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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
AND MIGRATION

This book looks at migration in contemporary society and its interrelations with
development. It presents the complexities and dilemmas associated with migration,
the changes in theoretical and historical perspectives on migration and develop-
ment, and the role of policies and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in
this context.
The book views migration as a phenomenon for advancing human development
outcomes. It deals with wide-­ranging issues including labour migration, the idea
of decent work, migration and transnationalism, remittances, social networks and
capital, and addressing poverty. The chapters highlight the focus of the SDGs and
its relevance on migrant rights, safeguarding livelihoods and health. They also offer
insights into regional and international cooperation on policies for migration, social
growth and protection, and citizenship. With comparative analyses of data, trends
and development indicators as well as various case studies, this book examines the
impact of migration on international relations and politics, labour market outcomes,
gender, youth and education among others. It also discusses the loss of lives and
livelihoods due to the Covid-­19 pandemic, its impact on migration and the effects
of the pandemic on the contemporary discussions on migration and SDGs.
Rich in empirical data, this book will be an excellent read for scholars and
researchers of migration and diaspora studies, development studies, refugee stud-
ies, public policy and governance, international relations, political studies, political
economy, sociology and South Asian Studies.

P. Sivakumar is Head at the Centre for Monitoring, Evaluation and Impact Analysis
(CMEIA) and Faculty and Head in Charge of the Department of Development
Studies, Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development (RGNIYD),
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Government of India.
S. Irudaya Rajan is Chairman of the International Institute of Migration and
Development, India (IIMAD). Prior to this, he was Professor at the Centre for
Development Studies (CDS), Kerala, India.
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GOALS
AND MIGRATION

Edited by P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

Cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2022
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 selection and editorial matter, P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan to be identified as the authors of
the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-36539-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-36540-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-34686-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9780429346866
Typeset in Bembo
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
CONTENTS

List of figures vii

List of tables ix
List of contributors xi
Preface xvi

1 Contours of migration and development in the SDG agenda 1

P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

2 Migration and SDGs: Towards new data approaches 20

S. Irudaya Rajan and Ardra Manasi

3 An overview of migration-specific SDGs in the Indian

context and the way forward on target 10.7 43
T.L.S. Bhaskar and S. Irudaya Rajan

4 SDG implementation: A policy analysis of internal

migration in India 68
Rohini Mitra and Priyansha Singh

5 Migration governance and the global compact on migration 84

Surabhi Singh

6 Moving towards a better future: Education through

placemaking with migrant children 103
Anurag Shukla and Titiksha Pandit
vi Contents

7 Young migrant women from South Asia in the UAE:

Issues and challenges 117
Mrutuyanjaya Sahu

8 Young bonded labourers: From the lens of migration

and the SDGs 141
Reni K. Jacob and Bernard D’ Sami

9 Recruitment practices of gulf migrants in Telangana:

A boon or bane? 159
Vijay Korra

10 Subcontracting and construction sector labour migration

to Kerala: Challenges to achieve sustainable development
goals on decent work 183
T.K. Sarga

11 Potential migration: A case study of youth from Kerala 198

K.M. Sulaiman and R.B. Bhagat

12 Epilogue: Impact of COVID-19 on achieving

migration-specific SDGs 211
S. Irudaya Rajan and P. Sivakumar

Index 221
FIGURES

1.1 Responsible Well-Being 3

1.2 SDG Targets Specific to Migration 9
1.3 Migration Governance Index (MGI) Framework 10
2.1 Percentage of Governments reporting policy measures to facilitate
orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people
by region, 2019 26
4.1 Internal Lifetime Migrants in India by Gender (in %):1971–2011 69
4.2 Labour Market and Internal Migrants 76
4.3 Right to Education 77
4.4 Political Participation of Interstate Migrants 78
5.1 No. of international migrants (millions) by region of destination,
2000 and 2017 89
5.2 Percentage of migrants by gender 90
5.3 International Organizations and the UN Entities dealing with migration 94
10.1 The Hierarchy of Positions within a Typical Informal Construction Firm 187
10.2 Annual Bonus of Labour in Informal Construction Sector, Northern
Kerala: 2017 192
10.3 Hours of Work among Construction Labour in Informal Construction
Sector, Northern Kerala: 2017 193
10.4 Working Condition of Migrant Labour in Informal Construction Sector 194
11.1 Youths’ opinion on statements related to Kerala 204
11.2 Benefit of migration (implication for migrant, family and community) 207
11.3 Losses due to migration (implication for migrant, family and community) 208
12.1 UNDP’s projection on number of people in poverty due to the
pandemic under different scenarios 212
12.2 Distribution of migrant workers by region 2017 213
12.3 Share of migrants and non-migrants in labour force participation rate 213
12.4 Percentage of international student application for the year
2020/21compared to previous year 215
viii Figures

12.5 Annual growth rate of real GDP per employed person, 2018 and 2019
(percentage) 216
12.6 Share of young people (aged 18–29) who reported having stopped
working after the onset of the pandemic (%) 217
12.7 Biggest SDG transformation challenges ranked per region 217
12.8 Percentage of governments reporting policy measures to facilitate
orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people by
domain, 2019 218
TABLES

1.1 Development Vocabulary 2

1.2 Migration Theories across Disciplines 5
1.3 Dominant Binaries in Development Thinking 6
1.4 Opposing Views on Migration and Development 6
1.5 Migration Governance Index (MGI) – Key Findings 10
1.6 SDGs and Migration – Crosscutting Goals and Targets 11
2.1 Migration-Relevant SDG Targets and Indicators 22
2.2 Domains and Proxy Measures of SDG Indicator 10.7.2 25
3.1 Mapping of Targets and Indicators Enshrined in the National Indicator
Framework 49
5.1 International Migrants, 1970–2019 89
7.1 South Asian migration stock to GCC states in 2017 122
7.2 Stock of Migrant Population from South Asia to UAE (In thousands) 123
7.3 Remittances from GCC Countries in 2015 124
7.4 Stock of Female Migration Trends in South Asia to UAE (2000–2017)
in Persons 126
7.5 Age restrictions for international migration by domestic workers 127
8.1 Details of Children Rescued 143
8.2 International Justice Mission Data on Rescued Children 144
9.1 Percentage of Emigrants Consulting Various Sources for Getting Information
about Employment in the Gulf 162
9.2 Percentage of Emigrants Recruited by Different Types of Recruiting
Agencies in Telangana 163
9.3 Percentage of Emigrants Getting Visa from Different Recruiting Sources for
Emigration to the Gulf 165
9.4 Percentage of Emigrants Travelling on Different Visa to the Current
Gulf Destination 167
9.5 Percentage Distribution of Emigrants’ Total Cost of Migration to the Gulf 169
9.6 Percentage of Emigrants’ Sources of Finance for Migration to the
Gulf Countries 170
x Tables

9.7 Percentage of Emigrants Reporting Charges Collected by Recruiting

Agencies at the Time of Emigration in Telangana 171
9.8 Percentage Distribution of Emigrants’ Experiences with the Recruiting
Agencies in Telangana 172
9.9 Percentage of Emigrants Blaming Various Stakeholders for Their Problems
While Emigrating to the Gulf 174
9.10 Percentage of Emigrant’s Opinion on who Should Take Responsibility of
Pre-Departure Training for Emigrants 175
9.11 Percentage of Emigrant’s View on Whether Telangana Government is
Neglecting Issues of Gulf Migrants 176
9A.1 The Average Cost Incurred for Migration to the Gulf Under the Study Area 180
10.1 Interstate Migrant Labour across Occupation Sectors, Kerala: 2012 187
10.2 Advance and Commission in the Informal Sector 188
10.3 Task Assignment in Informal Construction Sector, Northern Kerala: 2017 189
10.4 Distribution of Labour across Wage Levels in Informal Construction Sector,
Northern Kerala: 2017 190
10.5 Average Daily Wage Rate of Labour in the Construction Sector,
Northern Kerala: 2017 191
10.6 Health and Medical Benefits of Labour in Informal Construction Sector,
Northern Kerala: 2017 192
10.7 Weekly Work Days of Construction Workers in Informal Sector,
Northern Kerala: 2017 193
11.1 Youths’ awareness about migration process in Kerala 201
11.2 Youths’ aspiration of migration and potential reasons in Kerala 202
11.3 The agreement level of key determinants of migration by youth 205
12.1 Top Destination of Indian Students 214
CONTRIBUTORS

Anurag Shukla is a doctoral student at the Indian Institute of Management,

Ahmedabad (IIM-­A). He has worked with several organizations such as Pratham,
Azim Premji Foundation, Centre for Advocacy and Research (CFAR),Times Group
and Business Standard. His interests in the recent past include issues in migration
and education, standardized assessments, inclusive curriculum, and the application
of technologies in classrooms.
Ardra Manasi is a development practitioner based in New York City, with exper-
tise in gender policy, migration, and technology for development. She has served
as a former Consultant with the United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs (UN DESA), where she worked on global migration policy. She cur-
rently works at the Center for Women’s Global Leadership (CWGL) as Campaign
Manager. She holds a Master of Arts (MA) in International Affairs from the New
School, New York City, and a Master of Arts (MA) in Development Studies from the
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras, India. Her co-­authored peer-­reviewed
papers have appeared in journals such as ‘Human Technology,’ ‘Gender, Technology and
Development,’ and ‘Routledge International Handbook of Sex Industry Research.’
Bernard D’ Sami is the Dean of the School of Excellence (SHE) and Senior
Fellow at LISSTAR (Loyola Institute of Social Science Training and Research)
Loyola College, Chennai. He is a Salzburg Fellow (1994). He went to Oxford
University for a course on ‘Forced Migration’ in the Refugee Studies Centre. He
went to Stockholm, Sweden on the Olaf Palme North-­South Fellowship pro-
gramme to the Stockholm Institute of education in summer 2002. He was an
Executive Committee member of the Association of the British Scholars in India
till September 2016. He went to San Remo in Italy in September 2016 selected by
the UNHCR for a pilot course on Statelessness in the International Institute for
Humanitarian Law (IIHL), and he has been invited for a Global Academic Network
xii Contributors

and is a member of it in the newly initiated GCR (Global Compact on Refugees).

He is a guest faculty at IIT Madras.
Mrutuyanjaya Sahu is currently an assistant professor in the Department of
Humanities at the Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani (BITS), Dubai
Campus, United Arab Emirates. Prior to joining BITS, he worked as assistant pro-
fessor cum programme coordinator of the Prime Minister’s Rural Development
Scholarship Program at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai, from
2014 to 2017.
Priyansha Singh is currently the Policy and Communications Lead at India
Migration Now, a Mumbai-­based migration data, research, and advocacy organiza-
tion. She is involved in IMN’s policy, research and advocacy work around inter-
nal migration in India, along with managing the organisation’s outreach initiatives.
Priyansha holds a Masters in Regulatory Governance from Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, Mumbai. Her work has been published academically with International
Migration Journal, Springer, Routledge and through prominent media outlets,
including India Spend, Firstpost and India Development Review.
R.B. Bhagat is Professor and Head, Department of Migration and Urban Studies,
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India. His research
interest includes migration and urbanization; demography, ethnicity and politics
analysed through the lens of space and place as a critical framework of analysis. He
has served as Consultant to UNESCO-­UNICEF (India Initiative on Migration),
International Organisation of Migration (IOM), and Population Division, United
Nations. He was a member of the IUSSP panel on Demography of Armed Conflict,
2006–09 and the co-­ordinator of ENVIS Centre on Population and Environment
funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India from
2007 to 2012. He has also been a project team member of the ‘IMAGE Project:
Comparing Internal Migration Around the Globe’ located at Sanghai University.
His recent books include ‘Climate change, vulnerability and migration’, published by
Routledge 2018 and ‘Migration and urban transition: A development perspective’, is also
published by Routledge in 2020. He is currently the chief editor of Demography
India – An Official Journal of Indian Association for the study of Population (IASP).
Reni K. Jacob is a social activist and development professional. He is associated
with International Justice Mission as its legal consultant, with focus on bonded
labour and human trafficking. He was associated with International NGOs like
World Vision India as its director Advocacy and International Justice Mission as
its director Partnerships. He is deeply concerned and actively pursues the goals of
justice and peace building, child protection and rights, gender equality, rights of
the disabled and empowerment of the marginalized sections. He is professionally
trained in diverse areas: law, theology, social work, pastoral sociology and business
administration from leading universities, both India and abroad. He has published
a number of articles on community Development, Theology and Justice Issues and
two books ‘Sound of Silence’ and ‘God of the Margins’.
 Contributors xiii

Rohini Mitra is currently research coordinator at India Migration Now, a Mumbai-­

based migration data, research and advocacy organization. She is involved in IMN’s
major research and policy projects – including IMN’s extensive work on policy
indices related to internal and international migration as well as IMN’s research
and advocacy activities around international migration and India. Rohini holds a
Masters in Development Studies from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.
Her work has been published academically with Routledge and through prominent
media outlets, including Indiaspend, The Wire, Business Standard and Firstpost.
Sarga T.K. is a doctoral research scholar at Centre for the Study of Regional
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University. Her area of specialisation is Human
Geography. Currently, she is pursuing research on spatial economy. She has previ-
ously worked on working conditions of migrant labour in cooperative construction
sector. Her area of interest includes economic geography, urban studies, cooperatives
and migrant labour.
Sulaiman K.M. is the PhD scholar of Population Studies at International Institute
for Population Sciences (IIPS). He is currently working on a PhD thesis titled
Culture of Migration and Aspiration of Youth in Kerala by considering Calicut,
Kerala, as a Study Area under the guidance of Dr R.B. Bhagat, Professor and Head,
Department of Migration and Urban Studies. His works focus on theoretical and
empirical knowledge of the culture of migration, future migration aspirations
and social change. He is an accomplished researcher and dedicated scholar in the
development sector and has had experience in sociology, migration, gender studies,
research methodology, public administration and population studies.
Surabhi Singh is the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) of India Centre for
Migration, research think tank of the Ministry of External Affairs. Prior to join-
ing her current post, Dr. Singh has worked at the Indian Council of World Affairs
and the International Organisation for Migration-­the UN Migration Agency. Dr
Singh has done her PhD from Jawaharlal Nehru University and was also the recipi-
ent of “New Passage to India” fellowship sponsored by DAAD. Her PhD thesis
is on “Transnational Migration and Multilateral Governance: A Study of Select
Institutional Responses”. Her research work on migrant workers rights, securitiza-
tion of migration, linkages between trade and migration and a subaltern reading of
international organizations have been published as book chapter and journal articles.
Titiksha Pandit worked most recently as research associate at the Indian Institute
of Management, Ahmedabad (IIM-­A). Her research work explores the intersec-
tions between design thinking and social change. Her interests in the recent past
include urban placemaking, arts-­based development interventions and storytelling
for change.
T.L.S. Bhaskar is presently the program manager and team lead for the International
Migration Centre-­Karnataka Project at the Public Affairs Centre (PAC), Bengaluru.
He was formerly the CAO, India Centre for Migration, Ministry of External Affairs
(MEA), Government of India.
xiv Contributors

Vijay Korra is assistant professor at the Centre for Economic and Social Studies
(CESS), Hyderabad, Telangana. He holds PhD in economics in the area of labour
migration and MGNREGS from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi,
through Centre for Development Studies (CDS), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. His
research interest includes migration studies, economics of labour markets, unem-
ployment, MGNREGA, issues of de-­notified tribes, development of marginalized
sections, and tribal economy. He has published quite a number of research articles
in the area of migration and aforementioned areas in the reputed national jour-
nals and international edited volumes. He has published a book titled “Forgotten
Communities of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh: A Story of De-­notified Tribes”,
published by Palgrave Macmillan (2019). He has completed several major projects
and is currently working on a major study entitled “Social and Economic Cost of
Gulf Migration: A Study of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh”.
P. Sivakumar is Head, Centre for Monitoring, Evaluation and Impact Analysis
(CMEIA) and Faculty and Head in Charge, Department of Development Studies,
Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development (RGNIYD), Ministry
of Youth Affairs and Sports, Government of India, is a Post-­Doctoral Fellow in
Development Ethics (Indian Council of Philosophical Research Fellowship). He
has obtained PhD from Kerala University and holds Master's Degrees in Sociology
and Philosophy.
He served as a member of the Technical Working Group on Integrating
Volunteerism into SDGs constituted by United Nations Volunteers (UNV).
Presently, Dr Sivakumar is heading a project with UNICEF to prepare Status
Papers on five thematic areas such as Impact of COVID-­19 on Internal Migrants in
India; Livelihoods of Women in the Informal Sector during the Pandemic: Challenges and
Responses; and An Analysis of Youth Employment/Unemployment in the Post-­COVID-­19
scenario; Health Status of Children in India; and Youth in Tamil Nadu: Review of Education,
Employment Status and Post-­pandemic challenges.
S. Irudaya Rajan is Chairman, the International Institute of Migration and
Development, India (IIMAD). Prior to this, he was professor at the Centre for
Development Studies (CDS) and set up a Research Unit on International Migration
(RUM), fully funded by the erstwhile Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs and acted
as a chair during 2006–2016. With more than three decades of research experience,
he has coordinated eight migration surveys in Kerala since 1998 (with Professor K.C.
Zachariah), led the migration surveys in Goa, Punjab and Tamil Nadu and provided
technical support to the Gujarat migration survey. He has published extensively in
national and international journals on demographic, social, economic, political and
psychological implications of both internal and international migration. He has
worked closely with the erstwhile Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, Government
of India, Department of Non-­Resident Keralite Affairs (NORKA), Government of
Kerala and Kerala State Planning Board. He is the co-­chair of the working group on
NORKA for the 13th five-­year plan (2017–2022) of Kerala State Planning Board.
He is editor of the two Routledge series: India Migration Report (annual) since
 Contributors xv

2010 and South Asia Migration Report (biennial) since 2017 and is the founder
editor-­in-­chief of the journal Migration and Development. Currently, he is the
Chair of the KNOMAD (The Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and
Development, World Bank) working group on internal migration and urbaniza-
tion. He is one of the expert committee members in Kerala’s task force to advise
the Government of Kerala on Covid-­19. Currently, he is Dean, Faculty of Social
Sciences, Kannur University, Adjunct Professor, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Hyderabad, and Visiting Professor, Gulati Institute of Finance and Taxation, Kerala.
PREFACE

The journey from Brundtland commission to ‘Agenda 2030’ has been remarkable
as it resulted in all nations accommodating sustainable development in the national
development agenda. Yet the journey so far has been filled with challenges such as
unaccomplished/partially accomplished targets, stressful ecosystem and looming cli-
mate change. This challenge creates a pressure on development experts to broaden
the concept of development and accommodate more innovative ways of addressing
developmental issues. It has been a proven fact that sustainable development requires
dialogues among all stakeholders and the dialogue needs to be positioned from the
premise of intrinsic values. The signposts/milestones to development need to be
identified from the people who are denied the opportunity to realize the benefits
of development.The Agenda 2030 is a step forward in this direction, and the success
in achieving SDGs largely depend on how young people in the world embrace the
concept of sustainable development.
The number of international migrants continues to grow over the past several
years, crossing 281 million in 2020. Migration is seen as an engine of economic
growth, and it allows millions of people to integrate with international community
and strengthen bonds between countries and societies by re-­interpreting the con-
cept of “boundaries/borders”. At the same time, the linkage between migration and
development cannot be captured simply as transfers of population from one area to
another area (say, for example, rural to urban area) and its associated developments.
Since migration as such encompasses varied, multiple complexities, it requires mul-
tiple ‘lenses’ – in addition to the standard economic lens – in order to study role
of migration in development processes. The Agenda 2030 and Global Compact
on Migration are two important instruments that see migration as an opportunity
which can be used as a tool for fostering sustainable development. In this regard,
this book captures this opportunity and attempts to map the SDGs and indicators
related to migration.
 Preface xvii

At the time of finalizing this book, the world has dramatically changed due to
COVID-­19 crisis. The polarization due to COVID-­19 is visible in all senses that
even the academic literature has changed immensely into pre-­COVID and post-­
COVID scenarios. The threat posed by the COVID-­19 pandemic is devastating
as all the governments were compelled to suspend routine activities and economy
became standstill, leaving most of the migrants to face the threat without any sup-
port or coping mechanism. It took for a while to activate the response system in
most of the countries and swung into action. However, the choice left to us is
to continue to fight the pandemic and also to continue and sustain the progress
made on SDG. In this direction, the book, Sustainable Development Goals and
Migration looks at SDGs through the lens of migration. The major theme of the
book is the nexus between migration and sustainable development. The book is
focusing on the nuances of migration-­specific SDGs rather than the demarcation
of national–­international contexts. This was a deliberate attempt as the process of
outlining SDGs in connection with migration seemed more significant since coun-
tries were starting to implement SDG targets during that time many of which were
cross-­cutting in the context of migration.
Editors
1
CONTOURS OF MIGRATION AND
DEVELOPMENT IN THE SDG AGENDA
P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

Introduction
The Nobel laureate economist, Amartya Sen, places his concept of development by
quoting Immanuel Kant’s most famous dictum “So act as to treat humanity, whether
in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as
means only”. His argument postulates that the process of development must treat
every person as an end in themselves rather than as a means alone. This proposition
is most critically valid in the context of migration and development in the contem-
porary scenario. Migration needs to be viewed as advancing human development
outcomes and also fosters overall development. However, every aspect of migra-
tion cannot be treated in this direction as migration also occurs in stressful situa-
tions let it be forced migration or unsafe migration. There are plentiful literature
highlighting the significance of migration’s contribution towards poverty reduction
and human development (Afsar, 2003; Deshingkar, 2006; Tandoh-­Offin and Awuse,
2013; Zachariah, Mathew and Rajan, 2003; Zachariah and Rajan, 2012). As human
development principles underscore people as real wealth of nations, it is important
to understand the linkages between migration and development in the context of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Migration and development – outgrowing definitional boundaries

The nexus between migration and development cannot be limited in the way we
define migration (Rajan, 2012; 2015) The United Nations Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (UNDESA) defines an international migrant as “any person who
changes his or her country of usual residence” (UNDESA 1998). The definition

DOI: 10.4324/9780429346866-1
2 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

given by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in the context of labour

migration is that “migrant for employment means a person who migrates from one
country to another with a view to being employed otherwise than on his or her
own account”(ILO 1999), whereas the International Organization for Migration
(IOM) defines migrant as “a person who moves away from his or her place of usual
residence, whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily
or permanently, and for a variety of reasons” (IOM 2018). All these definitions fail
to capture the complexities involved in migration and development. Migration is
an end and the means as well for development as highlighted in Sen’s perspective
on development. It is very difficult to separate migration from development and
difficult to envisage development without migration (Skeldon1997).
The dominant literatures on migration emphasize on the importance of remit-
tances and economic development, but what also to be seen is the non-­economic
benefits and most importantly the human development outcomes due to migration.
The Human Development Report of UNDP in the year 2009 argues that three
forth of international migrants migrate to the countries having high human devel-
opment compared to their home countries (UNDP 2009). People who migrate
to countries of better human development as part of international migration are
enhancing their capacities endowed with better capabilities in accessing education
and health (Kandemir 2012). At the same time, the development disparities and
migration out of distress, social and living conditions of migrants, particularly inter-
nal migrants in the case of India, raise certain developmental issues in connection
with human development. The linkages between internal migration and develop-
ment have been ignored (DeWind and Holdaway 2008) and there are very little
studies in this direction.
Over the period, the word “development” also has undergone tremendous trans-
formations. The vocabulary of development has been changing in tune with the
changing times. Robert Chambers argues that the thinking and actions of develop-
ment professionals on development can be evaluated by reflecting on the context
of the words used by them over the period (Robert Chambers 2005). The same is
illustrated in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1 Development Vocabulary

The human condition Capabilities, deprivation, entitlement, livelihood, poverty,

Organization, power and
relationships
Domains and dimensions
Values
Source: Robert Chambers (2005).
vulnerability, well being
Accountability, consumer, decentralization, empowerment,
ownership, participation, partnership, process, stakeholder,
transparency
Civil society, environment, globalization, governance
Democracy, diversity, equity, gender, human rights,
pluralism sustainability
 Contours of migration and development 3

Mahbub ul Haq in his article “The Human Development Paradigm” (Fukuda-­

Par and Shivakumar2004) elaborates the functions and purpose of development as
follows:

• Development must put people at the centre of concerns

• The purpose of development is to enlarge all human choices and not just
income
• The human development paradigm is concerned both with building human
capabilities (through investments in people) and with using those human capa-
bilities more fully (through an enabling framework for growth and employment)
• Human development has four essential pillars: equity, sustainability, productivity
and empowerment. It regards economic growth as essential, but emphasizes the
need to pay attention to its quality and distribution, analyses at length its link
with human lives and questions its long-­term sustainability
• The human development paradigm defines the ends of development and anal-
yses sensible options for achieving them.

The above pointers are conjoining with migration and development, and, in fact, the
migration-­development nexus has to be centred around these pointers, which gives
us a comprehensive understanding. The mainstream development strategies typi-
cally involve major human costs and suffering (Des Gasper 2004), which in other
words, indicate the plight of migrants in informal sector, where they are engaged
in 3D jobs (dirty, dangerous and demeaning). What is required in this context is to
enhance the capabilities of migrants and subsequently create decent and sustainable
jobs in labour market. This can be illustrated through the following Figure 1.1:

FIGURE 1.1 Responsible Well-Being

4 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

Robert Chambers argues that livelihoods and capabilities are both ends and
means in development thinking, whereas the concept of equity and sustainability
are the principles that makes livelihood to qualify responsible well-­being (Robert
Chambers 2005). The migration-­development nexus in 2030 agenda needs to be
built around these frameworks.

Theoretical approaches
The heterogeneous nature of migration and development puts the theoreti-
cal approaches in “Migration and Development” studies in a complex perspec-
tive. Though migration studies and development studies are the interdisciplinary
in nature, there is hardly any interdisciplinarity is visible until recently (King and
Collyer 2016). One such notable attempt is by Caroline Brettell and Hollifield
(2015) who tried to summarize the principal research questions, methodologies and
dominant theories in various disciplines in relation to migration (Table 1.2)
The spectrum of “Migration and Development” is confronted with multiplic-
ity of dimensions like labour migration, livelihoods and migration, migration and
transnationalism, remittances, social networks and social capital, addressing poverty,
etc. However, binary thinking has dominated both migration and development lit-
erature (Parvati Raghuram 2020). Parvati Raghuram in her article draws a picture
of such binaries which is depicted in the following Table 1.3:
Parallel to this, there are opposing views on migration and development (Table 1.4)
proposed by Hein de Hass of University of Oxford. Hein de Haas (2010) explains:

Rather, we need to see migration as (1) a process which is an integral part of

broader transformation processes embodied in the term ‘development’, but (2)
also has its internal, self-­sustaining and self-­under-­mining dynamics, and (3)
impacts on such transformation processes in its own right. This contextuality
has important theoretical implications. Because migration is not an exogenous
variable, but an integral part of wider social and development processes, the
development impacts of migration are also fundamentally heterogeneous.

It is evident that the emerging meanings of migration and developmentare mul-

tidimensional and diversified. The 2013 World Migration Report of International
Organization for Migration brings the focus of migration and development into
wellbeing and argues that migration improves the prospects of human development
but at the same time, many migrants continue to struggle to achieve satisfactory
levels of well-­being.
Renewed interest in the migration-­development nexus is visible in the writing
of Ronald Skeldon (2008) who extensively worked on the interlinkages between
them. Parvati Raghuram (2020) notes that Skeldon’s classification is unique which
is based on a range of factors and throws insights based on his long-­standing work
on these areas.
TABLE 1.2 Migration Theories across Disciplines

Discipline Research Question(s) Level/Unit of Analysis Dominant Theories Sample Hypothesis

Anthropology How does migration effect cultural
change and affect cultural identity
Demography To what extent immigrant and native
population become more similar
over time?
Economics What explains the propensity to
migrate and its effects?
Geography What explains the spatial pattern of
Micro/individuals, Relational or structuralist and
households, groups transnational
Individuals, immigrant Theories of migration (cost
groups, ethnoracial benefit and structural); theories
groups, national in integration (assimilation
foreign-­born and pluralist based); theories of
populations migration effects (economic,
social cultural and structural)
Micro/individuals Rationalist: cost benefit and
utility-­maximizing behaviour
Macro, meso and micro/ Relational, structural and
Social networks help
maintain cultural
difference
Immigrants will not become
successfully integrated
when they experience
significant membership
exclusion
Incorporation varies with
the level of human capital
of immigrants.
Incorporation depends on

Contours of migration and development 5

migration
History How has a phenomenon, (e.g. causes,
structures, processes, consequences
of migration) or a relationship
(e.g. gender and migration) has
changed or persisted over time?
Law How does the law influence
migration?
Political Why do states have difficulty
Science controlling migration?
Sociology What explains incorporation and
exclusion
Source: Brettell and Hollifield (2015).
individuals, households transnational ethnic networks and
and groups residential patterns
Varies temporally (from Periodization Usually not applicable
short to medium and
long term)
Macro and micro/the Institutionalist and rationalist Rights create incentive
political and legal (borrows from all the social structures for migration
system sciences) and incorporation.
More macro/political and Institutionalist and rationalist States are often captured by
international systems pro-­immigrant interests.
Macro/ethnic groups and Structuralist or institutionalist Incorporation varies with
social class social and human capital
6 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

TABLE 1.3 Dominant Binaries in Development Thinking

Dominant binaries Theoretical bases Major proponents

Developing–developed
Third World–First World
Under-­developed–developed
Periphery–Core
Global South–North
Minority world–Majority
world
Source: Parvati Raghuram (2020).
Modernization theories WW Rostow(1960)
Non-­alignment Alfred Sauvy (1952)
Dependency theory Gunder Frank (1967)
World-­Systems theory Immanuel Wallerstein (1979)
Pluralist Brandt Commission (1980)
Demographic Shahid-­ul-­Alam (1990)

TABLE 1.4 Opposing Views on Migration and Development

Opposing Views on Migration and Development

Migration optimists Migration pessimists

Functionalist ↔ Structuralist
Neo-­classical ↔ Neo-­Marxist
Modernization ↔ Disintegration
Net North-­South transfer ↔ Net South-­North transfer
Brain gain ↔ Brain drain
More equality ↔ More inequality
Remittance investment ↔ Consumption
Development ↔ Dependency
Less migration ↔ More migration
Source: Hein de Haas (2010).

Perhaps one of the notable departures in migration-­development theories is the

standpoint taken by Stephen Castles. Castles (2010) notes that a general theory of
migration is neither feasible nor desirable and what is possible is to make progress
by re-­framing migration research to have a more generalized understanding of con-
temporary society and linking it with theories of social change across the disciplines.

Migration and development in the United Nations Organization:

A snapshot
Prior to the adoption of SDGs, its predecessor, the Millennium Development Goals
(MDG) also had explicit references on migration. The predominant interlink-
ages between migration and MDGs were in Goal 1 (Poverty Reduction), Goal 3
(Gender Equality), Goal 6 (Prevention of HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Infectious
Diseases), Goal 7(Environmental Sustainability) and Goal 8 (Creation of Global
Partnerships for Development) (Usher 2005). Browne and Weiss argue that the
 Contours of migration and development 7

millennium declaration along with MDG goals in some areas is “too difficult to
measure unambiguously or too sensitive to handle politically” (Browne and Weiss
2014). During 2001, the 56th session of UN General Assembly passed a resolution
on international migration and development and stressed the following:

Calls upon all relevant bodies, agencies, funds and programmes of the United
Nations system and other relevant intergovernmental, regional and sub regional
organizations, within their continuing mandated activities, to continue to
address the issue of international migration and development and to provide
appropriate support for interregional, regional and sub regional processes and
activities on international migration and development, with a view to integrat-
ing migration issues in a more coherent way within the broader context of the
implementation of agreed economic and social development programmes;
(United Nations 2002)

The above resolution was necessary as prior to IOM’s entry into UN as official
migration agency, there were no UN agency mandated with migration as primary
focus. Only exceptions to this were ILO’s focus on labour migration and UNHCR’s
focus on refugees and displaced populations. However as early in 2006, as a response
to the recommendation of the Global Commission on International Migration, the
UN Secretary General has appointed the Global Migration Group as

an inter-­agency group bringing together heads of agencies which seeks to

promote the wider application of all relevant international and regional
instruments and norms relating to migration, and to encourage the adoption
of more coherent, comprehensive and better coordinated approaches to the
issue of international migration.
(The Global Migration Group n.d.)

The Position Document prepared by Global Migration Group demanded that the
post 2015 agenda should have the following three-­pronged strategy:

• promote equality as a stand-­alone goal

• develop specific migrant sensitive targets
• ensure systematic disaggregation of indicators by migrant status

Prior to this the UN Conference on Sustainable Development in the year 2012 also
has highlighted that sustainable development require meaningful involvement and
active participation of all stakeholders including migrants.

Migration and the 2030 agenda

The central theme of 2030 agenda is “Leave on one behind”, and the entire SDGs
are centred around on this premise. A UNDP discussion paper cites five key factors
8 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

which are indicative of understanding who is left behind (UNDP 2018). These key
factors are:

1. Discrimination
2. Geography
3. Governance
4. Socio-­economic Status
5. Shocks and fragility

A person may be left behind due to any one of the factors or a combination of fac-
tors mentioned above. Each one of these factors has direct or indirect significance to
migration. The United Nations Committee for Development Policy highlights that
among others the “large share of young people in internal and international migration
generate additional challenges to meeting the pledge leave no one behind” (UN 2018).
Migration is encompassed in 2030 agenda in a number of goals and targets and
notable among these are SDG No. 4,5,8,10,16 and 17.The central focus of migration
is covered in the SDG 10.7 – facilitatingorderly, safe, regular and responsible migra-
tion and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and
well-­managed migration policies (Figure 1.2). However, it is important to be noted
that most of the targets related to migration, including targets belonging to Tier 2,
which means the indicator is conceptually clear, have an internationally established
methodology and standards, but data are not regularly produced by countries.1
With regard to the SDG10.7 where migration is covered most prominently out
of all SDGs, there has been renewed attempt to capture progress and data. IOM,
the official UN migration agency has been a frontrunner in this attempt and in the
year 2015 IOM commissioned the task of developing a comprehensive Migration
Governance Index (MGI) with The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) of The
Economist, a leading publisher. The MGI comprised of five domains:

1. Institutional Capacity
2. Migrant rights
3. Safe and orderly migration
4. Labour migration management
5. Regional and international cooperation and other partnership.

A detailed MGI framework is given below (Figure 1.3):

Based on the above framework, the MGI assessed 15 countries based on levels of
economic development, type of migration profile and geographic scope. The study
used 73 qualitative questions to measure performance across the domains men-
tioned above. The matrix of the key findings is given below (Table 1.5):
The index throws light on the following:

• The coordination and collaboration across the government and across the sectors
ranging from healthcare to education is key to better facilitation of migration, and
a comprehensive migration policy depends on this collaboration and coherence.
 Contours of migration and development 9

Student → Increasing international student mobility 4.B

Mobility

Human → Combating all types of trafficking and exploitation 5.2, 8.7, 16.2
Trafficking and → Addressing trafficking and exploitation of women
Exploitation and children

Labour → Promoting decent work 8.5, 8.7, 8.8

Migration and → Combating child labour and the worst forms
Employment of child labour
→ Combating trafficking for forced labour
→ Addressing the feminization of migration
→ Improving labour migration governance

Migration → Facilitating orderly, safe, regular and responsible 10.7

Governance migration and mobility
→ Implementing planned and well-managed
migration policies

Remittances → Lowering remittance transaction costs 10.C

Migration Data → Improving data across migration topics 17.18

→ Increasing disaggregation of data by migratory status
→ Increasing disaggregation of migration data by other
variables

FIGURE 1.2 SDG Targets Specific to Migration

• Transparency is the most essential element in comprehensive migration policy.

The transparency level of a country is the decisive factor in hassle-­free migra-
tion process.
• Regional consultative process is having prominent role in better facilitation of
migration.

Linking migration with other SDGs

In addition to the above-­mentioned targets where migration is having a direct bear-
ing (Goals 4,5,8,10,16 and 17). There are other SDGs and targets where migration
is having indirect but important linkages (please see Table 1.6).
10 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

FIGURE 1.3 Migration Governance Index (MGI) Framework

TABLE 1.5 Migration Governance Index (MGI) – Key Findings

Institutional Migrant rights Safe and Labour Regional and

capacity orderly migration international
migration management cooperation
Bahrain Emerging Emerging Developed Emerging Developed
Bangladesh Emerging Emerging Emerging Developed Mature
Canada Mature Developed Developed Developed Mature
Costa Rica Developed Developed Developed Emerging Mature
Germany Mature Developed Mature Developed Mature
Ghana Developed Emerging Mature Nascent Mature
Italy Developed Developed Emerging Developed Mature
Mexico Developed Emerging Emerging Developed Developed
Moldova Developed Developed Mature Developed Mature
Morocco Developed Emerging Emerging Emerging Developed
Philippines Mature Mature Mature Developed Mature
South Africa Mature Developed Developed Developed Mature
South Korea Mature Developed Mature Developed Mature
Sweden Developed Mature Developed Developed Mature
Turkey Mature Developed Emerging Developed Developed
Source: The Economist Intelligence Unit (2016).
TABLE 1.6 SDGs and Migration – Crosscutting Goals and Targets

Briefing Goal Target Linkages with Migration

Poverty and Goal 1 No Poverty 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, • Migrants should be included in the implementation of all poverty
Growth 1.A, 1. B targets
Goal 8 Decent Work and 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 • Migration should be seen as a mechanism to boost poverty-­
Economic Growth reduction efforts and growth for different countries
Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities 10.1
Social Protection Goal 1 No Poverty 1.3 • Migrants should have access to and be included in social
Goal 5 Gender Equality 5.4 protection coverage and policies
Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities 10.4 • Migrant domestic workers should be afforded social protection
Health Goal 3 Good Health and 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.7, • Migrants should be included in universal health coverage and all
Well-­being 3.8, 3.B, 3.C, 3. D health targets
Goal 5 Gender Equality 5.6 • The distribution of the global health workforce should be
Goal 8 Decent Work and 8.7, 8.8 improved

Contours of migration and development 11

Economic Growth • Understanding migration is crucial to strengthen health
Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities 10.7, 10.C emergency preparedness, develop inclusive health policies and
enhance access to migrant-­sensitive health services
• The health of migrants will improve through progress in many
other targets
• Improving the health of migrants is a fundamental precondition
to work, be productive and contribute to society, contributing to
other targets
Education Goal 4 Quality education 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 • Migrant children should be included in education targets
• Manage the global demand and supply for labour migration by
Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities 10.7, 10C improved matching of skills
• Education of migrants will improve through progress in other
targets, including cheaper remittances and safe and orderly
migration
(Continued)
TABLE 1.6 (Continued)

12 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

Briefing Goal Target Linkages with Migration
Gender Goal 5 Gender Equality 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.A, • Protection of migrant domestic workers
5.C • Address gender-­related vulnerabilities of migration
• Help women use migration to help empower themselves
• Inclusive progress in other targets will address potential negative
and discriminatory migration drivers for women
Children Goal 1 No Poverty 1.2 • Combating child trafficking and child labour
Goal 4 Quality Education 4.2 4.5, 4.A, • Migrant children should be included in child poverty and
Goal 5 Gender Equality 5.1, 5.2 education targets
Goal 8 Decent Work and 8.7 • Inclusive progress in other targets, such as on safe and orderly
Economic Growth migration, health, justice and others, will improve child migrant
Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities 10.7 protection
Goal 16 Peace, Justice and Strong 16.2, 16.3
Institutions
Cities Goal 11 Sustainable Cities and 11.1, 11.3, 11.B, • Migrants should be included in all targets relating to disaster risk
Communities 11.C reduction and management, including on early warning systems
• Migration should be recognized as a potential climate change
adaptation (CCA) strategy and way to build resilience
• Education and awareness-­raising efforts on climate change should
include the mobility dimensions of climate change
Citizenship, Rule Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities 10.2 • Expanding legal identity will directly help reduce statelessness,
of Law and Goal 16 Peace, Justice and Strong 16.3, 16.4, 16.7, create pathways out of irregular migration and protect the legal
Inclusion Institutions 16.9, 16. B rights of migrants
• Expanding legal identity will indirectly help foster migrants’
inclusion, improve their access to basic services and help counter
human trafficking and organized crime
• Strengthening rule of law will help migrants in many ways, such as
by improving access to justice and addressing migrant detention as
a potential driver of displacement

Diaspora and Goal 8 Decent Work and 8.9 • Including migration and migrants in development partnerships
Partnerships Economic Growth
for Goal 9 Industry, Innovation and 9.2,
Development Infrastructure
Goal 12 Responsible 12.B

Contours of migration and development 13

Consumption and
Production
Goal 17 Partnerships for the 17.3, 17.5, 17.13,
Goals 17.16, 17.17,
17.18
Source: IOM (2018).
14 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

By analysing SDG targets specific to migration and crosscutting goals and tar-
gets related to migration, it is imperative that migration interacts with all aspects of
development and is multidimensional in nature.The introductory statement of 2030
agenda stresses this perspective:

We recognize the positive contribution of migrants for inclusive growth

and sustainable development. We also recognize that international migra-
tion is a multi-­dimensional reality of major relevance for the development
of countries of origin, transit and destination, which requires coherent and
comprehensive responses. We will cooperate internationally to ensure safe,
orderly and regular migration involving full respect for human rights and
the humane treatment of migrants regardless of migration status, of refugees
and of displaced persons. Such cooperation should also strengthen the resil-
ience of communities hosting refugees, particularly in developing countries.
We underline the right of migrants to return to their country of citizenship,
and recall that States must ensure that their returning nationals are duly
received.
(UN 2015)

Organization of the book

While dealing with a variety of themes and issues pertaining to SDG both at macro
level and micro level, this book clearly brings out various complexities and multi-
dimensional nature of migration and development along with policy imperatives.
Chapter 2 by Rajan and Manasi deals with the most important aspect of migra-
tion and SDG.The authors focus on both macro-­level and the micro-­level initiatives
that contribute to SDGs and also fill the existing data gap on international migra-
tion. The authors compare UNDESA data on population and development (with
focus on migration module) and the Kerala Migration Survey (KMS). Drawing
from these two rich sources of data, the authors captivate the attention of readers
on SDGs relevant to migration. Though the micro and macro surveys differ in their
scale, methodology and units of analysis, both the surveys share a holistic under-
standing of how migration is a multidimensional phenomenon. The authors prove
that how both migration surveys have been successful in providing comparable data
to monitor the migration trends. To this end, they directly contribute to the SDG
target of 17.18 – of increasing the availability of high-­quality, timely and reliable
data disaggregated by migratory status, among other determinants.
Bhaskar and Rajan in Chapter 3 focuse on migration governance and global
compact on migration. The authors attempt to portray how migration has moved
from periphery to the core of International Relations (IR) and the political nature
of the issue at hand. They analyse the recent trends and datasets in international
migration and trace the road to global compact on migration and its contribution
to furthering the goal of global migration governance.
 Contours of migration and development 15

In Chapter 4, Rohini Mitra and Priyansha Singh trace the important develop-
ments with regard to the SDGs in the context of migration and map the works
done by NITI Aayog and also analyse the National Indicator Framework on SDG
(NIF) for India by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. NIF is
prepared based on the inputs provided by various Ministries/Departments under the
Government of India.They compare the NIF with the Global Indicator Framework
(GIF) and argue that several migration-­related targets and indicators such as 8.8
(protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all
workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in pre-
carious employment), 10.7 (facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration
and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well
managed migration policies), 10.c (by 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the trans-
action costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs
higher than 5 per cent), 5.2, 8.7 and 16.2 (different aspects of human trafficking),
17.3 (additional financial resources) and 17.18 (availability of high-­quality, timely
and reliable data disaggregated – including for migratory status) have been included
in the Global Indicator Framework (GIF) as compared to the NIF in case of India
where indicators for 10.7 are yet to be identified. The chapter gives an overview
of the above indicators and attempts to identify potential indicators to target 10.7
and thereby by provide the baseline for same. This chapter focuses exclusively on
international migration and its related aspects from India with respect to target 10.7.
Chapter 5 by Surabhi Singh is a continuation of Chapter 4; whereas the for-
mer focused on international migration, this chapter argues that India’s vision of
SDG implementation has remained limited in its scope by leaving an analysis of
internal migration outside of its ambit. The author argues that part of this limita-
tion is derived from global context itself as the basic SDG framework appears to
focus more on issues of immigration, emigration, international labour migration
and remittance. The internal migration is not an explicit focus in the SDGs and the
implementation and monitoring approach taken by the Indian Government; there-
fore, it has not centred on the issue despite it playing a vital role in India’s national
economy (Rajan and Sumeetha, 2019).
The concept of “feminization of migration” is one of the important thematic
areas in migration-­development nexus. As mentioned in the Table 1.6, SDG 5.2; 5.3,
5.4, 5.A, 5.C is linked with migration and it includes protection of migrant domes-
tic workers and addresses gender-­related vulnerabilities. In this context, by Sahu
(Chapter 7) explores these issues in detail in the context of young migrant women
from South Asia in the United Arab Emirates (Chowdhury and Rajan, 2018; Rajan,
2019). The author examines the trends and patterns of international migration in
general and female migration in particular from South Asia to the Gulf, in the con-
text of feminization of international migration. The chapter gives a vivid analysis of
how young women negotiate their identities and how migration is used as a strategy
to empower themselves. The chapter ends with policy prescriptions that could be
adopted to improve female migration outcomes in near future (Rajan and Joseph,
2015; Walton-­Roberts and Rajan, 2020).
16 P. Sivakumar and S. Irudaya Rajan

It is stated in the International Migration Report 2017 that 30 million chil-

dren live outside their country of birth and among them 20 million belong to
refugees and asylum seekers. Facilitating migration as empowering experience for
children is one of the crucial aspects of realizing SDG. Both Global Compact for
migration and Agenda 2030 acknowledge the role of migrants and migration as
important aspects to realize the SDGs. Chapter 6 by Shukla and Pandit raises the
concerns of migrant children in the context of “dislocation” and exposes the failures
of schooling programs for migrant children. The authors conclude the chapter with
a note that any future course of action regarding the welfare of migrant children
demands a rethinking over the meaning we attach with democracy, participation
and governance. The spatial and temporal complexities of issues faced by migrant
children require a holistic new approach where children are placed at the centre of
intervention.
In Chapter 8, Jacob and Sami examine another grim reminder on the bottle-
necks to address for achieving SDGs. As the world continues to practice bonded
labour system in various forms, the bonded labourers continue to face violence and
exploitation. The authors portray how a person trapped into bonded labour system
at tender age transforms himself/herself into forced migrants. They analyse SDGs
5,8 and 16 in the context of bonded labour and argue that the framework of SDG
needs to be integrated into the legal systems, policies and schemes of government.
Chapter 9 by Korra is a micro-­level perspective of the SDG 10.7.1 (reducing
recruitment costs).The chapter is an excellent source of information on recruitment
practices in the state of Telangana. The author analysed the primary data collected
from 1000 gulf migrant households from 10 districts in Telangana pertaining to
recruitment agencies, problems faced with recruiting agents/middlemen, sources of
income for gulf migration, visa-­related issues, pre-­departure training, government’s
role in facilitating migration, the cost of migration and perceptions of the migrants.
The chapter throws light on wrong recruitment practices and the absence of gov-
ernment role in making the emigrants more aware, trained and skilled.
Chapter 10 by Sarga helps the readers to understand micro perspective of SDGs
and the labour market outcomes. The author argues that the existing labour market
situations will need to be modified to meet the commitments made in the context
of agenda 2030. This chapter addresses the deficiency in the literature by focus-
ing on how the system of subcontracting and institution of maistry in informal
construction sector modifying the working conditions of migrant labour. To the
rural population, maistry working under subcontractors serves as an entry point to
urban labour pool and a facilitator at the destination. This empirical research with
quantitative methodological framework using primary survey data illustrates that
the labour market outcomes of migrant labour continue to pose serious questions
on the SDGs of United Nations promoting productive and decent work for all to
achieve inclusive and sustained economic growth. The “fragmentation of economic
relations” within the construction sector fostered a hierarchical arrangement in
which contractors remained at the top and migrant labours at the bottom.
 Contours of migration and development 17

Taking cues from SDG10.7 (to facilitate orderly, safe and responsible migration
and mobility of people, including through implementation of planned and well-­
managed migration policies), Sulaiman and Bhagat (Chapter 11) explore potential
migration of youth from the perspective of the development of a migration culture
(Zachariah and Rajan, 2016). The authors argue that the attempt to understand the
potential reasons and issues related to future migration flows are essential for build-
ing institutional capacity to anticipate, prepare for possible future crises and produce
policies better attuned to future trends as mentioned in the SDG10.7. In this con-
text, the chapter analyses potential nature of international migration and assesses
the importance of factors underlying the selection of migration destination and the
importance of elements affecting the nature of jobs undertaken, taking into account
payroll expectations of potential migrants.

Note
1 The United Nations Statistics division has the following classifications/definitions on
SDG indicators for the facilitation of implementation of the global indicator framework.
These classifications are based on the level of methodological development and the avail-
ability of data at global level:
Tier 1: Indicator is conceptually clear, has an internationally established methodology
and standards are available, and data are regularly produced by countries for at least
50 per cent of countries and of the population in every region where the indicator
is relevant.
Tier 2: Indicator is conceptually clear, has an internationally established methodology
and standards are available, but data are not regularly produced by countries.
Tier 3: No internationally established methodology or standards are yet available for
the indicator, but methodology/standards are being (or will be) developed or tested.
(As of the 51st session of the UN Statistical Commission, the global indicator frame-
work does not contain any Tier 3 indicators)

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2
MIGRATION AND SDGs
Towards new data approaches

S. Irudaya Rajan and Ardra Manasi

Introduction
Mobility has been central to human existence since the dawn of civilizational
memory. The patterns, causes and consequences that characterize human mobil-
ity – manifested in terms of both internal and international migration, continue to
evolve, with its social, economic and political underpinnings across distinct geog-
raphies. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN
DESA) observes that the global number of international migrants has grown faster
than the world’s population. In 2019, UN DESA estimated that there were 272 mil-
lion international migrants, compared to 221 million in 2010.
The UN’s formalized thinking on the challenges and opportunities resulting
from migration is reflected more succinctly in the policy developments since 2015,
including in the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at its core. The 17 SDGs provide a
comprehensive framework to address various global development challenges and to
this end, they offer a “blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for
all” (UN, 2015).
Within the wide gamut of the 17 SDGs and the associated 169 targets, one
among the direct migration-­linked target pertains to SDG target 10.7which calls
on countries to “facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobil-
ity of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-­managed
migration policies” (UN, n.d.).The fact that this target is located with the SDG
Goal 10 – to “reduce inequality within and among countries” – offers possibilities
to reflect on the interrelationship between migration and inequality with its cause
and effects. For policymakers, to actualize the goal of implementing planned and
well-­managed migration policies, the main prerequisite is the availability of timely,
reliable, accessible, and comparable data. To this end, another SDG target 17.18 calls

DOI: 10.4324/9780429346866-2
 Migration and SDGs 21

for the need to increase the availability of high-­quality, timely and reliable data
disaggregated by migratory status, among other parameters such as income, gender,
age, race, ethnicity, disability and geographic location (UN, n.d.).
Alongside these migration-­linked targets, migration also appears as an intersect-
ing theme across other SDGs. Table 2.1 shows how migration is a cross-­cutting
issue across the SDGs, intersecting with poverty, gender, climate change, peace and
justice, inequality and urbanization.
Following the adoption of SDGs, 193 UN Member States came together at the
UN General Assembly in September, 2016 to adopt the New York Declaration
for Refugees and Migrants, which recognized the need for a comprehensive
approach to migration (GMDAC, 2018). The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly
and Regular Migration (GCM), an inter-­governmentally negotiated agreement
adopted in December, 2018 was another policy development that resulted from
the Declaration. GCM was designed in order to be consistent with the SDG target
10.7 (GMDAC, 2020). Similar to the SDG target of 17.18, GCM incorporated
few commitments which directly pertain to migration statistics in its final text,
including the need to “harmonize methodologies on collection, analysis and dis-
semination of migration-­related data and indicators to achieve international com-
patibility” (GMDAC, 2020).
Of central interest to this chapter are SDGs directly relevant to migration.
According to International Organization for Migration’s (IOM)Global Migration
Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC), there is an existing data gap when it comes to
accurate and comparable data on international migration (GMDAC, 2018). The
major sources of migration statistics are obtained at the national level, and this cre-
ates difficulty for cross-­country comparisons due to differences in definitions around
“migration” and the frequency at which data sets are being released. In addition,
select migration topics have been found to receive more attention and resources
compared to others, in terms of data collection. For instance, IOM’s GMDAC
(2017) estimated that more data has been collected on migration topics such as stu-
dent migration, ratification of international conventions, migrant stocks, remittances
and human trafficking. Meanwhile, topics such as migration flows, irregular migra-
tion, health of migrants, the impact of migration policies, recruitment costs, return
migration, smuggling, migrant integration and missing migrants have received less
attention in terms of migration statistics.
At the same time, there have been successful research interventions in the form
of specialized migration surveys – at the inter-­country level or country-­based des-
tination/origin –which have been conducted across the world with the coopera-
tion of various national governments as well as multilateral agencies (Rajan, 2020;
Rajan, Zachariah and Kumar, 2020; Beauchemin, 2014). Though not an exhaustive
list, some examples include the household International Migration Surveys in the
Mediterranean countries (MED-­HIMS),The World Bank Africa Migration Project,
The Migration from Africa to Europe (MAFE), The Latin America Migration
Project and The NIDI-­ Eurostat Push-­
Pulls International Migration project
(GMDAC, 2018).
22 S. Irudaya Rajan and Ardra Manasi

TABLE 2.1 Migration-Relevant SDG Targets and Indicators

SDG Goal
SDG 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere
SDG 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-­being for all at all ages
SDG 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong
learning opportunities for all
Target 4b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available
to developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, small island
developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education,
including vocational training and information and communications
technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed
countries and other developing countries
SDG 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Target 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in public and
private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of
exploitation
SDG 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full
and productive employment and decent work for all
Target 8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern
slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination
of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child
soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms
Target 8.8 Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments of all
workers, including migrant workers, particularly women migrants and those
in precarious employment
SDG 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries
Target 10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe and responsible migration and mobility of people,
including through implementation of planned and well-­managed migration
policies
Target 10.c By 2030, reduce to less than 3% the transaction costs of migrant remittances
and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5%
SDG 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable
SDG 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
SDG 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels
Target 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence and torture
against children
SDG 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development
Target 17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity-­building support to developing countries,
including for LDCs and SIDS, to increase significantly the availability of
high-­quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age,
race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other
characteristics relevant in national contexts
Source: Constructed by the authors using data from the Migration Data Portal, hosted by IOM’s Global
Migration Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC).
 Migration and SDGs 23

This chapter builds on existing research to understand how two data initiatives –
one at the macro-level and the other at the micro-level contribute to SDGs and also
fill the existing data gap on international migration. UN DESA’s “Inquiry Among
Governments on Population and Development” (the “Inquiry”) – a data exercise
which began in 1963 has a module on International Migration which collects data
from national governments on various parameters such as immigration, emigration,
integration, naturalization and citizenship, irregular migration, diaspora investments
and remittances. Similarly, the Kerala Migration Survey (KMS) launched by the
Centre for Development Studies (CDS) at the subnational level since 1998 (KMS
completed two decades of its existence and finished its 8th round of surveys in 2018)
sought to collect data of over 15,000 households in Kerala on their socioeconomic
status, emigration, internal migration, return emigration and remittances. Among
the two surveys, UN DESA’s Twelfth Inquiry was subsequently repurposed in 2018
as a tool to monitor the SDG indicator 10.7.2. Through a critical commentary
and overview of both the approaches, the chapter aims to address the following
questions:

• What are the different kinds of data which are being collected and disseminated?
• What are the strengths and challenges of both the surveys?
• What are the lessons learnt and how can this inform the SDGs relevant to
migration, both at the local and global level?

Methodology
Primary data was collected through in-­person and telephonic interviews with select
staff from UN DESA and CDS. Secondary data was collected through the review
of UN documents, UN websites and CDS Working Papers from 1998 to 2018. The
review and analysis of data were completed in 2019.

Macro-level analysis
Section I: Macro-level migration survey to monitor the SDG
Indicator 10.7.2
Introduction
Though there are multiple SDGs that relate to migration, the “explicit” migration-­
related target is 10.7, which “calls on countries to facilitate orderly, safe, regular and
responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementa-
tion of planned and well-­managed migration policies”(UN DESA and IOM, 2019,
6). In 2016, the Inter-­agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-­SDGs)
tasked UN DESA and IOM to develop an indicator that “could be adopted as an
internationally-­agreed standard for the global monitoring of SDG target 10.7”(UN
DESA and IOM, 2019, 7).
24 S. Irudaya Rajan and Ardra Manasi

In response to this demand, IOM and DESA (as “co-­custodians”) jointly pro-
posed the SDG indicator 10.7.2 to shed light on “the number of countries with
migration policies to facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and
mobility of people” (UN DESA and IOM, 2019, 6). The long-­term goal of this
indicator is to understand and measure the state of national migration policies and
track how such policies change over time (UN DESA and IOM, 2019).
The methodology for developing the SDG indicator 10.7.2 spanned over a
period of two years, through a participatory process, which involved consultations
with UN Member States (UN DESA, IOM and OECD, 2019).The process was also
informed and influenced by other migration-­related developments at the UN such
as the GCM and IOM’s Migration Governance Indicators (MGI).

Conceptual framework for SDG indicator 10.7.2

IOM’s Migration Governance Framework (MiGOF) informed the conceptual
framework behind the SDG indicator 10.7.2. In 2015, MiGOF was welcomed by
157 countries during the 106th session of the IOM Council (UN DESA and IOM,
2019, 8). Acknowledging the complexity and context-­specificity of migration gov-
ernance, MiGOF offers an “aspirational framework,” centred on three principles and
three objectives (UN DESA and IOM, 2019, 8). The three principles (UN DESA
and IOM, 2019, 8) include the following: “(a) adherence to international standards
and fulfilment of migrants’ rights; (b) evidence and whole-­of-­government approach
for policy formulation; and (c) engaging with partners to address migration-­related
issues.” The three objectives (UN DESA and IOM 2019, 8) include the following:
“(a) advancing the socioeconomic well-­being of migrants and society; (b) effectively
addressing the mobility dimensions of crises; and (c) ensuring that migration takes
place in a safe, orderly and dignified manner.”
Based on MiGOF’s three objectives and three principles, the SDG indica-
tor 10.7.2 consists of six policy domains: migrant rights, whole-­of-­government/
evidence-­based policies, cooperation and partnerships, socioeconomic well-­being,
mobility dimensions of crises and safe, orderly and regular migration (UN DESA
and IOM, 2019, 10). To guide the data collection process, one proxy measure and
one question were specified for each domain, as indicated in Table 2.2.The SDG
indicator 10.7.2 was “obtained by computing the unweighted average of the coded
values of the 30 sub-­categories identified under the six policy domains”(UN DESA
and IOM 2019, 10).

“Inquiry” as a data source

The data for constructing the SDG indicator 10.7.2 was collected through the inter-
national migration module of the UN Twelfth Inquiry among Governments on
Population and Development (referred to as the “Inquiry”).The “Inquiry” was “first
mandated by the UN General Assembly in its resolution 1838 (XVII) of 18 December
1962” (UN DESA and IOM 2019, 8). Since 1963, it has been implemented by the
 Migration and SDGs 25

TABLE 2.2 Domains and Proxy Measures of SDG Indicator 10.7.2

Domains Proxy measure Question

1 Migrant rights Degree to which migrants
have equity in access to
services, including healthcare,
education, decent work,
social security and welfare
benefits
2 Whole of Dedicated institutions, legal
government/ frameworks and policies
evidence-­based or strategies to govern
policies migration
3 Cooperation Government measures to foster
and cooperation and encourage
partnerships stakeholder inclusion and
participation in migration
policy
4 Socioeconomic Government measures to
well-­being maximize the positive
development impact
of migration and the
socioeconomic well-­being of
migrants
5 Mobility Government measures to deliver
dimensions of comprehensive responses to
crises refugees and other forcibly
displaced persons
6 Safe, orderly Government measures to
and regular address regular or irregular
migration immigration
Source: (UN DESA and IOM, 2019).
Does the government provide
non-­nationals equal access to
the following services welfare
benefits and rights?
Does the government have any
of the following institutions,
policies or strategies to govern
immigration or emigration?
Does the government take any of
the following measures to foster
cooperation among countries
and encourage stakeholder
inclusion and participation in
migration policy?
Does the government take
any of the following
measures to maximize
the positive development
impact of migration and the
socioeconomic well-­being of
migrants?
Does the government take any
of the following measures to
respond to refugees and other
persons forcibly displaced across
international borders?
Does the government address
regular or irregular
immigration through any of
the following measures?

UN Secretary-­General at regular intervals (UN DESA, n.d.). The “Inquiry” was

chosen as the appropriate data source for the SDG indicator because of its global
coverage and its use of surveys since the 1960s, for collecting and documenting data
on population policies, including policies on international migration (UN DESA
and IOM, 2019). The Twelfth Inquiry which was disseminated to the countries in
2018 consisted of three thematic modules: Module I on population ageing and
urbanization; Module II on fertility, family planning and reproductive health; and
Module III on international migration (UN DESA and IOM, 2019, 8–9).To inform
the data collection for constructing the SDG indicator 10.7.2, Module III revolved
around four areas such as migration governance, migrant rights and integration,
26 S. Irudaya Rajan and Ardra Manasi

migration and development and forced migration, reflecting the questions and sub-­
categories within the six policy domains, as indicated in Table 2.2.

Collection of data
In 2018, the “Inquiry” was shared with the Permanent Missions of Member States
at the United Nations (UN) in New York, from where it was “redirected to relevant
line ministries or government departments” of respective countries (UN DESA
and IOM, 2019, 9). Both IOM and the Organization for Economic Co-­operation
and Development (OECD) assisted in the follow-­up with relevant ministries. The
macro-­level survey was administered to 197 countries – 193 UN Member States,
2 Observer States (Holy See and the State of Palestine) and 2 Non-­Member States
(the Cook Islands and Niue).As of September 2019, data on the SDG indicator
10.7.2 have been made “available for 111 countries, which is equivalent to 56 per-
cent of all countries globally” (UN DESA, IOM and OECD 2019, 2).

Results from the survey

It was observed from the pilot surveys that on a global scale, 54 percent of govern-
ments that responded to the migration module of the Twelfth Inquiry met or fully
met the criteria for the SDG indicator 10.7.2, based on the six policy domains (as
described in Table 2.2). These countries were observed to have put in place relevant
“policy measures to facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and
mobility of people for 80 percent or more for the 30 sub-­categories listed under
the six domains”(UN DESA, IOM and OECD 2019, 2). According to UN DESA,
IOM and OECD, the highest shares of governments that met or fully met these
criteria were from Central and Southern Asia (80 percent) and Latin America and
the Caribbean (79 percent). Figure 2.1 shows the breakdown of responses among
governments, segregated by geographic regions.

FIGURE 2.1 Percentage of Governments reporting policy measures to facilitate orderly,

safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people by region, 2019
Source: UN DESA, IOM and OECD, 2019
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oli sytytetty, ja hikisestä huoneesta pusertui vähän päästä miehiä
kartanolle.

Pimeässä katoksessa värähtelivät kulkuset, ja hevoset söivät

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Ja huomaamatta yö lennähdytti asematienoon ylle mustan huntunsa.

Ruoska-Juones kiipesi parhaillaan pöydälle ja ryhdistäytyi sinne

päästyään tärkeän näköiseksi. Ukot saarsivat hänet kuin arvassa
ikään. Hiljaisuus humahti äkkiä kapakkahuoneeseen. Lamput
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selvästi, kuinka keittiössä läikähti vettä kuumalle arinalle. Juones
nykäisi ruoskan saappaastansa, napautti sillä vartta kolmasti ja
kuuluvasti. Ukot tuijottivat niskat jäkässä pöydälle kiivennyttä
heimopäällikköänsä. Ja Ruoska-Juones alkoi puhua:

— A vot! Sen se koira kylästä saapi: kolahduksen korvallensa.

Sanovat, että konsa kenen syy, niin sitä mäjityy. Mutta onko tämä nyt
syy ja mikään, mistä meitä sakotetaan kuin kunnianloukkaajia. A se
on jokaisen oma asia, meni mokomaan kyytiin taikka oli menemättä.
Me emme olekaan mitään ahvenia, että venähtäisimme kiinni, oli
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sitten olla nokkinensa joka paikassa. Ja sen minä sanonkin, että
olkaamme kerran oikein järeämaksaisia eikä suoriteta sakkoa.
Lähdetään ennen parvessa linnaan, ja pankoot meidät siellä vaikka
aidanvitsaksiksi, niin me pysymme siinäkin. Mutta makseta me ukot
ei!

Raivokas hyväksymishuuto ryöpsähti kesken puhetta. Juoneksen

viereen loikkasi mies, joka jatkoi keskeytyneitä sanoja:
 — Ja minä virkan, mitä teemme! Kerätään sakkorahat yhteen ja
ryypätään ne parvessa ja sitten lähdemme linnaan!

Muuri pöydän ympärillä ulvahti uudestaan, kuuluvammin. Pian

kapakan miesmassa pirstaantui pieniin ryhmiin, joissa pohdittiin
äänekkäästi ehdotusten kantavuutta. Ja minkä useampi piiskaryyppy
kellahti ylösalaisin, sitä uljaammilta tuntuivat äskeiset yllytykset.

— Ajetaan parvessa Pietariin ja tutkitaan siellä hotellin

perustukset! yritti vielä joku.

Ja illan päätökseksi jäi, että syksyllä lähdetään linnaan ja sitä

ennen juodaan yhdessä sakkorahat.

Joleassa yössä kaikui hevosten ravi ja ukkojen loilotus. Äänet

tukahtuivat kuitenkin pian kostean yön pimentoihin. Tyhjilleen
jääneen kapakan avatuista akkunoista pursui savua kuin saunojen
räppänöistä tuuheina, harmaina häntinä.

*****

Oli lauantai-ilta. Järvituitun huvila-asukkaat järjestivät puistojuhlan

hälventämään lähtöajatuksiansa. Pietarista saapui torvisoittokunta
meluamaan elokuiseen yöhön. Sadat paperilyhdyt viivoittivat
helakkoina pisteinä erästä puutarhaa, jonka huvilan lasikuistilla
tanssi nuoria ihmisiä. Kookkaan vaahteran lehtikourat laskeutuivat
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lasia vastaan ja painoi siihen mustan, särmikkään siluetin. Avatuista
akkunoista tulvehti soittoa ja naurua, lasien kilinää ja iloisia huutoja
puutarhan yöhön, johon joku oli jäänyt odottamaan kuun
ponnahtamista mustan metsäpäärmeen takaa. Naurava ihmisryhmä
juoksi huvilasta värilyhtyjen alle, ja hetken kuluttua sinkoutui taivaalle
kaartuvia tulisiimoja, kultavihmeeksi särkyviä hehkukiekkoja ja
vihreää, tuokion kestävää tähtiunta. Ihastuksen huudot nousivat
kilpaa valeviivojen kera yön mustaan holviin ja häipyivät sinne.
Ihmiset elivät puutarhassa ja sen lasikuistisessa huvilassa unhotusta
ja pakoa.

Kun sunnuntaiaamupäivällä soittokunnan johtaja etsi Järvituitusta

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kotona. Erään pienen mökin kartanolla seisoi kuin soittajia varten
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pohjustettu oljilla ja heinäsäkeillä. Ryhdikäsviiksinen ukko ilmestyi
tupatöntteröstä, käänsi sen enempää kyselemättä hevosensa, istutti
herran heinäsäkille ja ajoi menneeniltaiselle juhlahuvilalle.
Soittokunta sovittautui varovasti torvinensa rattaille, ja hevonen
nykäisi lähtöön.

Rattailla-istujat eivät huomanneet, että tie, jolle he etenivät, ei

ollutkaan sama kuin eilen iltahämärissä tultu. Tienvieren maisemat
villiintyivät arveluttavasti. Sakeat lepikot vaihettelivat
ruskeaseinäisten hongikkojen kera. Väliin ajettiin kumisevaa
kangasta pitkin, väliin painauduttiin saviseen notkoon ja sieltä
noustiin taas kanervikkomaisemaan. Soittajat alkoivat jo ihmetellä,
kun tie sukelsi yhä karumpaan seutuun ja kun jytkeitten honkien
seassa ei enää paistanut ihmisasumuksia pitkään aikaan. Ajuriukko
tokaisi mentävän oikotietä, ja seurue rauhoittui.

Eräästä lepikkonotkosta noustiin tiivispintaiselle aholle, ja soittajat

hätkähtivät hämmästyksestä. Aholla oli mustanaan miehiä. Laidassa
suitsutti pieni nuotio laimeata savukiemuraa tyyneen ilmaan, ja sen
lähettyvillä kohosi röykkiö olutkoreja. Aholle oli nostettu avatuista
laatikoista tähtikauluksisia konjakkipulloja ja sikarinippuja. Miehet
seisoivat odottavina ja jäykkinä saattueen tullessa aholle. Eräs
pienenpuoleinen mies erkani joukosta hattuansa riiputtaen,
saapasteli rattaiden luo ja selvitti soittokunnalle tilanteen. Johtaja
pyrki kieltelemään niskat suorana ja vaati heti takaisinpääsyä, mutta
nähtyään rahanlievettä ja tunnettuaan kourassansa kahisevaista
hervahti notkeaksi ja suostui tuumaan. Oli määrä soittaa ukoille koko
päivä ahonurmella, ja hinnaksi sovittiin kymmenen ruplaa soitolta ja
ilmainen tarjoilu.

Hevonen riisuttiin. Ukkoja tunkeutui metsään, ja aikansa siellä

ryskettyään he saapuivat kantaen pölkkyjä ja riukuja, joista
rakennettiin soittokunnalle laatuisat penkit. Ukot riisuivat nuttunsa.

Ja niin alkoi kesäisen sunnuntain juhla kaukana aholla, alkoi

soitoin ja mekastuksin. Mukanatuotuun ämpäriin sekoitettiin uljas
juoma. Ukot istuivat kehään ahon tiiviille kannikalle ja antoivat
ämpärin kulkea sylistä syliin kiihoittavana kierrännäisenä.
Soittokunta rämisti marssia. Juhlamieli kiipesi äijien tukkaan. Piiri
rikkoutui pian. Noustiin sytyttelemään sikareita ja napsimaan
olutpulloista kauloja poikki. Aho kihisi muurahaispesänä. Ämpäri
pistäytyi tuon tuosta soittokunnassa ja palasi madaltunein, läikkyvin
nestepinnoin takaisin.

Ruoska-Juones loikkasi keskelle ahoa, tempasi piiskansa ja

saappaansa kuorta napauttaen huudahti:

— Tanssia! Polkkaa! Polkkaa!

Torvet toitottivat repeämäisillään. Äijäparit alkoivat lasketella

vanhaa polkkaa kädet toistensa olkapäillä. Väliin kellahti pari
töhnyskäisiä ukkoja kesken tanssia nurin ja ryömi kyynelnaurussa
rykien olutkoreille.
 Soitto kiihtyi ja tanssi huimeni. Äijät repäisivät paitansa helmukset
housujensa päälle, ja pian aholla teutojat lauloivat yhdestä suusta
yksitoikkoista lorua torvipuhallusten aaltoiluun:

»Järvituitun ukot tanssi paita pöksyin päällä, ja Järvituitun

ukot tanssi paita pöksyin päällä!»

Soitto taukosi. Soittajat läähättivät kurkkutorvet suorina ja

sinkoutuivat selälleen aholle. Äijät hyökkäsivät avatuin pulloin heidän
kimppuunsa, ja pian rämähti metsäpälvekkeessä taas ponnekas
sävel. Ukot joivat ja lotina kuului. Tuhat sutkausta sikisi
kesäkirkkaan, tyynen taivaan alla, mutta jokainen niistä hukkui tulva
nauruun. Päivän hetket kiitivät kuin selkäveden laineet; aho raikui
markkinatorina.

Mutta ukoille tuli ajan pitkään ikävä hevosiansa. Soittokunta

pykitettiin rattaille, kyytiruuna valjastettiin, ja merkillinen saatto lähti
kompuroimaan kylään: itsensä läkähdyksiin puhaltanut soittokunta
oljilla maaten, torvet lapsina sylissä, ja perässä kaulakkain
tonttuilevia ukkoja pitkänä, hihkuvana jonona.

Kylässä sitten ukot löivät hevosensa valjaisiin ja ajelivat koko

pyhäisen iltapäivän edestakaisin maantiellä, hullaantuneilla hevosilla
kaulat suorina kuin kameeleilla. Järvituitussa notkuivat sinä iltana
maan katteet kavioitten temmellyksessä. Kylätie oli kahtena
sivukkain syöksyvänä pölykoskena. Ämmät itkivät ja kesävieraat
pomiluivat.

Seuraavat päivät olivat alakuloisia ja harmaita. Huviloissa

pakattiin. Pohmeloa läsivät ukot vedättivät työrattaillansa isoja
tavarakuormia asemalle. Kesä oli ratkaisevasti painunut
umpisukkulaan mustien ja yhä pitenevien öiden taakse. Elämä
uuvahti Järvituitussa. Huviloiden akkunoihin naulattiin raskaita
luukkuja. Ämmät keräilivät nurkkiin jääneitä rojuja, ja harmaat
kylätalot kohensivat monesta aikaa ryhtiänsä saadessaan yksin
nostattaa savukiemuroita taivaalle. Huvilat jäivät hiljaisiksi ja aroiksi.
Ne pelkäsivät keltaisia lehtiä ja lähestyvää alastomuutta. Ja niin jäi
Järvituittu omiin oloihinsa.

Syyssateet alkoivat. Järvituitun saviset mäkirinteet niljaantuivat.

Tuulien siimat pieksivät alastomina värjöttäviä huviloita, ja
puutarhoissa juoksivat keltaiset lehtikerät yli teitten ja rappeutuvien
nurmikoiden.

Kylä painui likaan kuin käpy mutasilmäkkeeseen. Eräänä aamuna

vaelsi asemalle pitkä jono miehiä ja naisia. Järvituitun ukkojen
linnaretki alkoi. Miehet kulkivat teennäisen iloista juttua pitäen
keskitien savivellissä, ja laidoissa matoivat ämmien itkevät kuorot
harmaitten huppujen sisässä. Kyläkapakassa terästettiin luonnot
nopeasti kestämään naisten eroitkua, ja pian vei kumeasti
huokaileva juna Järvituitun ukot kuukaudeksi kiven sisään.

Sinä syksynä oli Järvituittu hiljainen kylä. Hevoset kolistelivat

ikävissään talleissa, kyläkapakka suljettiin, ja kauppojen
tupakkahyllyt tomuuntuivat.
III.

Joulu tuli jongersi kohmettuneisiin maisemiin. Järvituitussa laskivat

viimeiset valloillaan olevat siat mäkeä istuvillaan ja kiljuen notkoihin,
yrittäessään kiivetä lepikoista talotöyräitten pahnalämpimiin. Ukot
olivat palanneet linnasta, ja kylä varustautui talveen.

Siellä, missä metsäjyleikkö pirstaantui kylän kosketuksesta,

kyyhötti pienissä peltoaukeamissa taloja kuin piilosilla olevia lapsia,
joista kaksi rohkeinta oli juossut syvemmälle metsään ja kyyristynyt
sinne puitten varjoihin. Toinen niistä oli Ruoska-Juoneksen tupa,
jonka seinille oli jo metsästä leimahtanut sammalien tuhonahnaita
liekkejä. Tupaa saarsi rykelmä lenkonurkkaisia rakennuksia:
pihakatos talleineen ja läävineen, aitta ja sauna.

Ruoska-Juoneksen tupa oli kuin valjasmuseo. Seinänrakoihin

survotuissa tapeissa riippui monenlaista valjasroittoa, vanhaa ja
viratonta, uutta ja kiilteleväistä. Astialautojen valkeakylkiset pilkkumit
ja kannut sortuivat niiden varjoissa huomaamattomiin.

Juones loikoili parhaillaan jäsenet suorina vuoteellansa. Ieva

kolusi uuninsolassa omissa puuhissaan. Juones oli aamulla ostanut
talvijauhot ja kantanut isovatsaiset säkit aitan viileään hämärään.
Perunat olivat jo olkikatteiden alla kuopan uumenissa, ja pitkä
päiväjono tulevaisuuteen oli turvattu. Rahanyytti oli kylläkin ehtinyt
hiukan rutistua, mutta talviajot lähenivät myöskin. Juones piti
vuoteellansa pientä apriketta ja nousi väliin ähkäisten roikuttamaan
jalkojansa vuoteen reunalle. Ukko ei ollut oikein hyvällä tuulella:
paikoillaan oleminen painui raskaaksi taakaksi, jonka
kannatteleminen vaati alituista ähkimistä, asennonmuuttoa ja
tuskailua.

— Menisivät nyt joulut ja laukeaisivat rekikelit maailmaan, jotta

pääsisi tästä liikkeelle; tämä tupaelämä on kuin puolikuoliasta
hapankaalia, tokaisi Juones osaksi Ievalle, osaksi itselleen.

— Aina sinun pitäisi olla liehkassa, pysyisit kotona ja pykittäisit

vaikka noita lätistyviä nurkkia, ettet saisi kohta kattoja niskaasi!
kajahti uuninsolasta.

Juones sulkeutui taas omiin äänettömiin tuumailuihinsa:

Pitäisi saada silmien eteen alituisesti vaihtuva näky: maantien

kirjavana liukuva laita ja istumahetkiksi kapakkojen savunsekaiset
nurkat. Silloin alkaisi elämä olla oikein elämää, kun hetkestä toiseen
pyyhällettäessä soisi tuuli aina korvissa ja silmissä vilahteleisivat
katkeavan taipaleen pielet. Tämä paikoillaan oleminen on kuin
kuoleman odottelemista.

Juoneksen elämänhimo sisältyi matkaamisen riemuihin. Rattaiden

jyrinä ja reen jalaksien natina tulkitsivat hänelle elämän valtimon
tykytystä. Sen hetkittäisesti hiljettyä tuntui Juoneksesta, että taivas
silloin madaltui ahdistavan alas ja että hiljaista jähmettymistä
tapahtui kaikkialla. Väri ja ääni sammuivat; harmaa tihusade jäi
vallitsemaan masentavan pienin vesihelmin.
 Järvituitussa useimmat ukot keräsivät kesäisin huolellisesti
ruplapinoja kirstuihinsa ja teettivät sitten tupiensa lähistölle uljaita
huviloita sekä sortuivat niiden vaalintaan. Juonekselle ei juolahtanut
mieleenkään tuoda tupansa nurkille vierasta väkeä, palvella sitä
notkein niskoin ja huudella junilla oman herransa nimeä
ensimmäiseksi sekä orjaantua tämän ajuriksi. Ei — silloin vasta
Juoneksen veret kihahtivat pulppuiluunsa, kun hän ilmestyi
metsänlaidastansa kylätielle ja lasketteli huolettomana kohti vapaata
päivää ja sen edeltäpäin aavistamattomia sattumuksia. Vapaan tien
elämään kuului vapaasti singottu ajatus ja tahto ajaa minne tie
kulloinkin vietti. Ja niin Juones noudatteli omalla matkaviivallansa
vain sattumuksien kaarteita ja oli tyytyväinen.

Juones nousi sängystä, pistäytyi tallissa ja palasi heinänkorsi

hampaissa tupaan.

— Olisipa tässä hirsistä metsää vaikka pienikin palanen eikä

sellaista hienoa silpeikköä kuin meillä on, niin saisihan joutotyötä,
kun vedättelisi runkoja sahalle.

— Vai sahalle! Sinne ne kaikki rentut kaalavat joulujen alla muka

rokulista päästäkseen. Metsät nyljetään ja rahat juodaan sahakylän
kapakoissa vieraisiin taskuihin. Tässä kylässä ei ole oikein viisasta
miestä siinä asiassa kuin tuo puolihullu Hioppi: kävelee kirves
kainalossa päivät pitkät metsäniemekkeillään, etsii soilakkaa
aisapuuta eikä raatsi kaataa ei vitsan kiertämäistäkään; kotiin
tullessaan ukko vannoo, ettei hänen metsässään ole sellaista puuta
ensinkään, ja niin Hioppi ostaa yksin aisapuutkin, ja metsä kasvaa,
jotta kuhina kuuluu. Mutta muut sitten: heti kun herrasväet lähtevät ja
ajot loppuvat, niin jopa alkavat äijät nylkytä puita poikki ja hävitä
sahakylän kapakkoihin. Niinkuin tuo Rätön Villekin: hänelle ei
kelvannut enää tavallinen kirveskään, vaan piti laittaa toinen ja siihen
vartta kuin viikatteeseen — mutta Ville onkin sitä lajia ukko, jolla
pitää aina olla puoli syltä kättä ja koiruus lisänä — niin, Ville meni
sitten metsänsä sakeimpaan silmäkkeeseen ja yritti lyödä oikein olan
takaa, mutta pitkävartinen kirves tarttuikin viereisen puun yläoksiin
kiinni ja ryöstäytyi irti hänen käsistään. Villen ei auttanut muu kuin
hakea tavallinen kirves. Kun kotona sitten kysyivät nauravin elkein,
että mikäs tuollakaan on vikana, niin Ville mörähti vastaukseksi, että
kaikkihan sillä muka pilkkoo räpäleiksi, taivaan laenkin. — Sellaisia
ne ovat teidän metsämetkunne, lateli Ieva hanakasti vastaan.

— No tuo nyt on kukkunut sinun suustasi niin monta monituista

kertaa!

Juones oikaisi taas hämärään nurkkaan ja tuijotteli seinillä

riippuvia valjasrykelmiä.

*****

Joulut menivät vakiintunein tavoin. Sitkeä syysjää silloitti

Suomenlahden rannasta rantaan. Järvituitussa ukot varustautuivat
Kronstadtiin venäläisten jouluajoille. Kukkaperäreet tiivistettiin
pajoilla nasahtamattomaan ajokuntoon. Hevoset syötettiin pavuiksi ja
valjaat voideltiin notkeiksi. Kujasten suilla seisoi uhoilevia ja säätä
tunnustelevia miesryhmiä. Naiset paistelivat eväspiirakoita.
Vereslumiset tiet houkuttelivat lähtöön.

Kunnes eräänä varhaisena aamuhetkenä elähdytti tuttu ilmiö

järvituittuista tiemaisemaa: pitkä karavaani lähti ajamaan meren
rantaan ja sieltä saareen. Hevoset oli valjastettu työrekiin, ja
kukkaperäreet liukuivat jäljessä kuin jollat merta kyntävissä
kaljaaseissa. Ukot itse olivat kaivautuneet työrekien heinäkekoihin ja
hallitsivat sieltä eväsvakkojansa ja ohjasperiänsä. Tuttavallisia
huutoja ponnahteli kuormalta toiselle, ja karavaani lasketteli
lumisessa maisemassa liukkain jalaksin ja notkuvin lautasin.

Venäjän joulut jolahtivat pian ohitse. Järvituittuisten artteli saapui

saaresta laihana ja tyhjärekisenä. Saapumisiltana moni ukko kaatoi
kukkarostansa hopeakaaren pöydälle, rekien istuinlaatikoista löytyi
sentään yhtä ja toista naisten hyvittäjäisiksi, ja kylässä vallitsi hetken
talvinen rauha.

Helmikuu aukeni lämpimänä ja märkänä. Satoi suuria lumirättejä,

jotka hajosivat pian sohjoksi. Järvituitussa ukot vedättelivät rankoja
ja heiniä katoksiinsa, päivittelivät ilmoja ja kertailivat toisillensa
vanhaa, säätäkyntävää lausetta:»Helmikuun hellät päivät ne
maaliskuussa maksetaan!» Saman tien läheni talven huippukohta
järkähtämättömästi. Pietarin kuuluisat laskiaisajot odottelivat
suomalaisia hevosia ja kukkaperärekiä huminoihinsa. Järvituitussa
kertautui taas alituinen miesten häipyminen rantatien nieluun, jonka
takana odotti monta vaiherikasta kohtaloa.

*****

Pakkanen jyski meren jäällä. Taivas oli vaalea ja kylmä.

Savupylväät kohosivat ryhdikkäinä ja muodostivat kaupungin ylle
tiheän, valkean pilariston. Tuhansien liikkeellä olevien rekien jalakset
kirkuivat koviksi lamaantuneilla katulumilla vihlovasti ja kuuluvasti.
Pietarin viikonkestävät laskiaisajot olivat alkaneet. Markkinateltat
kyhjöttivät toreilla kirjavina ja meluisina. Suurten nuotioiden ympärille
kiertyi mustia ihmispäärmeitä. Kaupustelijat huusivat tavaroitansa, ja
juopuneet mekastelivat pihaporttien turvissa. Kolmivaljakot
laskettelivat kaduilla huurusta harmaina, ja kulkuset löivät kylmää
ääntä. Katuvierillä soluivat ihmisten hitaat virrat, ja niissä aaltoili
nauru ja leikki.

Järvituittuisten artteli oli jo aamulla joutunut saaressa laskiaisen

pyörteisiin. Useimmat ukot olivat vuokranneet hevosensa herrojen
ajella ja temmelsivät itse lämpimissä ajurikapakoissa pullojen ja
tyttöjen keralla. Mutta kokeneimmat ukot ajoivat itse mukana. He
tiesivät, että seuraavana päivänä sai moni mies käydä etsimässä
hevostansa poliisikamarin katoksista, sujahduttaa toisenkin ruplan
nappiniekkaherrojen käteen, ennenkuin löysi jostakin kaupungin
pihasta kylmän käpristämän hevosen ja reentyngän. Eivätkä
edeltäpäin otetut vuokrarahat vastanneet suinkaan vahinkoa:
läkähdyksiin ajettua hevosta ja rätistynyttä rekeä.

Ruoska-Juones otti pitemmän kyydin vasta illalla, kun hämärä jo

sekaantui pakkassavuihin ja kun verestävä taivaanlaita piirtyi enää
ohuena punaisena piiruna aavojen, vaikeitten maisemien taustaksi.
Arttelin majapaikkaan saapui paksuturkkinen herra, joka pyysi
miestä ajolle. Juones lupautui. He laskettelivat erään kirkkaasti
valaistun talon eteen, ja herra talutti sieltä rekeen nauravan naisen,
kääri hänet vällyihin ja piippahuppuihin sekä sovittautui itse viereen.
Juoneksen piti ottaa kuskilaudan alta heinäpuistalmus ja täppiä se
perälläistujien jaloksiin. Aikansa soviteltuaan herra murahti
tyytyväisesti ja lähtömerkki oli annettu.

Ajettiin merelle. Pakkanen jyskytti sen jääkantta kumein

revällyksin. Tuon tuosta sivuutettiin meluava laskiaiskuorma. Reen
jalakset kitisivät kuin vihoissaan. Perällä istuva herra imehti naisensa
kerällä, nauratteli, rutisteli ja työnsi vähän väliä partaisen naamansa
etsimään hupuista lämpimästi äännähtelevää suuta.
 Ruoska-Juones istui hartiat supussa kuskilaudalla, ja jylhä
pakkasmaisema latasi häneen vavahduttavia ajatuksia.
Vastapäisellä taivaanseinällä loistivat tähdet kuin kultaisten naulojen
kannat. Pakkanen viilsi selällä jymyten railoja jäähän. Pienessä ja
kitisevässä kulkueessa tunsi ajuriukko, kuinka mitättömän vähäiseksi
ihminen kaikkinensa masentui taivaan pielien alla. Tähtien kylmät
tuijut houkuttelivat hänen katseensa totiseksi, ja mieleen valahti
epämääräinen tuskittelu.

Herrasväki natisutti peräistuinta, mutta Ruoska-Juoneksen ajatus

viillätteli äänten tapaamattomissa.

— On tämäkin työtä: ajeluttaa kuhertelevaa pariskuntaa alkavassa

yössä Luojan suurella kämmenellä ja hämmästyttävän kaukaisten
tähtien alla; ottaa raha siitä, kun vie pimeään yöhön pimeitä
ajatuksia. Kammottava suuruus ja viheliäinen pienuus rinnatusten:
jytyävä pakkasyö ja naurava venakko. Ja minä olen yläkyliltä asti
tullut tänne vain sitä varten, että koettaisin saada viileää tuulta
pyyhkimään veriensä temmellykseen läkähtyvien herrasväkien
ohimoita. Ja vaikka ajaisin rahkeet mäsäksi, on aina hoputus
niskassani. Niin — nytkään Juones ei ole kuin kitisevä, häipyvä ääni
pakkasyössä; herrojen narri ja ruplien juoksulainen.

Ja Juones alkoi ajatuksissaan naputella piiskansa varrella reen

kiverää keulaa. Huurteeseen harmaantunut hevonen tihensi
yksitoikkoista matkaraviansa. Peräistuin natisi, sopottelevat äänet
tukahtuivat kiihkeinä heti alkuunsa. Juonesta paleli. Alaston
kuskilauta kylmäsi jalkoja, ja pakkanen puserteli hartioita ja
käsivarsia. Juones hykertyi yhä enemmän suppuun, ja hänen
ajatuksensa töksähtelivät äkeinä asiasta toiseen.
 — Tällaista tämä nyt on: minä ajelen tienkäänteestä toiseen ja
etsin päivilleni nopeata hävikkiä, mutta samalla vedättelen
kannoillani sellaista, mikä kuitenkin jyrsii mieltäni. Mustalainenkin on
pirskeämpi: laskettelee samoin viihtymystä etsien teitten suonistossa
kuin minäkin, mutta kääntää hevosensa sinne, missä tien nielu on
ahnain, eikä sinne, minne käsketään. Kun malttaisinkin pysyä
tuvillani ja sanoa nietuksi koko ajohomman. Mutta minkäs teet, kun
sänkyloimilla hivuessa on korvissa vain yksi ja yllyttävä huuto:
matkaan! kun tylyyn hiiskumattomuuteen jäykistynyt tupa tuntuu
vankipilttuulta. Mutta teillä on ääntä ja elämää ja väriä, siimojen
soittoa ja katkeavien taipaleitten ryskettä. Allani luistava tie: se on
minun ajatusteni valtajuomu. Kun istun kuskipukin räystäällä ja
tuijotan edessäni pakenevaa tietä, tuntuu kuin kaarteleisi siinä silloin
ihmisen ajatus aluttomana ja loputtomana, mutkikkaana ja
töyryisenä. Sitä pitkin saan vasta omankin ajatukseni sujakkaan
liukuun. Mutta kun tuijotan tuvassa lakilautaan, tuntuu kuin
ajatukseni olisi ajanut tärskähtäen kantoon. Tien notkea nauha
silmissä: silloin vasta ihminen tuntee oikein elävänsä. Sentähden
himoitsenkin alati tielle, sillä siinä piilee elämä ja ajatus,
päättymättömyys ja paon ihanuus. Niin — mutta samalla juoksutan
kannoillani vierasta ääntä ja naurua ja lätistyn itse orjaksi, vaikka
aamuisin tielle pyörtäessäni olenkin olevinani vapaa ajuriukko teitten
avaroilla lääneillä. Esiukot saivat aikoinaan piiskaa venäläisiltä — nyt
meitä kivitetään ruplilla, kovilla ja kilahtelevilla ruplilla. Hallittu rallaa!

Ja taas mäjähti ruoskan varsi reen sepiin. Raskaissa otteissa

narahteleva pakkasyö tuijotti tähtien kylmillä silmillä lumiselle
jäälakeudelle, jossa liikkui mitättömän pieniä mustia pilkkuja.
Yhdessä niistä leimusi kolme ajatusta kiivain kuvin: kahdet kuvat
olivat punaisia ja kuumia, kolmannet raskaasti varjostettuja ja
terävätaitteisia.
 Tähtipilkkeisessä yössä, kuhertelevan parin edessä, Ruoska-
Juones tutisi kylmissään ja mittaili hätäisesti ajatuksillansa
mahdollisuuksiensa pieliä. Vähin erin ajatukset kohmettuivat. Kylmä
tyrkki harteita ja hakkasi leukoja edestakaisin. Koko matkueen kulku
oli kuin pakkaseen häipyvä kolmikaarteinen ajatus.

Ja tähdet lepattivat kylminä tuijuina. Jaksoittain vyöryvä kumina

huuhteli hiljaista lakeutta ja häipyi rannoille. Juones tajusi enää
kaukaisesti, missä hän oli. Väliin hän oli olevinaan kylmässä
tuvassa, jonka nurkista pakkanen repi päreitä; väliin taas huikean
avarassa jääholvissa, jossa soi kumeita kelloja. Ja hornakassa
yössä ajettiin naurun ja riemun juhlaa huurteisin hevosin ja kiukusta
itkevin jalaksin.

Ruoska-Juones ei paljon käsittänyt, miten hän oli tullut takaisin

arttelin majapaikkaan. Hän huomasi Tuutija-Mikon punoittavien
kasvojen työntyvän kysymystä tehden eteensä ja sopersi jotakin
vastaan. Juonekselle alettiin juottaa monenlaista nestettä, ja hän
tunsi hiljalleen uppoavansa sumuseinämien väliin.

Järvituitun ukoilta kivettyivät kasvot totisiin ryppyihin. Juoneksen

vointi ei ollut oikeallaan. Hän oli tullut hytisten sisään, uuvahtanut
veltoksi pöytää vastaan ja puhua supattanut merkillisiä asioita
tähdistä, tien nielusta ja kiviruplista. Juoneksen eteen kannettiin
täysinäisiä ja vajaita laseja, ja niistä häntä juotettiin mairitellen ja
tyrkyttäen. Kaikkein kurokämmenisimmätkin ukot usuttivat Juonesta
juomaan omista laseistaan. Mutta kun Juoneksen tolkku painui
painumistaan ajatusten mukana sumupoimuihin, riisuivat ukot
Juoneksen ja peittivät hänet vällykekoon.

Kapakoista ja ajoista saapuvia miehiä tuli yhtä mittaa äänekkäästi

huutaen tulosutkauksiansa. Mutta he hämmästyivät huoneen
mykkyyttä ja hiipivät peukaloiden neuvoja seuraten nurkkavuoteelle,
jossa vällyjen raosta paistoi Juoneksen hikeä marjova otsa ja sen
alla synkänpunainen nenä.

———

Tuutija-Mikko, järvituittulainen ajuriukko, lasketteli saaresta kotia

kaksin hevosin ja murheellisin kuormin. Toisen työreen pohjapehuilla
makasi Ruoska-Juones vällyjen sisässä, huulet valkoisina kuin
vainaalla. Juones oli arttelituvassa vaikerrellut päiväkauden
kuumekakkiaisen kynsissä, ja ukot katsoivat parhaaksi vierittää
hänet vällyrullaan ja kantaa rekeen. Tuutija-Mikko uskollisena
puomitoverina jätti omat laskiaisajonsa kesken ja lähti vedättämään
Juonesta jäälakeuden poikki yläkylille. Alakuloisin ajatuksin Mikko
lävisti kuorminensa lumisia, hiljaisia maisemia, poikkesi tuttuihin
katoksiin syöttelemään hevosiansa ja urkki tuon tuosta vällykäärön
sisästä Juoneksen vointia. Joskus hän sai vastaukseksi velton
äännähdyksen, joskus harhailevan katseen. Ja Juoneksen
laskiaisajon matkaviiva mutkitteli tieltä tielle, kunnes töksähti tuttuun,
lenkonurkkaiseen katokseen ja taittui siellä. Samaan aikaan Ieva
ryöpsähti kartanolle, hääri hätäpäissään rekien ympärillä ja hukutti
Tuutija-Mikon kysymystulvaan.

Kun Juones valahdutti silmiensä kannet auki, läikähti hänen

kasvojensa ylitse hento kirkastus: hän tunsi tuvan. Samassa
silmänräpäyksessä Juones huomasi myöskin, kuinka seinien
valjashaarukat ojensivat totisina sekasortoisien kuumekuvien läpi
kantamuksiansa häneen kurkottaen, ikäänkuin kertoakseen
taakkansa raskautta. Mutta pian kaikki sortui hänen silmissään.

Ieva hoiteli valppaasti veljeänsä, ja Juones alkoi vähin erin virota,

pyydellä juotavaa ja syötävää ja nukkua pitkiä, rauhallisia tuokioita.
 Tuutija-Mikon tuvasta levisi Järvituittuun huhu Juoneksen
sairaudesta. Kylän vaimoväki odotteli jännittyneenä tarkempia
tietoja, mutta Juoneksen tupa tuntui vajonneen kaikkinensa lumeen.
Metsäpälvekkeiltä ei ilmestynyt ihmisiä keskikylälle, ja pidettiin
varmana, että siellä kuolema aikoi raapata Juoneksen rattaillensa.
Jännitys kiristyi päivien mittaan niin sietämättömäksi, että kerran
illansuussa työntyi peräkylän kinoskieppisille kujasille naiskatras,
käsissänsä virsikirjanyytit: oltiin menossa laulamaan Juonekselle
valmistusvirsiä.

Itkulle tullut vaimoväki piiritti puolihämärässä tuvassa Juoneksen

vuoteen ja alkoi selata sopivaa virttä. Ieva rakenteli kahvia lieden
kupeella ja huokasi väliin tahallisen kuuluvasti hurskaan mielensä
osoittimiksi. Juones ajeli unien valtateillä.

Naisten huojuvasta piiristä pillahti soimaan kimeä ääni, ja pian

seurasivat toiset sitä virren sävelten mutkiin. Ahdas tupa pusersi
laulun tiiviiksi ja raskaaksi; se painui pian Juoneksen korviin, ja hän
rävähdytti silmänsä auki. Vuoteen ympärillä istui tummia
naishahmoja, virsikirjat sormien nenillä kuin kahvilautaset. Avarat
suut laulaa moijasivat itkuntäyteistä virttä, ja ruumiit huojuivat
valittavin rytmein. Juones kohottautui ähkien kyynärpäittensä varaan
ja harhailutti katsettansa unestaheränneen älyttömillä silmillä. Laulu
hiljeni hieman. Värssyjen koukeroisia kirjaimia tähtäävät silmät
sinkauttivat myös puolestaan tutkivia katseita kirjanlaitojen ylitse.
Äkkiä tilanne selveni Juonekselle, hän tempasi vuoteensa vieressä
olevalta jakkaralta vesituopin ja loikahdutti siitä sisällyksen notkeana
kaarena laulajien korville. Laulu sammui pihahtaen. Syntyi syvä
hiljaisuus. Siihen murtautui kuitenkin pian Juoneksen ohut, sairaan-
kiukkuinen ääni:
 — Sen karvettavat, kun ette anna ihmisen läsiä rauhassa, vaan
tulette jo vaakkumaan korvan juureen hautajaisvariksina. Vaikka
olenkin nyt taudin sittavihko, en kuole suottenkaan, vaikka kuinka
laulaa titattaisitte. Alkakaa painua ulos joka nenä, taikka minä
tempaan ohjakset tuosta naulasta. Upirais!

Juones lötkähti selälleen ja haukkoi henkeänsä kiukuissaan ja

kivuissaan. Naiset pakenivat siunaillen pihalle ja sen tien kujasten
kinoksiin. Ieva oli jähmettynyt ällistyksissään sanattomaksi, mutta
tuvan tyhjettyä hän puhkesi puolestaan:

— No jo olet rätsäkkä mies! Ei ole kuin ruoto jäljellä koko ukosta,

niin pitää vielä teutoa ja purkaa luontoansa. Toiset hyvän
hyvyyttänsä tulivat sinulle laulamaan ja valmistamaan sinua, vaikka
Jumala kutsuisikin sinut pois. Mutta sinä: rupeat rämäpäiseksi ja
häpäiset vielä Jumalan sanankin, vaikk'et tiedä, lähdetkö jo siltä
sijaltasi viimeiselle ajollesi.

— Vielä se tämä toukka tonkaisee! ähähti Juones vastaan.

Ja siitä päivästä Juones alkoi piristyä ihan silmissä. Hän imeskeli

suolaisia lahnanlappuja, joi sitten janoonsa lämpimiä maitoja ja
opetteli uudestaan kävelemään vuoteenreunan turvissa.

Päivät liukuivat illoiksi pitkin tiimoin. Juones lojuskeli vuodeloimilla

ja antoi silmiensä ja ajatustensa elää kymmenesti samat näyt. Väliin
nostatti valjasnaulakossa roikkuva suitsiremmin pätkä hänen
muistiinsa teitten tapauksia, väliin hän keksi lakilautojen
oksakuvioista jotakin tuijoteltavaa hahmoa, ja useasti hän tähtäsi
vuoteen vastapäisen akkunan pyöreää valantavikaa, jossa kertautui
ulkopuolinen maisema pienenä ja ahtaana. Erikoisesti Juones
tähtäsi lasikierukkaa silloin, kun Ieva kulki puuhissaan akkunan
ohitse. Hän halusi nähdä, miten mitättömäksi ihminen kutistui tuossa
perusmaisemassa, jossa vain ääret piirtyivät näkyviin. Kun tarkkaan
katsoi, erotti ympyrästä valkean peltoaukeaman, tumman
metsäseinämän ja taivaan kaartuvan väljyyden. Ihmistä ei siinä liioin
huomannut, niin pieneksi hän madaltui. Juones melkein riemuitsi,
kun hän Ievan ohikulkiessa seurasi valantarenkaaseen kertautuvan
maiseman yksinkertaisuutta ja ihmisen vähäistä osuutta sen
viivoihin. Maa näkyi ja taivas näkyi, mutta niiden välissä liikkuva
ihminen oli vain häipyvä varjokäännähdys.

Seiniltä ojentautuvat, valjaita kannattelevat käsivarret kutsuivat

Juonesta yhä uudestaan laskiaisyön ajatuksiin. Mutta hän ei
jaksanut ryhdistäytyä kirkkaaseen päätökseen niiden sokkeloista,
vaan pyyhki niitä aina sammumaan. Ja niin Juones makaili
kevättalven tupansa ahtaudessa, luotaili elämänsä pohjakkoa ja
yritteli hiljalleen aina uutena päivänä yhä terveempää miestä
vaativiin tekoihin. Ievan puuhailut elähdyttivät saarroksiin joutunutta
katsetta, ja tuon tuosta tuvassa pistäytyneet ajuriukot jättivät
soimaan tuvan hiljaisuuteen sanoja omista maailmoistansa.

Uskollisin Juoneksen tarinakumppaneista oli Pekon Ristian.

Ristianin mökki oli toinen kylän kahdesta etuvartijasta. Se oli
syntynyt aikoinaan hieman epäilyttävissä olosuhteissa, kun eräässä
kylänlaidan metsäjyleikössä puut kaatuivat ahnaasti jyrsivien
sahojen hampaissa ja kun kanervanummille ilmestyi ratapölkyiksi
veistettyjen runkojen tuoreenkeltaisia röykkiöitä. Ristian hakkasi
samaan aikaan yhteismaan kylää lähinnä olevaan nurkkaukseen
kääpiötorppaa, ja hänen seinissään oltiin havaitsevinaan
ratapölkkyrunkojen muotoja.
 Ristian oli Järvituitun ainoa hevoseton mies. Hänelle oli elämä ollut
pitkin matkaa hyvin tukalaa: kämmenet eivät kestäneet raskasta
työtä, lukumäärässään enentyvä perhe söi aina säästön sopukkoihin
hyvinä aikoina akkiloidut hevosenostorahat, ja niin Ristianin täytyi
elää huvila-asutuksen loisena. Hän pilkkoi palvelijattarille puita,
opasteli tattivenäläisiä kankaitten eksyttävissä maisemissa ja
järjesteli lapsillensa retkiä huviloiden keittiöihin. Ristianin
periaatteena oli kuitenkin, että kerjätessäkin piti olla tolkku, niin ettei
mennyt kahta kertaa samaan paikkaan — ja siksi ei siitäkään ollut
ylivoimaista elämisen apua. Tämä kylän ainoa hevoseton mies ja
ainoa, jolla Järvituitussa paistoi takamusten kohdalla esiin
poimuuntuva paita, eleli Ruoska-Juoneksen lähimpänä naapurina ja
pistäytyi nyt melkein joka päivä seuraamassa Juoneksen vointia ja
laihduttamassa hänen tupakkakulinsa täyteläistä vartaloa.
Juoneksesta itsestään ei ollut vielä piippumieheksi, ja jouluajojen
aikana saaresta tuotu tupakkakuli oli vielä täydessä
talvikankeudessaan. Ristianin ja Juoneksen puheet löivät ensikertaa
vasta yksiin, kun molemmilla oli nyt epäonnen itua elämässään.

Juones alkoi liikuskella varovasti katoksessa ja tallissa, mutta

ruumista jäi jyrsimään edelleen ankara kolotus, jota piti paeta vähän
väliä mustakitaisen saunan kuumentoon.

Ja rappeutuvan talven hahmoista pusertautui kevät äkkiä näkyviin.

Samoin Ruoska-Juoneksen ajatukset pusertautuivat nyt lopulta
päätökseen: hän päätti jäädä tupaukoksi. Kuskipukille kipuaminen
vaati vetreätä jalkaa ja notkeata kättä. Juoneksen kangistunut
vartalo sopi enää hiljaiseksi katoksessa kuhnijaksi ja vuoteenlaidalla
istujaksi. Tämä päätös esti Juonesta huomaamasta kevään tuloa, ja
hän hätkähti, kun hän kerran tuli saunan uumenesta kuuleaan,
varhaiseen aamuun, ajatuksissansa yön sakea pimeys, ja kuuli