose the only way Negro critics could get
around the dilemma would be to judge Fannie Hurst by social and
sentimental instead of artistic standards. But that wouldn't help the
Negro literature that Fannie Hurst desires to promote. I think Negro
writers might benefit more by the forthright criticism of such southern
gentlemen as H.L. Mencken and Joseph Wood Krutch than by the
kindness of a Fannie Hurst.
A southern white woman who is married to a black journalist says, in
a critique entitled, Don'ts for My Daughter, that she would not "want
her to read Home to Harlem, which overemphasizes the carnal side
of the Aframerican." I will confess that I may fall short of that degree
of civilization which perfects the lily-white state of mind of the gentle
southern lady. And that was why as a creative writer I was unable to
make nice distinctions between the carnal and the pure and
happened perhaps to sin on the side of the carnal in Home to
Harlem.
Yet I once read in a Negro magazine some stanzas entitled,
Temptation, by a certain Young Southern White Lady, and attributed
to my pure critic, which sound like a wild jazz page out of Nigger
Heaven. I remember some of those stanzas:
I couldn't forget
The banjo's whang
And the piano's bang
As we strutted the do-do-do's
In Harlem!
That pansy seal

A-tossing me
All loose and free, O, lily me!
In muscled arms
Of Ebony!
I couldn't forget
That black boy's eyes
That black boy's shake
That black boy's size
I couldn't forget
O, snow white me!
Now to the mind of this black sinner this piece of sophisticated lily-
white lyricism is more offensively carnal than the simple primitive
erotic emotions of the characters of Home to Harlem. But I reiterate it
is possible that I am not civilized white enough to appreciate the
purity of the mind which composed the above stanzas and to which
Home to Harlem is carnal.
The white lady is raising her mulatto daughter on a special diet and
periodically the child is featured as a prodigy in the New York Herald
Tribune. But it is possible that when that child has grown up out of
the state of being a prodigy she might prefer a plain fare, including
Home to Harlem. I have not had the time to be an experimentalist
about life, because I have been occupied always with facing hard
facts. And this I know to be a fact: Right here in New York there are
children of mixed parentage, who have actually hated their white
mother after they had grown up to understanding. When they came
up against the full force of the great white city on the outside and
went home to face a helpless white mother (a symbol of that white
prejudice) it was more than their Negroid souls could stand.
I think it would be illuminating to know the real feelings of that white
mother, who was doubtlessly devoted to her colored children.... I
myself have had the experience of a fine friendship with a highly
cultured white woman, when I first arrived in the United States—a
friendship which was turned into a hideous nightmare because of the
taboos of the dominant white community. I still retain a bitter memory
of my black agony, but I can only try to imagine the white crucifixion
of that cultured woman....
I do not think the author of Don'ts for My Daughter, felt personally
antagonistic to me, when she wrote in the leading Negro magazine
that she did not want her child to read my novel. It is possible that
like myself she has faith in literary and artistic truth. Perhaps she
even desires to contribute something to the growing literature of
Negro life. I have read an interesting article by her on "America's
Changing Color Line," which emphasizes the idea that America is
steadily growing darker in complexion, and is informing about the
increasing numbers of white Negroids who are absorbed by the
white group.
Without the slightest feeling of antagonism to my critic, I would
suggest to her that vicarious stories of "passing white" are merely of
slight importance to the great group of fifteen millions who are
obviously Negroes. I would suggest to her that if she really desires to
make a unique contribution to American literature, she has a chance
of doing something that no Negro can—something that might be
worthwhile for her daughter to read: she might write a sincere
account of what it means for an educated and sensitive white woman
to be the wife of a Negro in America.
Gertrude Stein, the high priestess of artless-artful Art, identifies
Negro with Nothingness. When the eternal faddists who exist like
vampires on new phenomena become fed up with Negro art, they
must find a reason for their indifference. From being disappointed in
Paul Robeson, Gertrude Stein concludes that Negroes are suffering
from nothingness. In the ineffable Stein manner she decided to take
Paul Robeson as the representative of Negro culture. Similarly, any
other faddist could arbitrarily make Chaliapin or Al Jolson or Maurice
Chevalier or Greta Garbo the representative of Russian, Jewish,
French and Swedish culture respectively. When Gertrude Stein finds
that Paul Robeson knows American values and American life as only
one in it and not of it could, when she discovers that he is big and
naïve, but not quite naïve enough to please Gertrude Stein, she
declares: "The African is not primitive; he has a very ancient but a
very narrow culture and there it remains. Consequently nothing can
happen." Not long after she published this, something was
happening: Negro Americans were rendering her opera Four Saints
in Three Acts to sophisticated New York audiences.
Well, whatever the white folks do and say, the Negro race will finally
have to face the need to save itself. The whites have done the
blacks some great wrongs, but also they have done some good.
They have brought to them the benefits of modern civilization. They
can still do a lot more, but one thing they cannot do: they cannot give
Negroes the gift of a soul—a group soul.
Wherever I traveled in Europe and Africa I was impressed by the
phenomenon of the emphasis on group life, whether the idea behind
it was Communist co-operative or Fascist collective or regional
autonomy. I lived under a Communist dictatorship in Russia, two
Fascist dictatorships in Europe, and the French colonial dictatorship
in Morocco. I don't like any dictatorship.
Yet even the dictatorships were making concessions to the strong

awakened group spirit of the peoples. Soviet Russia was hard at
work on the social problems of its many nationalities. Primo de
Rivera in Spain had organized two grand exhibitions: one for
discontented Catalonia and another for unhappy Andalusia. Regional
groups such as that in Brittany and in the Basque country were
reviving their ancient culture. Labor groups and radical groups were
building up their institutions and educating their children in opposition
to reactionary institutions.
But there is very little group spirit among Negroes. The American
Negro group is the most advanced in the world. It possesses unique
advantages for development and expansion and for assuming the
world leadership of the Negro race. But it sadly lacks a group soul.
And the greatest hindrance to the growth of a group soul is the
wrong idea held about segregation. Negroes do not understand the
difference between group segregation and group aggregation. And
their leaders do not enlighten them, because they too do not choose
to understand. Negro institutions and unique Negro efforts have
never had a chance for full development; they are haunted by the
fear of segregation. Except where they are forced against their will,
Negroes in general prefer to patronize white institutions and support
white causes in order to demonstrate their opposition to segregation.
Yet it is a plain fact that the entire world of humanity is more or less
segregated in groups. The family group gave rise to the tribal group,
the tribal group to the regional group, and the regional group to the
national group. There are groups within groups: language groups,
labor groups, racial groups and class groups. Certainly no sane
group desires public segregation and discrimination. But it is a clear
historical fact that different groups have won their social rights only
when they developed a group spirit and strong group organization.
There are language groups and religious groups in this country that
have found it necessary to develop their own banks, co-operative
stores, printing establishments, clubs, theaters, colleges, hotels,
hospitals and other social service institutions and trade unions. Yet
they were not physically separated from other white groups as much
as are Negroes. But they were in a stronger position to bargain and
obtain social and political privileges by virtue of the strength of their
own institutions.
But Negro institutions in general are developed only perfunctorily
and by compulsion, because Negroes have no abiding faith in them.
Negroes wisely are not wasting thought on the chimera of a separate
Negro state or a separate Negro economy within the United States,
but there are a thousand things within the Negro community which
only Negroes can do.
There are educated Negroes who believe that the color line will be
dissolved eventually by the light-skinned Negroids "passing white,"
by miscegenation and final assimilation by the white group. But even
if such a solution were possible in the future, it is certainly not a
solution for the great dark body of Negroids living in the present. Also
if the optimistic Negro advocates of futility would travel and observe
or study to learn something of the composition and distribution of
white racial, national and regional groups that are more assimilable
than Negroes, and of their instinctive and irrational tenacity, they
might be less optimistic and negative about the position of their own.
The Negro intelligentsia cannot hope to get very far if the Negro
masses are despised and neglected. However poor it may be, the
Negro intelligentsia gets its living directly from the Negro masses. A
few Negro individuals who obtain important political and social
positions among whites may delude themselves into thinking they
got their jobs by individual merit alone against hungry white
competitors who are just as capable.
But the fact is that the whites in authority give Negroes their jobs
because they take into consideration the potential strength of the
Negro group. If that group were organized on the basis of its
numerical strength, there would be more important jobs and greater
social recognition for Negroes.
And Negroes will have to organize themselves and learn from their
mistakes. The white man cannot organize Negroes as a group, for
Negroes mistrust the motives of white people. And the Negro whom
they consider an Uncle Tom among the whites, whose voice is the
voice of their white master, cannot do it either, even though he may
proclaim himself a radical!
Many years ago I preserved a brief editorial from the Nation on the
Woman's Party which seemed to me to be perfectly applicable to the
position of the Negro—if the word Negro were substituted for
"woman" and "whites" for men. It said in part: "We agree that no
party, left to itself, will allow women an equal chance. Neither labor
nor the farmer nor the business man nor the banker is ready to
assume executive and political ability in women. They will steadily,
perhaps instinctively, resist any such belief. They will accede to
women's demands only so far as they wish to please or placate the
woman vote. For every party job, for every political office, for every
legal change in the direction of equality, women will have to fight as
women. Inside the party organizations, the women will have to wage
their own battle for recognition and equal rights....
"After all, women are an indivisible part of this country's population;
they cannot live under a women's Congress and a special set of
feminine laws and economic conditions. They, as well as men, suffer
when our government is prostituted, and lose their employment
when economic hardship sweeps the country. They, like men, have a
vote, and like men they will in the long run tend to elect people and
parties who represent their whole interest. To be sure, apart from
men they have a special group interest...."
It would be altogether too ludicrous to point out that white women are
by far more an indivisible part of this country's population than
Negroes! Yet the advance guard of white women realize that they
have a common and special group interest, different from the
general interests of their fathers and brothers and their husbands
and sons.
It goes without saying that the future of the Negro is bound up with
the future system of world economy. And all progressive social
trends indicate that that system will be based on the principle of
labor for communal instead of private profit. I have no idea how the
new system will finally work out. I have never believed in the
infallibility of the social prophets, even though some of their
predictions and calculations have come true. It is possible that in
some countries some of the captains of capitalist industry might
become labor leaders and prove themselves more efficient than
many reactionary labor leaders. Who knows?
Anyway, it seems to me that if Negroes were organized as a group
and as workers, whatever work they are doing (with or without the
whites), and were thus getting a practical education in the nature and
the meaning of the labor movement, it might even be more important
and worthwhile than for them to become members of radical political
parties.
A West Indian charlatan came to this country, full of antiquated social
ideas; yet within a decade he aroused the social consciousness of
the Negro masses more than any leader ever did. When Negroes
really desire a new group orientation they will create it.
Such is my opinion for all that it may be worth. I suppose I have a
poet's right to imagine a great modern Negro leader. At least I would
like to celebrate him in a monument of verse. For I have nothing to
give but my singing. All my life I have been a troubadour wanderer,
nourishing myself mainly on the poetry of existence. And all I offer
here is the distilled poetry of my experience.
BOOKS BY CLAUDE McKAY

Songs of Jamaica
Spring in New Hampshire
Harlem Shadows
Home to Harlem
Banjo
Gingertown
Banana Bottom
A Long Way from Home
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LONG WAY
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Advances in Dynamics of Vehicles on

Roads and Tracks II Proceedings of the

Advances in Applied Nonlinear Dynamics, Vibration and

The Proceedings of the 2021 Asia Pacific International

Superalloys 2020 Proceedings of the 14th International

Proceedings of the 4th International Seminar on Non

Advanced Technologies Systems and Applications VI

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics II: Stratified / Rotating

Application of Intelligent Control Algorithms to Study

Advances in Materials Mechanics and Manufacturing II

Editorial Board Members

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/11236

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

February 2022 Anna Orlova

International Scientiﬁc Committee

Olga Markova Institute of Technical Mechanics of NASU and

Rail: Active suspensions, Control and Monitoring

Validation of a Driverless Railway Vehicle Control Unit Algorithms

Rail: Pantograph-Catenary Dynamics, Continuous Rail monitoring

Rail: Running Performance, Safety and Derailment Analysis

Rail: Track and Bridges Modelling

Prediction of Differential Track Settlement in Transition Zones Using

Rail: Traction and Braking

Rail: Vehicle Design and Components

Simulation and Experimental Assessment of the Dynamic

Rail: Vehicle - Track Interaction

Rail: Wheel and Rail Contact, Adhesion, Wear, Damage

A Computationally Efﬁcient Multibody Simulation Model

Road: Heavy vehicles

On the Control Allocation Performance of Longer Combination

Road: Vehicles on virtual Rails

Road: Vehicle Dynamics Analysis

Road: Driver-Vehicle Dynamics, Ride Comfort

Road: Tires, Road Surfaces

Simulation of a Truck Tyre Using a Viscoplastic Constitutive Rubber

Road: Vehicle Control, Estimation, Monitoring

Road: Electric Vehicles, Transmissions

A Generalized Approach to Virtual Driveline Systems for E-Vehicle

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279

Abstract. A multi-degree of freedom dynamic vibration absorber (MDOF DVA)

Keywords: High-speed trains · Multi-DOF dynamic vibration absorber ·

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

2 Establishment of a High-Speed Train Dynamic Model

Fig. 1. Dynamic model of the high-speed train

The completed dynamic model is obtained as:

where is spatial circular frequency(rad/m), Av is 4.032 × 10–7 m rad, Aa is 2.119 ×

3 Optimal Design of MDOF DVA of the Carbody

Table 1(a). Natural vibration frequency of the MDOF DVA

Freedom Vibration shape Natural frequency of

Table 1(b). Installation parameters of MDOF DVA

Parameter Value Unit

(a) lateral motion (b) bouncing (c) rolling

(d) pitching (e) yawing

Rocco Libero Giossi(B) , Anton Shipsha, Rickard Persson, Per Wennhage,

KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 10044 Stockholm, Sweden

Abstract. Within the Shift2Rail projects Pivot2 and NEXTGEAR, an innovative

Keywords: FE model · Structural modes · Active control · Ride comfort ·

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

2 The Innovative Vehicle