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Electromagnetic Compatibility
This book provides a sound grasp of the fundamental concepts, applications, and practice of EMC.
Developments in recent years have resulted in further increases in electrical component density,
wider penetration of wireless technologies, and a significant increase in complexity of electrical and
electronic equipment. New materials, which can be customized to meet EMC needs, have been intro-
duced. Considerable progress has been made in developing numerical tools for complete system EMC
simulation. EMC is now a central consideration in all industrial sectors. Maintaining the holistic
approach of the previous edition of Principles and Techniques of Electromagnetic Compatibility,
the Third Edition updates coverage of EMC to reflect recent important developments.
What is new in the Third Edition?
• A comprehensive treatment of new materials (meta- and nano-) and their impact on EMC
• Numerical modeling of complex systems and complexity reduction methods
• Impact of wireless technologies and the Internet of Things (IoT) on EMC
• Testing in reverberation chambers, and in the time domain
• A comprehensive treatment of the scope and development of stochastic models for EMC
• EMC issues encountered in automotive, railway, aerospace, and marine applications
• Impact of EMC and intentional EMI (IEMI) on infrastructure, and risk assessment
In addition to updating material, new references, examples, and appendices were added to offer
further support to readers interested in exploring further. As in previous editions, the emphasis is
on building a sound theoretical framework and demonstrating how it can be turned to practical use
in challenging applications. The expectation is that this approach will serve EMC engineers through
the inevitable future technological shifts and developments.
Electronic Engineering Systems
Series Editor:
J.K. Fidler
Optimal and Adaptive Signal Processing

Peter M. Clarkson
Circuit Simulation Methods and Algorithms
Jan Ogrodzki
The art of Simulation Using PSPICEAnalog and Digital
Bahir AL-Hashimi
Fundamentals of Nonlinear Digital Filtering
Jaakko Asotola and Pauli Kuosmanen
Wideband Circuit Design
Herbert J. Carlin and Pier Paolo Civalleri
Continuous-Time Active Filter Design
T. Deliyannis, Yichuang Sun, and J.K. Fidler
Nonlinear Aspects of Telecommunications: Discrete Volterra Series and
Nonlinear Echo Cancellation
Andrzej Borys
Principles and Techniques of Electromagnetic Compatibility, Second Edition
Christos Christopoulos
Principles and Techniques of Electromagnetic Compatibility, Third Edition
For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/Electronic-Engineering-

Systems/book-series/CRCELEENGSYS?pd=published,forthcoming&pg=1&pp=12&so=pub&view=l
ist?pd=published,forthcoming&pg=1&pp=12&so=pub&view=list
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Third Edition
Third edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
First edition published by CRC Press 1995
Second edition published by CRC Press 2007
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and p
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Christopoulos, Christos, author.
Title: Principles and techniques of electromagnetic compatibility /
Christos Christopoulos.
Description: Third edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2023. |
Series: Electronic engineering systems | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “The book provides a sound grasp of the fundamental concepts, applications, and practice of EMC. Developments
in recent years have resulted in further increases in electrical component density, wider penetration of wireless technologies,
and a significant increase in complexity of electrical and electronic equipment. New materials, which can be customized to
meet EMC needs, have been introduced. Considerable progress has been made in developing numerical tools for complete
system EMC simulation. EMC is now a central consideration in all industrial sectors. Maintaining the holistic approach of the
previous edition of Principles and Techniques of Electromagnetic Compatibility, the Third Edition updates coverage of EMC
to reflects recent important developments. What is new in the Third Edition? A comprehensive treatment of new materials
(meta- and nano-) and their impact on EMC, numerical modelling of complex systems and complexity reduction methods,
impact of wireless technologies and the Internet of things (IoT) on EMC, testing in reverberation chambers, and in the time-
domain, a comprehensive treatment of the scope and development of stochastic models for EMC, EMC issues encountered in
automotive, railway, aerospace and marine applications, and impact of EMC and Intentional EMI (IEMI) on infrastructure,
and risk assessment In addition to updating material, new references, examples, and appendices were added to offer further
support to readers interested in exploring further. As in previous editions, the emphasis is on building a sound theoretical
framework, and demonstrating how it can be turned to practical use in challenging applications. The expectation is that
this approach will serve EMC engineers through the inevitable future technological shifts and developments”—Provided by
publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022008151 (print) | LCCN 2022008152 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367533618 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032317212 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003310983 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronic circuits—Noise. | Electromagnetic
compatibility. | Electromagnetic interference.
Classification: LCC TK7867.5 .C47 2023 (print) | LCC TK7867.5 (ebook) |
DDC 621.382/24—dc23/eng/20220513
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022008151
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022008152
ISBN: 978-0-367-53361-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-31721-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-31098-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003310983
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
To: Luka, Eddie, Anastasia, Leo, and Max…
Contents
Preface to the Third Edition........................................................................................................... xiii
Preface to the Second Edition........................................................................................................... xv
Preface............................................................................................................................................xvii
Author..............................................................................................................................................xix
PART I Underlying Concepts and Techniques
Chapter 1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility............................................................3
Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Fields..................................................................................................5

2.1 tatic Fields........................................................................................................5
S
2.1.1 Electric Field.........................................................................................5
2.1.2 Magnetic Field..................................................................................... 12
2.2 Quasistatic Fields.............................................................................................. 16
2.2.1 The Relationship Between Circuits and Fields................................... 19
2.2.2 Electromagnetic Potentials.................................................................. 22
2.3 High-Frequency Fields.....................................................................................24
2.3.1 Electromagnetic Waves.......................................................................24
2.3.2 Radiating Systems...............................................................................28
References................................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 3 Electrical Circuit Components.................................................................................... 39

3.1 Lumped Circuit Components........................................................................... 39
3.1.1 Ideal Lumped Components................................................................. 39
3.1.2 Real Lumped Components..................................................................40
3.2 Distributed Circuit Components....................................................................... 45
3.2.1 Time-Domain Analysis of Transmission Lines.................................. 47
3.2.2 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Transmission Lines.......................... 50
References................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 4 Electrical Signals and Circuits.................................................................................... 55

4.1 Representation of a Signal in Terms of Simpler Signals.................................. 55
4.2 Correlation Properties of Signals..................................................................... 63
4.2.1 General Correlation Properties........................................................... 63
4.2.2 Random Signals...................................................................................64
4.3 The Response of Linear Circuits to Deterministic and Random Signals........ 65
4.3.1 Impulse Response................................................................................66
4.3.2 Frequency Response............................................................................66
4.3.3 Detection of Signals in Noise.............................................................. 68
4.4 The Response of Nonlinear Circuits................................................................ 70
4.5 Characterization of Noise................................................................................. 71
References................................................................................................................... 77
vii
viii Contents
PART II General EMC Concepts and Techniques
Chapter 5 Sources of Electromagnetic Interference.................................................................... 81

5.1 Classification of Electromagnetic Interference Sources................................... 81
5.2 Natural Electromagnetic Interference Sources................................................ 81
5.2.1 Low-Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields.................................... 81
5.2.2 Lightning............................................................................................. 82
5.2.3 High-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields............................................. 85
5.3 Man-Made Electromagnetic Interference Sources........................................... 85
5.3.1 Radio Transmitters.............................................................................. 85
5.3.2 Electroheat Applications..................................................................... 86
5.3.3 Digital Signal Processing and Transmission....................................... 86
5.3.4 Power Conditioning and Transmission................................................ 88
5.3.4.1 Low-Frequency Conducted Interference............................. 88
5.3.4.2 Low-Frequency Radiated Interference................................ 89
5.3.4.3 High-Frequency Conducted Interference............................ 89
5.3.4.4 High-Frequency Radiated Interference...............................90
5.3.5 Switching Transients...........................................................................90
5.3.5.1 Nature and Origin of Transients..........................................90
5.3.5.2 Circuit Behavior during Switching Assuming an
Idealized Switch�� 91
5.3.5.3 Circuit Behavior during Switching Assuming a
Realistic Model of the Switch�� 95
5.3.6 The Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)..................................................... 98
5.3.7 The Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse (NEMP) and High Power
Electromagnetics (HPEM)��99
5.4 Surveys of the Electromagnetic Environment................................................ 100
References................................................................................................................. 100
Chapter 6 Penetration through Shields and Apertures.............................................................. 103

6.1
Introduction.................................................................................................... 103
Shielding Theory............................................................................................ 104
6.2
6.2.1 Shielding Effectiveness..................................................................... 104
6.2.2 Approximate Methods—The Circuit Approach................................ 105
6.2.3 Approximate Methods—The Wave Approach.................................. 112
6.2.4 Analytical Solutions to Shielding Problems...................................... 115
6.2.5 General Remarks Regarding Shielding Effectiveness at
Different Frequencies�� 115
6.2.6 Surface Transfer Impedance and Cable Shields................................ 116
6.3
Aperture Theory............................................................................................. 119
6.4
Rigorous Calculation of the Shielding Effectiveness (SE) of a
Conducting Box with an Aperture�� 124
6.5
Intermediate Level Tools for SE Calculations................................................ 125
6.6
Numerical Simulation Methods for Penetration through
Shields and Apertures�� 132
6.6.1 Classification of Numerical Methods................................................ 132
6.6.2 The Application of Frequency-Domain Methods............................. 133
6.6.3 The Application of Time-Domain Methods...................................... 135
Contents ix
6.7 Treatment of Multiple Apertures through a Digital Filter Interface.............. 138

6.8 Further Work Relevant to Shielding............................................................... 143
References................................................................................................................. 143
Chapter 7 Propagation and Crosstalk........................................................................................ 147

7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 147
7.2 Basic Principles.............................................................................................. 149
7.3 Line Parameter Calculation............................................................................ 157
7.3.1 Analytical Methods........................................................................... 158
7.3.2 Numerical Methods........................................................................... 163
7.4 Representation of EM Coupling from External Fields................................... 163
7.5 Determination of the EM Field Generated by Transmission Lines............... 173
7.6 Numerical Simulation Methods for Propagation Studies............................... 177
References................................................................................................................. 177
Chapter 8 Simulation of the Electromagnetic Coupling between Systems............................... 181

8.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 181
8.2 Source/External Environment........................................................................ 181
8.3 Penetration and Coupling............................................................................... 182
8.4 Propagation and Crosstalk.............................................................................. 191
8.5 Device Susceptibility and Emission............................................................... 192
8.6 Numerical Simulation Methods...................................................................... 192
8.6.1 The Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FD-TD) Method................... 193
8.6.2 The Transmission-Line Modeling (TLM) Method........................... 193
8.6.3 The Method of Moments (MM)........................................................ 194
8.6.4 The Finite-Element (FE) Method...................................................... 194
8.7 EMC Modeling of Complex Systems............................................................. 195
References................................................................................................................. 199
Chapter 9 Effects of Electromagnetic Interference on Devices and Systems............................ 203

9.1 Immunity of Analogue Circuits.....................................................................204
9.2 The Immunity of Digital Circuits...................................................................206
9.3 Effects of Intentional EMI on Infrastructure Systems...................................209
9.4 EMI Risk Management..................................................................................209
References.................................................................................................................209
PART III Interference Control Techniques
Chapter 10 Shielding and Grounding.......................................................................................... 213

10.1
Equipment Screening..................................................................................... 213
10.1.1
Practical Levels of Attenuation......................................................... 213
10.1.2
Screening Materials.......................................................................... 213
10.1.3
Conducting Penetrations................................................................... 216
10.1.4
Slits, Seams, and Gasketing.............................................................. 217
10.1.5
Damping of Resonances.................................................................... 218
10.1.6
Measurement of Screening Effectiveness......................................... 218
x Contents
10.2 Cable Screening.............................................................................................. 218

10.2.1 Cable Transfer Impedance................................................................ 219
10.2.2 Earthing of Cable Screens................................................................. 222
10.2.3 Cable Connectors.............................................................................. 223
10.3 Grounding....................................................................................................... 223
10.3.1 Grounding in Large-Scale Systems..................................................224
10.3.2 Grounding in Self-Contained Equipment......................................... 226
10.3.3 Grounding in an Environment of Interconnected Equipment........... 227
10.4 Novel Materials and EMC.............................................................................. 227
10.4.1 Metamaterials.................................................................................... 230
10.4.2 Nanomaterials................................................................................... 243
References................................................................................................................. 245
Chapter 11 Filtering and Nonlinear Protective Devices.............................................................. 249

11.1 Power-Line Filters.......................................................................................... 249
11.2 Isolation.......................................................................................................... 252
11.3 Balancing........................................................................................................ 254
11.4 Signal-Line Filters.......................................................................................... 255
11.5 Nonlinear Protective Devices......................................................................... 255
References................................................................................................................. 259
Chapter 12 General EMC Design Principles............................................................................... 261

12.1 Reduction of Emission at Source.................................................................... 261
12.2 Reduction of Coupling Paths.......................................................................... 262
12.1.1 Operating Frequency and Rise-Time................................................ 262
12.2.2 Reflections and Matching.................................................................. 263
12.2.3 Ground Paths and Ground Planes.....................................................264
12.2.4 Circuit Segregation and Placement...................................................264
12.2.5 Cable Routing.................................................................................... 265
12.3 Improvements in Immunity............................................................................ 265
12.3.1 Immunity by Software Design..........................................................266
12.3.2 Spread Spectrum Techniques............................................................ 267
12.4 The Management of EMC.............................................................................. 269
References................................................................................................................. 271
PART IV EMC Standards and Testing
Chapter 13 EMC Standards......................................................................................................... 275

13.1
The Need for Standards.................................................................................. 275
13.2
The International Framework......................................................................... 275
13.3
Civilian EMC Standards................................................................................ 276
13.3.1 FCC Standards.................................................................................. 276
13.3.2 European Standards.......................................................................... 278
13.3.3 Other EMC Standards....................................................................... 279
13.3.4 Sample Calculation for Conducted Emission.................................... 279
13.4
Military Standards.......................................................................................... 282
13.4.1 Military Standard MIL-STD-461D.................................................. 282
Contents xi
13.4.2 Defense Standard DEF-STAN 59–41............................................... 282

13.5 Company Standards........................................................................................284
13.6 Power Quality, Electrical Drives, and Smart Grids.......................................284
13.7 EMC at Frequencies above 1 GHz.................................................................. 286
13.8 Human Exposure Limits to EM Fields........................................................... 288
References................................................................................................................. 291
Chapter 14 EMC Measurements and Testing.............................................................................. 295

14.1 EMC Measurement Techniques..................................................................... 295
14.2 Measurement Tools......................................................................................... 295
14.2.1 Sources.............................................................................................. 296
14.2.2 Receivers........................................................................................... 296
14.2.3 Field Sensors..................................................................................... 297
14.2.4 Antennas............................................................................................ 298
14.2.5 Assorted Instrumentation.................................................................. 301
14.3 Test Environments.......................................................................................... 303
14.3.1 Open-Area Test Sites......................................................................... 303
14.3.2 Screened Rooms................................................................................306
14.3.3 Reverberating Chamber Basics......................................................... 310
14.3.4 Reverberating Chamber Characterization and Modeling................. 312
14.3.5 Special EMC Test Cells..................................................................... 315
References................................................................................................................. 317
PART V EMC in Systems Design
Chapter 15 EMC and Signal Integrity (SI).................................................................................. 323

15.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 323
15.2 Transmission Lines as Interconnects.............................................................. 326
15.3 Board and Chip Level EMC........................................................................... 337
15.3.1 Simultaneous Switching Noise (SSN)............................................... 337
15.3.2 Physical Models.................................................................................340
15.3.3 Behavioral Models — IBIS............................................................... 345
15.3.4 Near-Field Scans............................................................................... 347
15.3.5 Analytical Approaches to Complexity Reduction............................. 350
References................................................................................................................. 352
Chapter 16 EMC and Wireless Technologies.............................................................................. 355

16.1 The Efficient Use of the Frequency Spectrum............................................... 356
16.2 EMC, Interoperability, and Coexistence........................................................ 359
16.3 Specifications and Alliances..........................................................................364
16.4 Internet of Things (IoT) and EMC................................................................. 368
16.5 Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) and EMC.................................................... 369
16.6 Characterization and Testing of Wireless Systems Performance in
Resonant Environments�� 370
16.7 EMC Testing in the Time Domain................................................................. 375
16.8 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 376
References................................................................................................................. 377
xii Contents
Chapter 17 EMC and Broadband Technologies .......................................................................... 381

17.1 Transmission of High-Frequency Signals over Telephone and
Power Networks�� 381
17.2 EMC and Digital Subscriber Lines................................................................ 384
17.3 EMC and Power Line Telecommunications (PLT)........................................ 385
17.4 Regulatory Framework for Emissions from xDSL/PLT and
Related Technologies�� 386
References................................................................................................................. 387
Chapter 18 EMC and Safety........................................................................................................ 389

References................................................................................................................. 390
Chapter 19 Statistical EMC......................................................................................................... 391

19.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 391
19.2 The Basic Stochastic Problem........................................................................ 392
19.3 Statistical Approaches to EMC Problems...................................................... 395
19.4 Theoretical Basis for Stochastic Models........................................................ 397
19.4.1 Gaussian Quadrature, Polynomial Chaos Expansion,
Statistical Collocation, and Unscented Transform�� 397
19.4.2 The Curse of Dimensionality............................................................403
19.5 Applications of Stochastic Models in EMC...................................................407
References................................................................................................................. 411
Chapter 20 EMC in Different Industrial Sectors......................................................................... 415

20.1 EMC in Automotive Applications.................................................................. 415
20.2 EMC in Railway Applications........................................................................ 417
20.3 EMC in Aerospace Applications.................................................................... 420
20.4 EMC in Marine Applications......................................................................... 423
References................................................................................................................. 425
Chapter 21 EMC Outlook............................................................................................................ 429

References................................................................................................................. 430
Appendix A: Useful Vector Formulae ........................................................................................ 431
Appendix B: Circuit Parameters of Some Conductor Configurations.................................... 433
Appendix C: The sinx/x Function............................................................................................... 439
Appendix D: Spectra of Trapezoidal Waveforms...................................................................... 441
Appendix E: Calculation of the Electric Field Received by a Short Electric Dipole.............. 443
Appendix F: Calculation of the Parameters of a Series RLC Circuit..................................... 445
Appendix G: Computation of the Discrete Time-Domain Responses of Lumped Circuits.... 447
Appendix H: The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution................................................................... 451
Index�� 455
Preface to the Third Edition
In preparing the Third Edition of this text, I have taken the opportunity to update material and
develop topics that were only touched upon in the last edition. The same style of presentation,
routed in fundamentals, is maintained with examples of how theoretical ideas and models may be
brought to practical use.
I have added material on numerical modeling as it is increasingly central to design for EMC
(Section 8.7) and the interplay of EMC with safety and risk management (throughout the text and in
Section 9.4). Novel materials, meta- and nano-, are covered in more detail in Section 10.4. Section
14.3.4 on reverberation chambers has been added, to reflect the increasing importance of this medium
for EMC testing. As we attempt to understand and model complete systems, the issue of complex-
ity looms large and approaches to dealing with it are presented in Section 15.3. The penetration of
wireless communications in all aspects of life, and the introduction of the IoT require a study of their
impact on EMC (see Sections 16.4–16.7). Uncertainty is inherent in all aspects of life, and its study
and quantification are crucially important to EMC. I have added Sections 19.4 and 19.5 to cover this
important topic. Finally, I have added a new Chapter 20, to highlight some of the EMC specifics
encountered in automotive, railway, aerospace, and marine applications. The text concludes with a
forward look at EMC in as much as this is possible (Chapter 21).
As before, I express my appreciation to colleagues and fellow researchers worldwide who have con-
tributed to my understanding of EMC. The extensive list of references is a measure of the contributions
of so many to the advancement of EMC studies.
Nottingham, January 2022
xiii
Preface to the Second Edition
In preparing the second edition of this book I have adhered to the same principles as in the first
edition, namely, to present the topic of EMC to a wide range of readers and enable as many of them
as possible to benefit from the experience and the work of others. A practical approach is adopted
whenever appropriate but mathematical analysis and numerical techniques are also presented in
connection with the development of EMC predictive tools. I have tried to present the physical basis
and analytical models of important interactions in EMC and whenever the mathematical framework
became too complex I have guided the interested reader to relevant references. Readers therefore
will be able to study the material at a depth appropriate to their skills and interests.
The main thrust of the new edition was to update material, extend the treatment of some topics
that are not covered adequately in the first edition, introduce new topics that ten years ago had not
emerged as important in EMC, and add more worked examples. Part V is entirely new and covers
new and emerging technologies that are having a major impact in EMC theory and practice.
Again, I gratefully acknowledge the support and friendship over the years of professional
colleagues at Nottingham and elsewhere.
Nottingham, October 2006
xv
Preface
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) may be approached from two standpoints. In the first
approach, one is tempted to address the problem in its generality and seek the development of
general tools to predict performance. The complexity of the problem is such that it is not at present
possible to make decisive progress along this route and one is left with a collection of mathematical
treatises of limited immediate applicability. It is also generally the case that a physical grasp of the
problem cannot be easily attained in this way, since mathematical complexity dominates all.
An alternative approach is to view EMC from the multiplicity of practical problems that confront
designers on a day-to-day basis. The general appearance of such work is a collection of “EMC reci-
pes and fixes” based on a mixture of theoretical ideas, practical experience, and black magic, which
no doubt work under certain circumstances. The student of such works is left, however, without a
clear physical grasp of exactly what is happening or an understanding of the range of validity of the
formulae he or she is supplied with.
The current text adopts a different viewpoint. Emphasis is placed on understanding the relevant
electromagnetic interactions in increasingly complex systems. Mathematical tools are introduced as
and when pursuing the physical picture unaided becomes counterproductive.
Approximations and intuitive ideas are also included, and an effort is made to define the limitations
of each approach. As the reader becomes aware of the physics of EMC interactions and has some math-
ematical tools at his or her disposal, then the manner in which systems can be engineered to achieve
EMC is described and illustrated with practical examples. Many readers will find that the confidence
felt when they become familiar with the physical, mathematical, and engineering aspects of EMC is not
sufficient to predict the performance of complex systems. In order to handle complexity, numerical tools
are developed and the basis and capabilities of these tools are presented. It is hoped that the text will
provide useful source material for a serious study of EMC, including references to more advanced work.
The text aims to be comprehensive, although, in a topic of such a wide coverage as EMC, it is
difficult to make a selection of material to be included that will appeal to all readers. The text will
be useful to all those engaged in EMC analysis and design either as advanced undergraduates,
postgraduates, or EMC engineers in industry. The author is, by training and temperament, inclined
to take a global view of problems and he hopes that readers will choose to study the entire book at
a pace that reflects their own background and interests. However, as guidance for those who may
require a selection of topics for a first reading, the following two schemes are suggested:
i. EMC applications-oriented readers — Chapter 1, Sections 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.4; Chapter 5; and all
material in Parts III and IV.
ii. EMC analysis-oriented readers — All material in Parts I and II and Chapter 13.
Part I contains material underlying all work in electrical and electronic engineering and it is thus
also relevant to EMC. Readers with a degree in electrical engineering will be familiar with a large
part of this material. Part II deals with general EMC concepts and techniques and it is thus useful
to those engaged in predicting the EMC behavior of systems. More practical techniques used to
control electromagnetic interference and the design of EMC into products are presented in Part III.
Finally, the main EMC standards and test techniques are described in Part IV.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the help and support I have received over the years from co-
workers at Nottingham University and other higher educational establishments and from those in
industry and government laboratories who, by sponsoring work in EMC, have contributed to my
understanding of the subject. Miss S. E. Hollingsworth expertly typed large parts of the manuscript
and I am grateful to her for doing this with the minimum of fuss.
C. Christopoulos
Nottingham
xvii
Author
Christos Christopoulos was born in Patras, Greece, in 1946. He received a Diploma in Electrical
and Mechanical Engineering from the National Technical University of Athens in 1969 and a MSc
and DPhil from the University of Sussex in 1971 and 1974, respectively.
In 1974, he joined the Arc Research Project of the University of Liverpool and spent 2 years
working on vacuum arcs and breakdown while on attachments at the UKAEA Culham Laboratory.
In 1976, he was appointed senior demonstrator in Electrical Engineering Science at the University
of Durham. In October 1978 he joined the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
University of Nottingham, where he is now emeritus professor of Electrical Engineering.
His research interests are in computational electromagnetics, electromagnetic compatibility,
signal integrity, protection and simulation of power networks, and electrical discharges and plas-
mas. He is the author of over 600 research publications, five books, and several book chapters.
He has received the Electronics Letters Premium, Snell Premium, and the Ambrose Fleming Medal
from the IET. He has received several conference best paper awards, and was a visiting researcher
in several Universities worldwide. He is IEEE life fellow, and a fellow of the Royal Academy of
Engineering. He is past executive team chairman of the IEE Professional Network in EMC, member
of the CIGRE Working Group 36.04 on EMC, and associate editor of the IEEE EMC Transactions
and of the IEEE EMC Magazine. He was vice-chairman of URSI Commission E “Noise and
Interference” and associate editor of the URSI Radio Bulletin.
xix
Part I
Underlying Concepts and Techniques
Any serious study of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requires a reasonable background in

several areas of electrical engineering. In a topic such as EMC, where the complexity of practical prob-
lems is very considerable, it is not always possible to provide complete and accurate answers based on
comprehensive quantitative models. In such cases it is imperative that a basic underlying grasp of the
nature of electrical components, their interactions through electromagnetic fields, and the nature and
characterization of electrical signals is firmly established. Such a foundation provides the analyst and
EMC designer with the basic conceptual framework and tools for asking the right questions, for criti-
cally evaluating results and assumptions, and for supporting the intuitive search for solutions based
on sound scientific understanding. Even those who are not comfortable with mathematical models of
physical systems and processes will benefit greatly from studying Part I, which is a distillation of the
techniques most relevant to the study of EMC phenomena. Those already familiar with fields circuits
and signals may also wish to study Part I, since it presents these topics from an EMC perspective.
The aim of the next four chapters is to provide background material on the nature and impor-
tance of EMC, the concept of electromagnetic fields, the description of real components in terms of
ideal components, and the relationship between field and network concepts. Finally, the modeling
and analysis of signals and circuits in the frequency and time domains will be described.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003310983-1
1 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Compatibility
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the branch of science and engineering concerned with the
design and operation of equipment in a manner that makes them immune to certain amounts of elec-
tromagnetic interference, while at the same time keeping equipment-generated interference within
specified limits. The scope of EMC is thus very wide as it encompasses virtually all equipment
powered by electrical supplies. Practically, all engineering systems incorporate power conditioning
and information processing units and thus fall within the scope of EMC. The frequency range of
interest extends from DC to light and in certain parts of this spectrum a strict international regula-
tory framework has been set up to ensure immunity of equipment to electromagnetic interference
(EMI) and to control emission.
Interest in EMC is not new. Since the early days of radio, designers and listeners alike were
alerted to noise, interference, and earthing problems. However, the rapid increase in the use of radio
communications, digital systems, fast processors, and the introduction of new design practices have
brought EMC to the forefront of advanced design. Three technological trends have provided the
impetus for these changes. First, modern digital logic and signal processing are based on relatively
low-threshold voltages (i.e., a few volts) compared to older technologies based on electronic valves
(several hundred volts). The immunity of modern systems is therefore inherently lower. Second,
in the process of seeking higher processing speeds, shorter pulse rise-times are used, contributing
significant amounts of energy at high frequencies, which is capable of propagating by radiative
mechanisms over long distances. Third, the modern physical design of equipment is based increas-
ingly on the use of plastics in preference to metals. This significantly reduces the electromagnetic
shielding inherent to an all-metal cabinet. Several other items could be added to this list, such as
miniaturization and thus the trend for compact designs, which contribute to EMC problems. Close
attention must thus be paid to EMC at all stages of design if equipment is to function properly and
meet international EMC regulations.
EMC may be approached from two different directions. First, it may be argued that before any-
thing is designed, a complete EMC study must be performed to predict the electromagnetic signa-
ture of equipment and its capacity to withstand externally generated interference. The difficulties
in performing such a study are formidable, since many of the necessary predictive analytical and
numerical tools are not currently available and the environment in which equipment is installed is
not always fully specified. Second, it may be thought that EMC is essentially a fire-righting opera-
tion and that any problems that may arise in this area are best dealt with on an ad hoc basis. The
dangers of this approach are obvious, since the complexity of modern designs and the nature of
EMC preclude easy and inexpensive solutions as an afterthought. A balanced approach to EMC
is to bring into this area every tool available to the designer. This includes numerical tools, in-
house practical experience, and sound physical grasp of EMC and electromagnetic interactions. No
single individual will be gifted in all these areas and it is thus important to establish teams with
the right blend of experience and approach to problem solving to form the focus for EMC design.
Several years of emphasis in engineering education on digital design have reduced the grasp of
radio frequency (RF) design issues among graduates to dangerously low levels and it is therefore of
considerable importance to strengthen awareness of EMC and the grasp of fundamental RF design
techniques in academia and in industry.
EMC must be regarded as an issue that affects all aspects of design — electrical, electronic,
and mechanical. It cannot be adequately addressed in isolation. Typically, a complete design may
DOI: 10.1201/9781003310983-2 3
4 Principles and Techniques of Electromagnetic Compatibility
consist of a number of subsystems that interact with each other through signal and power cables
and through reactive (capacitive and/or inductive) or radiative mechanisms. The EMC behavior of
a complete system cannot be easily predicted from the known behavior of subsystems, although the
purpose of current EMC research is to develop the necessary methodologies and tools to achieve
this. The difficulties are more pronounced in large extensive systems where a mixture of new and
old technologies is used in the presence of severe external electromagnetic (EM) threats. Clearly,
the designer will make every effort to solve EMC problems within a piece of equipment caused by
interactions between various subsystems. Nevertheless, the majority of EMC problems seem to be
internally generated. In an integrated system in which a number of different types of equipment,
often provided by different suppliers, are connected together, EMC problems may develop and they
can be difficult to tackle if each unit does not meet specified EMC limits and if insufficient thought
has been given to system-level EM interactions.
A designer who has developed a system that operates successfully as far as internally generated
electromagnetic interference (EMI) is concerned, has nevertheless to meet, in addition, certain
EMC limits specified in national and international standards. Compliance with these limits can be
demonstrated by making a number of measurements under specified conditions. In a typical case,
these tests will cover emission of EMI from equipment and also the susceptibility or immunity of
this equipment to externally generated interference. In an emission test the equipment is placed,
depending on the particular standard, inside a screened room or on an open-field site and measure-
ments are taken of the emitted electromagnetic fields at a specified distance using receivers of speci-
fied bandwidth over a specified frequency range. The type and polarization of antennas used is also
specified to produce, as far as possible, a repeatable measurement. This type of test is called a radi-
ated emission test, to distinguish it from conducted emission tests where the EMI voltage on con-
ductors is measured. In each case, the measured quantity must be below specified limits. A selection
of such limits and a more detailed description of test procedures are given in Chapters 13 and 14.
In immunity testing, the equipment is subject to a specified externally generated field or to inter-
ference currents injected on conductors and the requirement is that the equipment remains func-
tional. These tests may cover a wide frequency range (typically at least up to 1 GHz) and may also
involve pulse-like incident electromagnetic signals to check the response of equipment to transients
and electrostatic discharges. For complex equipment with a large number of operating modes it can
be difficult to demonstrate immunity.
The designer is obliged to ascertain the nature and significance of EM emissions from different
parts of the equipment and the effects of externally generated interference on the functional integ-
rity of an entire system. He or she may, as far as possible, seek to minimize interference generation
at its source; reduce or eliminate coupling paths by proper layout, shielding, filtering, and grounding
practices; design hardware with an inherent immunity to EMI; and adopt defensive programming
practices to develop software that has a high level of immunity to EMI. Very few of these options
are cost free and many may have adverse effects on normal operating characteristics, size, appear-
ance, and weight of equipment. It is not an easy matter to seek optimum solutions to such design
problems, which depend on so many interdependent parameters. The purpose of research into EMC
is to develop the methodologies and tools that allow optimum EMC design procedures to be incor-
porated into the design process from the very beginning, so that, even at the conceptual stage of
a design, EMC issues are taken into account and sensible choices are made with minimum costs.
A glance at the titles of the chapters that follow will convince the reader of the complexity and
importance of EMC and of its position at the forefront of teaching and research in advanced system
design techniques.
2 Electromagnetic Fields
The purpose of this chapter is to restate in broad terms the basic premises of electromagnetic theory,
and to establish the fundamental concepts and models of electromagnetic phenomena as applied to
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). It is not intended to give a complete coverage of the topic as
this would occupy most of the book. There are many excellent texts on electromagnetics to which
the reader may refer.1–4 The topic is also taken up at a level accessible to first-year university students
in my own Introduction to Applied Electromagnetism (Wiley, 1990).5
No secure understanding of EMC may be attained without at least a physical grasp of what elec-
tromagnetics is. The analytical equipment normally associated with the subject is also necessary, if
basic understanding is to be followed by the ability to make quantitative predictions of EMC per-
formance. This remains so even when numerical predictive simulation packages are used in EMC
studies. In the author’s opinion, there is no substitute for a core understanding of electromagnetics.
It is therefore proper to devote this chapter to this important topic. It is convenient to examine elec-
tromagnetic phenomena under three broadly distinct categories.
First, there are problems where charges are static or they move with constant speed (e.g., direct
currents). This type of problem is encountered in DC and low-frequency applications, and the fun-
damental properties of the field in this limit are that its two aspects, electric and magnetic, can be
dealt with separately. Coupling between electric and magnetic field is weak, and it is possible to
develop simple models to examine each separately.
Second, there are problems where charges accelerate slowly, so that although coupling between
electric and magnetic fields cannot be ignored, certain simplifying assumptions can be made in
interpreting what is taking place.
Finally, in cases where charges accelerate rapidly, no approximations can be made and the most
general field models must be employed to account for the strong coupling between electric and
magnetic fields.
The first two categories are referred to as the static and quasistatic approximations. The task of
this chapter is to outline the essential physics applicable in each category, to sketch out the basic
models used in making quantitative predictions, and, most importantly, to establish the limits of
applicability of each model. In this process the notation, units, and some useful formulae will be
given to assist in the more specialized treatment that follows in other chapters.
2.1 STATIC FIELDS
2.1.1 Electric Field
Static electric charges set up an influence around them, which is described as an electric field.
At each point in space, an electric field value is assigned, referred to as the electric field intensity,
E, measured in volts per meter (V/m). The amplitude of the electric field does not, however, describe
completely the influence of the electric charges. It is also necessary to assign a direction to the
field at each point, much like in a weather map where at each point wind speed and direction are
required. In mathematical jargon, the electric field is a vector quantity E described fully when its
amplitude and direction are given. The direction of E at each point is that in which a positive electric
charge placed there would move. The electric field E(r) a distance r away from a point charge q
placed in vacuum (or approximately air) is given by the formula
q
E (r ) = (2.1)
4πε 0 r 2
DOI: 10.1201/9781003310983-3 5
FIGURE 2.1 The electric field at a point in the proximity of a spherical charge distribution.
where if q is in coulombs, r is in meters, and ε0 is a constant. The electric permittivity of free-

space is ε0 = 8.8542 pF/m and then the electric field is obtained in V/m. By the term “point charge”
is meant a charge distribution occupying dimensions small compared to r and possessing spheri-
cal symmetry so as to look virtually like a charge concentrated at a point a distance r away from
the point where the field is observed. The direction of the field is radially outward from a positive
charge, as shown in Figure 2.1.
If the charge distribution does not meet the above criteria, then Equation 2.1 cannot be used
directly. Instead the charge is divided into small volume elements dV, each containing a charge ρdV
where ρ is the charge density. Then, since dV is infinitesimally small, charge ρdV is effectively a
point charge and Equation 2.1 applies. The field at any point can then be found by superposition, i.e.,
by combining the electric field due to each volume element until all the charges have been accounted
for. The individual electric field contributions must be combined as vectors to find the total field.
In cases where the surrounding medium is not air but another material, then Equation 2.1 still
applies but ε0 is replaced by ε, the dielectric permittivity of the material used. Materials are nor-
mally characterized by their relative dielectric permittivity or dielectric constant εr where ε = εr ε0.
In most, but not all, materials, εr is constant and independent of the local value of the electric field
or other parameters such as temperature or humidity. The range of εr values is remarkably restricted.
For most insulating liquids it has a value approximately equal to 3 and in most insulating solids it is
equal to about 5. Notable exceptions are water (εr ≃ 80) and various titanates (εr ≃ 10,000).
If different materials surround electric charges, the determination of the field is more compli-
cated, as will be explained shortly. It is also customary to use another quantity to offer an alternative
description of the field. This is a vector quantity known as the electric flux density D measured in
coulombs per m2 (C/m2). In most, but not all, materials, D is parallel to E. The relationship between
the two is
D = εr ε0E (2.2)
It is possible to relate, in a compact and elegant way, the electric field (D or E) to its sources (electric
charges). This relationship is expressed by Gauss’s Law, which states that if, on any closed surface S,
the product is formed on the surface area of a small patch ds and the component of the flux density
normal to it Dn, and all the contributions are summed to account for the entire closed surface, then
the total sum found is equal to the total charge enclosed by S.
In mathematical form this law is expressed as
∫ D ds = Q
s
n tot (2.3)
where the S in the integral sign indicates integration over the closed surface S, and Qtot is the charge
enclosed by S. If this charge is distributed in some way (electric charge density ρ) then
EM Fields 7
Q tot =
∫ ρdv
v
(2.4)
where V is the volume enclosed by S.

Term Dn ds may be expressed as a dot product D ds, where ds is a vector of magnitude ds and
pointing outward of the volume enclosed by S. Hence, Gauss’s Law in its most general form is
∫ D ds = ∫ ρdv
s v
(2.5)
Example: Calculate the electric field at a distance r away from a long cylindrical conductor on
which a charge q coulombs per meter length is distributed uniformly.
Solution: A surface S is chosen, as shown in Figure 2.2, on which to apply Gauss’s Law. The choice
is arbitrary, but a choice that is in tune with the symmetry of the problem, in this case a cylinder,
makes the difference between stating the law and obtaining useful results. The symmetry of the
problem demands a radial electric field, hence along the flat ends of S the field is parallel to the
surface elements and there is zero contribution to the left-hand side of Equation 2.3 or 2.5.
The curved part of S contributes and thus
2πrlD ( r ) = ql
Hence
q
D(r ) =
2πr
Accordingly
q
E (r ) =
2πεr
Gauss’s Law expressed by Equation 2.5 is an example of an integral law. It relates quantities over
surfaces and volumes of the problem. Although useful in problems with symmetry and uniform
materials, it becomes cumbersome in other more general configurations. It is then necessary to
examine the form this law takes when the surface S is reduced until it collapses into a point. If both
sides of Equation 2.5 are divided by the volume and the volume is allowed to tend to zero, then
the left- hand side of the equation expresses the electric flux per unit volume and the right-hand
FIGURE 2.2 Configuration of a coaxial capacitor.

side tends to the charge density. The electric flux per unit volume is a quantity known in math-
ematics as the divergence of the flux density and is designated as div D. Gauss’s Law in point or
differential form is thus
div D = ρ (2.6)
In a Cartesian coordinate system
∂D x ∂D y ∂D z
div D = ∇ ⋅ D = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
where Dx, Dy, and Dz are the components of D, and ∂ / ∂x indicates a derivative with respect
to x only. The divergence of a vector is thus a scalar quantity fully described by its amplitude.
A detailed treatment of this type of relationship may be found in Reference 6.
Expressions for the divergence in other coordinate systems may be found in Appendix A.
Equations 2.5 and 2.6 are equivalent descriptions of the same physical law.
It has been shown how either E or D may be used to describe the electric field. It is sometimes
easier, from the calculation point of view, to use a quantity that is not a vector. Such a quantity
is the electric potential. At each point in space a potential value is assigned. This is a scalar
quantity — there is no direction associated with it. The work done to move a test charge q from
point a to point b is q[V(b) − V(a)] where V(a) and V(b) are the potential values at points a and b,
respectively. Potentials are always defined with respect to some reference. The potential at a point
a distance r away from a point charge q is
q 1
V (r ) = (2.7)
4πε r
The potential due to a distribution of charge occupying volume V is
ρ dv
V (r )
∫ v 4π εR
(2.8)
where ρ is the volume charge density, and R is the distance between the volume element and
the observation point at r. The electric field distribution and the potential difference between two
points a and b are related by the expression
b b
Vab = V ( a ) − V ( b ) =
∫E
a
t dl =
∫ E dl
a
(2.9)
where Et indicates the component of the electric field that at each point is parallel (tangent) to a
small line segment of length dl on a curve joining points a and b.
Equation 2.9 suggests that the potential difference is the same irrespective of which precise
path is chosen to go from a to b. It also follows that if a closed path is followed, the potential
difference will be zero. These conclusions are strictly correct for the static field case considered
here. They have to be revised when quasistatic and general fields are present. The general form
of Equation 2.9 to include nonstatic fields is considered in Section 2.2. The electric field may be
obtained if the potential is known. It turns out that
E = − grad V = −∇V
where, in Cartesian coordinates,
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Thus, the electric field component in the x-direction is − ∂V/ ∂x and so on.
EM Fields 9
Taking the divergence of the expression for E gives
∇ ⋅ E = −∇ ⋅ ( ∇V )
or
1
∇ ⋅ D = −∇ 2 V
ε
where ∇2 is the Laplacian operator. In rectangular coordinates
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2V = + +
∂x 2 ∂ y 2 ∂z 2
Combining with Equation 2.6 gives
∇ 2 V = −ρ/ε (2.10)
This is known as Poisson’s equation and its solution is given by Equation 2.8. When ρ = 0,
Equation 2.10 is referred to as Laplace’s equation.
At the interface between two different ideal dielectrics, the electric field values on either side
are interrelated. Application of Gauss’s Law and Equation 2.9 on a closed path gives the following
expressions:
E t1 = E t2
(2.11)
D n1 = D n2
Simply stated, the component of the electric field tangent to the interface is continuous. Similarly,
the flux density component normal to the interface is continuous.
If a battery of voltage V is connected across two conductors, an amount of charge q is trans-
ferred from one conductor to the other, thus creating a deficit of electrons in one conductor
(charge +q) and a surplus in the other conductor (charge −q). The potential difference V, and the
charge q, are related by the capacitance C between the two conductors
C≡q/V (2.12)
Whenever charge separation and potential differences are present in a system of conductors,
electric fields are also present and some capacitance may be associated with the conductors. The
procedure for calculating capacitance is straightforward, but it can only be carried out analytically
in a few simple cases. In general terms, in order to calculate capacitance, the following steps are
taken:
1. Charges ±q are assumed to be distributed on each conductor forming the two plates of
the capacitor. Any symmetries are exploited to simplify further calculation.
2. The electric field E between the conductors is obtained using Gauss’s Law or any other
suitable procedure. The field is only required on points lying on a curve c joining the two
conductors.
3. The potential difference between the conductors is then obtained from V = ∫c Edl, where
the curve c is chosen with care to simplify the calculation.
4. The capacitance is then C ≡ q/V.
In this procedure, it is implicity assumed that the potential V has the same value irrespective of
the path c chosen to evaluate it. Otherwise, a different capacitance would be found depending
on the path chosen. As stated earlier, this assumption is true in static fields. However, in rapidly
varying fields this cannot be guaranteed, and it is not possible to define a unique value for V
(indeed voltages are strongly dependent on the path chosen). In such cases there are conceptual
and practical difficulties in defining and calculating capacitance.
A simple example is given below to illustrate the procedure for calculating capacitance.
Example: Calculate the capacitance between two long coaxial cylinders of inner and outer radii
r1 and r2, respectively.
Solution: Step (1), a charge q1 is assumed distributed uniformly per meter length of the surface of
the inner conductor. From charge conservation, the charge per unit length on the outer conduc-
tor is −q1. The assumption of uniform distribution is justified by the cylindrical symmetry of the
problem.
Step (2), the electric field in the space between the two conductors may be calculated using
Gauss’s Law, in exactly the same way as for the case shown in Figure 2.2. It follows that
q1
E (r ) = r1 ≤ r ≤ r2
2π εr
Elsewhere, the electric field is zero.

Step (3), the potential difference is calculated by choosing a radial path from the inner to the
outer conductor. Along this path, E is always tangent to it, and hence
r2
q1 r
V = ∫ E dl =
∫ E ( r ) dr =
r = r1
ln 2
2π ε r1
Step (4), the capacitance per unit length is
q1 2π ε
C1 = = , in F/m (2.13)
V ln r2
r1
If the coaxial conductors are of length l then the total capacitance is C = C1 × l.

Remarks— The formula given above does not take into account the distortion to the field near
the edge of the conductors. In most cases, such secondary considerations are not significant but
they may be important in cases, for instance, when r2/1 is large. The capacitance depends on the
logarithm of the ratio of outer to inner radii. Hence, it is not a very strong function of these dimen-
sions. Equation 2.13 may be used to estimate capacitance even in cases where there is uncertainty
about exact dimensions or when the conductors are not strictly cylindrical.
Formulae for the capacitance of some common geometries are given in Appendix B.
The separation of electric charges and the associated electric field is a store of energy that may
be calculated directly from the formula
q2 1
We = = CV 2 , in Joule (2.14)
2C 2
This energy may be viewed, for illustrative purposes, as a form of potential energy found in
mechanics. The capacitance is thus a measure of this energy. An alternative way to view this
energy is to associate it directly with the electric field rather than the charges. It turns out that in a
part of space where the electric field is E, the energy stored per unit volume is
1
We = ε E 2 , in J/m 3 (2.15)
2
If the total energy stored in the field is calculated by applying Equation 2.15 and all contributions
are summed together to account for the entire volume occupied by the field, it is found that it
equals that given by Equation 2.14. Thus, these two expressions are equivalent descriptions of the
same thing. Equation 2.14 represents the circuit and Equation 2.15 the field point of view. Which
formula is used depends on convenience and the nature of the problem.
EM Fields 11
A powerful tool in understanding electric fields and interactions is to draw on paper or on a

computer screen the appearance of the field around charged conductors. Visualization removes
from the field some of its abstract nature, and aids human reasoning and problem solving.
An obvious technique would be to draw at each point in space an arrow representing the
vector of the field E, with a length proportional to the magnitude of the field and the same direc-
tion as E. This approach is adopted by some computer graphics packages, but it is not the best
one. A very elegant approach is to plot the field and equipotential lines. Field lines are defined
so that they coincide with the direction in which a positive charge would move if placed in the
field. They are thus tangent at each point to the direction of the field. They start from positive
and terminate in negative charges. This brings out a cardinal feature of the electric field, which
is important in EMC work as it helps to identify coupling paths. Electric field lines are shown
in Figure 2.3. In such plots a line is shown starting from a conductor for each unit of charge.
For example, if a conductor has a total charge of 6 μC and it is decided to plot one line per μC,
then, if the charge is distributed uniformly on the conductor, six lines will be shown leaving the
conductor from points centered on six equal conductor areas, each containing 1 μC of charge.
If the charge distribution is not uniform, the same principle applies, but the areas containing
1 μC of charge are unequal in extent, and thus more lines leave from parts of the conduc-
tor where charge concentration, and hence the electric field, is stronger. More lines crowded
together indicate a strong field. The field lines always impinge on perfect conductors at right
angles. In the same diagram, lines of constant potential are drawn (equipotentials). These lines
are orthogonal to the field lines and are plotted for fixed potential increments. Hence, in areas
of steep potential change, and hence high electric field, more equipotential lines are plotted, as
shown schematically in Figure 2.3.
In EMC applications it is common to express electric field values in decibels with respect to
some reference. As an illustration, an electric field E expressed in dB μV/m is the value found by
calculating
 E 
20 log 
 1 × 10 −6 
where E is in units of V/m.

An electric field equal to 10 V/m may thus be expressed as 140 dB μV/m.
FIGURE 2.3 Schematic diagram of electric field and equipotential lines.

2.1.2 Magnetic Field
Treatment so far has been limited to the effects of stationary electric charges. When electric charges
are moving with constant velocity to produce an electric current, an additional influence is set up that
is described as a magnetic field. At each point in space a magnetic field value is assigned, referred to
as the magnetic flux density B, measured in teslas (T) or, equivalently, in Wb/m2. The magnetic flux
density is a vector quantity requiring, in a full description, both an amplitude and a direction. Its value
at a distance r away from a long straight conductor placed in air and carrying current I is
µ0I
B( r ) = (2.16)
2πr
where μ0 = 4π 10 −7 A/m and is the magnetic permeability of vacuum or approximately air. The direc-
tion of B is perpendicular to the plane formed by the conductor and the observation point and is
fully determined by the right-hand rule. If the conductor is grasped with the right-hand, with the
thumb pointing in the direction of the current, then the fingers show the magnetic field direction.
Another quantity often used to describe the magnetic field is the magnetic field intensity H mea-
sured in A/m. In most, but not all, materials B and H are parallel and are related by the expression
B = µH = µ r µ 0 H (2.17)
where μr is the relative permeability of the medium and is a material constant. Most materials have
a μr of the order of 1 with the exception of ferromagnetic materials, where values approaching a
few hundred are common. Some materials, such as mumetal, have values of μr exceeding several
thousands. The fundamental expression, known as Ampere’s Law, relating the magnetic field to its
sources (currents), states that if the component of the magnetic field intensity Ht parallel (tangent) at
a point on a curve c is multiplied by the length of a small element of the curve around this point, and
if all such contributions are summed together to cover the entire closed curve, then the total sum is
equal to the current linked with this curve:
∫H c
t dl = I tot (2.18)
The current Itot may best be identified by calculating the current emerging from a surface S bounded
by the curve c, as shown in Figure 2.4. Equation 2.18 may then be written in a more general form as
∫ H dl = ∫ j ds
c s
(2.19)
FIGURE 2.4 Configuration used to apply Ampere’s Law.

EM Fields 13
This is the well-known Ampere’s Law. It can be used to calculate the field very easily in cases
where the problem has some symmetry. In static fields, the current linked is that due to conductors
(conduction current). However, at high frequencies other terms, in addition to conduction currents,
must be included in the right-hand side (displacement currents). This generalization is discussed
further on in this chapter (see Equation 2.32). Equation 2.19 is an example of an integral law, as it
involves a relationship between quantities evaluated over a finite area. It is useful to determine the
form of Ampere’s Law as the curve c and the associated area S are reduced in size to the extent
that in the limit, they collapse to a point. Both sides of Equation 2.19 are divided by the surface
area S and the limit is taken as the area tends to zero. The resulting expression on the left-hand
side is well known in mathematics and it is called the curl of the vector H or ∇ × H. The expression
on the right-hand side reduces simply to the current density. Ampere’s Law in differential or point
form is then
∇×H= j (2.20)
In Cartesian coordinates
 ∂H z ∂H y   ∂H x ∂H z   ∂H y ∂H x 
∇ × H = x̂  −  + ŷ  −  + ẑ  −
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂ y 
Similar expressions in other coordinate systems may be found in Appendix A.

In configurations containing different magnetic materials, the magnetic field on either side of an
interface between two such materials is subject to conditions similar to those for the electric field
(Equation 2.11).
H t1 = H t2
(2.22)
Bn1 = Bn2
In obtaining the first of these two expressions, it was assumed that no current flows at the interface.
Whenever a current I flows in a system of conductors, it establishes a magnetic flux ϕ. These two
quantities are related by a parameter known as the inductance L of the conductors.
L≡φ/I (2.23)
Current flow and an associated field indicate that an inductance may be assigned to the conductors.
The inductance may be calculated by following the procedure outlined below:
1. Current ±I is assumed flowing in the pair of conductors. Any symmetries are identified
since they simplify subsequent calculations.
2. The flux density B around the conductors is calculated using Ampere’s Law or any other
appropriate procedure.
3. The flux ϕ linked with the conductors is then calculated from ϕ = ∫s Bds where surface S is
any surface bounded by the conductors.
4. The inductance is then L ≡ ϕ/I.
Difficulties with this procedure arise in practical problems where the current paths (return conductor)
cannot be easily identified. These problems are dealt with in other chapters.
A simple example will be shown to illustrate the procedure for calculating inductance.
Example: Calculate the inductance between two long coaxial cylinders of inner and outer radii r1
and r2, respectively.
Solution: Step (1), a current I on the inner conductor is assumed to flow as shown in Figure 2.5,
and returns on the outer conductor. Cylindrical symmetry indicates that the current is distributed
uniformly.
The flux density B(r) in the space between the two conductors may be calculated (step 2) by
applying Ampere’s Law on a curve of radius r concentric with the axis of the conductors. It fol-
lows that
µI
B( r ) = r1 ≤ r ≤ r2
2πr
The field for r > r2 is zero as can be confirmed by applying Equation 2.18 on a curve with radius
r > r2 (total current linked is zero).
In step (3) the magnetic flux linked with 1 m length of the conductors is calculated. This is done
by finding first the amount of flux dϕ crossing the small strip shown hatched in Figure 2.5. It is
clear that
dφ = 1 dr B ( r )
Hence the total flux linked is

r2
µlI r2
dr µlI r2
φ=
∫ r = r1
dφ =
2π ∫ r = r1 r
= ln
2π r1
Finally, the inductance may be calculated (step 4) from Equation 2.23:
φ µl r2
L≡ = ln , in H (2.24)
I 2π r1
µ r
The inductance per unit lenght is clearly ln 2
2π r1
Remarks — The above calculation does not take into account the distortion of the magnetic
field near the edges of conductors. These effects may in many cases be neglected.
FIGURE 2.5 Calculation of the inductance of a coaxial line.

EM Fields 15
The inductance depends on the logarithm of the ratio of outer and inner radii, and for the
dimensions found in most practical systems does not vary greatly. Equation 2.24 may thus be used
to estimate inductance even in cases where the conductors are not strictly cylindrical. Formulae
for the inductance of some common geometries are given in Appendix B.
Implicit in this example was the assumption that the magnetic flux is entirely confined in the
space between the two conductors. It is thus assumed that there is no flux inside the conduc-
tors. This is true provided the current is distributed close to the surface of the conductors. At low
frequencies, this is not the case, as currents tend to flow uniformly over the entire cross section
of the conductors. The flux density inside a conductor of radius a, carrying a current I uniformly
distributed, may be found by applying Ampere’s Law on a curve of radius r where r ≤ a. It is easy
to show that
µI
B( r ) = r, where r ≤ a (2.25)
2πa 2
Hence, in this case, the flux density rises linearly from the center of the conductor (Equation 2.25)
and then falls in magnitude according to Equation 2.16 outside the conductor, as shown in the
example.
The extra flux inside the conductor cross section indicates a higher inductance (called in this
case the “internal inductance”). At high frequencies, the current tends to concentrate on conduc-
tor surfaces, hence the inductance tends to the value calculated in the example. These matters are
discussed in more detail in future chapters. It is stressed at this stage that the inductance, even of a
simple conductor, depends on the manner in which current is distributed, which in turn depends,
among other things, on the frequency.
Current flow (movement of charges) and the associated magnetic field, represent storage of
energy, which may be calculated directly from the formula
1 2
Wm = LI (2.26)
2
This energy may be viewed, for illustrative purposes, as a form of kinetic energy found in mechan-
ics. The inductance is thus a measure of this energy. An alternative point of view is to associate
this energy directly with the magnetic field rather than the current. The energy stored in a part of
space where the magnetic field intensity is H is
1 B2
Wm = µH 2 = , in J/m 3 (2.27)
2 2µ
The energy stored calculated from Equation 2.26 (circuit point of view), or from Equation 2.27
over the entire volume occupied by the field (field point of view), yields the same value. These
two approaches are thus equivalent and the one best suited to each problem must be chosen in
each case.
Equation 2.27 for energy storage in a magnetic field may be used to estimate the internal
inductance of a conductor referred to earlier. Using a thin cylindrical region as the basic element,
energy stored using the field and circuit points of view is
a
1 1
∫ 2πrl µ H ( r ) dr = ( L int I ) I 2
2
r=0 2 2
where Lint is the internal inductance per unit length of the conductor. Substituting H(r) from
Equation 2.25 in the expression above gives
µ
L int = , in H/m (2.28)
8π
It is seen that for a current distributed uniformly over the conductor cross section, the internal
inductance per unit length is independent of the radius.
FIGURE 2.6 Schematic diagram of the magnetic field due to a solenoid.
A complication often arising in magnetic field systems in the presence of ferromagnetic materi-
als is that μ is not a constant but varies with the local value of the field. A similar remark can be
made for ε and electric field systems, but the former is a more common problem. In either case,
difficulties in interpretation and in obtaining solutions are encountered as the resulting equations
are nonlinear.
It is common to visualize the magnetic field in a manner similar to that used for the electric
field. This is done by plotting flux lines, as shown in Figure 2.6 for a simple solenoid. Flux lines are
always closed lines (they start and finish nowhere). Magnetic flux is conserved. Hence, in any vol-
ume, the flux entering and leaving must be the same — or, put another way, the total magnetic flux
crossing a closed surface is always equal to zero. In a plot such as the one shown in Figure 2.6,
areas with many flux lines indicate a strong local magnetic field.
This brief treatment of static fields may be summarized further to bring out more clearly the
connection of these ideas with EMC. A conductor with net electric charge and/or current flow
sets up influences around it that are understood in terms of electric and magnetic fields. Any other
conductors, not necessarily physically connected to it, will come under these influences, with the
result that further charge separation and current flow may result. This constitutes interference and
its quantification and prevention is the subject of EMC. Such interactions between conductors at
low frequencies may be studied in terms of capacitance and inductance or, as it will be shown
in future chapters, by mutual capacitance and inductance to stress more clearly the effect of one
conductor on another. The same concepts may also be applied with benefit at high frequencies,
but care is required in understanding when this approach is permissible and how it should be
applied. These issues are explained further in the remainder of this chapter.
2.2 QUASISTATIC FIELDS
In the previous section electric and magnetic fields were treated as if they are completely indepen-
dent of each other. This is acceptable at low frequencies or low rates of change of field quantities.
When this assumption becomes invalid, it is found that a changing electric (magnetic) field induces
a magnetic (electric) field. The ideas and equations presented earlier must therefore be generalized
to include the coupling between these two manifestations of the electromagnetic field. Treatment in
this section will not, however, be of the most general kind. The assumption will be made that any
interactions between different parts of a system or circuit are practically instantaneous (quasistatic
approximation). If the speed of propagation for electromagnetic disturbances is u (the speed of light
for propagation in air) and the largest dimension of the system studied is D, then the time it takes for
different parts of the system to interact electromagnetically with each other is of the order of D/u.
EM Fields 17
If the period T of the electrical disturbance is much larger than the propagation time D/u, then, in
electrical terms, interaction across the system is instantaneous, and the phenomena observed can be
classed as quasistatic. Another way of expressing the same thing is to compare the wavelength λ of
the disturbance with the largest dimension D. If λ ≫ D, quasistatic conditions apply. Otherwise, the
phenomena observed belong to the truly high-frequency regime and are described in Section 2.3.
The feature of most importance in the quasistatic regime, where field quantities vary relatively
slowly, is the coupling between electric and magnetic fields. A magnetic field changing in time
induces an electric field. In its simplest form, this coupling is observed when a time-varying mag-
netic flux ϕ is coupled with a circuit. It is found then that a voltage is induced on this circuit as
follows:
dφ
Vind = (2.29)
dt
In field terms, the induced voltage is simply ∫C E d1, where c is a curve following the outline of the
circuit. The magnetic flux linked is ∫S B ds, where the surface S is any surface bounded by the curve
c. Hence Equation 2.29 may be expressed in a more general form as
∂
−
∂t ∫ B ds = ∫ E dl
s c
(2.30)
Equations 2.29 and 2.30 are alternative forms of Faraday’s Law. The positive reference directions
for the quantities shown in these equations are chosen as shown in Figure 2.7 to satisfy Lenz’s
Law, namely, that the induced voltage must drive currents that tend to oppose any change in the
magnetic flux coupled with the circuit. It is straightforward to determine the form of Equation 2.30
when the curve c and surface S collapse toward a point. This is done in exactly the same way as for
Equation 2.19 and gives
∂B
∇×E= (2.31)
∂t
This equation expresses Faraday’s Law in a point or differential form. Hence, Equations 2.29, 2.30,
and 2.31 all express the physical fact that a changing magnetic field produces an associated electric
field. Since the magnetic field produced by a part of a circuit extends over a wide area, it follows
that it may induce electric fields and potential differences in other, remote, circuits. This is termed
as magnetic or inductive coupling and is a powerful coupling mechanism in EMC problems.
A changing electric field can similarly induce a magnetic field. Since the source of the magnetic
field is current, the way in which this feature is introduced into the equations describing fields is
FIGURE 2.7 Positive reference directions for Faraday’s Law in circuit (a) and field (b) problems.
to assign to a changing electric field a fictitious current as the source of the induced magnetic field.
This current is described as a “displacement current” to distinguish it from normal conduction cur-
rent due to the motion of free electrons in conductors. The displacement current density is ∂D/∂t,
and must be included in the expression for total current in Ampere’s Law (Equation 2.19).
 ∂D 
∫ H dl = ∫  j + ∂t  ds
c s
f (2.32)
The subscript f has been added to indicate clearly the conduction current density (free currents).
Equation 2.32 is Ampere’s Law in a generalized form and in an integral formulation. It can be
reduced to a differential or point form to obtain the equivalent of Equation 2.20.
∂D
∇ × H = jf + (2.33)
∂t
These equations are summarized in Table 2.1 both in integral and differential forms, together with
other useful expressions. The static case may be obtained from the expressions in this table, by
demanding that the time derivatives are equal to zero.
In summary, in any situation where the magnetic field varies with time, an electric field is induced
as shown schematically in Figure 2.8b. Similarly, a changing electric field induces a magnetic field
as shown in Figure 2.8a. The term ε ∂E/∂t is the displacement current. It is of particular importance
to EMC. We all expect that current flows in a closed “loop.” Part of the loop is through good con-
ductors and the current there is almost entirely a conduction current. If no convenient “loop” can
be established through good conductors, the current returns as a displacement current and it is this
part that is usually imperfectly understood by the designer. In a good design the current loops are
kept as small as possible and identified as such at the design stage. Otherwise, the current finds its
own path as displacement current with unpredictable impact on emission and coupling. It can be
shown that the ratio of displacement to conduction current density is proportional to ωε/σ.1–5 Hence,
at high frequencies and in good dielectrics the displacement current dominates. In contrast, in good
conductors conduction current dominates even at high frequencies.
TABLE 2.1
The Basic Equations Describing Electromagnetic Fields
Integral Formulation Differential Formulation
 ∂D  ∂D
Ampere’s Law
∫ H dl = ∫  j + ∂t  ds
c s
f ∇ × H = jf +
∂t
∂B ∂B
Faraday’s Law
∫ E dl = − ∫ ∂t ds
c s
∇×E= −
∂t
Gauss’s Law
∫ D ds = ∫ ρ dv
s
∇·D = ρ
Flux Conservation
∫ B ds = 0
s
∇·B = 0
∂ ∂ρ
Continuity Equation
∫ j ds = − ∂t ∫ ρdv
s
f
v
∇ ⋅ jf = −
∂t
Constitutive Expression D = εrε0 E, B = µrµ0 H
Ohm’s Law: jf = σE
EM Fields 19
FIGURE 2.8 A changing electric field generates a magnetic field (a), and a changing magnetic field generates
an electric field (b).
2.2.1 The Relationship Between Circuits and Fields

Sufficient material has been presented about the electromagnetic field up to this point to attempt a
synthesis of field ideas with the more familiar circuit concepts. This exercise is useful both in order
to better understand circuits and fields, and also to help with practical calculations.
The basic question to ask is why is it necessary to resort to field concepts instead of reasoning
throughout using circuit (network) concepts? There are two reasons for this. First, it is not possible
to calculate parameter values for circuit components, such as inductors and capacitors, without an
understanding of fields. This may not seem a serious practical problem, as in most cases component
values are marked on components used for circuit construction. In EMC work, however, it is usu-
ally the components that are not explicitly indicated (normally referred to as “stray” or “parasitic”
components) that are crucial in understanding the behavior of the circuit. Second, there is a whole
class of important phenomena that cannot be understood entirely in terms of circuit concepts. High-
frequency applications, wave propagation, and radiating systems require the concept of field for an
adequate understanding. The very notion of a lumped component representing all the capacitance of
a system breaks down when the wavelength of the disturbance approaches the physical dimensions
of the system. However, circuit ideas are a very useful tool in understanding complex interactions,
as the circuit equations (Kirchhoff’s Laws) are in the form of simple algebraic or ordinary dif-
ferential equations, which are relatively easy to manipulate. In contrast, the EM field laws involve,
in general, temporal and spatial validations and vector quantities, and result in partial differential
equations that are relatively difficult to manipulate. It can be shown that circuit laws are a special
case of EM field laws, in the limit when the wavelength is much larger than the largest physical
dimension of a system.7 The relationship between fields and circuits is illustrated below.
Let us first find the circuit equivalent of Faraday’s Law (Equation 2.30). A circuit is shown in
Figure 2.9 with a time-varying magnetic flux ϕi linked with it. Subscript i indicates an externally
produced, incident, flux. This flux will induce a current that in turn will produce its own magnetic
flux ϕs, the subscript s indicating a scattered flux, i.e., the contribution of the circuit to the total
FIGURE 2.9 Circuit used to illustrate Faraday’s Law in circuits and fields.
flux ϕ = ϕI + ϕs. Applying Faraday’s Laws on a curve c coinciding with the circuit loop gives for the
right-hand side:
2 4 3 1
j
∫ Edl =
c ∫ 1
Edl +
∫ Edl +
3 ∫ Edl +
2 ∫ Edl = v − v
4
s c −∫
σ
dl
where the last integral represents the voltage drop due to the resistance of the wire (paths 2 to 3 and
4 to 1).
Hence ∫c Edl = vs – vc − iR. The left-hand side of Equation 2.30 gives
∂ dφ dφi dφs
− ∫ Bds = = +
∂t dt dt dt
where ϕs is the flux produced by the induced current. Hence
dφs di
=L
dt dt
and substituting
∂ dφ di
− ∫ Bds = i + L
∂t dt dt
Faraday’s Law can now be expressed as
dφi di
vs − = v c + iR + L
dt dt
EM Fields 21
FIGURE 2.10 Circuit used to illustrate Ampere’s Law in circuits and fields.
This expression is none other than Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) where the total driving term is
the voltage source plus the magnetic induction term. It is clear from this expression that any distor-
tion to the path or orientation of the circuit will result in a change to the coupled incident flux ϕi and
hence a different current. This is the mechanism operating in many situations of interest to EMC.
Let us now find the circuit equivalent of Ampere’s Law.7 The configuration chosen to demon-
strate this is one of interest to EMC. It consists of a large ground place (i), a hatch (ii), and a gasket
(iii) as shown in Figure 2.10a. Items (i) and (ii) are perfect conductors, and item (iii) is made out of
material of electrical conductivity σ, width w, and thickness t. The mean value of the perimeter of
the hatch is l. It is assumed that an electric field is incident on the hatch and that its value, when the
hatch and gasket are both replaced by a conducting sheet, is Ei. This is referred to as the short-circuit
field to indicate that it is obtained on the assumption of a perfect short across the hatch.
First, let us evaluate the term on the left-hand side of Ampere’s Law (Equation 2.32). This is done
on a curve C consisting of two parts Ct and Cb, running along the top and bottom of the gasket, as
shown in Figure 2.10b.
Clearly, there is only free current If linked with this curve, and it is equal to GV, where V is the
potential difference between the hatch and the surrounding conducting plate, and G is the electri-
cal conductance across the gasket (≈t σ 1/w). Taking account of positive reference directions gives
∫ Ct − Cb
H dl = − GV
The expression on the right-hand side of Equation 2.32 is evaluated on a surface bounded by c,
namely St and Sb as shown in Figure 2.10b. Clearly, no free current flows through this surface, and
the only term left to evaluate is ∂/∂t ∫S D ds, where D is the superposition of two parts — the field
without the hatch shorted out Di, and the field Ds due to the charges Q induced on the hatch.
∂ ∂ ∂
∫ Dds = ∫ D i ds + ∫ Ds ds
∂t ∂t ∂t
The first term on the right represents a displacement current Ii, which is effectively a source term
responsible for the induced charges and voltage on the hatch. The second term represents simply the
rate of change of the induced charge on the hatch ∂Q/∂t. The induced charge is equal in turn to the
capacitance of the hatch with respect to the surrounding plate, times the induced voltage. Hence,
equating both sides of Equation 2.32 gives
dV
− Ii = C + GV
dt
FIGURE 2.11 Schematic showing circuit size relative to the minimum wavelength of interest: (a) conditions
when the network paradigm applies; (b) treatment based on transmission line equations; (c) conditions requir-
ing the application of the full-field paradigm.
This is simply Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) in the circuit representation of the hatch problem,
which consists of a current source Ii (source term) producing a potential difference across the hatch
and thus displacement and conduction currents.7
We have indicated the relationship between fields and lumped circuits. In EMC work it is impera-
tive to recognize under what circumstances a particular circuit may be treated using lumped com-
ponents (network laws, Kirchoff’s equations, etc.) or field theory (Maxwell’s equations). The general
rule as already stated depends on the electrical size of the circuit. If the physical dimensions of the
circuit are much smaller than the shortest wavelength of interest (highest frequency) in all dimen-
sions, then the network paradigm applies (Figure 2.11a). Network topology is paramount and the
usual network laws apply. If one of the three dimensions is comparable to the wavelength, then
transmission line theory based on Telegrapher’s equation is a reasonable model on which to study
system response (Figure 2.11b). If, however, all three dimensions are comparable to the wavelength
(Figure 2.11c), then the network paradigm is no longer valid and full-field concepts need to be
introduced based on Maxwell’s equation. Under these circumstances, in addition to topology, the
exact geometry of the circuit has a profound impact on the response. It goes without saying that a
full-field solution is difficult and time consuming but it cannot be avoided under the circumstances
outlined above. Persistence with the network paradigm when it is no longer valid, simply because
it is simple and easier to handle, inevitably results in a catastrophic loss of accuracy and profound
conceptual difficulties.
2.2.2 Electromagnetic Potentials
It is very convenient in many problems to define potential functions that may then be used to evalu-
ate E and B. An electrostatic potential has already been defined by Equation 2.7. This potential,
however, accounts for electrostatic field components only. Electric fields can also be induced by
changing magnetic fields, as indicated in the last section. There is, therefore, a need to define an
additional potential function to account for this induced electric field and also the magnetic field.
It turns out that a scalar potential ϕ and a vector potential A provide complete information about
all aspects of the EM field. In particular, the electric and magnetic components are obtained from
∂A
E = −∇φ − (2.34)
∂t
EM Fields 23
B=∇×A (2.35)
Taking the divergence of Equation 2.34 and combining with Equation 2.6 gives
∂
∇ ⋅ E = −∇ 2φ − (∇ ⋅ A ) = ρ/ε (2.36)
∂t
Similarly, from the curl of Equation 2.35
∇ × B = ∇ × ∇ × A = −∇ 2 A + ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A )
Combining Equations 2.33 and 2.34 gives
 ∂ ∂2 A 
∇ × B = µjf + µε  − ∇φ − 2 
 ∂t ∂t 
Equating the right-hand side of the last two equations gives
∂2 A  ∂φ 
−∇ 2 A + µε + ∇ ∇ ⋅ A + µε  = µ jf
∂t 2
 ∂t 
It can be shown that in order to fully define a vector, its divergence and curl must be specified. In
Equation 2.35, the curl has been chosen; therefore, an additional constraint is required to define
∇ · A. The particular choice of divergence is made for convenience and commonly the Lorentz
gauge is used, namely
∂φ
∇ ⋅ A = −µε (2.37)
∂t
Substituting this expression for ∇ · A gives
∂2 A
∇ 2 A = −µε = −µjf (2.38)
∂t 2
Similarly, substituting Equation 2.37 into Equation 2.36 gives
∂2 φ
∇ 2φ − µε = −ρ/ε (2.39)
∂t
The equations given above are wave equations for the potentials. For static or quasistatic fields the
second term on the left-hand side may be neglected, and Equation 2.39 reduces to Poisson’s equa-
tion as expected. Its solution is given by Equation 2.8. By analogy, the solution of Equation 2.38 for
A is obtained by substituting j for ρ as shown below:
ρ ( r′ ) dv′
φ(r ) =
∫ v 4πεR
(2.40)
µj ( r′ ) dv′
A(r ) =
∫ v 4πR
(2.41)
The configuration to which these equations apply is shown in Figure 2.12 where r is the coordinate
point P at which the potentials are evaluated, V is the volume occupied by the source charges and
FIGURE 2.12 Configuration used to calculate potentials due to charge and current distributions.
currents, and R is the distance between point P and point r′ at the center of the volume element dv′
used in the integration. The source terms ρ and j are evaluated at point r′.
A useful application of the vector potential A is in the calculation of inductance, which is defined
as the flux linked with a circuit loop over the current that produced it. The flux linkage is the integral
of the flux density over a surface bounded by the circuit loop. In terms of the vector potential, this
is equal to the surface integral of ∇ × A and therefore from Stoke’s Theorem
L≡
∫ Adl
c
I
where the integral is calculated along a curve coinciding with the circuit loop.
In many problems there is no a priori knowledge of the source distributions j and ρ, and hence the
potentials cannot be determined from Equations 2.40 and 2.41 directly. In such cases, Equations 2.38
and 2.39, subject to the quasistatic approximation (negligible second-time derivatives), must be solved
subject to the boundary conditions of the particular problem. This is a difficult task. Analytical solu-
tions to some simple problems are available, and these may be used for EMC studies. It is impor-
tant, however, to understand the approximations involved, and usually there are many, before using
ready-made formulae. For most practical configurations, solutions can only be obtained by numerical
simulation methods. This topic will be taken up in more detail in Chapters 6 and 7.
2.3 HIGH-FREQUENCY FIELDS
In the last two sections, static and quasistatic fields were examined. In both cases, the essence of
the approximations made is that whatever changes in charge or current distribution take place, their
effects on the system studied are practically instantaneous. When this is not the case, different
classes of phenomena are observed. If the period and wavelength of a disturbance are such as to be
comparable to the longest propagation time and longest dimension, respectively, of the system stud-
ied, then the problem belongs to the high-frequency regime. Two types of phenomena then dominate
the response of systems, namely, waves and radiation. These two aspects are examined separately.
2.3.1 Electromagnetic Waves
Wave-like behavior is inherent in systems in which the propagation velocity of disturbances is
finite. If the propagation velocity is infinite then any disturbance caused by the source would
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I was awakened by feeling something cold upon my mouth. I
struggled, only to find that I was breathless and helpless. I tried to
cry out, but could not. My breath came and went in short quick
gasps. Was it possible that I had left the gas turned on and was
being asphyxiated!
I struggled and fought for life, but the cold Thing, whatever it was,
pressed upon my mouth.
In the darkness I strove to shout for help, but no sound escaped my
lips, while my limbs were so paralyzed that I could not raise my
hands to my face.
I recollect struggling frantically to free myself from the horrible and
mysterious influence that was upon me. I tried frantically to extricate
myself from that deadly embrace, but was helpless as a babe. I
thought I heard the sound of heavy breathing, but was not quite sure.
Was I alone—or was someone in the room?
My lips seemed to burn, my brain was on fire, a wild madness seized
me and then the cold Thing left my lips.
I must have fainted, for all consciousness was suddenly blotted out.
When I came to myself I heard strange faint whisperings around me.
Before my eyes was a blood-red haze and I felt in my mouth and
throat a burning thirst.
I breathed heavily once or twice, I remember, and then I lapsed
again into unconsciousness. How long I remained, I know not. I must
have been inert and helpless through many hours. Then I became
half conscious of some liquid being wafted into my face, as though
by a scent-spray, and once I seemed to hear Thelma’s soft, sweet
voice. But it was faint and indistinct, sounding very far away.
I fell back into a dreamy stupor. Yet before my eyes was always that
scarf-pin like a tiny human eye which had been worn by my
commercial friend. It had attracted me as we had gossiped, and as is
so often the case its impression had remained upon my
subconscious mind.
I lay wondering. Things assumed fantastic shapes. I could still hear
that scuttling of rats behind the old paneling, and I recollected the
narrow streak of moonlight which fell across the room from between
the blind and the window-frame. I recollected too, the sharp brisk
voice of my commercial friend, and moreover I once more saw,
shining before me, that tiny gem like a human eye.
After a lapse of quiet I tried again to rouse myself. The room was still
dark, and I listened again for the scuttling of the rats behind the
paneling, but the only sounds I heard seemed to be faint
whisperings. Then suddenly I seemed to hear drowsy sounds of
bells, like the sweet beautiful carillon that I had heard from the tower
at Antwerp.
I lay there bewildered and alarmed. I thought of Thelma—thoughts of
her obsessed me. I did not know whether to believe in her or not.
Was I a fool? In those dreamy moments I remembered my last visit
to Bexhill when I had questioned her. She had trembled, I remember,
and her lustrous eyes had scanned me with what now seemed to my
tortured brain a remorseless and merciless scrutiny.
I recollected too, her words:—
“I am sorry, but I can’t tell you. I am under the promise of secrecy.”
The whole enigma was beyond me: in my half conscious state, the
pall of a great darkness upon me, I felt my sense strung to breaking
point.
CHAPTER XV
MORE DISCLOSURES
Ten minutes later I grew conscious of unfamiliar surroundings.

I was no longer in that dark old room at the Cross Keys, but in a
bright airy little room enameled in white. I was lying upon a narrow
iron bedstead and my nostrils were full of the pungent odor of some
disinfectant—I think it was iodoform.
As I looked up I saw four faces peering anxiously down into mine.
The first was that of a grey-bearded man in gold-rimmed spectacles,
the second was that of an elderly nurse in uniform, the third I
recognized as old Feng—and the fourth—I could scarce believe my
eyes—was Thelma herself!
“Thelma!” I cried eagerly, raising my hand towards her.
“No! Keep quiet!” ordered the spectacled man who seemed to be a
doctor. “Listen! Can you understand me. Do you hear what I say?”
he asked in a harsh voice.
“Yes, I—I do,” I faltered.
“Then keep quiet. Sleep, and don’t worry about anything—if you
want to get well. You’re very ill—and you’ve been very foolish. But if
you obey me you will soon be all right again.”
“But—but Thelma—Mrs. Audley,” I asked eagerly.
“She’s here—by your side. Don’t worry, Mr. Yelverton, go to sleep
and you’ll be quite right again soon—quite right!”
I looked at his great gold-rimmed spectacles. They seemed to be
magnified in my abnormal sight.
“But,” I asked boldly. “Who are you?”
“My name is Denbury—Doctor Denbury,” was the old fellow’s reply.
“But why are you here with me in Cross Keys?”
“You’re not in the Cross Keys now. You are in the Burghley Hospital.
The police brought you here, and sent for me.”
“The police!” I gasped, staring at those large round spectacles, whilst
next moment I shifted my gaze upon Feng. “Look here Doctor Feng,”
I said addressing him. “What does all this mean?”
“Well, Yelverton, it is all a puzzle to us. Why did you come here to
Stamford and attempt to commit suicide?”
“What?” I cried in fierce indignation despite my weakness. “What are
you saying? Suicide—why, such a thing never entered my mind!”
Feng’s face wore a strange, cynical smile. Suddenly I felt he was not
my friend; for the moment I hated him.
“Well, the facts are all too apparent,” he said dubiously. “Whatever
could have possessed you? You’ve had a very near squeak of it, I
can tell you.”
“Yes, Mr. Yelverton,” said Thelma, bending over me till I saw her dear
face peering eagerly into mine. “Yes. They thought you were dead.
Why did you do it? Why? Tell us.”
“Do it?” I gasped astounded. “I did nothing. I—I only slept at the
Cross Keys before going out to Duddington to see a client.”
“But why did you come to Stamford,” asked the girl, bending over me
till I could feel her breath upon my cheek.
“No! I forbid any further questions,” exclaimed the bearded old doctor
in the gold spectacles. “Enough! He must rest, Mrs. Audley.”
Then I thought I caught sight of another man—a policeman in
uniform!
A few moments passed when suddenly the doctor pressed a glass to
my lips.
“Come. Take this,” he persuaded. “It will put you to sleep again, and
you’ll awake a new man.”
That strange cold pressure on my lips recalled the Thing which had
gripped me in the darkness, and I shut my mouth resolutely. But he
spoke so kindly, declaring that it would do me good, that inert and
almost helpless as I was, I obeyed him. The draught tasted of
cloves, but was terribly bitter.
“Water!” I gasped, and immediately he held some to my fevered lips.
I took a great gulp with avidity. Then I felt drowsy, and again lapsed
into unconsciousness.
When once more I opened my eyes my senses seemed quite
normal. I could see clearly, and I could think and reason.
I found Thelma and old Feng again bending over me, gazing very
earnestly into my face.
“Where am I,” I asked eagerly. “What has happened?”
“Surely you know what has happened,” replied Thelma, “why did you
attempt such a thing?”
“Attempt what?” I demanded.
“To take your life as we have already told you. You took poison, and
you’ve only been saved in the very nick of time!”
“It’s a lie,” I declared angrily. “I never took anything. What do you
mean?”
“Well,” said Feng. “You were found in the morning with your door
locked, and as you didn’t appear at noon they broke it open and you
were discovered insensible with the empty bottle beside you and a
note.”
“A note!” I cried utterly bewildered.
“Yes. You shall see it later on. It is addressed to the Coroner,
apologizing for your act!”
I held my breath.
“But, really,” I declared astounded, “you’re joking! I never wrote a
note, and I certainly did not attempt to commit suicide!”
“Well, there are the facts,” said Thelma. “The police brought you
here and they found your name on your cards, and in the letter you
left. The affair got into the papers, and I saw it. So I telegraphed to
Doctor Feng, and we both came here at once.”
“He must not be excited,” said the medical man in glasses.
“Keep quiet, Yelverton,” urged Feng. “You shall know all that has
happened in due course. You owe your life to Doctor Denbury’s
efforts. He gave you an antidote just in time!”
“But I did not write a letter, and I did not take any poison,” I protested
impatiently.
“Keep quiet,” old Feng urged. “It will all be explained in due course.”
“It is so utterly mysterious!” I cried, half raising myself.
“Yes, I agree,” said Feng. “The doctor has found that you are also
suffering from the after-effects of some drug.”
“Does your head pain you very much now?” inquired the doctor.
“Not so much,” was my reply. “But my throat is very bad.”
“I expect so,” he said, and he crossed the room, returning with a
draught which, on being swallowed, proved soothing. “Yes,” he went
on, “you’ve had a very narrow escape. I caught you just in time. I
presume that you must have swallowed the stuff about three o’clock
on the morning before last. When I first saw you I gave you up as
hopeless. But by sheer luck I was able to diagnose what you were
suffering from. Funnily enough it was the drug you took first that
saved you. But,” he added coaxingly, “go to sleep again, and when
you wake up tell us all about it. Your mind will then be quite clear.”
“Yes,” said Thelma, whose beautiful face peered anxiously into my
own. “Go to sleep now, Mr. Yelverton. You must not exert yourself too
much.” And her soft cool hand smoothed my brow.
I remained silent and a few minutes later I had again fallen asleep.
It was night when I found myself listening to an astounding story.
What Thelma told me was to the effect that, on the door of my room
being forced, it was found that I had swallowed something from a
bottle which was lying on the floor, while on the dressing-table lay a
note addressed to the Coroner and signed, “Rex Yelverton.”
Feng showed me the note. It was upon half a sheet of the hotel note-
paper, but written in an unfamiliar and rather uneducated hand.
“I never wrote that!” I protested, feeling now quite better, after I had
swallowed a glass of milk. “And I certainly did not take any poison.”
“I knew it was not in your handwriting!” Feng said, quietly. “As soon
as Mrs. Audley telegraphed to me I at once met her and we came on
here together. But, tell me, how did it come about that you swallowed
that stuff? It hasn’t been analyzed yet, so Doctor Denbury is not
quite certain what it is. He, however, has made a guess, because of
its smell. But apparently you were drugged also. Tell me exactly what
you recollect about it. I want to know everything, Yelverton.”
I tried to compose myself and reflect.
Presently, while he and Thelma sat side by side, I told them pretty
much as I have written here, exactly what had happened since my
arrival at the Cross Keys.
Feng listened very attentively without uttering a word. Now and then
he grunted, but whether owing to uncertainty or satisfaction I could
gain no idea. His attitude puzzled me sorely. I could not reconcile his
secret friendship with Thelma, with his pretended hostility. Even now,
in spite of the care he was taking of me, I wondered whether he was
my friend, and in summing up all the past circumstances I came to
the conclusion that he was not to be trusted.
The effort of thinking out all this proved too much for me, weakened
as I was by the poison—whatever it was—and, again feeling drowsy,
I once more closed my eyes, and slept.
I was conscious of a prick in my arm, and I know now that Doctor
Denbury gave me an injection.
Not until noon on the following day was I able to get up and dress,
and then, accompanied by Feng and Thelma, I managed to walk
round to the Cross Keys which was only a short distance from the
hospital.
The brisk, bald-headed manager invited me into his private room and
with many inquiries about my health and expression of amazement,
asked me to relate what had actually happened. But what could I tell
him? I did not myself know.
Up till that morning I had—I now discovered—been practically under
arrest as having attempted suicide, but now that it was clear that I
had been a victim of a plot, the red-faced constable whom I had
noticed idling about the room, had been withdrawn. The papers had
got hold of the story, and had made a “mystery” out of it, to
Hensman’s intense disgust. On seeing the newspaper reports he
had hurried from North Wales to see me.
“You’ve been an infernal fool, Rex!” he said. “I’ve telephoned to old
Pearson at Duddington. He is quite well. His son never rang you up,
and he doesn’t want to add a codicil to his will. You’ve been had—
my dear fellow! You ought to have heeded those warnings
concerning that little married lady!”
That was all the sympathy I got from him!
I told the bald-headed hotel-manager of my chat with the rugged-
faced commercial traveler from Bradford, who was a constant guest
at the hotel and who had worn that curious onyx tie-pin like a little
human eye—that pin that I had seen in my strange nightmare.
“Describe him again,” he said looking into my face rather puzzled.
I did so, whereupon he replied:—
“I recollect seeing him at dinner. He was in Number Thirty-Four, the
room immediately above yours. But he was a complete stranger. I’ve
never seen him here before. I don’t think he was a commercial. At
least he had no samples. The only commercial travelers we had
were Mr. Sharp from London, Mr. Watson from Manchester and Mr.
Evans from Thomas’s, the flannel manufacturers of Welshpool. I had
a long chat with Mr. Evans in the commercial room before we went to
bed. He remarked that there were only three travelers that night—for
it was unusual. We generally have eight or nine here, all of them
known to us—except at the week-end.”
“Then the man who told me about old Mr. Brimelow was evidently
not a commercial!” I remarked.
“Old Mr. Brimelow. Who is he?”
“The man from Bradford told me that he was once proprietor here a
few years ago.”
“Never,” laughed the manager. “This house has belonged to the
Yates family for the past seventy years. The man evidently told you
some fine fairy stories.”
“Evidently he did,” interposed old Feng. “You say that the man had a
room over Mr. Yelverton’s. That is interesting. May we see it?”
“Certainly,” was the reply, and all of us ascended to a small, stuffy
little single room on the second floor—the window of which was
exactly over that of the room I had occupied.
I told them of that cold thing that I had felt pressed to my lips, but I
could see that they were all incredulous—the hotel-manager most of
all. Everybody who runs a hotel has a horror of any untoward
happenings there, for, of course, they are apt seriously to prejudice
business. In this case I was supposed to have attempted suicide,
leaving a letter of apology to the Coroner. And I felt sure that the
hotel-manager believed that I had attempted my life, even though he
seemed to humor me and pretend to credit my story.
We had no police-officer with us. Feng had seen to it that we had
gone to the hotel unaccompanied.
The Doctor showed an inquisitive eagerness quite unusual with him.
He leaned out of the window in order to ascertain whether he could
see inside the room below. Then from his pocket he took a piece of
string and lowered it to the upper sash of the window of my room
and made a knot in it. Afterwards he examined the window-sill very
minutely.
“Has this window been cleaned since?” he asked the manager. “But
there,” he added. “I see it hasn’t by its condition. Not for a fortnight—
I should think—eh?”
“They were all cleaned about three weeks ago,” replied the bald-
headed man.
“Now we will go down to the room in which Mr. Yelverton was found,”
he said.
A few moments later we stood in the room wherein I had been
attacked. The manager pointed out the table upon which the letter
incriminating me had been found, and I gazed wonderingly around.
“The bottle was found on the floor beside the bed,” he said. “When I
first saw you I believed you were dead. Your mouth was discolored
and your face was as white as paper. Ada, the head chambermaid,
went into hysterics.”
“Yes. That’s all very well,” I answered. “But what could have really
happened? I only remember that funny sensation of breathlessness
and the cold thing pressed to my lips—a bottle I suppose it must
have been.”
“Well, to me, it is plain that your entertaining friend from Bradford
was not exactly what he represented himself to be,” said Feng,
busying himself, and examining the room with the closest attention to
every detail. Suddenly he seemed to bristle with excitement, and
turning to the manager he asked:—
“Did the man—what is his name—arrive here before Mr. Yelverton?”
“No,” was his reply. “He arrived just after. He gave his name as
Harwood and particularly asked for the room he occupied. He
seemed to know his way about the hotel quite well. He had no
luggage, except a small handbag, therefore he paid for his room on
arrival.”
“And when did he leave?”
“I cannot find out. The night-porter says that he did not see him. He
must have left very early, but there is no train leaving here in the
morning before the 7.49.”
“So he got away by car, no doubt—a car that was waiting for him
somewhere,” Feng remarked quickly with his gray brows knit. “Is his
bag still here?”
“No. He took it.”
“And none of the servants have ever seen him before?”
“No. I asked the three commercial gentlemen who were here that
night, and they all declared him to be a stranger. Commercial
travelers always know each other on the road.”
“Well,” I remarked. “It seems to me that my entertaining friend must
have known which room I occupied, got down from his window to
mine and entered this room while I was asleep.”
“I think so, Yelverton,” said the old Doctor. “It seems to me that
entering by the window that you left open, he first ascertained that
the cigarettes he gave you—which obviously were drugged—had
sent you to sleep. Then he pressed the little bottle to your lips,
forcing you to drink part of its contents—you recollect the cold thing
you felt upon your lips—and then, not knowing how much you had
swallowed, because in the darkness he could not distinguish, he
threw down the bottle and leaving everything to make it appear that
you had committed suicide, he clambered back to his own room and
afterwards escaped.”
“Do you think so?” asked Thelma.
“I do,” old Feng replied briskly. “Let us go upstairs again and see
what we can find.”
We did so. And on examining the outside woodwork of the window
which the affable man from Bradford had occupied, we found a large
freshly bored hole into which, no doubt, a stout hook had been
screwed. To this he must have attached a rope, which enabled him
easily to reach my window-sill.
Truly the plot of my enemies had been a well thought out and
ingenious one. The threat that if I continued my search for Stanley
Audley I should pay for my disobedience with my life, had not been
made without the full intention to carry it out!
CHAPTER XVI
GROWING SUSPICIONS
I had been fortunate enough in my life to escape many of the

shadows that lie in wait for most men. No serious betrayal of
friendship had come to make me bitter or cynical: I did not—as even
my profession might have taught me to do—look upon men with
suspicion and distrust. I preferred to give them my confidence.
But in spite of this I found myself growing more and more distrustful
of old Feng, more suspicious of his motives, more convinced that, for
some reason I could not fathom, he was playing a double game.
I knew that he was on a footing with Thelma quite different from what
he allowed me to believe. So much their secret interview at Bexhill
had shown me. And his attitude towards the attempt made upon my
life went to increase my distrust.
Had it not been that the handwriting of the note left beside my bed
differed so completely from my own—why no attempt to imitate my
hand had been made completely puzzled me—I should undoubtedly
have been charged with attempted suicide. The local police if not
very brilliant, were keen enough on the affair. I wanted to give them a
detailed account of everything that had led up to the attack on me—
to tell them the whole amazing story. To have done this would have
shown them that there was far more behind the affair than they could
possibly imagine. They, of course, looked upon the matter as being
within a very narrow circle. I knew, as Feng knew, that much more
complicated issues were involved.
Feng, however, strenuously opposed my proposal to tell the police
anything more than the barest facts, which, indeed, could not be
concealed. I wondered why, and asked him.
“It will serve no good purpose,” he argued. “These local policemen
have already confessed their ignorance of the man from Bradford.
He was not seen to leave by train, and as, from your description of
him his appearance was rather striking, I think, we may assume he
did not go that way. Probably he had a car in readiness and escaped
unnoticed. If you tell the police more than they know already you
must inevitably drag Mrs. Audley and her husband’s affairs into a
very unpleasant publicity. No, let us keep our own counsel.”
I remained in hospital two days longer. Thelma and Feng visited me
each day and I could not help noticing the queer bond of
understanding that seemed to have grown up between them. Not a
word was said by either of them to indicate that they were more than
mere friends but—perhaps my growing suspicions were responsible
—I seemed to see or to imagine evidence that their association
implied very much more than I was intended to believe. Feng had
always opposed my association with Thelma—had seemed, indeed,
decidedly hostile to her. His hostility, at least, had apparently
evaporated. Yet I found he was as strongly as ever opposed to the
continuance of my intimacy with her.
Did he fear for me? Did he fear for her? Did he fear for both of us?
I could not tell. But there was no mistaking the advice he gave.
“Look here, Yelverton,” he said to me a few hours before I was to
leave the hospital, “you have had a very narrow escape. You owe
your life to the merest chance and you may not be so lucky in the
future.”
“In the future!” I echoed. “Surely you don’t think there will be another
attempt to get me out of the way?”
“Indeed, I do,” he replied very gravely. “I don’t pretend to understand
the reason, but I should think it must be perfectly clear that your
friendship with Mrs. Audley is involving someone in a danger so
grave that they will not stick at trifles to avert it.”
“But how on earth can my friendship with Thelma affect anyone else
to such a degree as that?” I demanded, with some heat. “Stanley
Audley might perhaps object, but even he could hardly imagine that
it was a cause for murder. And even if he did the rather elaborate
plot evolved by someone would hardly have been the line he would
have chosen.”
Feng shook his head. “You can rule Stanley Audley, as the husband,
out of your reckoning. But what about Stanley Audley, the bank-note
forger. Suppose he and his associates know that your constant
efforts to find him might mean bringing the whole gang to justice?
Desperate men would not hesitate at murder when the stakes
involved are so great. My own belief is they fear that by your
continued friendship with Mrs. Audley you will pick up a hint that will
set you—and the police—on the right track. Probably they think that
is your real motive. Take my advice—I mean it very seriously—and
cut yourself adrift from the whole thing. Go back to London, take up
your work afresh—and forget Thelma ever existed.”
“I can’t and I won’t,” I declared passionately. “I’m going to try to get
the man who attacked me, and I’m going to try to find Stanley
Audley. Thelma thinks he is dead. I’m going to leave no stone
unturned to find out the truth. If he is really alive and returns to her—
well, I should have to keep away. In the meantime I want to discover
the man who tried to murder me.”
“He will be discovered some day, you can be quite certain,” was
Feng’s reply.
His tone surprised me completely: there was in it a curious ring of
certainty entirely unexpected. It was as if he knew with certainty and
positive conviction.
I glanced at him sharply. “You seem very certain of it,” I said.
“Well, I am pretty certain,” was his reply, with a curious expression
on his usually inscrutable face. And once again came to my mind the
uncanny conviction that the old fellow really knew a great deal more
than he would tell me. My suspicions of him redoubled.
“Drop it, my boy,” he said kindly enough. “If you had taken my advice
at first this would never have happened.”
Then for the twentieth time he went over with me every detail of the
description of the mysterious stranger from Bradford. What motive
lay behind the ceaseless questioning I could not imagine. Feng was
not a policeman, he strongly opposed telling the police any more
than we could help, yet he discussed the man from Bradford as
though he expected to meet him in the street next day and arrest him
on the instant.
But for what I had seen myself, but for the unmistakable “human
eye” scarf-pin that I had unmistakably seen when in the throes of
what was so nearly my death agony, I should have hesitated to
believe that the mysterious man from Bradford could have been
concerned in the attack on me. Anyone less like a criminal it would
be difficult to conceive. His keen, cheery countenance, indelibly
stamped on my recollection; his frank, engaging manner; his open,
goodfellowship and gay-hearted discussion of any and every subject
of interest that cropped up, all tended to give the lie to the
suggestion that he would be a murderer in intent if not in fact. But
that scarf-pin! It could not be mistaken. There could not by any
stretch of coincidence be two such pins in that Stamford hotel on the
same night. And upon that pin I had undoubtedly looked during that
awful night when I so nearly lost my life.
Another thought had flashed upon my mind. Young Mr. Pearson had
driven from Duddington to see me. I had never spoken to him before
and instantly I knew that his was not the voice I had heard upon the
telephone. Then I knew whose voice had come to me over the wire.
It was that of the man from Bradford. I wondered I had not thought of
it before. But I was sure my recollection was right.
On that last afternoon, when the hospital doctor pronounced me fit to
travel back to London, I took a walk with Thelma through the town,
and out along the pretty road which leads to Great Casterton. We
soon left the road by a footpath which took us up the hillside and into
some delightful woods, part of the ancient far-reaching Rockingham
Forest. There we rested together on the trunk of a big fallen elm.
Around us the sun’s rays slanting through the foliage, fell upon the
gray lichen of the huge forest trees and the light green of the
bracken, while the damp sweet smell of the woods greeted our
nostrils—that delightful perfume which seems peculiar to rural
England in summer.
“Mr. Yelverton,” exclaimed my pretty companion, gazing suddenly
into my eyes. “I—I want to ask you to forgive me. This wretched
affair has happened all through me. I alone am to blame for it.”
“Blame!” I echoed, as I took her hand—“what do you mean? You are
certainly not to blame. It seems I have a secret enemy who tried to
kill me—I don’t know why; I have done no one any harm that I know
of. But to say you are to blame is absurd.”
“Doctor Feng says you should have taken heed of the warning that
was sent you concerning myself,” she replied. “He thinks, too, that
another attempt will probably be made upon you—so do be careful.”
“But why? Tell me why,” I demanded.
She spread out her hands in a little gesture of helplessness and
drew her cream-colored sports coat more closely around her. She
looked very sweet and dainty in a close fitting little pull-on hat of
cherry color in fine pliable straw, a summer frock of pale gray silk
striped with cherry to match her hat, and gray suede shoes and
stockings.
It never struck me at the time that if she really believed Stanley to be
dead she would have worn mourning.
“Doctor Feng is very concerned about you,” she declared. “Has he
told you anything?”
“No,” was my reply.
“Well, he seems very upset about something. I can’t make it out.”
“Neither can I!” I replied. “The whole affair of Stanley’s flight and the
subsequent happenings are beyond my comprehension, Thelma.”
“His flight!” she exclaimed in a startled voice. “You surely don’t think
that he has left me intentionally?”
“Then why doesn’t he write to you or return?” I asked pointedly.
“Perhaps,” she suggested gently, “there are circumstances that
prevent him doing either.” I had thought she would have been
offended.
“No,” I said, “he is your husband. His duty is clearly to tell you where
he is and why he has not returned. I am sure he would if he really
loved you,” I added recklessly.
She was plainly startled now. Whatever she knew—and I was sure
she knew more than she would tell me—the idea that her husband
did not really care for her was clearly new and overwhelming. She
gazed at me white-faced and wide-eyed.
“If he really cares for me!” she whispered, her eyes filling with tears.
I could not bear this. “Of course he cares for you,” I said with a laugh
meant to reassure her, “but he ought to write to you anyhow.
Perhaps he has done so.”
I gazed at her as she sat at my side on that glorious afternoon.
Above us a pair of wood doves were softly cooing, while a thrush
annoyed at our presence, uttered his clattering alarm-note to his
mate. Village chimes sounded somewhere across the Welland
valley, together with the shrill whistle of a railway engine.
“Thelma,” I whispered at last. “Do tell me the real and actual truth.” I
looked into her grey eyes. They were as unclouded, her cheeks as
cool, her candor and serenity as undisturbed as when, on that
winter’s day amid the high-up snows she had shyly thanked me for
offering to look after her during her husband’s absence. I, on the
other hand, felt like a fool. My heart, though I had done my best to
steel it to endurance, was torn by a thousand conflicting feelings.
Wild ideas rushed through my brain. Was it possible that in her
secret heart she was not altogether sorry to be rid of Stanley
Audley? Had she married him hastily in an outburst of girlish
passion, only to find out her mistake when desertion and solitude
brought her opportunity for reflection? Was this the real explanation
of her mysterious declaration that her husband would never return to
her? And if so was there still a chance for me?
“Thelma,” I said softly, taking her hand in mine. “I want to speak to
you, but—but I hardly know how to say it. Since you left Mürren you
have never been frank with me—never confided in me—never told
me the truth.” Then, after a pause I went on. “Remember I took upon
myself a sacred trust, to see after you. I have carried out my promise
to Stanley as any honest man should carry it out, but it seems that
by doing so, I have brought a deadly hatred upon myself. Why? I ask
you, Thelma—why?”
She drew a long breath, her hand trembled in mine and her eyes
grew troubled.
“Mr. Yelverton,” she said at last in a trembling voice. “The question
you ask me is very, very difficult for me to answer. There are, I
confess to you at once, some things which I am bound for my
husband’s sake to conceal, and therefore I know you will not ask me
to divulge them. I can’t tell you more. You nearly lost your life
because of me. I was to blame and I am very sorry.”
“But why?” I demanded. “Why ‘because of you?’ How do you come
into it? Neither of us has done any harm.”
“I—I don’t know. Dr. Feng says you have secret enemies and that it
is because of me. That is all I know.”
“But where is Stanley?”
“I don’t know; if I did he would be here. But I believe he is dead.”
“But have you any fresh evidence?” I asked, eagerly. “You know the
man who was killed in France was not Stanley.”
“I know only what I have been told.”
“But who told you?” I persisted.
“A friend. For certain reasons the strictest secrecy has been imposed
upon me. Please do not question me further. You have been my
dearest and kindest friend and it is very hard to have to prevaricate
with you.”
“Thelma,” I said. “I have all along striven to be your friend, though
circumstances have been so much against me. I made a promise to
Stanley, and I have endeavored to keep it.”
“And at what a cost!” she exclaimed. “Yes! I thank you awfully, for
you have been the best and dearest friend any girl has ever
possessed. Yet you have narrowly escaped losing your own life
because of your chivalry!” and her face flushed slightly.
For the second time my discretion went to the winds.
“Thelma!” I cried, “don’t talk of chivalry. Can’t you see the real
reason? Can’t you realize that I love you? Can’t you love me a little
in return.”
Her cheeks grew hot. “I—I don’t know,” she stammered. “It wouldn’t
be right. I am married already.”
The girl’s transparent innocence was amazing. Not a shadow of a
thought of wrong crossed her mind. She gazed at me as candidly
and sweetly as if she had been my sister.
“But Thelma,” I pleaded, “suppose Stanley is really dead; could you
care for me a little?”
For a few seconds she sat silent, then she answered in a low voice
broken by emotion. “Before I can answer that we must learn the
truth.”
My heart gave a great leap. There was hope for me.
“I will find out,” I declared, “whatever the cost.”
“But, Mr. Yelverton, please be careful,” she said. “Dr. Feng is terribly
apprehensive. He evidently thinks you are in great danger and
doesn’t want me to see you.”
“But why should he be?” I asked.
“I don’t know. I cannot make him out at all. Sometimes I think he
knows more than he will ever admit about Stanley.”
But I cared nothing for Feng. My heart was singing. Thelma’s words
acted as a spur to my decision to continue my investigations. I
determined once more and for all to play for the biggest stake. If I
lost I must accept my fate philosophically. If I won—!

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Principles and Techniques of

Electromagnetic Compatibility 3rd

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Optimal and Adaptive Signal Processing

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First edition published by CRC Press 1995

Second edition published by CRC Press 2007

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-53361-8 (hbk)

PART I Underlying Concepts and Techniques

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility............................................................3

Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Fields..................................................................................................5

Chapter 3 Electrical Circuit Components.................................................................................... 39

Chapter 4 Electrical Signals and Circuits.................................................................................... 55

PART II General EMC Concepts and Techniques

Chapter 5 Sources of Electromagnetic Interference.................................................................... 81

Chapter 6 Penetration through Shields and Apertures.............................................................. 103

6.7  Treatment of Multiple Apertures through a Digital Filter Interface.............. 138

Chapter 7 Propagation and Crosstalk........................................................................................ 147

Chapter 8 Simulation of the Electromagnetic Coupling between Systems............................... 181

Chapter 9 Effects of Electromagnetic Interference on Devices and Systems............................ 203

PART III Interference Control Techniques

Chapter 10 Shielding and Grounding.......................................................................................... 213

10.2 Cable Screening.............................................................................................. 218

Chapter 11 Filtering and Nonlinear Protective Devices.............................................................. 249

Chapter 12 General EMC Design Principles............................................................................... 261

PART IV EMC Standards and Testing

Chapter 13 EMC Standards......................................................................................................... 275

13.4.2  Defense Standard DEF-STAN 59–41............................................... 282

Chapter 14 EMC Measurements and Testing.............................................................................. 295

PART V EMC in Systems Design

Chapter 15 EMC and Signal Integrity (SI).................................................................................. 323

Chapter 16 EMC and Wireless Technologies.............................................................................. 355

Chapter 17 EMC and Broadband Technologies .......................................................................... 381

Chapter 18 EMC and Safety........................................................................................................ 389

Chapter 19 Statistical EMC......................................................................................................... 391

Chapter 20 EMC in Different Industrial Sectors......................................................................... 415

Chapter 21 EMC Outlook............................................................................................................ 429

Any serious study of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requires a reasonable background in

where if q is in coulombs, r is in meters, and ε0 is a constant. The electric permittivity of free-

where V is the volume enclosed by S.

FIGURE 2.2 Configuration of a coaxial capacitor.

In a Cartesian coordinate system

The potential due to a distribution of charge occupying volume V is

where, in Cartesian coordinates,

Taking the divergence of the expression for E gives

where ∇2 is the Laplacian operator. In rectangular coordinates

Combining with Equation 2.6 gives

Elsewhere, the electric field is zero.

Step (4), the capacitance per unit length is

If the coaxial conductors are of length l then the total capacitance is C = C1 × l.

A powerful tool in understanding electric fields and interactions is to draw on paper or on a

6.7 Treatment of Multiple Apertures through a Digital Filter Interface.............. 138

10.2 Cable Screening.............................................................................................. 218

13.4.2 Defense Standard DEF-STAN 59–41............................................... 282

2.2.1 The Relationship Between Circuits and Fields