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Calculus, radio dials and the straight-line frequency variable capacitor

Article in International Journal of Mathematical Education · July 2010

DOI: 10.1080/00207390903564686

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in
Science and Technology, Vol. 41, No. 5, 15 July 2010, 667–710

CLASSROOM NOTES
Calculus, radio dials and the straight-line frequency
variable capacitor
Khristo N. Boyadzhiev*

Department of Mathematics, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA

(Received 17 August 2009)

Most often radio dials of analogue radios are not uniformly graded; the
frequencies are cramped on the left side or on the right side. This makes
tuning more difficult. Why are dials made this way? We shall see here that
simple calculus can help understand this problem and solve it.
Keywords: polar coordinates; variable capacitor; resonating circuit;
radio dial

1. Introduction
Every radio receiver has a resonating (also called oscillating) circuit where the
antenna signal arrives. This circuit is shown in Figure 1. The main ingredients here
are the inductor and the capacitor. Oscillations occur when the capacitor is charged
by a charge from outside. Then it discharges and charges itself through the inductor
back and forth causing oscillations. The oscillations can continue for a long time if
the resistance in the circuit is small. With a fixed inductor, the frequency of the
oscillations depends on the capacity of the capacitor. When the capacitor is variable,
we can change this frequency by changing the capacity. Changing the frequency
manually (turning the knob of variable capacitor), we tune to different stations.
Matching the frequency of the circuit with the frequency of a station causes
resonance and then the signal is processed and amplified by the radio. Because of
this, such circuits are called resonating circuits.
If we look, however, at the radio dial of a typical FM (Figure 2) or AM radio, we
see that usually it is not uniformly graded. The grades are denser on the left side
or on the right side (the range through which an FM radio is tuned usually varies
from 87.5 to 108 MHz).
This way, when we turn the knob of the variable capacitor uniformly, with
constant speed, the frequency of the oscillating circuit does not change uniformly.
We cannot select stations easily when the grades are cramped. What is the reason
for this inconvenience? The reason is in the construction of the variable capacitor.
Let us look at this more closely (Figure 3).

*Email: k-boyadzhiev@onu.edu

ISSN 0020–739X print/ISSN 1464–5211 online

 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/00207390903564686
http://www.informaworld.com
668 Classroom Notes

Figure 1. Resonating circuit.

Figure 2. A typical radio dial.

Figure 3. Variable capacitor.

2. The special equation for straight-line frequency capacitors

When we turn our tuning capacitor, the capacitance changes proportionally to the
overlapping area. We can describe this situation by using polar coordinates, where
the angle of rotation is the polar angle  measured in radians. The overlapping part is
represented by the sector bounded by two positions of the angle ¼ 0, ¼ , and
also the curve (Figure 4).
r ¼ rðÞ: ð1Þ
The area of the sector as a function of  is given by the formula
Z
1  2
AðÞ ¼ r ð Þd , ð2Þ
2 0
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 669

Figure 4. A polar sector.

(see Ref. [1]). This area is proportional to the capacitance C,

C ¼ kA ð3Þ
(k 40, a constant). The capacitance and the frequency of the oscillating circuit are
related by the equation
1
f ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi , ð4Þ
2 LC
where L is the inductance. In this equation, frequency is measured in hertz,
inductance in henries and capacitance in farads.
We can assume that we turn the knob uniformly with constant speed, and for
simplicity we can identify  with time, i.e.

 ¼ t: ð5Þ
Suppose the plates of the variable capacitor have circular form as in Figure 3.
This is most common in practice. Then

rðÞ ¼ R, a constant: ð6Þ

From Equations (2) and (3), we find

dC dA k 2 k
¼k ¼ r ðÞ ¼ R2 : ð7Þ
d d 2 2
Therefore,
k
CðÞ ¼ R2  þ C0 : ð8Þ
2
In this case, the frequency is
1
f ðÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi , ð9Þ
 2L kR2  þ C0
and does not change in a linear manner.
We shall impose the condition that the frequency changes as a linear function
(straight-line frequency) and then find out what should be the shape of the capacitor
(i.e. the form of Equation (1)).
So, let for some constant a 5 0,
df
¼ a, f ðÞ ¼ a þ f0 : ð10Þ
d
670 Classroom Notes

Figure 5. Optimal capacitor plate for linear frequency.

Here a 5 0, because the frequency is decreasing when the capacity is increasing,

and the capacity is increasing together with the variable  (see Equations (2) and (3)).
Solving for C in Equation (4), we find
1
C¼ 2 2: ð11Þ
4 Lf
Then
dC 1 df a
¼ 2 3 ¼ : ð12Þ
d 2 Lf d 2 Lða þ f0 Þ3
2

At the same time,

dC dA k 2
¼k ¼ r ðÞ: ð13Þ
d d 2
Comparing these two equations and solving for rðÞ we find
3
rðÞ ¼ bða þ f0 Þ 2 , ð14Þ

where the coefficient b is defined to be

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 a
b¼ : ð15Þ
 k
This is the polar equation for the shape of the capacitor’s plates providing a
uniformly graded radio dial. One of these polar curves is shown in Figure 5.
This particular curve is the graph of the polar equation.
3
rðÞ ¼ 31ð10  Þ 2 , 0    : ð16Þ

3. Straight-line wavelength capacitors

The dials of the early radios were graded in meters, representing wavelength (meter
bands). It is reasonable to ask what should be the shape of the plates of the variable
capacitor in order to provide an evenly graded dial in meters. We shall answer this
question using the same method as above.
 International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 671

Figure 6. Straight-line wavelength capacitor plate.

The wavelength  in meters and the frequency in Hertz are related by the formula
c
¼ , ð17Þ
f
where c ¼ 299, 792, 458 m/sec is the speed of light. For example, 100 MHz
corresponds to approximately 3 m. From Equation (4)
2
C¼ : ð18Þ
42 c2 L
Assuming that  is a linear function of the variable , i.e.
 ¼ m þ 0 ð19Þ
with some constant m 4 0, we have
ðm þ 0 Þ2 ð20Þ
C¼ :
42 c2 L
Then from Equation (13)
d 2mðm þ 0 Þ k 2
C¼ ¼ r ðÞ, ð21Þ
d 42 c2 L 2
and
rffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 m 1
rðÞ ¼ ðm þ 0 Þ2 , ð22Þ
c kL
which is a spiral (Figure 6).
The equation for this graph is
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rðÞ ¼  þ 0:5, 0    : ð23Þ

4. Remarks
It is reasonable to expect that these simple and important results are well-known.
Indeed, many specialized engineering books on capacitors mention straight-line
672 Classroom Notes

Figure 7. A straight-line frequency variable capacitor.

frequency variable capacitors. The mathematics behind this shape, however, is not
discussed. After some research, the author of these notes came to the conclusion that
Equation (14) is not popular. This is unfortunate, as it is a simple and illuminating
calculus problem, quite valuable for electrical engineering students (see [2]).
The most common type of variable capacitors on the market is the one with
circular plates, as shown in Figure 3. Obviously, they are easy to produce. A direct
examination of 10 different kinds of variable capacitors providing ‘almost’ straight-
line frequency showed that the shape of the plates does not match Equation (14), but
represents a rough approximation, possibly obtained by the trial and error method.
For instance, there are capacitors with circular plates where small segments have
been cut out from the plates in order to improve the frequency distribution.
On Figure 7, we see a variable capacitor with a good straight-line frequency perfor-
mance, the shape of the plates resembling the curve on Figure 5. Notice that the plates
at the sides have special cuts. These cuts help to bend the plates a little bit if necessary,
and thus by changing the capacitance, to better match the uniformly graded dial.
On the positive side, many publications on variable capacitors refer to the
classical book by Dummer and Nordenberg [3] where the paper [4] of Forbes is listed
in the references. Forbes found Equation (14) at the very dawn of radio technology
(1925) and published his result in the Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
(see also [5]).

References

[1] J. Stewart, Calculus, 6th ed., Brooks/Cole, Florence, Kentucky, 2007.

[2] J.J. Carr, Secrets of RF Circuit Design, McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics, New York, 2000.
[3] G.W.A. Dummer and H.M. Nordenberg, Fixed and Variable Capacitors, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
[4] H.C. Forbes, The straight-line frequency variable condenser, Proc. IRE. 13 (1925),
pp. 507–509.
[5] W.H.F. Griffiths, Notes on the laws of variable air condensers, Exp. Wireless Wireless Eng.
3 (1926), pp. 3–14, 743–755.
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