Principles of General Chemistry Martin

Silberberg 3rd Edition Principles Of

General Chemistry
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/principles-of-general-chemistry-martin-silberberg-3rd-
edition-principles-of-general-chemistry/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Principles of general chemistry 3rd Edition Martin

Silberberg

https://ebookmeta.com/product/principles-of-general-
chemistry-3rd-edition-martin-silberberg-2/

Principles of General Chemistry 3rd Edition Martin

Silberberg

https://ebookmeta.com/product/principles-of-general-
chemistry-3rd-edition-martin-silberberg/

Principles of General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry

3rd Edition Janice Gorzynski Smith

https://ebookmeta.com/product/principles-of-general-organic-
biological-chemistry-3rd-edition-janice-gorzynski-smith/

Principles of General Organic and Biological Chemistry

11th Edition Janice Gorzynski Smith

https://ebookmeta.com/product/principles-of-general-organic-and-
biological-chemistry-11th-edition-janice-gorzynski-smith/
Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry
Wiley 2014 10th 10th Edition Jo Allan Beran

https://ebookmeta.com/product/laboratory-manual-for-principles-
of-general-chemistry-wiley-2014-10th-10th-edition-jo-allan-beran/

Chemistry in Quantitative Language: Fundamentals of

General Chemistry Calculations ,2nd Edition Oriakhi

https://ebookmeta.com/product/chemistry-in-quantitative-language-
fundamentals-of-general-chemistry-calculations-2nd-edition-
oriakhi/

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Structures

of Life by Karen Timberlake 6th Edition General

https://ebookmeta.com/product/general-organic-and-biological-
chemistry-structures-of-life-by-karen-timberlake-6th-edition-
general/

Chemistry The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change 9th

Edition Martin S. Silberberg

https://ebookmeta.com/product/chemistry-the-molecular-nature-of-
matter-and-change-9th-edition-martin-s-silberberg/

ISE Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and

Change 9th Edition Martin Silberberg

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ise-chemistry-the-molecular-nature-
of-matter-and-change-9th-edition-martin-silberberg/
 Environmental science is grounded in chemistry. As one of many examples (discussed in Chapter 16),
a severe reduction in stratospheric ozone—an ozone “hole”—was confirmed over Antarctica in 1985.
This thin, 15-mile-high layer rich in ozone (O3, depicted as three connected red spheres) screens out
harmful solar ultraviolet (UV) light from reaching Earth’s surface, but Nobel-Prize winning research
Silberberg Silberberg
showed that man-made chemicals were breaking O3 apart. In a series of reaction steps, Freon-12 (CCl2F2,
Third
Third Edition
black sphere surrounded by two green and two yellow), escaping from air conditioners and spray cans,
rises intact through the air until it reaches the stratosphere. There, UV light splits off a chlorine atom Edition Eleventh Edition
(Cl, green), which collides with an O3 molecule to form chlorine monoxide (ClO, red-green) and oxygen
(O2, two red). Regenerated in a later step, the Cl can then attack another O3. With a “lifetime” of about
Chang
2 years, each Cl atom can react with over 100,000 ozone molecules. To solve this problem, Freon-12 has
now been banned, and fewer Cl atoms have been detected in the ozone layer.
Goldsby

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Principles of
www.mcgraw-hillconnect.com/chemistry

McGraw-Hill’s ConnectPlus® Chemistry offers an innovative and inexpensive

eBook integrated within a unique homework and assessment system. Connect is

Principles of
an electronic homework and course management system designed for greater
flexibility, power, and ease of use than any other system. McGraw-Hill’s unique
partnership with CambridgeSoft allows students to create accurate chemical
structures using ChemDraw, the industry standard in chemical drawing.

Build Assignments
• Instructors can choose from pre-built assignments or create unique

GENERAL

Md. Dalim #1170290 11/07/11 Cyan Mag Yelo Black

assignments using resources within Connect.
• Assignments are automatically graded.
• An electronic gradebook provides reports on progress.

Share Course Materials

• Instructors can create and share materials with colleagues.

Integrated eBook
• An online eBook allows for anytime, anywhere access to the textbook.
• Notes, highlights, and bookmarks can be managed in one place for simple,
comprehensive review.
CHEMISTRY
• eBook merges media with the text’s narrative to engage students.

TM

McGraw-Hill LearnSmart™
This adaptive diagnostic learning system, powered by Connect Chemistry and
based on artificial intelligence, constantly assesses a student’s knowledge of the
course material. As students work within the system, McGraw-Hill LearnSmart
develops a personal learning path adapted to what each student has actively
learned and retained. This innovative study tool also has features to allow
the instructor to see exactly what students have accomplished, with a built-in
assessment tool for graded assignments. You can access LearnSmart for
General Chemistry at www.mcgraw-hillconnect.com/chemistry.
 Martin S. Silberberg
Third Edition

Principles of
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 1 12/1/11 10:20 AM

 PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY, THIRD EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas,
New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in
the United States of America. Previous editions © 2010 and 2007. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic
storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

ISBN 978–0–07–340269–7
MHID 0–07–340269–9

Vice President, Editor-in-Chief: Marty Lange

Vice President, EDP: Kimberly Meriwether David
Senior Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts
Publisher: Ryan Blankenship
Executive Editor: Jeff Huettman
Director of Digital Content Development: David Spurgeon, Ph.D.
Developmental Editor: Lora Neyens
Executive Marketing Manager: Tamara L. Hodge
Lead Project Manager: Peggy J. Selle
Senior Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy
Senior Media Project Manager: Tammy Juran
Senior Designer: David W. Hash
Cover Designer: John Joran
Cover Illustration: Precision Graphics
Cover Image: © Mike Embree/National Science Foundation
Senior Photo Research Coordinator: Lori Hancock
Photo Research: Jerry Marshall/pictureresearching.com
Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services
Typeface: 10/12 Times LT Std Roman
Printer: R.R. Donnelley

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Silberberg, Martin S. (Martin Stuart), 1945-

Principles of general chemistry / Martin S. Silberberg. — 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978–0–07–340269–7 — ISBN 0–07–340269–9 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Chemistry—Textbooks. I.
Title.
QD31.3.S55 2013
540—dc22
2011015577

www.mhhe.com

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 2 11/29/11 10:25 AM

 To Ruth and Daniel, with all my love
and
To the memory of my brother Bruce,
whose love, humor, and encouragement was
invaluable and will be profoundly missed.

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 3 11/29/11 10:25 AM

 BRIEF CONTENTS
About the Author xvii
Preface xviii

1 Keys to the Study of Chemistry 2

2 The Components of Matter 32
3 Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 71
4 Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 115
5 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 148
6 Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 188
7 Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 216
8 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 245
9 Models of Chemical Bonding 276
10 The Shapes of Molecules 302
11 Theories of Covalent Bonding 328
12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 350
13 The Properties of Solutions 391
14 Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements 425
15 Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 459
16 Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498
17 Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 542
18 Acid-Base Equilibria 579
19 Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 617
20 Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions 653
21 Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 687
22 Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 736
23 Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 763

Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1

Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants for Selected Substances A-8
Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials A-14
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 5 11/29/11 10:25 AM


CHAPTER 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry 2
1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 3
The Properties of Matter 3
The States of Matter 5
The Central Theme in Chemistry 6
The Importance of Energy in the Study
of Matter 7
1.2 The Scientific Approach: Developing
a Model 9
CHAPTER 2 • The Components of Matter
2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures:
An Atomic Overview 33
2.2 The Observations That Led to an
Atomic View of Matter 35
Mass Conservation 35
Definite Composition 36
Multiple Proportions 37
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 37
Postulates of the Atomic Theory 38
How the Theory Explains the Mass
Laws 38
2.4 The Observations That Led to the
Nuclear Atom Model 39
Discovery of the Electron and Its
Properties 39
Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 41
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 7
DETAILED CONTENTS
1.3 Chemical Problem Solving 10
Units and Conversion Factors
in Calculations 10
A Systematic Approach to Solving
Chemistry Problems 12
1.4 Measurement in Scientific Study 14
General Features of SI Units 14
Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 14
Extensive and Intensive Properties 20
32
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 42
Structure of the Atom 42
Atomic Number, Mass Number,
and Atomic Symbol 43
Isotopes 44
Atomic Masses of the Elements;
Mass Spectrometry 44
2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic
Table 47
2.7 Compounds: Introduction
to Bonding 49
The Formation of Ionic Compounds 49
The Formation of Covalent Compounds 51
2.8 Formulas, Names, and Masses
of Compounds 53
Binary Ionic Compounds 53
1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement:
Significant Figures 21
Determining Which Digits Are
Significant 21
Significant Figures: Calculations
and Rounding Off 22
Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument
Calibration 24
Chapter Review Guide 25
Problems 27
Compounds That Contain Polyatomic
Ions 56
Acid Names from Anion Names 57
Binary Covalent Compounds 58
The Simplest Organic Compounds:
Straight-Chain Alkanes 58
Molecular Masses from Chemical
Formulas 59
Representing Molecules with Formulas
and Models 60
2.9 Classification of Mixtures 61
An Overview of the Components
of Matter 62
Chapter Review Guide 63
Problems 65
vii
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 viii Detailed Contents

CHAPTER 3 • Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 71

3.1 The Mole 72
Defining the Mole 72
Determining Molar Mass 73
Converting Between Amount, Mass,
and Number of Chemical Entities 74
The Importance of Mass Percent 77
3.2 Determining the Formula
of an Unknown Compound 80
Empirical Formulas 80
Molecular Formulas 81
Isomers 84
3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical
Equations 85
3.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant
and Product 89
Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios
from the Balanced Equation 89
Reactions That Involve a Limiting
Reactant 93
Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Reaction
Yields 97
3.5 Fundamentals of Solution
Stoichiometry 99
Expressing Concentration in Terms
of Molarity 99
Amount-Mass-Number Conversions
Involving Solutions 100
Diluting a Solution 100
Stoichiometry of Reactions in Solution 103
Chapter Review Guide 105
Problems 108

CHAPTER 4 • Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 115

4.1 The Role of Water as a Solvent 116
The Polar Nature of Water 116
Ionic Compounds in Water 116
Covalent Compounds in Water 120
4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic
Reactions 120
4.3 Precipitation Reactions 122
The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from
Dissolved Ions 122
Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will
Form 123
4.4 Acid-Base Reactions 125
The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H1
and OH– 128
Proton Transfer in Acid-Base Reactions 129
Quantifying Acid-Base Reactions by
Titration 130
4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)
Reactions 132
The Key Event: Net Movement of Electrons
Between Reactants 132
Some Essential Redox Terminology 133
Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor
Electron Charge 133
4.6 Elements in Redox Reactions 136
Combination Redox Reactions 136
Decomposition Redox Reactions 137
Displacement Redox Reactions and Activity
Series 137
Combustion Reactions 139
Chapter Review Guide 141
Problems 142

CHAPTER 5 • Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 148

5.1 An Overview of the Physical States
of Matter 149
5.2 Gas Pressure and Its
Measurement 150
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure 150
Units of Pressure 151
5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental
Foundations 153
The Relationship Between Volume and
Pressure: Boyle’s Law 153
The Relationship Between Volume and
Temperature: Charles’s Law 154
The Relationship Between Volume and
Amount: Avogadro’s Law 156
Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 156
The Ideal Gas Law 157
Solving Gas Law Problems 158
5.4 Rearrangements of the Ideal
Gas Law 162
The Density of a Gas 162
The Molar Mass of a Gas 164
The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture
of Gases 165
The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction
Stoichiometry 167
5.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory:
A Model for Gas Behavior 170
How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory
Explains the Gas Laws 170
Effusion and Diffusion 175
5.6 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal
Behavior 177
Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas
Behavior 177
The van der Waals Equation: Adjusting
the Ideal Gas Law 179
Chapter Review Guide 179
Problems 182

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 8 12/1/11 8:33 AM


CHAPTER 6 • Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change
6.1 Forms of Energy and Their
Interconversion 189
Defining the System and Its
Surroundings 189
Energy Transfer to and from a System 190
Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy
Transfer 190
The Law of Energy Conservation 192
Units of Energy 193
State Functions and the Path Independence
of the Energy Change 194
CHAPTER 7 • Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure
7.1 The Nature of Light 217
The Wave Nature of Light 217
The Particle Nature of Light 220
7.2 Atomic Spectra 223
Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation 223
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 224
The Energy Levels of the Hydrogen
Atom 226
Spectral Analysis in the Laboratory 228
CHAPTER 8 • Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity
8.1 Characteristics of Many-Electron
Atoms 246
The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 246
The Exclusion Principle and Orbital
Occupancy 247
Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level
Splitting 247
8.2 The Quantum-Mechanical Model
and the Periodic Table 249
Building Up Period 1 249
Building Up Period 2 250
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 9
188
6.2 Enthalpy: Chemical Change at
Constant Pressure 195
The Meaning of Enthalpy 195
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 196
6.3 Calorimetry: Measuring the Heat of a
Chemical or Physical Change 197
Specific Heat Capacity 197
The Two Common Types
of Calorimetry 198
6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical
Equations 201
216
7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter
and Energy 229
The Wave Nature of Electrons and the
Particle Nature of Photons 229
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 231
7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model
of the Atom 232
The Atomic Orbital and the Probable
Location of the Electron 232
245
Building Up Period 3 251
Similar Electron Configurations Within
Groups 252
Building Up Period 4: The First Transition
Series 253
General Principles of Electron
Configurations 254
Intervening Series: Transition and Inner
Transition Elements 256
ix
6.5 Hess’s Law: Finding DH of Any
Reaction 203
6.6 Standard Enthalpies of Reaction
(DHrxn) 205
Formation Equations and Their Standard
Enthalpy Changes 205
Determining DH rxn from DH f Values for
Reactants and Products 206
Fossil Fuels and Climate Change 207
Chapter Review Guide 209
Problems 211
Quantum Numbers of an Atomic
Orbital 234
Quantum Numbers and Energy Levels 235
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 237
The Special Case of Energy Levels
in the H Atom 239
Chapter Review Guide 240
Problems 241
8.3 Trends in Three Atomic
Properties 258
Trends in Atomic Size 258
Trends in Ionization Energy 260
Trends in Electron Affinity 263
8.4 Atomic Properties and Chemical
Reactivity 265
Trends in Metallic Behavior 265
Properties of Monatomic Ions 266
Chapter Review Guide 271
Problems 272
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 x Detailed Contents
CHAPTER 9 • Models of Chemical Bonding
9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical
Bonds 277
Types of Bonding: Three Ways Metals
and Nonmetals Combine 277
Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule 278
9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model 280
Why Ionic Compounds Form: The
Importance of Lattice Energy 280
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 281
How the Model Explains the Properties of
Ionic Compounds 283
9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model 284
The Formation of a Covalent Bond 284
Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs 285
CHAPTER 10 • The Shapes of Molecules
10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with
Lewis Structures 303
Applying the Octet Rule to Write Lewis
Structures 303
Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair
Bonding 306
Formal Charge: Selecting the More
Important Resonance Structure 308
Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet
Rule 309
10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory and Molecular
Shape 312
Electron-Group Arrangements and
Molecular Shapes 312
CHAPTER 11 • Theories of Covalent Bonding
11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital
Hybridization 329
The Central Themes of VB
Theory 329
Types of Hybrid Orbitals 330
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 10
276
Properties of a Covalent Bond: Order,
Energy, and Length 285
How the Model Explains the Properties
of Covalent Substances 288
Using IR Spectroscopy to Study Covalent
Compounds 289
9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical
Change 290
Changes in Bond Energy: Where Does
DH rxn Come From? 290
Using Bond Energies to Calculate
DH rxn 290
302
The Molecular Shape with Two Electron
Groups (Linear Arrangement) 313
Molecular Shapes with Three
Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar
Arrangement) 314
Molecular Shapes with Four Electron
Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement) 314
Molecular Shapes with Five Electron
Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal
Arrangement) 316
Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups
(Octahedral Arrangement) 317
328
11.2 Modes of Orbital Overlap and the
Types of Covalent Bonds 335
Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple
Bonds 335
Orbital Overlap and Molecular
Rotation 337
9.5 Between the Extremes:
Electronegativity and Bond
Polarity 293
Electronegativity 293
Bond Polarity and Partial Ionic
Character 294
The Gradation in Bonding Across
a Period 296
Chapter Review Guide 297
Problems 298
Using VSEPR Theory to Determine
Molecular Shape 318
Molecular Shapes with More Than One
Central Atom 319
10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular
Polarity 320
Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole
Moment 321
Chapter Review Guide 322
Problems 324
11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and
Electron Delocalization 338
The Central Themes of MO Theory 338
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
of Period 2 Elements 341
Chapter Review Guide 345
Problems 346
11/29/11 10:25 AM

CHAPTER 12 • Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes
12.1 An Overview of Physical States and
Phase Changes 351
12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase
Changes 354
Heat Involved in Phase Changes 354
The Equilibrium Nature of Phase
Changes 357
Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and
Temperature on Physical State 360
12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces 362
How Close Can Molecules Approach Each
Other? 362
Ion-Dipole Forces 362
Dipole-Dipole Forces 363
CHAPTER 13 • The Properties of Solutions
13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular
Forces and Solubility 392
Intermolecular Forces in Solution 393
Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular
Polarity 394
Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 396
13.2 Why Substances Dissolve:
Understanding the Solution
Process 397
Heats of Solution: Solution Cycles 397
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 11
350
The Hydrogen Bond 364
Polarizability and Induced Dipole
Forces 366
Dispersion (London) Forces 366
12.4 Properties of the Liquid State 369
Surface Tension 369
Capillarity 370
Viscosity 370
12.5 The Uniqueness of Water 371
Solvent Properties of Water 371
Thermal Properties of Water 371
Surface Properties of Water 372
The Unusual Density of Solid Water 372
391
Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids
in Water 397
The Solution Process and the Change
in Entropy 399
13.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium
Process 401
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 401
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 402
13.4 Concentration Terms 404
Molarity and Molality 404
Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 405
Interconverting Concentration Terms 406
xi
12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties,
and Bonding 373
Structural Features of Solids 373
Types and Properties of Crystalline
Solids 379
Bonding in Solids I: The Electron-Sea
Model of Metallic Bonding 382
Bonding in Solids II: Band Theory 382
Chapter Review Guide 385
Problems 386
13.5 Colligative Properties
of Solutions 408
Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 408
Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute
Molar Mass 413
Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 414
Strong Electrolyte Solutions 415
Chapter Review Guide 417
Problems 419
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 xii Detailed Contents
CHAPTER 14 • Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements
14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 426
Where Hydrogen Fits in the Periodic
Table 426
Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 426
14.2 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 427
Why the Alkali Metals Have Unusual
Physical Properties 427
Why the Alkali Metals Are So Reactive 427
The Anomalous Behavior of Period 2
Members 429
14.3 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth
Metals 430
How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals
Compare Physically 430
How the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals
Compare Chemically 430
Diagonal Relationships 432
14.4 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 432
How the Transition Elements Influence
Properties 432
CHAPTER 15 • Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 459
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon
and the Characteristics of Organic
Molecules 460
The Structural Complexity of Organic
Molecules 460
The Chemical Diversity of Organic
Molecules 461
15.2 The Structures and Classes of
Hydrocarbons 462
Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins 462
Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single
Bonds 464
Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical
Properties of Alkanes 467
Chiral Molecules and Optical
Isomerism 468
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 12
425
Features That First Appear in This Group’s
Chemical Properties 432
14.5 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family 434
How the Type of Bonding in an Element
Affects Physical Properties 434
How Bonding Changes in the Carbon
Family’s Compounds 436
Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 436
Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 438
14.6 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen
Family 439
The Wide Range of Physical Behavior 439
Patterns in Chemical Behavior 439
Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 441
Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry 443
14.7 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen
Family 444
How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families
Compare Physically 446
Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with
Double Bonds 469
Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple
Bonds 470
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules
with Delocalized π Electrons 471
15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic
Reactions 472
15.4 Properties and Reactivities of
Common Functional Groups 474
Functional Groups with Only Single
Bonds 474
Functional Groups with Double Bonds 478
Functional Groups with Both Single and
Double Bonds 480
Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 482
How the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families
Compare Chemically 446
Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry 447
Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry 447
14.8 Group 7A(17): The Halogens 448
How the Halogens and the Alkali Metals
Contrast Physically 448
Why the Halogens Are So Reactive 448
Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 450
14.9 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases 452
Physical Properties 452
Why Noble Gases Can Form
Compounds 452
Chapter Review Guide 452
Problems 454
15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I:
Synthetic Macromolecules 483
Addition Polymers 484
Condensation Polymers 484
15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II:
Biological Macromolecules 486
Sugars and Polysaccharides 486
Amino Acids and Proteins 487
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 490
Chapter Review Guide 492
Problems 494
11/29/11 10:25 AM

CHAPTER 16 • Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions
16.1 Focusing on Reaction Rate 499
16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 501
Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction
Rates 501
Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and
Product Concentrations 503
16.3 The Rate Law and Its
Components 505
Some Laboratory Methods for Determining
the Initial Rate 505
Determining Reaction Orders 505
Determining the Rate Constant 512
16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration
Changes Over Time 512
Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-,
and Zero-Order Reactions 513
CHAPTER 17 • Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions
17.1 The Equilibrium State and the
Equilibrium Constant 543
17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the
Equilibrium Constant 545
Changing Value of the Reaction
Quotient 545
Writing the Reaction Quotient 546
17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure
Terms: Relation Between Kc
and Kp 550
17.4 Comparing Q and K to Predict
Reaction Direction 552
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 13
xiii
498
Determining Reaction Orders from an 16.7 Catalysis: Speeding Up
Integrated Rate Law 514
Reaction Half-Life 515
a Reaction 530
The Basis of Catalytic Action 531
16.5 Theories of Chemical Kinetics 519 Homogeneous Catalysis 531
Collision Theory: Basis of the Heterogeneous Catalysis 532
Rate Law 519 Catalysis in Nature 533
Transition State Theory: What the
Activation Energy Is Used For 522
Chapter Review Guide 534
Problems 536
16.6 Reaction Mechanisms: The Steps from
Reactant to Product 525
Elementary Reactions and Molecularity 526
The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction
Mechanism 527
Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate
Law 528
542
17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium The Effect of a Change in Pressure
Problems 554 (Volume) 565
Using Quantities to Find the Equilibrium The Effect of a Change in Temperature 567
The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 568
Constant 554
Using the Equilibrium Constant to Find The Industrial Production of Ammonia 570
Quantities 556 Chapter Review Guide 572
Problems Involving Mixtures of Reactants Problems 573
and Products 561
17.6 Reaction Conditions and Equilibrium:
Le Châtelier’s Principle 562
The Effect of a Change in
Concentration 563
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 xiv Detailed Contents
CHAPTER 18 • Acid-Base Equilibria
18.1 Acids and Bases in Water 580
Release of H1 or OH2 and the Arrhenius
Acid-Base Definition 580
Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-
Dissociation Constant (Ka) 581
Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids
and Bases 583
18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH
Scale 584
The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization:
The Ion-Product Constant for Water
(Kw) 584
Expressing the Hydronium Ion
Concentration: The pH Scale 585
18.3 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-
Lowry Acid-Base Definition 588
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 589
Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net
Direction of Reaction 590
CHAPTER 19 • Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems
19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffers 618
What a Buffer Is and How It Works: The
Common-Ion Effect 618
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 622
Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 623
Preparing a Buffer 625
19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves 626
Monitoring pH with Acid-Base
Indicators 627
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titration
Curves 627
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 14
579
18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid
Equilibria 593
Finding Ka Given Concentrations 593
Finding Concentrations Given Ka 594
The Effect of Concentration on the Extent
of Acid Dissociation 595
The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 597
18.5 Weak Bases and Their Relation to
Weak Acids 597
Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and
the Amines 598
Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases 599
The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a
Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 600
18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid
Strength 601
Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 601
Acid Strength of Oxoacids 602
Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 602
617
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titration
Curves 629
Weak Base–Strong Acid Titration
Curves 632
19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic
Compounds 633
The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the
Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp) 634
Calculations Involving the Solubility-
Product Constant 635
Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 637
18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt
Solutions 603
Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions 604
Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions 604
Salts That Yield Basic Solutions 604
Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly
Basic Anions 605
Salts of Amphiprotic Anions 605
18.8 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis
Acid-Base Definition 607
Molecules as Lewis Acids 607
Metal Ions as Lewis Acids 608
Chapter Review Guide 609
Problems 611
Effect of pH on Solubility 639
Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate:
Qsp vs. Ksp 639
Ionic Equilibria and the Acid-Rain
Problem 641
19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 643
Formation of Complex Ions 643
Complex Ions and Solubility
of Precipitates 645
Chapter Review Guide 646
Problems 648
11/29/11 10:25 AM

CHAPTER 20
• Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy,
and the Direction of Chemical Reactions
20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Predicting Spontaneous Change 654
The First Law of Thermodynamics Does Not
Predict Spontaneous Change 654
The Sign of DH Does Not Predict
Spontaneous Change 655
Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of
Particle Energy 655
Entropy and the Number of Microstates 656
Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics 659
Standard Molar Entropies and the Third
Law 659
Predicting Relative S° of a System 660
CHAPTER 21 • Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work
21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical
Cells 688
A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction
Concepts 688
Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox
Reactions 689
An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 692
21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous
Reactions to Generate Electrical
Energy 693
Construction and Operation of a Voltaic
Cell 694
Notation for a Voltaic Cell 696
21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic
Cell 697
Standard Cell Potentials 697
Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and
Reducing Agents 700
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 15
653
20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy
of a Reaction 664
Entropy Changes in the System: Standard
Entropy of Reaction (DSrxn) 664
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The
Other Part of the Total 665
The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium
State 667
Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic
Changes 667
20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 668
Free Energy Change and Reaction
Spontaneity 668
687
Writing Spontaneous Redox Reactions 701
Explaining the Activity Series
of the Metals 704
21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work 705
Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium
Constant 705
The Effect of Concentration on Cell
Potential 707
Changes in Potential During Cell
Operation 709
Concentration Cells 710
21.5 Electrochemical Processes
in Batteries 713
Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries 713
Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 714
Fuel Cells 716
21.6 Corrosion: An Environmental Voltaic
Cell 717
The Corrosion of Iron 717
xv
Calculating Standard Free Energy
Changes 669
The Free Energy Change and the Work a
System Can Do 671
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction
Spontaneity 671
Coupling of Reactions to Drive a
Nonspontaneous Change 674
20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and
Reaction Direction 676
Chapter Review Guide 681
Problems 682
Protecting Against the Corrosion
of Iron 718
21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical
Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous
Reactions 719
Construction and Operation of an
Electrolytic Cell 719
Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 720
Purifying Copper and Isolating
Aluminum 724
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation
Between Amounts of Charge and
Products 726
Chapter Review Guide 728
Problems 730
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 xvi Detailed Contents
CHAPTER 22 • Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds
22.1 Properties of the Transition
Elements 737
Electron Configurations of the Transition
Metals and Their Ions 738
Atomic and Physical Properties of the
Transition Elements 739
Chemical Properties of the Transition
Elements 741
CHAPTER 23 • Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications
23.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear
Stability 764
The Components of the Nucleus: Terms
and Notation 764
Modes of Radioactive Decay; Balancing
Nuclear Equations 765
Nuclear Stability and the Mode
of Decay 768
23.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 772
The Rate of Radioactive Decay 772
Radioisotopic Dating 774
23.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced
Changes in Nuclei 776
Appendix A Common Mathematical
Operations in Chemistry A-1
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic
Values for Selected Substances A-5
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants
for Selected Substances A-8
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 16
736
22.2 Coordination Compounds 743 Crystal Field Theory 752
Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Transition Metal Complexes in Biological
Geometries, and Ligands 744 Systems 757
Formulas and Names of Coordination Chapter Review Guide 758
Compounds 745 Problems 759
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 747
22.3 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding
and Properties of Complexes 750
Applying Valence Bond Theory to Complex
Ions 750
763
23.4 Effects of Nuclear Radiation Nuclear Binding Energy and the Binding
on Matter 778 Energy per Nucleon 784
Effects of Ionizing Radiation 23.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion 786
on Living Tissue 778 The Process of Nuclear Fission 786
Sources of Ionizing Radiation 779 The Promise of Nuclear Fusion 789
23.5 Applications of Radioisotopes 780 Chapter Review Guide 790
Radioactive Tracers 780
Problems 792
Additional Applications of Ionizing
Radiation 782
23.6 The Interconversion of Mass
and Energy 783
The Mass Difference Between a Nucleus
and Its Nucleons 783
Appendix D Standard Electrode Glossary G-1
(Half-Cell) Potentials A-14 Credits C-1
Appendix E Answers to Selected Index I-1
Problems A-15
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 About the Author
Martin S. Silberberg received a B.S. in Chemistry from the City University of New
York and a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Oklahoma. He then accepted a
research position in analytical biochemistry at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
in New York City, where he developed advanced methods to study fundamental brain
mechanisms as well as neurotransmitter metabolism in Parkinson’s disease. Following
his years in research, Dr. Silberberg joined the faculty of Bard College at Simon’s
Rock, a liberal arts college known for its excellence in teaching small classes of highly
motivated students. As Head of the Natural Sciences Major and Director of Premedical
Studies, he taught courses in general chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry, and
liberal arts chemistry. The close student contact afforded him insights into how stu-
dents learn chemistry, where they have difficulties, and what strategies can help them
succeed. Prof. Silberberg applied these insights in a broader context by establishing a
text writing, editing, and consulting company. Before writing his own text, he worked
as a consulting and developmental editor on chemistry, biochemistry, and physics texts
for several major college publishers. He resides with his wife and son in the Pioneer
Valley near Amherst, Massachusetts, where he enjoys the rich cultural and academic
life of the area and relaxes by cooking, singing, and hiking.

xvii

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 17 11/29/11 10:25 AM

 Preface
As the new century unfolds, chemistry will play its usual,
crucial role in dealing with complex environmental, medi-
cal, and industrial issues. And, as the complexities increase
and more information is needed to understand them, many
chemistry instructors want a more focused text to serve as
the core of a powerful electronic teaching and learning
package. This new, Third Edition of Principles of General
Chemistry is the ideal choice, designed to cover key princi-
ples and skills with great readability, the most accurate
molecular art available, a problem-solving approach that is
universally praised, and a supporting suite of electronic
products that sets a new standard in academic science.
How Principles and Chemistry
Are the Same
Principles of General Chemistry was created from its parent
text, Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change, when four expert chemistry teachers—three con-
sulting professors and the author—joined to distill the
concepts and skills at the heart of general chemistry. Prin-
ciples covers all the material a science major needs to con-
tinue in premedical studies, engineering, or related fields.
It maintains the same high standards of accuracy, clarity,
and rigor as its parent and adopts the same three distin-
guishing hallmarks:
1. Visualizing chemical models. In many places in the text,
concepts are explained first at the macroscopic level and
then from a molecular point of view. Placed near many of
these discussions, the text’s celebrated graphics depict the
phenomenon or change at the observable level in the lab,
at the atomic level with superbly accurate molecular art,
and at the symbolic level with the balanced equation.
2. Thinking logically to solve problems. The problem-solving
approach, based on a four-step method widely approved
by chemical educators, is introduced in Chapter 1 and
employed consistently throughout the text. It encourages
students to first plan a logical approach, and only then
proceed to the arithmetic solution. A check step, univer-
sally recommended by instructors, fosters the habit of con-
sidering the reasonableness and magnitude of the answer.
For practice and reinforcement, each worked problem has
a matched follow-up problem, for which an abbreviated,
multistep solution—not merely a numerical answer—
appears at the end of the chapter.
3. Applying ideas to the real world. For today’s students, who
may enter one of numerous chemistry-related fields, espe-
cially important applications—such as climate change,
xviii
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 18
enzyme catalysis, materials science, and others—are
woven into the text discussion, and real-world scenarios
are used in many worked in-chapter sample problems as
well as end-of-chapter problems.
Principles and Chemistry also share a common topic
sequence, which provides a thorough introduction to chem-
istry for science majors:
• Chapters 1 through 6 cover unit conversions and uncer-
tainty, introduce atomic structure and bonding, discuss
stoichiometry and reaction classes, show how gas behavior
is modeled, and highlight the relation between heat and
chemical change.
• Chapters 7 through 15 take an “atoms-first” approach, as
they move from atomic structure and electron configura-
tion to how atoms bond and what the resulting molecules
look like and why. Intermolecular forces are covered by
discussing the behavior of liquids and solids as compared
with that of gases, and then leads the different behavior of
solutions. These principles are then applied to the chemis-
try of the elements and to the compounds of carbon.
• Chapters 16 through 21 cover dynamic aspects of reaction
chemistry, including kinetics, equilibrium, entropy and
free energy, and electrochemistry.
• Chapters 22 and 23 cover transition elements and nuclear
reactions.
How Principles and Chemistry
Are Different
Principles presents the same authoritative coverage as
Chemistry but in 240 fewer pages. It does so by removing
most of the boxed application material, thus letting instruc-
tors choose applications tailored for their course. Moreover,
several topics that are important areas of research but not
central to general chemistry were left out, including col-
loids, polymers, liquid crystals, and so forth. And main-
stream material from the chapter on isolating the elements
was blended into the chapter on electrochemistry.
Despite its much shorter length, Principles of General
Chemistry includes all the pedagogy so admired in Chemis-
try. It has all the worked sample problems and about two-
thirds as many end-of-chapter problems, still more than
enough problems for every topic, with a high level of rele-
vance and many real-world applications. The learning aids
that students find so useful have also been retained—
Concepts and Skills to Review, Section Summaries, Key
Terms, Key Equations, and Brief Solutions to Follow-up
Problems.
11/29/11 10:25 AM

In addition, three aids not found in the parent Chemistry
help students focus their efforts:
• Key Principles. At the beginning of each chapter, short
bulleted paragraphs state the main concepts concisely,
using many of the same phrases and terms (in italics)
that appear in the pages to follow. A student can preview
these principles before reading the chapter and then
review them afterward.
• “Think of It This Way . . .” with Analogies, Mnemonics,
and Insights. This recurring feature provides analogies
for difficult concepts (e.g., the “radial probability distri-
bution” of apples around a tree) and amazing quantities
(e.g., a stadium and a marble for the relative sizes of
atom and nucleus), memory shortcuts (e.g., which reac-
tion occurs at which electrode), and useful insights
(e.g., similarities between a saturated solution and a
liquid-vapor system).
• Problem-Based Learning Objectives. The list of learning
objectives at the end of each chapter includes the end-of-
chapter problems that relate to each objective. Thus, a
student, or instructor, can select problems that review a
given topic.
What’s New in the Third Edition
To address dynamic changes in how courses are structured
and how students learn—variable math and reading prepa-
ration, less time for traditional studying, electronic media as
part of lectures and homework, new challenges and options
in career choices—the author and publisher consulted
extensively with students and faculty. Based on their input,
we developed the following ways to improve the text as a
whole as well as the content of individual chapters.
Global Changes to the Entire Text
Writing style and content presentation. Every line of
every discussion has been revised to optimize clarity, read-
ability, and a more direct presentation. The use of additional
subheads, numbered (and titled) paragraphs, and bulleted
(and titled) lists has eliminated long unbroken paragraphs.
Main ideas are delineated and highlighted, making for more
efficient study and lectures. As a result, the text is over 20
pages shorter than the Second Edition.
More worked problems. The much admired—and imi-
tated—four-part (plan, solution, check, practice) Sample
Problems occur in both data-based and molecular-scene
format. To deepen understanding, Follow-up Problems have
worked-out solutions at the back of each chapter, with a
road map when appropriate, effectively doubling the num-
ber of worked problems. This edition has 15 more sample
problems, many in the earlier chapters, where students need
the most practice in order to develop confidence.
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 19
Preface xix
Art and figure legends. Figures have been made more
realistic and modern. Figure legends have been greatly
shortened, and the explanations from them have either been
added to the text or included within the figures.
Page design and layout. A more open look invites the
reader while maintaining the same attention to keeping text
and related figures and tables near each other for easier
studying.
Section summaries. This universally approved feature
is even easier to use in a new bulleted format.
Chapter review. The unique Chapter Review Guide aids
study with problem-based learning objectives, key terms,
key equations, and the multistep Brief Solutions to Follow-
up Problems (rather than just numerical answers).
End-of-chapter problem sets. With an enhanced design
to improve readability and traditional and molecular-scene
problems updated and revised, these problem sets are far
more extensive than in other brief texts.
Content Changes to Individual Chapters
• Chapter 2 presents a new figure and table on molecular
modeling, and it addresses the new IUPAC recommenda-
tions for atomic masses.
• Discussion of empirical formulas has been moved from
Chapter 2 to Chapter 3 so that it appears just before
molecular formulas.
• Chapter 3 has some sample problems from the Second
Edition that have been divided to focus on distinct con-
cepts, and it contains seven new sample problems.
• Chapters 3 and 4 include more extensive and consistent
use of stoichiometry reaction tables in limiting-reactant
problems.
• Chapter 4 presents a new molecular-scene sample prob-
lem on depicting an ionic compound in aqueous solution.
• Chapter 5 includes a new discussion on how gas laws
apply to breathing.
• Chapter 5 groups stoichiometry of gaseous reactions with
other rearrangements of the ideal gas law.
• Chapter 17 makes consistent use of quantitative bench-
marks for determining when it is valid to assume that
the amount reacting can be neglected.
Acknowledgments
For the third edition of Principles of General Chemistry, I
am once again very fortunate that Patricia Amateis of Vir-
ginia Tech prepared the Instructors’ Solutions Manual and
Student Solutions Manual and Libby Weberg the Student
Study Guide.
The following individuals helped write and review
goal-oriented content for LearnSmart for general chemistry:
Erin Whitteck; Margaret Ruth Leslie, Kent State University;
and Adam I. Keller, Columbus State Community College.
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 xx Preface

And, I greatly appreciate the efforts
of all the professors who reviewed por-
tions of the new edition or who partici-
pated in our developmental survey to
assess the content needs for the text:
DeeDee A. Allen, Wake Technical
Community College
John D. Anderson, Midland College
Jeanne C. Arquette, Phoenix College
Yiyan Bai, Houston Community College
Stanley A. Bajue, Medgar Evers College, CUNY
Jason P. Barbour, Anne Arundel Community
College
Peter T. Bell, Tarleton State University
Vladimir Benin, University of Dayton
Paul J. Birckbichler, Slippery Rock University
Simon Bott, University of Houston
Kevin A. Boudreaux, Angelo State University
R. D. Braun, University of Louisiana,
Lafayette
Stacey Buchanan, Henry Ford Community
College
Michael E. Clay, College of San Mateo
Michael Columbia, Indiana University
Purdue University Fort Wayne
Charles R. Cornett, University of Wisconsin,
Platteville
Kevin Crawford, The Citadel
Mapi M. Cuevas, Santa Fe Community
College
Kate Deline, College of San Mateo
Amy M. Deveau, University of New England,
Biddeford
Jozsef Devenyi, The University of Tennessee,
Martin
Paul A. DiMilla, Northeastern University
John P. DiVincenzo, Middle Tennessee State
University
Ajit Dixit, Wake Technical Community
College
Son Q. Do, University of Louisiana,
Lafayette
Rosemary I. Effiong, University of
Tennessee, Martin
Bryan Enderle, University of California,
Davis
David K. Erwin, Rose-Hulman Institute of
Technology
Emmanuel Ewane, Houston Community
College
Kenneth A. French, Blinn College
Donna G. Friedman, St. Louis Community
College, Florissant Valley
Herb Fynewever, Western Michigan
University
Judy George, Grossmont College
Dixie J. Goss, Hunter College City
University of New York
Ryan H. Groeneman, Jefferson College
Kimberly Hamilton-Wims, Northwest
Mississippi Community College
David Hanson, Stony Brook University
Eric Hardegree, Abilene Christian University
Michael A. Hauser, St. Louis Community
College, Meramec
Eric J. Hawrelak, Bloomsburg University of
Pennsylvania
Monte L. Helm, Fort Lewis College
Sherell Hickman, Brevard Community
College
Jeffrey Hugdahl, Mercer University
Michael A. Janusa, Stephen F. Austin State
University
Richard Jarman, College of DuPage
Carolyn Sweeney Judd, Houston Community
College
Bryan King, Wytheville Community College
Peter J. Krieger, Palm Beach Community
College
John T. Landrum, Florida International
University, Miami
Richard H. Langley, Stephen F. Austin State
University
Richard Lavallee, Santa Monica College
Debbie Leedy, Glendale Community College
Alan Levine, University of Louisiana,
Lafayette
Chunmei Li, Stephen F. Austin State University
Alan F. Lindmark, Indiana University
Northwest
Donald Linn, Indiana University Purdue
University Fort Wayne
Arthur Low, Tarleton State University
David Lygre, Central Washington University
Toni G. McCall, Angelina College
Debbie McClinton, Brevard Community
College
William McHarris, Michigan State University
Curtis McLendon, Saddleback College
Lauren McMills, Ohio University
Jennifer E. Mihalick, University of
Wisconsin, Oshkosh
John T. Moore, Stephen F. Austin State
University
Brian Moulton, Brown University
Michael R. Mueller, Rose-Hulman Institute
of Technology
Kathy Nabona, Austin Community College
Chip Nataro, Lafayette College
David S. Newman, Bowling Green State
University
William J. Nixon, St. Petersburg College
Eileen Pérez, Hillsborough Community
College
Richard Perkins, University of Louisiana,
Lafayette
Eric O. Potma, University of California,
Irvine
Nichole L. Powell, Tuskegee University
Parris F. Powers, Volunteer State Community
College
Mary C. Roslonowski, Brevard Community
College
E. Alan Sadurski, Ohio Northern University
G. Alan Schick, Eastern Kentucky University
Linda D. Schultz, Tarleton State University
Mary Sisak, Slippery Rock University
Joseph Sneddon, McNeese State University
Michael S. Sommer, University of Wyoming
Ana Maria Soto, The College of New Jersey
John E. Straub, Boston University
Richard E. Sykora, University of South
Alabama
Robin S. Tanke, University of Wisconsin,
Stevens Point
Maria E. Tarafa, Miami Dade College
Kurt Teets, Okaloosa Walton College
Jeffrey S. Temple, Southeastern Louisiana
University
Lydia T. Tien, Monroe Community College
Thomas D. Tullius, Boston University
Mike Van Stipdonk, Wichita State University
Ramaiyer Venkatraman, Jackson State
University
Marie Villarba, Glendale Community College
Kirk W. Voska, Rogers State University
Edward A. Walters, University of New
Mexico
Kristine Wammer, University of St. Thomas
Shuhsien Wang-Batamo, Houston
Community College
Thomas Webb, Auburn University
Kurt Winkelmann, Florida Institute of
Technology
Steven G. Wood, Brigham Young University
Louise V. Wrensford, Albany State University
James A. Zimmerman, Missouri State
University
Susan Moyer Zirpoli, Slippery Rock University
Tatiana M. Zuvich, Brevard Community
College

My friends that make up the superb publishing team
at McGraw-Hill Higher Education have again done an
excellent job developing and producing this text. My
warmest thanks for their hard work, thoughtful advice,
and support go to Publisher Ryan Blankenship and
Executive Editor Jeff Huettman. I lost one wonderful Se-
nior Developmental Editor, Donna Nemmers, early in the
project and found another wonderful one, Lora Neyens.
Once again, Lead Project Manager Peggy Selle created a
superb product, this time based on the clean, modern
look of Senior Designer David Hash. Marketing Manager
Tami Hodge ably presented the final text to the sales staff
and academic ­community.
Expert freelancers made indispensable contributions
as well. My superb copyeditor, Jane Hoover, continued to
improve the accuracy and clarity of my writing, and proof-
readers Janelle Pregler and Angie Ruden gave their consis-
tent polish to the final manuscript. And Jerry Marshall
helped me find the best photos, and Gary Hunt helped me
create an exciting cover.
As always, my wife Ruth was involved every step of
the way, from helping with early style decisions to check-
ing and correcting content and layout in page proofs. And
my son Daniel consulted on the choice of photos and the
cover.

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 20 11/29/11 10:25 AM

 Preface xxi

13.3 • Solubility as an Equilibrium Process 403

A Guide to Student Success: How to Get the Most Out of Your Textbook P1
P2 P2

7
Organizing and Focusing
Chapter Outline Quantum Theory
The chapter begins with an outline that shows the and Atomic Structure B C
A
sequence of topics and subtopics.
Figure 13.10 The effect of pressure on gas solubility.
Key Principles
to focus on while studying this chapter

Key Principles a piston-cylinder assembly with a gas above a saturated aqueous solution of the gas
• In a vacuum, electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light (c) in waves.
The properties of a wave are its wavelength (l, distance between corresponding
(Figure 13.10A). At equilibrium, at a given pressure, the same number of gas mol-
points on adjacent waves), frequency (n, number of cycles the wave undergoes
ecules enter and leave the solution per unit time:
per second), and amplitude (the height of the wave), which is related to the

The main principles from the chapter are given in con- intensity (brightness) of the radiation. Any region of the electromagnetic
Gas 7.1)
spectrum includes a range of wavelengths. (Section 1 solvent BA saturated solution
• In everyday experience, energy is diffuse and matter is chunky, but certain
Push down on the piston, and you disturb the equilibrium: gas volume decreases, so
cise, separate paragraphs so you can keep them in mind phenomena—blackbody radiation (the light emitted by hot objects), the
photoelectric effect (the flow of current when light strikes a metal), and atomic
gas pressure (and concentration) increases, and gas particles collide with the liquid
spectra (the specific colors emitted from a substance that is excited)—can only be

as you study. You may also want to review them when surface more often. Thus, more particles enter than leave the solution per unit time
explained if energy consists of “packets” (quanta) that occur in, and thus change
by, fixed amounts. The energy of a quantum is related to its frequency.
(Figure 13.10B). More gas dissolves to reduce this disturbance (a shift to the right in
(Section 7.1)
Light from Excited Atoms In a fireworks display and
many other everyday phenomena, we see the result of
atoms absorbing energy and then emitting it as light. In

you are ­finished. • According to the Bohr model, an atomic spectrum consists of separate lines
the preceding equation) until the system re-establishes equilibrium (Figure 13.10C).
because an atom has certain energy levels (states) that correspond to electrons
Henry’s law expresses the quantitative relationship between gas pressure and
in orbits around the nucleus. The energy of the atom changes when the electron
this chapter, we explore the basis of these phenomena
and learn some surprising things about the makeup of
the universe.
moves from one orbit to another as the atom absorbs (or emits) light of a specific
solubility: the solubility of a gas (S ) is directly proportional to the partial pressure
frequency. (Section 7.2) gas
9.1 • Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds 277
Outline
of the gas (P ) above the solution:
• Wave-particle duality means that matter has wavelike properties (as shown by
the de Broglie wavelengthgas and electron diffraction) and energy has particle- 7.1 The Nature of Light
like properties (as shown by photons of light having momentum). These
(13.3)
Wave Nature of Light

W hy do substances behave as they do? That is, why is table salt (or any other
ionic substance) a hard, brittle, high-melting solid that conducts a current only
when molten or dissolved in water? Why is candle wax (along with most covalent
CONCEPTS & SKILLS TO REVIEW
properties are observable only on the atomic scale, and because S ofgas
can never simultaneously know the position and speed of an electron in an atom
5wekH 3 Pgas Particle Nature of Light
them,

where k is the Henry’s law constant and is specific for a given gas-solvent combina-
(uncertainty principle). (Section 7.3)
7.2 Atomic Spectra
Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation

substances) low melting, soft, and nonconducting, even though diamond (as well as
before studying this chapter
a few other exceptions) is high melting and extremely hard? And why is copper (and • characteristics of ionic and cova-
most other metals) shiny, malleable, and able to conduct a current whether molten lent compounds; Coulomb’s law
or solid? The answers lie in the type of bonding within the substance. In Chapter 8, (Section 2.7)
• polar covalent bonds and the
we examined the properties of individual atoms and ions. But the behavior of matter
really depends on how those atoms and ions bond.
polarity of water (Section 4.1)
• Hess’s law, DH 8rxn, and DH 8f
H
• According to the quantum-mechanical model of the H atom, each energy level
tion at a given temperature. With S in mol/L and P in atm, the units of k are
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Energy
of the atom is associated with an atomic orbital (wave function), a mathematical
gas gas Levels of the Hydrogen Atom H
Spectral Analysis
mol/Latm (that is, molL atm ). 21
description of the electron’s position in three dimensions. We21can know the
probability that the electron is within a particular tiny volume of space, but not its 7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy
exact location. The probability is highest for the electron being near the nucleus, Wave Nature of Electrons and Particle Nature of Photons
and it decreases with distance. (Section 7.4) Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
• Quantum numbers denote each atomic orbital’s energy (n, principal), shape 7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
Sample Problem 13.2 Using Henry’s Law to Calculate Gas Solubility
(l, angular momentum), and spatial orientation (ml, magnetic). An energy level
consists of sublevels, which consist of orbitals. There is a hierarchy of quantum
Atomic Orbital and Probable Location of the Electron
Quantum Numbers of an Orbital

Concepts and Skills to Review

numbers: n limits l, which limits ml. (Section 7.4) Quantum Numbers and Energy Levels
(Sections 6.5 and 6.6) Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• InProblem The
the H atom, there partial
is only one type pressure
of electrostatic of carbon
interaction: dioxide gas inside
the attraction a bottle
The Special Case of of
the Hcola
Atom is 4 atm at
• atomic and ionic electron configu- between nucleus and electron. Thus, for the H atom only, the energy levels
258C.
depend What
solely is thequantum
on the principal solubility
number (n).of CO7.4)
(Section 2? The Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is
9.1 • Atomic ProPerties And chemicAl Bonds rations (Sections 8.2 and 8.4)
3.331022 mol/Latm at 258C.
ThisPlanunique
We know P feature
(4 atm) and helps
the value ofyou prepare forsothe upcoming
• trends in atomic properties and
Before we examine the types of chemical bonding, we should start with the most metallic behavior (Sections 8.3
CO2 k (3.3310 mol/Latm), we substitute
H
22
and 8.4)
fundamental question: why do atoms bond at all? In general, bonding lowers the
potential energy between positive and negative particles (see Figure 1.3), whether chapter by referring
them into Equation 13.3 to find S .
to key material
Solution S 5 k 3 P 5 (3.3310 mol/Latm)(4 atm) 5 0.1 mol/L
CO2 H CO2
CO2
from
22 earlier chap-
they are oppositely charged ions or nuclei and electron pairs. Just as the strength of
attractions and repulsions among nucleus and electrons determines the properties of an
atom, the type and strength of chemical bonds determine the properties of a substance.
tersCheck
thatThe you
units areshould understand
correct. We rounded figure to you
before
to one significant start
match the
in the pressure. A 0.5-L bottle of cola has about 2 g (0.05 mol) of dissolved CO .
numberreading

theFollow-UP
current one.
2

Section Summaries
Types of Bonding: Three Ways Metals and Nonmetals Combine
Problem 13.2 If air contains 78% N by volume, what is the solubility of N
in water at 258C and 1 atm (kH for N2 in H2O at 258C 5
2
731024 mol/Latm)?
2

In general, there is a gradation from atoms of more metallic elements to atoms of 216
A bulleted list of statements conclude each section, immedi-
more nonmetallic elements across a period and up a group (Figure 9.1). Three types
of bonding result from the three ways these two types of atoms can combine:
Summary of Section 13.3
ately reiterating
1. Metal thetransfer
with nonmetal: electron major ideas
and ionic just9.2A,
bonding (Figure covered.
next
page). We observe ionic bonding between atoms with large differences in their ten- •  solutionthatcontainsthemaximumamountofdissolvedsoluteinthepresence
A
dencies to lose or gain electrons. Such differences occur between reactive metals of excess undissolved solute is saturated. A saturated solution is in equilibrium
[Groups 1A(1) and 2A(2)] and nonmetals [Group 7A(17) and the top of Group 6A(16)]. with excess solute, because solute particles are entering and leaving the solution
A metal atom (low IE) loses its one or two valence electrons, and a nonmetal atom at the same rate.

Step-By-Step Problem Solving

(highly negative EA) gains the electron(s). Electron transfer from metal to nonmetal
occurs, and each atom forms an ion with a noble gas electron configuration. The elec-
•
•
Most solids are more soluble at higher temperatures.
AllgaseshaveanegativeDHsolninwater,soheatinglowersgassolubilityinwater.
trostatic attractions between these positive and negative ions draw them into a three-
dimensional array to form an ionic solid. Note that the chemical formula of an ionic •  enry’s law says that the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to its partial
H
Using this clear and thorough problem-solving approach,
compound is the empirical formula because it gives the cation-to-anion ratio. pressure above the solution.

you’ll learn to think through chemistry problems logically and 3.5 • Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry 103

­systematically.
1A
(1)
Figure 9.1 A comparison of metals
Key:
and nonmetals.
Metals
7A 8A
(17) (18) A, Location within the
Stoichiometry of Reactions in Solution
Solving stoichiometry problems for reactions in solution requires the additional step
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A periodic table. B, Relative magnitudes of of converting the volume of reactant or product in solution to amount (mol):
Nonmetals H He
(2) (13) (14) (15) (16) some atomic properties across a period.
Metalloids 1. Balance the equation.

Sample Problems
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2. Find the amount (mol) of one substance from the volume and molarity.
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar 3. Relate it to the stoichiometrically equivalent amount of another substance.
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
4. Convert to the desired units.
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
A worked-out problem appears whenever an important new
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Sample Problem 3.25  Calculating Quantities of Reactants and Products
concept or skill is introduced. The step-by-step approach is
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
PROPERTY
METAL
ATOM
NONMETAL
ATOM
for a Reaction in Solution
Problem Specialized cells in the stomach release HCl to aid digestion. If they release
shown consistently for every sample problem in the text.
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn 113 114 115 116 118
Atomic size Larger Smaller too much, the excess can be neutralized with an antacid. A common antacid contains
magnesium hydroxide, which reacts with the acid to form water and magnesium chloride
Zeff Lower Higher
• Plan analyzes the problem so that you can use what is
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
IE Lower Higher
solution. As a government chemist testing commercial antacids, you use 0.10 M HCl to
simulate the acid concentration in the stomach. How many liters of “stomach acid” react
with a tablet containing 0.10 g of magnesium hydroxide?
known to find what is unknown. This approach develops
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr EA Less negative More negative
A B
Plan We are given the mass (0.10 g) of magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, that reacts with Road Map
the acid. We also know the acid concentration (0.10 M) and must find the acid volume.
the habit of thinking through the solution before performing After writing the balanced equation, we convert the mass (g) of Mg(OH)2 to amount (mol)
and use the molar ratio to find the amount (mol) of HCl that reacts with it. Then, we use
Mass (g) of Mg(OH)2

calculations. the molarity of HCl to find the volume (L) that contains this amount (see the road map).
Solution Writing the balanced equation:
divide by  (g/mol)

• In many cases, a Road Map specific to the problem is shown Mg(OH)2(s) 1 2HCl(aq) -£ MgCl2(aq) 1 2H2O(l)
Converting from mass (g) of Mg(OH)2 to amount (mol):
Amount (mol) of Mg(OH)2

alongside the plan to lead you visually through the needed Amount (mol) of Mg(OH)2 5 0.10 g Mg(OH)2 3
1 mol Mg(OH)2
5 1.731023 mol Mg(OH)2
molar ratio
58.33 g Mg(OH)2
calculation steps. Converting from amount (mol) of Mg(OH)2 to amount (mol) of HCl: Amount (mol) of HCl

• Solution shows the calculation steps in the same order as

2 mol HCl
Amount (mol) of HCl 5 1.731023 mol Mg(OH)2 3 5 3.431023 mol HCl divide by M (mol/L)
1 mol Mg(OH)2

they are discussed in the plan and shown in the road map. Converting from amount (mol) of HCl to volume (L):

Volume (L) of HCl 5 3.431023 mol HCl 3

1L
5 3.431022 L
Volume (L) of HCl

• Check fosters the habit of going over your work quickly 0.10 mol HCl
Check The size of the answer seems reasonable: a small volume of dilute acid (0.034 L
of 0.10 M) reacts with a small amount of antacid (0.0017 mol).
to make sure that the answer is reasonable, chemically Comment In Chapter 4, you’ll see that this equation is an oversimplification, because
HCl and MgCl2 exist in solution as separated ions.
and mathematically—a great way to avoid careless errors. Follow-UP Problem 3.25 Another active ingredient in some antacids is aluminum

• Comment, shown in many problems, provides an addi-

hydroxide. Which is more effective at neutralizing stomach acid, magnesium hydroxide or
aluminum hydroxide? [Hint: “Effectiveness” refers to the amount of acid that reacts with
a given mass of antacid. You already know the effectiveness of 0.10 g of Mg(OH)2.]
tional insight, and alternative approach, or a common mis- Except for the additional step of finding amounts (mol) in solution, limiting-
take to avoid. reactant problems for reactions in solution are handled just like other such problems.

• Follow-up Problem gives you immediate practice by pre- Sample Problem 3.26  Solving Limiting-Reactant Problems for Reactions
in Solution
senting a similar problem that requires the same approach. Problem Mercury and its compounds have uses from fillings for teeth (as a mixture with
silver, copper, and tin) to the production of chlorine. Because of their toxicity, however,
soluble mercury compounds, such as mercury(II) nitrate, must be removed from industrial
wastewater. One removal method reacts the wastewater with sodium sulfide solution to
produce solid mercury(II) sulfide and sodium nitrate solution. In a laboratory simulation,
0.050 L of 0.010 M mercury(II) nitrate reacts with 0.020 L of 0.10 M sodium sulfide.
(a) How many grams of mercury(II) sulfide form? (b) Write a reaction table for this process.

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 21 11/29/11 10:25 AM

 percent) of dissociated HA molecules that increases with dilution.

NK OF IT THIS WAY
Are Gaseous and
-Acid Equilibria Alike?
Weak acids dissociating to a greater extent as they are diluted is analogous to the
shift in a gaseous reaction when the container volume increases (Section 17.6). In
the gaseous reaction, an increase in volume as the piston is withdrawn shifts the
equilibrium position to favor more moles of gas. In the case of HA dissociation, the Chapter 16 • Chapter Review Guide 535
increase in volume as solvent is added shifts the equilibrium position to favor more
moles of ions. Key Terms These important terms appear in boldface in the chapter and are defined again in the Glossary.

Section 16.1 Section 16.4 Section 16.6 Section 16.7

xxii Preface chemical kinetics (499) integrated rate law (512) reaction mechanism (525) catalyst (530)
Sample Problem 18.9 uses molecular scenes to highlight this idea. (Note that, in reaction rate (499) half-life (t1/2) (515) elementary reaction homogeneous catalyst (531)
order to depict the scenes practically, the acid has a much higher percent dissociation Section 16.2 Section 16.5 (elementary step) (526) heterogeneous catalyst (532)
than any real weak acid does.) average rate (502) collision theory (519) molecularity (526) hydrogenation (532)
unimolecular reaction (526) enzyme (533)
Unique to Principles of General Chemistry:
instantaneous rate (503) Arrhenius equation (519)
initial rate (503) activation energy (Ea) (520) bimolecular reaction (526) active site (533)
Sample Problem 18.9 UsingMolecularScenestoDeterminetheExtent Section 16.3 effective collision (522) rate-determining (rate-

Molecular-Scene Sample Problems frequency factor (522) limiting) step (527)

ofHADissociation rate law (rate equation) (505)
reaction intermediate (527)
rate constant (505) transition state theory (522)
reaction orders (505) transition state (activated
Problem A 0.15 M solution of HA (blue and green) is 33% dissociated. Which scene
represents a sample of that solution after it is diluted with water? These problems apply the same stepwise strategy to helpcomplex) (522)
reaction energy diagram
(523)
you interpret molecular scenes and solve problems based
on them.
Key Equations and Relationships
16.1 Expressing reaction rate in terms of reactant A (501):
Numbered and screened concepts are listed for you to refer to or memorize.

16.6 Calculating the time to reach a given [A] in a zero-order

D 3A 4 reaction (rate 5 k) (513):
Rate 5 2
Dt 3A 4 t 2 3A 4 0 5 2kt
1 2 3 16.2 Expressing the rate of a general reaction (503): 16.7 Finding the half-life of a first-order process (516):
Plan We are given the percent dissociation of the original HA solution (33%), and we 1 D 3A 4 1 D 3B 4 1 D 3C 4 1 D 3D 4 ln 2 0.693
Rate 5 2 52 5 5 t1/2 5 5
know that the percent dissociation increases as the acid is diluted. Thus, we calculate a Dt b Dt c Dt d Dt k k
the percent dissociation of each diluted sample and see which is greater than 33%. 16.3 Writing a general rate law (in which products do not appear) 16.8 Relating the rate constant to the temperature (Arrhenius
To determine percent dissociation, we apply Equation 18.5, with HAdissoc equal to the (505): equation) (519):
number of H3O1 (or A2) and HAinit equal to the number of HA plus the number of Rate 5 k 3A 4 m 3B 4 n . . . k 5 Ae2Ea /RT
H3O1 (or A2). 16.4 Calculating the time to reach a given [A] in a first-order re- 16.9 Relating the heat of reaction to the forward and reverse acti-
action (rate 5 k[A]) (513): vation energies (520):
Solution Calculating the percent dissociation of each diluted solution with Equation 18.5:
3A 4 0 DHrxn 5 Ea(fwd) 2 Ea(rev)
Solution 1. Percent dissociated 5 4/(5 1 4) 3 100 5 44% ln 5 kt 16.10 Calculating the activation energy (rearranged form of
3A 4 t
Solution 2. Percent dissociated 5 2/(7 1 2) 3 100 5 22% Arrhenius equation) (521):
Solution 3. Percent dissociated 5 3/(6 1 3) 3 100 5 33% 16.5 Calculating the time to reach a given [A] in a simple second-
k2 Ea 1 1
order reaction (rate 5 k[A]2) (513): ln 5 2 a 2 b
Therefore, scene 1 represents the diluted solution. k1 R T2 T1
1 1
Check Let’s confirm our choice by examining the other scenes: in scene 2, HA is 2 5 kt
3A 4 t 3A 4 0
less dissociated than originally, so that scene must represent a more concentrated HA
solution; scene 3 represents another solution with the same percent dissociation as the
original. Brief SolutionS to follow-up proBlemS Compare your own solutions to these calculation steps and answers.

FOllOW-UP PrOblem 18.9 The scene in the margin represents a sample of a weak acid 16.1 (a) 4NO(g) 1 O2(g) -£ 2N2O3(g);
HB (blue and purple) dissolved in water. Draw a scene that represents the same volume
D 3O2 4 1 D 3NO 4 1 D 3N2O3 4
after the solution has been diluted with water. rate 5 2 52 5
Dt 4 Dt 2 Dt
D 3O2 4 1 D 3NO 4 1
(b) 2 52 5 2 (21.60310 mol/Ls)
Dt 4 Dt 4
5 4.00310 25 mol/Ls
16.5 1/[HI]1 2 1/[HI]0 5 kt
16.2
Brief Solutions to Follow-up Problems
First order in Br2, first order in BrO32, second order in H1,
111 L/mol 2 100. L/mol 5 (2.4310221 L/mols)(t)
fourth order overall.
t 5 4.631021 s (or 1.531014 yr)
16.3 Rate 5 k[H2]m[I2]n. From Expts 1 and 3, m 5 1. From Expts 2 16.6 (a)
These provide multistep solutions at the end of the and 4, n 5 1. Therefore, rate 5 k[H2][I2]; second order overall.
16.4 (a) The rate law shows the reaction is zero order in Y,
chapter, not just a one-number answer at the back of so the rate is not affected by doubling Y: rate of Expt 2 5 0.25310–5
mol/Ls.
the book. This fuller treatment provides an excellent (b) The rate of Expt 3 is four times that of Expt 1, so [X]
doubles.

way for you to reinforce problem-solving skills.

4.6 • Elements in Redox Reactions 139

Visualizing Chemistry
Figure 4.15 A more reactive metal (Cu)
displacing the ion of a less reactive metal
(Ag) from solution. Three-Level Illustrations
A Silberberg hallmark, these illustrations provide macroscopic
Copper wire
and molecular views of a process to help you connect these two
Copper
wire
coated with
silver levels of reality with each other and with the chemical equation
Silver
Copper
nitrate
that describes the process in symbols. 12.6 • The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding 375
nitrate solution
solution
Cu2 +

Ag+ A Simple cubic B Body-centered cubic C Face-centered cubic

Ag+

2e–

Ag atoms
coating Cu atoms
wire in wire

+1+5 –2 0 +2 +5
5 –2
–2 0
2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Consider the metals we’ve just discussed: Li, Al, and Ni lie above H2, while Ag
lies below it; also, Zn lies above Cu, which lies above Ag. The most reactive metals Li

Cutting-Edge Molecular Models

on the list are in Groups 1A(1) and 2A(2) of the periodic table, and the least reactive
are Cu, Ag, and Au in Group 1B(11) and Hg in 2B(12).
K
Ba
Can displace H2
from water
Ca
Author andSeries
The Activity artist worked
of the Halogens side byof side
Reactivity and decreases
the elements employed down the Na
Group 7A(17), so we have
most advanced computer-graphic software to provide accu- Mg
Strength as reducing agent

F . Cl . Br . I
2 2 2 2
Al
rate molecular-scale models and vivid scenes.
A halogen higher in the group is a stronger oxidizing agent than one lower down.
Mn
Zn
Can displace H2
Coordination number = 6 Coordination number = 8 Coordination number = 12
from steam
Thus, elemental chlorine can oxidize bromide ions (below) or iodide ions from solu- Cr 1
–
8 atom
1
–
8 atom
1
–
8 atom
at 8 corners at 8 corners at 8 corners
tion, and elemental bromine can oxidize iodide ions: Fe
1 0 0 1 Cd
1
Co 1 atom –
2 atom
2Br(aq)  Cl2(aq) ±£ Br2(aq)  2Cl(aq) Ni Can displace H2
at center at 6 faces

Sn from acid
1 1 1 1
Pb Atoms/unit cell = 8– x 8 = 1 Atoms/unit cell = ( 8– x 8) + 1 = 2 Atoms/unit cell = ( 8– x 8) + ( 2– x 6) = 4

Combustion Reactions H2 Figure 12.23 The three cubic unit cells. A, Simple cubic unit cell. face-centered atoms yellow. Third row: A unit cell (shaded blue) in an
​ ombustion is the process of combining with oxygen, most commonly with the release
C Cu B, Body-centered cubic unit cell. C, Face-centered cubic unit cell. Top
row: Cubic arrangements of atoms in expanded view. Second row:
expanded portion of the crystal. The number of nearest neighbors around
one particle (dark blue in center) is the coordination number. Bottom row:
Hg Cannot displace
Space-filling Hthese
view of cubic arrangements. All atoms are identical
of heat and the production of light, as in a flame. Combustion reactions are not but, for clarity,
2 The total numbers of atoms in the actual unit cell. The simple cubic has
corner atoms are blue, body-centered atoms pink, and one atom, the body-centered has two, and the face-centered has four.
Ag from any source
classified by the number of reactants and products, but all of these reactions are redox
Au
processes because elemental oxygen is a reactant:
2CO(g) 1 O2(g) -£ 2CO2(g) Figure 4.16 The activity series of the
The combustion reactions that we commonly use to produce energy involve coal, metals. The most active metal (strongest
reducing agent) is at the top, and the least
petroleum, gasoline, natural gas, or wood as a reactant. These mixtures consist of active metal (weakest reducing agent) is
substances with many C-C and C-H bonds, which break during the reaction, and
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 22 at the bottom. 11/29/11 10:25 AM
each C and H atom combines with oxygen to form CO and H O. The combustion
 Preface xxiii

Chapter 13 • Chapter Review Guide 417

Reinforcing The Learning chapter review Guide

The following sections provide many aids to help you study this chapter. (Numbers in
parentheses refer to pages, unless noted otherwise.)
Process
Learning Objectives These are concepts and skills to review after studying this chapter.

Chapter Review Guide Related section (§), sample problem (SP), and upcoming end-of-chapter
problem (EP) numbers are listed in parentheses.
A rich catalog of study aids ends each chapter to help 1. Explainhowsolubilitydependsonthetypesofintermolecu-
larforces(like-dissolves-likerule)andunderstandthechar-
you review its content: acteristicsofsolutionsconsistingofgases,liquids,orsolids
(§13.1)(SP13.1)(EPs13.1–13.12)
• Learning Objectives are listed, with section, sample problem, 2. UnderstandtheenthalpycomponentsofDHsoln,the
and end-of-chapter problem numbers, to help you focus on key dependenceofDHhydronchargedensity,andwhyasolution
processisexothermicorendothermic(§13.2)(EPs13.13–
concepts and skills. 13.15,13.18–13.25,13.28)
• Key Terms are boldfaced within the chapter and listed here by 3. Comprehendthemeaningofentropyandhowthebalance
betweenDHandDSgovernsthesolutionprocess(§13.2)
section (with page numbers); they are defined again in the (EPs13.16,13.17,13.26,13.27)
Glossary. 4. Distinguishamongsaturated,unsaturated,andsupersaturated
solutionsandexplaintheequilibriumnatureofasaturated
• Key Equations and Relationships are highlighted and num- solution(§13.3)(EPs13.29,13.35)
5. Describetheeffectoftemperatureonthesolubilityof
solidsandgasesinwaterandtheeffectofpressureonthe
solubilityofgases(Henry’slaw)(§13.3)(SP13.2)(EPs
13.30–13.34,13.36)
6. Expressconcentrationintermsofmolarity,molality,mole
fraction,andpartsbymassorbyvolumeandbeableto
interconverttheseterms(§13.4)(SPs13.3–13.5)(EPs
13.37–13.58)
7. Describeelectrolytebehaviorandthefourcolligative
properties,explainthedifferencebetweenphasediagrams
forasolutionandapuresolvent,explainvapor-pressure
loweringfornon-volatileandvolatilenonelectrolytes,and
discussthevan’tHofffactorforcolligativepropertiesof
electrolytesolutions(§13.5)(SPs13.6–13.9)(EPs13.59–
13.83)

bered within the chapter and listed here with page numbers.
Key Terms These important terms appear in boldface in the chapter and are defined again in the Glossary.

Section 13.1 solvation(397) volumepercent boilingpointelevation

solute(392) hydration(398) [%(v/v)](405) (DTb)(410)
solvent(392) heatofhydration molefraction(X)(405) freezingpointdepression
miscible(392) (DHhydr)(398) Section 13.5 (DTf)(411)
solubility(S)(392) chargedensity(398) colligativeproperty(408) semipermeablemembrane
422 Chapter 13 • The Properties of Solutions like-dissolves-likerule(393) entropy(S)(399) electrolyte(408) (412)
hydrationshell(393) Section 13.3 nonelectrolyte(408) osmosis(412)
13.79 What is the minimum mass of glycerol (C3H8O3) that must (b) Which has the lowest freezing point? (c) Can you determine
be dissolved in 11.0 mg of water to prevent the solution from which one has the highest osmotic pressure? Explain. ion–induceddipole saturatedsolution(401) vaporpressurelowering osmoticpressure
freezing at 2158C? (Assume ideal behavior.) force(393) unsaturatedsolution(401) (DP)(408) (P)(413)
2+
– dipole–induceddipole supersaturatedsolution(401) Raoult’slaw(409) ionicatmosphere(415)
180 Calculate the molality and van’t Hoff factor (i) for the follow- – – +
+
ing aqueous solutions: 2+
–
force(393) Henry’slaw(403) idealsolution(409)
– –
(a) 1.00 mass % NaCl, freezing point 5 20.5938C + – alloy(396)
(b) 0.500 mass % CH3COOH, freezing point 5 20.1598C – – 2+ – Section 13.4
2+ – + – Section 13.2 molality(m)(404)
13.81 Calculate the molality and van’t Hoff factor (i) for the fol- A B heatofsolution
lowing aqueous solutions: masspercent[%(w/w)]
(a) 0.500 mass % KCl, freezing point 5 20.2348C 2–
(DH soln)(397) (405)
(b) 1.00 mass % H2SO4, freezing point 5 20.4238C 2+ 2+

2–
13.82 In a study designed to prepare new gasoline-resistant coat- 2–
2+
ings, a polymer chemist dissolves 6.053 g of poly(vinyl alcohol) in 2+ Key Equations and Relationships Numbered and screened concepts are listed for you to refer to or memorize.
enough water to make 100.0 mL of solution. At 258C, the osmotic 2–
C D
pressure of this solution is 0.272 atm. What is the molar mass of 13.1 Dividingthegeneralheatofsolutionintocomponent 13.5 Definingconcentrationintermsofmolality(404):
the polymer sample?
13.89 “De-icing salt” is used to melt snow and ice on streets. The enthalpies(397):
13.83 The U.S. Food and Drug Administration lists dichloro- highway department of a small town is deciding whether to buy amount(mol)ofsolute
methane (CH2Cl2) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) among the NaCl or CaCl2, which are equally effective, to use for this purpose. DHsoln5DHsolute1DHsolvent1DHmix Molality(m) 5
mass(kg)ofsolvent
many cancer-causing chlorinated organic compounds. What are The town can obtain NaCl for $0.22/kg. What is the maximum the
the partial pressures of these substances in the vapor above a solu- town should pay for CaCl2 to be cost effective? 13.2 Dividingtheheatofsolutionofanioniccompoundinwater 13.6 Definingconcentrationintermsofmasspercent(405):
tion of 1.60 mol of CH2Cl2 and 1.10 mol of CCl4 at 23.58C? The
13.90 Thermal pollution from industrial wastewater causes the tem-
intocomponententhalpies(398):
vapor pressures of pure CH2Cl2 and CCl4 at 23.58C are 352 torr
perature of river or lake water to increase, which can affect fish
massofsolute
and 118 torr, respectively. (Assume ideal behavior.) DHsoln5DHlattice1DHhydroftheions Masspercent3%(w/w)4 5 3 100
survival as the concentration of dissolved O2 decreases. Use the fol- massofsolution
Comprehensive Problems lowing data to find the molarity of O2 at each temperature (assume 13.3 Relatinggassolubilitytoitspartialpressure(Henry’slaw)
the solution density is the same as water): 13.7 Definingconcentrationintermsofvolumepercent(405):
13.84 The three aqueous ionic solutions represented below have (403):
total volumes of 25. mL for A, 50. mL for B, and 100. mL for Temperature Solubility of O2 Density of Sgas5kH3Pgas volumeofsolute
C. If each sphere represents 0.010 mol of ions, calculate: (a) the (°C) (mg/kg H2O) H2O (g/mL) Volumepercent3%(v/v)4 5 3 100
total molarity of ions for each solution; (b) the highest molarity 13.4 Definingconcentrationintermsofmolarity(404): volumeofsolution
0.0 14.5 0.99987
of solute; (c) the lowest molality of solute (assuming the solution
20.0 9.07 0.99823
densities are equal); (d) the highest osmotic pressure (assuming
40.0 6.44 0.99224 amount(mol)ofsolute
ideal behavior). Molarity(M) 5
13.91 A chemist is studying small organic compounds for their volume(L)ofsolution
– + – potential use as an antifreeze. When 0.243 g of a compound is
– –
+ – dissolved in 25.0 mL of water, the freezing point of the solu-
2+ 2+ –
– – + tion is 20.2018C. (a) Calculate the molar mass of the compound
+ – –
– + (d of water 5 1.00 g/mL). (b) Analysis shows that the compound
+ 2+
+ – 2+
–
– is 53.31 mass % C and 11.18 mass % H, the remainder being O.
– – +

+ –
A B C
13.85 Gold occurs in seawater at an average concentration of
1.131022 ppb. How many liters of seawater must be processed to
recover 1 troy ounce of gold, assuming 81.5% efficiency (d of sea-
water 5 1.025 g/mL; 1 troy ounce 5 31.1 g)?
13.86 Use atomic properties to explain why xenon is 11 times as
soluble as helium in water at 08C on a mole basis.
13.87 Which of the following best represents a molecular-scale
view of an ionic compound in aqueous solution? Explain.
+
+ +
–
End-of-Chapter Problems
Calculate the empirical and molecular formulas of the compound.
(c) Draw a Lewis structure for a compound with this formula that
forms H bonds and another for one that does not.
13.92 Is 50% by mass of methanol dissolved in ethanol different
from 50% by mass of ethanol dissolved in methanol? Explain. An exceptionally large number of problems ends each
13.93 Three gaseous mixtures of N2 (blue), Cl2 (green), and Ne
(purple) are depicted below. (a) Which has the smallest mole frac-
tion of N2? (b) Which have the same mole fraction of Ne? (c) Rank
chapter. These are sorted by section, and many are grouped
all three in order of increasing mole fraction of Cl2. in similar pairs, with one of each pair answered in Appen-
dix E (along with other problems having a colored number).
Following these section-based problems is a large group of
– +

Comprehensive Problems, which are based on concepts and

+ –
+ + –
+ A B C

A B
13.88 Four 0.50 m aqueous solutions are depicted. Assume the
C
13.94 Four U tubes each have distilled water in the right arm, a
solution in the left arm, and a semipermeable membrane between
skills from any section and/or earlier chapter and are filled
solutions behave ideally: (a) Which has the highest boiling point? arms. (a) If the solute is KCl, which solution is most concentrated?
with applications from related sciences.

21.2 • Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy 693

Here are some memory aids to help you connect the half-reaction with its electrode:
1. The words anode and oxidation start with vowels; the words cathode and re­duction­start THINK OF IT THIS WAY
with consonants. Which Half-Reaction Occurs
2. Alphabetically, the A in anode comes before the C in cathode, and the O in oxidation at Which Electrode?

Think of It This Way

comes before the R in reduction.
3. Look at the first syllables and use your imagination:
ANode, OXidation; REDuction, CAThode =: AN OX and a RED CAT

Analogies, memory shortcuts, and new insights

Summary of Section 21.1
into key ideas are provided in “Think of It This •  n oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction involves the transfer of electrons from a
A

Way” features. •
reducing agent to an oxidizing agent.
 he half-reaction method of balancing divides the overall reaction into half-
T
reactions that are balanced separately and then recombined.
•  herearetwotypesofelectrochemicalcells.Inavoltaiccell,aspontaneousreaction
T
generateselectricityanddoesworkonthesurroundings.Inanelectrolyticcell,the
surroundingssupplyelectricitythatdoesworktodriveanonspontaneousreaction.
• Inbothtypesofcell,twoelectrodesdipintoelectrolytesolutions;oxidationoccurs
at the anode, and reduction occurs at the cathode.

21.2 • Voltaic cells: Using spontaneoUs

Reactions to geneRate electRical
eneRgy
When you put a strip of zinc metal in a solution of Cu21 ion, the blue color of the
solution fades and a brown-black crust of Cu metal forms on the Zn strip (Figure
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 23 21.3). During this spontaneous reaction, Cu21 ion is reduced to Cu metal, while Zn 12/1/11 8:33 AM
metal is oxidized to Zn21 ion. The overall reaction consists of two half-reactions:
 xxiv Preface
McGraw-Hill Connect®Chemistry
www.mcgraw-hillconnect.com/chemistry
McGraw-Hill Connect® Chemistry is a web-based assign-
ment and assessment platform that gives students the means
to better connect with their coursework, with their instruc-
tors, and with the important concepts that they will need to
know for success now and in the future. The chemical draw-
ing tool found within Connect Chemistry is Cambridge-
Soft’s ChemDraw®, which is widely considered the gold
standard of scientific drawing programs and the cornerstone
application for scientists who draw and annotate molecules,
reactions, and pathways. This collaboration of Connect and
ChemDraw features an easy-to-use, intuitive, and compre-
hensive course management and homework system with
professional-grade drawing capabilities.
With Connect Chemistry, instructors can deliver assign-
ments, quizzes, and tests online. Questions from the text are
presented in an auto-gradable format and tied to the text’s
learning objectives. Instructors can edit existing questions
and author entirely new problems. They also can track indi-
vidual student performance—by question, assignment, or in
relation to the class overall—with detailed grade reports;
integrate grade reports easily with Learning Management
Systems (LMS) such as WebCT and Blackboard; and much
more.
By choosing Connect Chemistry, instructors are pro-
viding their students with a powerful tool for improving
academic performance and truly mastering course material.
Connect Chemistry allows students to practice important
skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Impor-
tantly, students’ assessment results and instructors’ feed-
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 24
back are all saved online—so students can continually
review their progress and plot their course to success.
ConnectPlus® Chemistry
Like Connect Chemistry, McGraw-Hill ConnectPlus®
Chemistry provides students with online assignments and
assessments, plus 24/7 online access to an eBook—an
online edition of the text—to aid them in successfully com-
pleting their work, wherever and whenever they choose.
LearnSmart™
This adaptive diagnostic learning system, powered by Con-
nect Chemistry and based on artificial intelligence, con-
stantly assesses a student’s knowledge of the course
material. As students work within the system, McGraw-Hill
LearnSmart™ develops a personal learning path adapted to
what each student has actively learned and retained. This
innovative study tool also has features to allow the instruc-
tor to see exactly what students have accomplished, with a
built-in assessment tool for graded assignments. You can
access LearnSmart for Chemistry at www.mcgrawhillcon
nect.com/chemistry.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education
and Blackboard®
McGraw-Hill Higher Education and
Blackboard have teamed up! What
does this mean for you?
1. Your life, simplified. Now you and your students can
access McGraw-Hill’s Connect and Create right from
within your Blackboard course—all with one single sign-
on. Say goodbye to the days of logging in to multiple
applications.
2. Deep integration of content and tools. Not only do you
get single sign-on with Connect and Create, you also get
deep integration of McGraw-Hill content and content
engines right in Blackboard. Whether you’re choosing a
book for your course or building Connect assignments, all
the tools you need are right where you want them—inside
of Blackboard.
3. Seamless Gradebooks. Are you tired of keeping multiple
gradebooks and manually synchronizing grades into Black-
board? We thought so. When a student completes an inte-
grated Connect assignment, the grade for that assignment
automatically (and instantly) feeds your Blackboard grade
center.
11/29/11 10:25 AM

4. A solution for everyone. Whether your institution is
already using Blackboard or you just want to try Black-
board on your own, we have a solution for you. McGraw-
Hill and Blackboard can now offer you easy access to
industry leading technology and content, whether your
campus hosts it, or we do. Be sure to ask your local
McGraw-Hill representative for details.
Customizable Textbooks: Create™
Create what you’ve only imagined. Introducing McGraw-
Hill Create—a new, self-service website that allows you to
create custom course materials—print and eBooks—by
drawing upon McGraw-Hill’s comprehensive, cross-
disciplinary content. Add your own content quickly and eas-
ily. Tap into other rights-secured third-party sources as well.
Then, arrange the content in a way that makes the most
sense for your course, and if you wish, personalize your
book with your course name and information. Choose the
best delivery format for your course: color print, black and
white print, or eBook. The eBook is now viewable for the
iPad! And when you are finished customizing, you will
receive a free PDF review copy in just minutes! Visit
McGraw-Hill Create—www.mcgrawhillcreate.com—
today and begin building your perfect book.
Presentation Center
Within the Instructor’s Presentation Center, instructors have
access to editable PowerPoint lecture outlines, which appear
as ready-made presentations that combine art and lecture
notes for each chapter of the text. For instructors who prefer to
create their lecture notes from scratch, all illustrations, photos,
and tables are pre-inserted by chapter into a separate set of
PowerPoint slides. An online digital library contains photos,
artwork, animations, and other media types that can be used to
create customized lectures, visually enhanced tests and quiz-
zes, compelling course websites, or attractive printed support
materials. All assets are copyrighted by McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, but can be used by instructors for classroom pur-
poses. The visual resources in this collection include:
• Art Full-color digital files of all illustrations in the book
can be readily incorporated into lecture presentations,
exams, or custom-made classroom materials.
• Photos The photo collection contains digital files of pho-
tographs from the text, which can be reproduced for mul-
tiple classroom uses.
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 25
Preface xxv
• Tables Every table that appears in the text has been saved
in electronic form for use in classroom presentations and/
or quizzes.
• Animations Numerous full-color animations illustrating
important processes are also provided. Harness the visual
impact of concepts in motion by importing these files into
classroom presentations or online course materials.
Digital Lecture Capture: Tegrity records and distributes
your lecture with just a click of a button. Students can view
anytime and anywhere via computer, iPod, or mobile device.
Tegrity indexes as it records your slideshow presentations
and anything shown on your computer, so students can use
keywords to find exactly what they want to study.
Computerized Test Bank Prepared by Walter Orchard,
Professor Emeritus of Tacoma Community College, over
2300 test questions to accompany Principles of General
Chemistry are available utilizing Brownstone’s Diploma
testing software. Diploma’s software allows you to quickly
create a customized test using McGraw-Hill’s supplied ques-
tions or by authoring your own. Diploma allows you to cre-
ate your tests without an Internet connection—just download
the software and question files directly to your computer.
Instructors’ Solutions Manual This supplement, pre-
pared by Patricia Amateis of Virginia Tech, contains com-
plete, worked-out solutions for all the end-of-chapter
problems in the text. It can be found within the Instructors
Resources, on the Connect: Chemistry site.
Content Delivery Flexibility Principles of General
Chemistry, by Martin Silberberg, is available in other formats
in addition to the traditional textbook, giving instructors and
students more choices for the format of their chemistry text.
Cooperative Chemistry Laboratory Manual Prepared
by Melanie Cooper of Clemson University, this innovative
manual features open-ended problems designed to simulate
experience in a research lab. Working in groups, students
investigate one problem over a period of several weeks, so
they might complete three or four projects during the semes-
ter, rather than one preprogrammed experiment per class.
The emphasis is on experimental design, analytic problem
solving, and communication.
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 xxvi Preface
learning system resources
For Students
Student Study Guide This valuable study guide, prepared
by Libby Bent Weberg, is designed to help you recognize
your learning style; understand how to read, classify, and
create a plan for solving a problem; and practice your
problem-solving skills. For each section of each chapter, the
guide provides study objectives and a summary of the cor-
responding text. Following the summary are sample prob-
lems with detailed solutions. Each chapter has true-false
questions and a self-test, with all answers provided at the
end of the chapter.
Student Solutions Manual This supplement, prepared
by Patricia Amateis of Virginia Tech, contains detailed solu-
tions and explanations for all problems in the main text that
have colored numbers.
Connect Chemistry With Connect Chemistry, you can
practice solving assigned homework problems using the
Silberberg problem-solving methodology applied in the
siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 26
textbook. Algorithmic problems serve up multiple ver-
sions of similar problems for mastery of content, with
hints and feedback for common incorrect answers to help
you stay on track. Where appropriate, you engage in accu-
rate, professional-grade chemical drawing through the use
of CambridgeSoft’s ChemDraw tool, which is imple-
mented directly into homework problems. Check it out at
www.mcgrawhillconnect.com/chemistry.
LearnSmart/ This adaptive diagnostic learning system,
powered by Connect: Chemistry and based on artificial
intelligence, constantly assesses your knowledge of
the course material. As you work within the system,
Learn­Smart develops a personal learning path adapted to
what you have actively learned and retained. This innova-
tive study tool also has features to allow your instructor
to see exactly what you have accomplished, with a built-
in assessment tool for graded assignments. You can
access Learn­Smart for general chemistry by going to
www.mcgrawhillconnect.com/chemistry.
Animations for MP3/iPod A number of animations are
available for download to your MP3/iPod through the text-
book’s Connect website.
11/29/11 10:25 AM
 Principles of
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY

siL02699_fm_i_xxvii.indd 1 12/2/11 1:14 PM

 1Key Principles
Keys to the Study
of Chemistry

to focus on while studying this chapter

• M atter can undergo two kinds of change: physical change involves a change in
state—gas, liquid, or solid—but not in ultimate makeup (composition); chemical
change (reaction) is more fundamental because it does involve a change in
composition. The changes we observe result ultimately from changes too small
to observe. (Section 1.1)
• Energy occurs in different forms that are interconvertible, even as the total
quantity of energy is conserved. When opposite charges are pulled apart, their
potential energy increases; when they are released, potential energy is converted
to the kinetic energy of the charges moving together. Matter consists of charged
particles, so changes in energy accompany changes in matter. (Section 1.1)
• The scientific method is a way of thinking that involves making observations and
gathering data to develop hypotheses that are tested by controlled experiments
until enough results are obtained to create a model (theory) that explains an
aspect of nature. A sound theory can predict events but must be changed if
new results conflict with it. (Section 1.2)
A Molecular View Within a Storm Lightning supplies
the energy for many atmospheric chemical changes to
• Any measured quantity is expressed by a number together with a unit.
occur. In fact, all the events within and around you have
Conversion factors are ratios of equivalent quantities having different units; they
causes and effects at the atomic level of reality.
are used in calculations to change the units of quantities. Decimal prefixes and
exponential notation are used to express very large or very small quantities.
(Section 1.3) Outline
• The SI system consists of seven fundamental units, each identifying a physical 1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions
quantity such as length (meter), mass (kilogram), or temperature (kelvin). These Properties of Matter
are combined into many derived units used to identify quantities such as volume, States of Matter
density, and energy. Extensive properties, such as mass, depend on sample size; Central Theme in Chemistry
intensive properties, such as temperature, do not. (Section 1.4) Importance of Energy
• Uncertainty characterizes every measurement and is indicated by the number of 1.2 The Scientific Approach: ­Developing a Model
significant figures. We round the final answer of a calculation to the same number 1.3 Chemical Problem Solving
of digits as in the least certain measurement. Accuracy refers to how close a Units and Conversion Factors
measurement is to the true value; precision refers to how close measurements A Systematic Approach
are to one another. (Section 1.5) 1.4 Measurement in Scientific Study
Features of SI Units
SI Units in Chemistry
Extensive and Intensive Properties
1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement: ­Significant Figures
Determining Significant Digits
Calculations and Rounding Off
Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 2 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.1 • Some Fundamental Definitions    3

aybe you’re taking this course because chemistry is fundamental to understanding

M other natural sciences. Maybe it’s required for your major. Or maybe you just
want to learn more about the impact of chemistry on society or even on your everyday
CONCEPTS & SKILLS TO REVIEW
life. For example, did you have cereal, fruit, and coffee for breakfast today? In chemical
before studying this chapter
terms, you enjoyed nutrient-enriched, spoilage-retarded carbohydrate flakes mixed in a • exponential (scientific) notation
white emulsion of fats, proteins, and monosaccharides, with a piece of fertilizer-grown, (Appendix A)
pesticide-treated fruit, and a cup of hot aqueous extract of stimulating alkaloid. Earlier,
you may have been awakened by the sound created as molecules aligned in the liquid-
crystal display of your clock and electrons flowed to create a noise. You might have
thrown off a thermal insulator of manufactured polymer and jumped in the shower to
emulsify fatty substances on your skin and hair with purified water and formulated
detergents. Perhaps you next adorned yourself in an array of pleasant-smelling pig-
mented gels, dyed polymeric fibers, synthetic footwear, and metal-alloy jewelry. After
breakfast, you probably abraded your teeth with a colloidal dispersion of artificially
flavored, dental-hardening agents, grabbed your laptop (an electronic device contain-
ing ultrathin, microetched semiconductor layers powered by a series of voltaic cells),
collected some books (processed cellulose and plastic, electronically printed with light-
and oxygen-resistant inks), hopped in your hydrocarbon-fueled, metal-vinyl-ceramic
vehicle, electrically ignited a synchronized series of controlled gaseous explosions,
and took off for class!
But the true impact of chemistry extends much farther than the products we use in
daily life. The most profound questions about health, climate change, even the origin
of life, ultimately have chemical answers.
No matter what your reason for studying chemistry, this course will help you
develop two mental skills. The first, common to all science courses, is the ability to
solve problems systematically. The second is specific to chemistry, for as you com-
prehend its ideas, you begin to view a hidden reality filled with incredibly minute
particles moving at fantastic speeds, colliding billions of times a second, and interact-
ing in ways that determine how all the matter inside and outside of you behaves. This
chapter holds the keys to enter this world.

1.1 • Some Fundamental Definitions

A good place to begin our exploration of chemistry is to define it and a few central
concepts. Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes.

The Properties of Matter

Matter is the “stuff ” of the universe: air, glass, planets, students—anything that
has mass and volume. (In Section 1.4, we discuss the meanings of mass and volume
in terms of how they are measured.) Chemists want to know the composition of
matter, the types and amounts of simpler substances that make it up. A substance
is a type of matter that has a defined, fixed composition.
We learn about matter by observing its properties, the characteristics that give
each substance its unique identity. To identify a person, we might observe height,
weight, hair and eye color, fingerprints, and even DNA pattern, until we arrive at
a unique conclusion. To identify a substance, we observe two types of properties,
physical and chemical, which are closely related to two types of change that matter
undergoes:
• Physical properties are characteristics a substance shows by itself, without changing
into or interacting with another substance. These properties include melting point,
electrical conductivity, and density. A physical change occurs when a substance
alters its physical properties, not its composition. For example, when ice melts,

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 3 10/3/11 8:35 AM

 4   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Oxygen gas
Solid water

Liquid water Hydrogen gas

A Physical change: B Chemical change:

Solid form of water becomes liquid form. Electric current decomposes water into different substances
Particles before and after remain the same, (hydrogen and oxygen). Particles before and after are different,
which means composition did not change. which means composition did change.

Figure 1.1 The distinction between physical and chemical change.

several physical properties change, such as hardness, density, and ability to flow.
But the composition of the sample does not change: it is still water. The photograph
in Figure 1.1A shows what this change looks like in everyday life. The “blow-up”
circles depict a magnified view of the particles making up the sample. In the icicle,
the particles lie in a repeating pattern, whereas they are jumbled in the droplet, but
the particles are the same in both forms of water.
Physical change (same substance before and after):
Water (solid form) -£ water (liquid form)
• Chemical properties are characteristics a substance shows as it changes into or
interacts with another substance (or substances). Chemical properties include flam-
mability, corrosiveness, and reactivity with acids. A chemical change, also called a
chemical reaction, occurs when a substance (or substances) is converted into a dif-
ferent substance (or substances). Figure 1.1B shows the chemical change (reaction)
that occurs when you pass an electric current through water: the water decomposes
(breaks down) into two other substances, hydrogen and oxygen, that bubble into the
tubes. The composition has changed: the final sample is no longer water.
Chemical change (different substances before and after):
electric current
Water ----£ hydrogen 1 oxygen
Let’s work through a sample problem that uses atomic-scale scenes to distinguish
between physical and chemical change.

Sample Problem 1.1 Visualizing Change on the Atomic Scale

Problem ​The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of a sample of matter, A
(center), under­going two different changes, to B (left) and to C (right):

B A C
Decide whether each depiction shows a physical or a chemical change.
Plan ​​Given depictions of two changes, we have to determine whether each represents a
physical or a chemical change. The number and colors of the little spheres that make up

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 4 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.1 • Some Fundamental Definitions    5

each particle tell its “composition.” Samples with particles of the same composition but
in a different arrangement depict a physical change, whereas samples with particles of a
different composition depict a chemical change.
Solution ​​In A, each particle consists of one blue and two red spheres. The particles in
A change into two types in B, one made of red and blue spheres and the other made of
two red spheres; therefore, they have undergone a chemical change to form different
­particles. The particles in C are the same as those in A, but they are closer together
and arranged differently; therefore, they have undergone a physical change.
Follow-Up Problem 1.1 ​​Is the following change chemical or physical? (Compare your
answer with the one in Brief Solutions to Follow-up Problems at the end of the chapter.)

The States of Matter

Matter occurs commonly in three physical forms called states: solid, liquid, and gas.
We’ll define the states and see how temperature can change them.

Defining the States On the macroscopic scale, each state of matter is defined by
the way the sample fills a container (Figure 1.2, flasks at top):
• A solid has a fixed shape that does not conform to the container shape. Solids are not
defined by rigidity or hardness: solid iron is rigid and hard, but solid lead is flexible,
and solid wax is soft.
• A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to the container shape, but only to the
extent of the liquid’s volume; that is, a liquid has an upper surface.
• A gas also has a varying shape that conforms to the container shape, but it fills the
entire container and, thus, does not have a surface.

Figure 1.2 The physical states of matter.

Solid Liquid Gas

Particles are close Particles are close Particles are far apart
together and organized. together but disorganized. and disorganized.

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 5 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 6   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

On the atomic scale, each state is defined by the relative positions of its particles
(Figure 1.2, circles at bottom):

• In a solid, the particles lie next to each other in a regular, three-dimensional array.
• In a liquid, the particles also lie close together but move randomly around each other.
• In a gas, the particles have large distances between them and move randomly
throughout the container.

Temperature and Changes of State Depending on the temperature and pressure

of the surroundings, many substances can exist in each of the three physical states
and undergo changes in state as well. For example, as the temperature increases, solid
water melts to liquid water, which boils to gaseous water (also called water vapor).
Similarly, as the temperature drops, water vapor condenses to liquid water, and with
further cooling, the liquid freezes to ice. The majority of other substances—such as
benzene, nitrogen, and iron—can undergo similar changes of state.
The main point is that a physical change caused by heating can generally be
reversed by cooling. This is not generally true for a chemical change. For example,
heating iron in moist air causes a chemical reaction that yields the brown, crumbly
substance known as rust. Cooling does not reverse this change; rather, another chemi-
cal change (or series of them) is required.
The following sample problem provides practice in distinguishing some familiar
examples of physical and chemical change.

Sample Problem 1.2 Distinguishing Between Physical and Chemical Change

Problem ​Decide whether each of the following processes is primarily a physical or
a chemical change, and explain briefly:
(a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.
(b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.
(c) A match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases.
(d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.
(e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.
Plan ​To decide whether a change is chemical or physical, we ask, “Does the
substance change composition or just change form?”
Solution ​(a) Frost forming is a physical change: the drop in temperature changes
water vapor (gaseous water) in humid air to ice crystals (solid water).
(b) A seed growing involves chemical change: the seed uses water, substances from air, fertil­
izer, and soil, and energy from sunlight to make complex changes in composition.
(c) The match burning is a chemical change: the combustible substances in the match head
are converted into other substances.
(d) Perspiration evaporating is a physical change: the water in sweat changes its form, from
liquid to gas, but not its composition.
(e) Tarnishing is a chemical change: silver changes to silver sulfide by reacting with sulfur-
containing substances in the air.
Follow-Up Problem 1.2 ​Is each of the following processes primarily a physical or a
chemical change? Explain. (See Brief Solutions at the end of the chapter.)
(a) Purple iodine vapor appears when solid iodine is warmed.
(b) Gasoline fumes are ignited by a spark in an automobile engine’s cylinder.
(c) A scab forms over an open cut.

The Central Theme in Chemistry

Understanding the properties of a substance and the changes it undergoes leads to the
central theme in chemistry: macroscopic-scale properties and behavior, those we can
see, are the results of atomic-scale properties and behavior that we cannot see. The

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 6 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.1 • Some Fundamental Definitions    7

distinction between chemical and physical change is defined by composition, which

we study macroscopically. But composition ultimately depends on the makeup of
substances at the atomic scale. Similarly, macroscopic properties of substances in
any of the three states arise from atomic-scale behavior of their particles. Pictur-
ing a chemical event on the molecular scale, even one as common as the flame of
a candle, helps clarify what is taking place. What is happening when water boils
or copper melts? What events occur in the invisible world of minute particles that
cause a seed to grow, a neon light to glow, or a nail to rust? Throughout the text,
we return to this central idea: we study observable changes in matter to understand
their unobservable causes.

The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter

Physical and chemical changes are accompanied by energy changes. Energy is often
defined as the ability to do work. Essentially, all work involves moving something.
Work is done when your arm lifts a book, when a car’s engine moves the wheels, or
when a falling rock moves the ground as it lands. The object doing the work (arm,
engine, rock) transfers some of its energy to the object on which the work is done
(book, wheels, ground).
The total energy an object possesses is the sum of its potential energy and its
kinetic energy.
• P otential energy is the energy due to the position of the object relative to other
objects.
• Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of the object.
Let’s examine four systems that illustrate the relationship between these two forms
of energy: a weight raised above the ground, two balls attached by a spring, two
electrically charged particles, and a burning fuel and its waste products. Two concepts
central to all these cases are
1. When energy is converted from one form to the other, it is conserved, not destroyed.
2. Situations of lower energy are more stable, and therefore favored, over situations of
higher energy (less stable).
The four systems are depicted in Figure 1.3 on the next page:
• A weight raised above the ground (Figure 1.3A). The energy you exert to lift a weight
against gravity increases the weight’s potential energy (energy due to its position).
When you drop the weight, that additional potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy (energy due to motion). The situation with the weight elevated and higher in
potential energy is less stable, so the weight will fall when released to result in a situ-
ation that is lower in potential energy and more stable.
• Two balls attached by a spring (Figure 1.3B). When you pull the balls apart, the
energy you exert to stretch the relaxed spring increases the system’s potential energy.
This change in potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when you release the
balls. The system of balls and spring is less stable (has more potential energy) when
the spring is stretched than when it is relaxed.
• Two electrically charged particles (Figure 1.3C). Due to interactions known as elec-
trostatic forces, opposite charges attract each other, and like charges repel each
other. When energy is exerted to move a positive particle away from a negative one,
the potential energy of the system increases, and that increase is converted to kinetic
energy when the particles are pulled together by the electrostatic attraction. Simi-
larly, when energy is used to move two positive (or two negative) particles together,
their potential energy increases and changes to kinetic energy when they are pushed
apart by the electrostatic repulsion. Charged particles move naturally to a more stable
situation (lower energy).
• A burning fuel and its waste products (Figure 1.3D). Matter is composed of posi-
tively and negatively charged particles. The chemical potential energy of a substance
results from the relative positions of and the attractions and repulsions among its

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 7 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 8   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Less stable

Stretched
Potential Energy

Potential Energy
Less stable
Change in
potential energy
Change in
equals
potential energy
kinetic energy.
equals
Relaxed kinetic energy.

More stable More stable

A A gravitational system. Potential energy is gained when a weight B A system of two balls attached by a spring. Potential energy is gained
is lifted. It is converted to kinetic energy as the weight falls. when the spring is stretched. It is converted to the kinetic energy of the
moving balls as the spring relaxes.

FUEL
Potential Energy

Potential Energy
Less stable Less stable

Change in Change in
potential energy potential energy
equals equals
kinetic energy. kinetic energy.
exhaust
More stable More stable

C A system of oppositely charged particles. Potential energy D A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in chemical potential
is gained when the charges are separated. It is converted to energy than the exhaust. As the fuel burns, some of its potential
kinetic energy as the attraction pulls the charges together. energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving car.

Figure 1.3 Potential energy is ­converted

to kinetic energy. The dashed horizontal
lines indicate the potential energy of each
system before and after the change.
particles. Some substances are higher in potential energy than others. For example,
gasoline and oxygen have more chemical potential energy than the exhaust gases they
form. This difference is converted into kinetic energy, which moves the car, heats
the interior, makes the lights shine, and so on. Similarly, the difference in potential
energy between the food and air we take in and the wastes we excrete enables us to
move, grow, keep warm, study chemistry, and so on.

Summary of Section 1.1

• Chemists study the composition and properties of matter and how they change.
• Each substance has a unique set of physical properties (attributes of the substance
itself) and chemical properties (attributes of the substance as it interacts with or
changes to other substances). Changes in matter can be physical (different form
of the same substance) or chemical (different substance).
• M
 atter exists in three physical states—solid, liquid, and gas. The behavior of each
state is due to the arrangement of the particles.
• A
 physical change caused by heating may be reversed by cooling. But a chemical
change caused by heating can be reversed only by other chemical changes.
• Macroscopic changes result from submicroscopic changes.
• Changes in matter are accompanied by changes in energy.
• A
 n object’s potential energy is due to its position; an object’s kinetic energy is due to
its motion. Energy used to lift a weight, stretch a spring, or separate opposite charges
increases the system’s potential energy, which is converted to kinetic energy as the
system returns to its original condition. Energy changes form but is conserved.
• C
 hemical potential energy arises from the positions and interactions of a substance’s
particles. When a higher energy (less stable) substance is converted into a more stable
(lower energy) substance, some potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 8 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.2 • The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model    9

1.2  •  The Scientific Approach:

Developing a Model
Unlike our prehistoric ancestors, who survived through trial and error—gradually
learning which types of stone were hard enough to shape others, which plants were
edible and which poisonous—we employ the quantitative theories of chemistry to
understand materials, make better use of them, and create new ones: specialized drugs
to target diseases, advanced composites for vehicles, synthetic polymers for clothing
and sports gear, liquid crystals for electronic displays, and countless others.
To understand nature, scientists use an approach called the scientific method. It
is not a stepwise checklist, but rather a process involving creative propositions and
tests aimed at objective, verifiable discoveries. There is no single procedure, and luck
often plays a key role in discovery. In general terms, the scientific approach includes
the following parts (Figure 1.4):
• Observations. These are the facts our ideas must explain. The most useful obser-
vations are quantitative because they can be analyzed to reveal trends. Pieces of
quantitative information are data. When the same observation is made by many
investigators in many situations with no clear exceptions, it is summarized, often in
mathematical terms, as a natural law. The observation that mass remains constant
during chemical change—made in the 18th century by the French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier (1743–1794) and numerous experimenters since—is known as the law of
mass conservation (Chapter 2).
• Hypothesis. Whether derived from observation or from a “spark of intuition,” a
hypothesis is a proposal made to explain an observation. A sound hypothesis need
not be correct, but it must be testable by experiment. Indeed, a hypothesis is often the
reason for performing an experiment: if the results do not support it, the hypothesis
must be revised or discarded. Hypotheses can be altered, but experimental results
cannot.
• Experiment. A set of procedural steps that tests a hypothesis, an experiment often
leads to a revised hypothesis and new experiments to test it. An experiment typi-
cally contains at least two variables, quantities that can have more than one value. A
well-designed experiment is controlled in that it measures the effect of one variable
on another while keeping all other variables constant. Experimental results must be
reproducible by others. Both skill and creativity play a part in experimental design.
• Model. Formulating conceptual models, or theories, based on experiments that test
hypotheses about observations distinguishes scientific thinking from speculation.
As hypotheses are revised according to experimental results, a model emerges to
explain how the phenomenon occurs. A model is a simplified, not an exact, represen-
tation of some aspect of nature that we use to predict related phenomena. Ongoing
experimentation refines the model to account for new facts.

Hypothesis is revised if Model is altered if

experimental results predicted events
do not support it. do not support it.

Observations Experiment Model (Theory) Further

Hypothesis
Natural phenomena Procedure to test Set of conceptual Experiment
Tentative proposal that
and measured events; hypothesis; measures assumptions that Tests predictions
explains observations
can be stated as a one variable at a time explains data from based on model
natural law if accumulated experi-
universally consistent ments; predicts
related phenomena

Figure 1.4 The scientific approach to understanding nature. Hypotheses and models are mental
pictures that are revised to match observations and experimental results, not the other way around.

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 9 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 10   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

The following short paragraph is the first of an occasional feature that will help
you learn a concept through an analogy, a unifying idea, or a memorization aid.

Consider this familiar scenario. While listening to an FM station on your car’s audio
THINK OF IT THIS WAY system, you notice the sound is garbled (observation) and assume it is caused by
Everyday Scientific poor reception (hypothesis). To isolate this variable, you plug in your MP3 player
Thinking and listen to a song (experiment): the sound is still garbled. If the problem is not
poor reception, perhaps the speakers are at fault (new hypothesis). To isolate this
variable, you listen with headphones (experiment): the sound is clear. You conclude
that the speakers need to be repaired (model). The repair shop says the speakers
are fine (new observation), but the car’s amplifier may be at fault (new hypothesis).
Repairing the amplifier corrects the garbled sound (new experiment), so the amplifier
was the problem (revised model). Approaching a problem scientifically is a common
practice, even if you’re not aware of it.

Summary of Section 1.2

• T he scientific method is a process designed to explain and predict phenomena.
• Observations lead to hypotheses about how or why a phenomenon occurs. When
repeated with no exceptions, observations may be expressed as a natural law.
• Hypotheses are tested by controlled experiments and revised when necessary.
• If reproducible data support a hypothesis, a model (theory) can be developed to
explain the observed phenomenon. A good model predicts related phenomena but
must be refined whenever conflicting data appear.

1.3  •  Chemical Problem Solving

In many ways, learning chemistry is learning how to solve chemistry problems. This
section describes the problem-solving approach used throughout this book. Most prob-
lems include calculations, so let’s first discuss how to handle measured quantities.

Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations

All measured quantities consist of a number and a unit: a person’s height is “5 feet,
10 inches,” not “5, 10.” Ratios of quantities have ratios of units, such as miles/hour.
(We discuss some important units in Section 1.4.) To minimize errors, make it a
habit to include units in all calculations.
The arithmetic operations used with quantities are the same as those used with
pure numbers; that is, units can be multiplied, divided, and canceled:
• A carpet measuring 3 feet by 4 feet (ft) has an area of
Area 5 3 ft 3 4 ft 5 (3 3 4) (ft 3 ft) 5 12 ft2
• A car traveling 350 miles (mi) in 7 hours (h) has a speed of
350 mi 50 mi
Speed 5 5 (often written 50 mih21)
7h 1h
• In 3 hours, the car travels a distance of
50 mi
Distance 5 3 h 3 5 150 mi
1h

Constructing a Conversion Factor Conversion factors are ratios used to express

a quantity in different units. Suppose we want to know the distance of that 150-mile
car trip in feet. To convert miles to feet, we use equivalent quantities,
1 mi 5 5280 ft

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 10 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.3 • Chemical Problem Solving    11

from which we can construct two conversion factors. Dividing both sides by 5280 ft
gives one conversion factor (shown in blue):
1 mi 5280 ft
5 51
5280 ft 5280 ft
And, dividing both sides by 1 mi gives the other conversion factor (the inverse):
1 mi 5280 ft
5 51
1 mi 1 mi
Since the numerator and denominator of a conversion factor are equal, multiplying a
quantity by a conversion factor is the same as multiplying by 1. Thus, even though
the number and unit change, the size of the quantity remains the same.
To convert the distance from miles to feet, we choose the conversion factor with
miles in the denominator, because it cancels miles and gives the answer in feet:
5280 ft
Distance (ft) 5 150 mi 3 5 792,000 ft
1 mi
mi 1 ft
Choosing the Correct Conversion Factor It is easier to convert if you first decide
whether the answer expressed in the new units should have a larger or smaller num-
ber. In the previous case, we know that a foot is smaller than a mile, so the distance
in feet should have a larger number (792,000) than the distance in miles (150). The
conversion factor has the larger number (5280) in the numerator, so it gave a larger
number in the answer.
Most importantly, the conversion factor you choose must cancel all units except
those you want in the answer. Therefore, set the unit you are converting from (begin-
ning unit) in the opposite position in the conversion factor (numerator or denominator)
so that it cancels and you are left with the unit you are converting to (final unit):
final unit ft
beginning unit 3 5 final unit as in mi 3 5 ft
beginning unit mi
Or, in cases that involve units raised to a power:
final unit2
(beginning unit 3 beginning unit) 3 5 final unit2
beginning unit2
mi2
as in (ft 3 ft) 3 5 mi2
ft2
Or, in cases that involve a ratio of units:
beginning unit final unit2 final unit2 mi ft ft
3 5 as in 3 5
final unit1 beginning unit final unit1 h mi h

Converting Between Unit Systems We use the same procedure to convert

between systems of units, for example, between the English (or American) unit sys-
tem and the International System (a revised metric system; Section 1.4). Suppose we
know that the height of Angel Falls in Venezuela (the world’s highest) is 3212 ft, and
we find its height in miles as
1 mi
Height (mi) 5 3212 ft 3 5 0.6083 mi
5280 ft
ft 1 mi
Now, we want its height in kilometers (km). The equivalent quantities are
1.609 km 5 1 mi
Because we are converting from miles to kilometers, we use the conversion factor
with miles in the denominator in order to cancel miles:
1.609 km
Height (km) 5 0.6083 mi 3 5 0.9788 km
1 mi
mi 1 km

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 11 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 12   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Notice that kilometers are smaller than miles, so this conversion factor gave us an
answer with a larger number (0.9788 is larger than 0.6083).
If we want the height of Angel Falls in meters (m), we use the equivalent quanti-
ties 1 km 5 1000 m to construct the conversion factor:
1000 m
Height (m) 5 0.9788 km 3 5 978.8 m
1 km
km 1 m
In longer calculations, we often string together several conversion steps:
1 mi 1.609 km 1000 m
Height (m) 5 3212 ft 3 3 3 5 978.8 m
5280 ft 1 mi 1 km
ft 1 mi 1 km 1 m

A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems

The approach used in this book to solve problems emphasizes reasoning, not memo-
rizing, and is based on a simple idea: plan how to solve the problem before you try
to solve it, then check your answer, and practice with a similar follow-up problem.
In general, the sample problems consist of several parts:
1. Problem. ​This part states all the information you need to solve the problem, usually
framed in some interesting context.
2. Plan. ​This part helps you think about the solution before juggling numbers and
pressing calculator buttons. There is often more than one way to solve a problem,
and the given plan is one possibility. The plan will
• Clarify the known and unknown: what information do you have, and what are you
trying to find?
• Suggest the steps from known to unknown: what ideas, conversions, or equations
are needed?
• Present a road map (especially in early chapters), a flow diagram of the plan. The
road map has a box for each intermediate result and an arrow showing the step
(conversion factor or operation) used to get to the next box.
3. Solution. This part shows the calculation steps in the same order as in the plan
(and the road map).
4. Check. This part helps you check that your final answer makes sense: Are the
units correct? Did the change occur in the expected direction? Is it reasonable
chemically? To avoid a large math error, we also often do a rough calculation
and see if we get an answer “in the same ballpark” as the actual result. Here’s a
typical “ballpark” calculation from everyday life. You are at a clothing store and
buy three shirts at $14.97 each. With a 5% sales tax, the bill comes to $47.16. In
your mind, you know that $14.97 is about $15, and 3 times $15 is $45; with the
sales tax, the cost should be a bit more. So, your quick mental calculation is in
the same ballpark as the actual cost.
5. Comment. This part appears occasionally to provide an application, an alternative
approach, a common mistake to avoid, or an overview.
6. Follow-up Problem. This part presents a similar problem that requires you to apply
concepts and/or methods used in solving the sample problem.
Of course, you can’t learn to solve chemistry problems, any more than you can
learn to swim, by reading about it, so here are a few suggestions:
• Follow along in the sample problem with pencil, paper, and calculator.
• Try the follow-up problem as soon as you finish the sample problem. A feature called
Brief Solutions to Follow-up Problems appears at the end of each chapter, allowing
you to compare your solution steps and answer.
• Read the sample problem and text again if you have trouble.

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 12 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.3 • Chemical Problem Solving    13

• Go to the Connect website for this text at www.mcgrawhillconnect.com and do the

homework assignment. Hints and feedback on common incorrect answers, as well as
step-by-step solutions, will help you learn to be an effective problem solver.
• The end-of-chapter problems review and extend the concepts and skills in the chap-
ter, so work as many as you can. (Answers are given in the back of the book for
problems with a colored number.)
Let’s apply this systematic approach in a unit-conversion problem.

Sample Problem 1.3 Converting Units of Length

Problem ​To hang some paintings in your dorm, you need 325 centimeters (cm) of
picture wire that sells for $0.15/ft. How much does the wire cost?
Plan ​We know the length of wire in centimeters (325 cm) and the price in dollars per Road Map
foot ($0.15/ft). We can find the unknown cost of the wire by converting the length from
centimeters to inches (in) and from inches to feet. The price gives us the equivalent Length (cm) of wire
quantities (1 ft 5 $0.15) to convert feet of wire to cost in dollars. The road map starts
with the known and moves through the calculation steps to the unknown.
2.54 cm  1 in
Solution ​Converting the known length from centimeters to inches: The equivalent
quantities alongside the road map arrow are needed to construct the conversion factor. Length (in) of wire
We choose 1 in/2.54 cm, rather than the inverse, because it gives an answer in inches:
1 in
Length (in) 5 length (cm) 3 conversion factor 5 325 cm 3 5 128 in 12 in  1 ft
2.54 cm
Converting the length from inches to feet: Length (ft) of wire
1 ft
Length (ft) 5 length (in) 3 conversion factor 5 128 in 3 5 10.7 ft
12 in 1 ft  $0.15
Converting the length in feet to cost in dollars:
$0.15 Cost ($) of wire
Cost ($) 5 length (ft) 3 conversion factor 5 10.7 ft 3 5 $1.60
1 ft

Check ​The units are correct for each step. The conversion factors make sense in
terms of the relative unit sizes: the number of inches is smaller than the number of
centimeters (an inch is larger than a centimeter), and the number of feet is smaller than
the number of inches. The total cost seems reasonable: a little more than 10 ft of wire
at $0.15/ft should cost a little more than $1.50.

Comment ​​1. We could also have strung the three steps together:
1 in 1 ft $0.15
Cost ($) 5 325 cm 3 3 3 5 $1.60
2.54 cm 12 in 1 ft
2. There are usually alternative sequences in unit-conversion problems. Here, for example,
we would get the same answer if we first converted the cost of wire from $/ft to $/cm and
kept the wire length in cm. Try it yourself.

Follow-Up Problem 1.3 ​​A furniture factory needs 31.5 ft2 of fabric to upholster one
chair. Its Dutch supplier sends the fabric in bolts of exactly 200 m2. How many chairs
can be upholstered with 3 bolts of fabric (1 m 5 3.281 ft)? Draw a road map to show
how you plan the solution. (See Brief Solutions.)

Summary of Section 1.3

• A measured quantity consists of a number and a unit.
• A conversion factor is a ratio of equivalent quantities (and, thus, equal to 1) that
is used to express a quantity in different units.

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 13 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 14   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

• T
 he problem-solving approach used in this book has four parts: (1) plan the steps
to the solution, which often includes a flow diagram (road map) of the steps,
(2) perform the calculations according to the plan, (3) check to see if the answer
makes sense, and (4) practice with a similar problem and compare your solution
with the one at the end of the chapter.

1.4  • Measurement in Scientific Study

Almost everything we own is made and sold in measured amounts. The measurement
systems we use have a rich history characterized by the search for exact, invariable
standards. Measuring for purposes of trade, building, and surveying used to be based
on standards that could vary: a yard was the distance from the king’s nose to the tip
of his outstretched arm, and an acre was the area tilled in one day by a man with
a pair of oxen. Our current, far more exact system of measurement began in 1790
when a committee in France developed the original metric system. In 1960, another
committee in France revised it to create the universally accepted SI units (from the
French Système International d’Unités).

General Features of SI Units

The SI system is based on seven fundamental units, or base units, each identified
with a physical quantity (Table 1.1). All other units are derived units, combinations
of the seven base units. For example, the derived unit for speed, meters per second
(m/s), is the base unit for length (m) divided by the base unit for time (s). (Derived
units that are a ratio of base units can be used as conversion factors.) For quantities
much smaller or larger than the base unit, we use decimal prefixes and exponential
(scientific) notation (Table 1.2). (If you need a review of exponential notation, see
Appendix A.) Because the prefixes are based on powers of 10, SI units are easier to
use in calculations than English units.

Table 1.1 SI Base Units

Physical Quantity (Dimension) Unit Name Unit Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Some Important SI Units in Chemistry

Here, we discuss units for length, volume, mass, density, temperature, and time; other
units are presented in later chapters. Table 1.3 shows some SI quantities for length,
volume, and mass, along with their English-system equivalents.

Length The SI base unit of length is the meter (m), which is about 2.5 times the
width of this book when open. The definition is exact and invariant: 1 meter is the
distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. A meter is a little
longer than a yard (1 m 5 1.094 yd); a centimeter (1022 m) is about two-fifths of
an inch (1 cm 5 0.3937 in; 1 in 5 2.54 cm). Biological cells are often measured
in micrometers (1 mm 5 1026 m). On the atomic scale, nanometers (1029 m) and
picometers (10212 m) are used. Many pro­teins have diameters of about 2 nm; atomic
diameters are about 200 pm (0.2 nm). An older unit still in use is the angstrom
(1 Å 5 10210 m 5 0.1 nm 5 100 pm).

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 14 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.4 • Measurement in Scientific Study    15

Table 1.2 Common Decimal Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefix Exponential
Prefix* Symbol Word Conventional Notation Notation
tera T trillion 1,000,000,000,000 131012
giga G billion 1,000,000,000 13109
mega M million 1,000,000 13106
kilo k thousand 1,000 13103
hecto h hundred 100 13102
deka da ten 10 13101
— — one 1 13100
deci d tenth 0.1 131021
centi c hundredth 0.01 131022
milli m thousandth 0.001 131023
micro m millionth 0.000001 131026
nano n billionth 0.000000001 131029
pico p trillionth 0.000000000001 1310212
femto f quadrillionth 0.000000000000001 1310215
*The prefixes most frequently used by chemists appear in bold type.

Volume Any sample of matter has a certain volume (V), the amount of space it
occupies. The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3). In chemistry, we often use
the non-SI units liter (L) and mil­liliter (mL) (note the uppercase L). Medical practi-
tioners measure body fluids in cubic decimeters (dm3), which are equivalent to liters:
1 L 5 1 dm3 5 1023 m3
1
And 1 mL, or 1000 of a liter, is equivalent to 1 cubic centimeter (cm3): Figure 1.5 ​​Common laboratory volumet-
3
1 mL 5 1 cm 5 10 23 3
dm 5 10 23 26
L 5 10 3
m ric glassware. From left to right are two
graduated cylinders, a pipet ­being emp-
A liter is slightly larger than a quart (qt) (1 L 5 1.057 qt; 1 qt 5 946.4 mL); 1 fluid tied into a beaker, a buret ­delivering liquid
ounce (321 of a quart) equals 29.57 mL (29.57 cm3). to an Erlenmeyer flask, and two volumet-
ric flasks. Inset, In c­ ontact with the glass
Figure 1.5 shows some laboratory glassware for working with volumes. Volumet-
neck, the liquid forms a concave meniscus
ric flasks and pipets have a fixed volume indicated by a mark on the neck. (curved surface).

Table 1.3 Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities

Quantity SI SI Equivalents English Equivalents English to SI Equivalent

Length 1 kilometer (km) 1000 (103) meters 0.6214 mile (mi) 1 mile 5 1.609 km
1 meter (m) 100 (102) centimeters 1.094 yards (yd) 1 yard 5 0.9144 m
1000 millimeters (mm) 39.37 inches (in) 1 foot (ft) 5 0.3048 m
1 centimeter (cm) 0.10 (1022) meter 0.3937 inch 1 inch 5 2.54 cm (exactly)

Volume 1 cubic meter (m3) 1,000,000 (106) cubic centimeters 35.31 cubic feet (ft3) 1 cubic foot 5 0.02832 m3

1 cubic decimeter (dm3) 1000 cubic centimeters 0.2642 gallon (gal) 1 gallon 5 3.785 dm3
1.057 quarts (qt) 1 quart 5 0.9464 dm3
1 quart 5 946.4 cm3
1 cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.001 dm3 0.03381 fluid ounce 1 fluid ounce 5 29.57 cm3

Mass 1 kilogram (kg) 1000 grams 2.205 pounds (lb) 1 pound 5 0.4536 kg
1 gram (g) 1000 milligrams (mg) 0.03527 ounce (oz) 1 ounce 5 28.35 g

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 15 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 16   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Sample Problem 1.4 Converting Units of Volume

Problem ​The volume of an irregularly shaped solid can be determined from the volume
of water it displaces. A graduated cylinder contains 19.9 mL of water. When a small
piece of galena, an ore of lead, is added, it sinks and the volume increases to 24.5 mL.
What is the volume of the piece of galena in cm3 and in L?
Road Map Plan ​We have to find the volume of the galena from the change in volume of the
cylinder contents. The volume of galena in mL is the difference before (19.9 mL) and
Volume (mL) before and after addition after (24.5 mL) adding it. Since mL and cm3 represent identical volumes, the volume in
mL equals the volume in cm3. We then use equivalent quantities (1 mL 5 1023 L) to
subtract
convert mL to L. The road map shows these steps.
Solution ​Finding the volume of galena:
Volume (mL) of galena Volume (mL) 5 volume after 2 volume before 5 24.5 mL 2 19.9 mL 5 4.6 mL
Converting the volume from mL to cm3:
1 mL  1 mL  1 cm3
1 cm3 103 L Volume (cm3) 5 4.6 mL 3 5 4.6 cm3
1 mL
Volume (cm3) Volume (L) Converting the volume from mL to L:
of galena of galena
1023 L
Volume (L) 5 4.6 mL 3 5 4.631023 L
1 mL
Check ​The units and magnitudes of the answers seem correct, and it makes sense that
the volume in mL would have a number 1000 times larger than the same volume in L.
Follow-Up Problem 1.4 Within a cell, proteins are synthesized on particles called
ribosomes. Assuming ribosomes are spherical, what is the volume (in dm3 and mL) of
a ribosome whose average diameter is 21.4 nm (V of a sphere 5 43pr 3)? Draw a road
map to show how you plan the solution. (See Brief Solutions.)

Mass The quantity of matter an object contains is its mass. The SI unit of mass is
the kilogram (kg), the only base unit whose standard is an object—a platinum-iridium
cylinder kept in France—and the only one whose name has a prefix.*
The terms mass and weight have distinct meanings:
• Mass is constant because an object’s quantity of matter cannot change.
• Weight is variable because it depends on the local gravitational field.
Because the strength of the gravitational field varies with altitude, you (and other
objects) weigh slightly less on a high mountain than at sea level.
Does this mean that a sample weighed on laboratory balances in Miami (sea
level) and in Denver (about 1.7 km above sea level) give different results? No, because
these balances measure mass, not weight. Mechanical balances compare the object’s
mass with masses built into the balance, so the local gravitational field pulls on them
equally. Electronic (analytical) balances generate an electric field that counteracts
the local field, and the current needed to restore the pan to zero is converted to the
equivalent mass and displayed.

Sample Problem 1.5 Converting Units of Mass

Problem ​Many international computer communications are carried by optical
fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of optical fiber weighs
1.1931023 lb/m, what is the mass (in kg) of a cable made of six strands of optical
fiber, each long enough to link New York and Paris (8.843103 km)?

*The names of the other base units are used as the root words, but for units of mass we attach
prefixes to the word “gram,” as in “microgram” and “kilogram”; thus, we say “milligram”,
never “microkilogram.”

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 16 9/28/11 1:44 PM

 1.4 • Measurement in Scientific Study    17

Plan ​We have to find the mass of cable (in kg) from the given mass/length of fiber Road Map
(1.1931023 lb/m), number of fibers/cable (6), and length of cable (8.843103 km).
Let’s first find the mass of one fiber and then the mass of cable. As shown in the road Length (km) of fiber
map, we convert the length of one fiber from km to m and then find its mass (in lb) by
converting m to lb. Then we multiply the fiber mass by 6 to get the cable mass, and
1 km  103 m
finally convert lb to kg.
Solution ​Converting the fiber length from km to m:
103 m Length (m) of fiber
Length (m) of fiber 5 8.843103 km 3 5 8.843106 m
1 km
Converting the length of one fiber to mass (lb): 1 m  1.193103 lb

1.1931023 lb
Mass (lb) of fiber 5 8.843106 m 3 5 1.053104 lb
1m Mass (lb) of fiber
Finding the mass of the cable (lb):
6 fibers  1 cable
1.053104 lb 6 fibers
Mass (lb) of cable 5 3 5 6.303104 lb/cable
1 fiber 1 cable
Converting the mass of the cable from lb to kg: Mass (lb) of cable
4
1 kg
6.30310 lb
Mass (kg) of cable 5 3 5 2.863104 kg/cable 2.205 lb  1 kg
1 cable 2.205 lb
Check ​The units are correct. Let’s think through the relative sizes of the answers to see
if they make sense: The number of m should be 103 larger than the number of km. If Mass (kg) of cable
1 m of fiber weighs about 1023 lb, about 107 m should weigh about 104 lb. The cable
mass should be six times as much, or about 63104 lb. Since 1 lb is about 12 kg, the
number of kg should be about half the number of lb.
Follow-Up Problem 1.5 An intravenous nutrient solution is delivered to a hospital patient
at a rate of 1.5 drops per second. If a drop of solution weighs 65 mg on average, how
many kilograms are delivered in 8.0 h? Draw a road map to show how you plan the
solution. (See Brief Solutions.)

Density The density (d ) of an object is its mass divided by its volume:

mass
Density 5 (1.1)
volume
We isolate each of these variables by treating density as a conversion factor:
mass
Mass 5 volume 3 density 5 volume 3
volume
1 volume
or, Volume 5 mass 3 5 mass 3
density mass
Because volume can change with temperature, so can density. But, at a given tem-
perature and pressure, the density of a substance is a characteristic physical property
and, thus, has a specific value.
The SI unit of density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3), but in chemistry,
density has units of g/L (g/dm3) or g/mL (g/cm3) (Table 1.4). Note that the densities
of gases are much lower than those of liquids or solids (also see Figure 1.2).

Table 1.4 Densities of Some Common Substances*

Substance Physical State Density (g/cm3)

Hydrogen gas 0.0000899
Oxygen gas 0.00133
Grain alcohol liquid 0.789
Water liquid 0.998
Table salt solid 2.16
Aluminum solid 2.70
Lead solid 11.3
Gold solid 19.3
*At room temperature (208C) and normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm).

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 17 9/28/11 1:45 PM

 18   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Sample Problem 1.6 Calculating Density from Mass and Volume

Problem ​Lithium, a soft, gray solid with the lowest density of any metal, is a key
component of advanced batteries, such as the one in your laptop. A slab of lithium
weighs 1.493103 mg and has sides that are 20.9 mm by 11.1 mm by 11.9 mm. Find
the density of lithium in g/cm3.
Road Map Plan ​To find the density in g/cm3, we need the mass of lithium in g and the volume in
cm3. The mass is 1.493103 mg, so we convert mg to g. We convert the lengths of the
Lengths (mm) three sides from mm to cm, and then multiply them to find the volume in cm3. Dividing
of sides
the mass by the volume gives the density (see the road map).
10 mm  1 cm Solution ​Converting the mass from mg to g:
1023 g
Mass (g) of lithium 5 1.493103 mg a b 5 1.49 g
1 mg
Mass (mg) Lengths (cm)
of Li of sides Converting side lengths from mm to cm:
1 cm
Length (cm) of one side 5 20.9 mm 3 5 2.09 cm
103 mg  1 g multiply 10 mm
lengths
Similarly, the other side lengths are 1.11 cm and 1.19 cm.
Mass (g) Volume Multiplying the sides to get the volume:
of Li (cm3)
Volume (cm3) 5 2.09 cm 3 1.11 cm 3 1.19 cm 5 2.76 cm3
divide mass Calculating the density:
by volume mass 1.49 g
Density of lithium 5 5 5 0.540 g/cm3
volume 2.76 cm3
Density (g/cm3) of Li 1
Check ​Since 1 cm 5 10 mm, the number of cm in each length should be 10 the number
of mm. The units for density are correct, and the size of the answer (~0.5 g/cm3) seems
correct since the number of g (1.49) is about half the number of cm3 (2.76). Also, the
problem states that lithium has a very low density, so this answer makes sense.
Follow-Up Problem 1.6 ​​The piece of galena in Sample Problem 1.4 has a volume of
4.6 cm3. If the density of galena is 7.5 g/cm3, what is the mass (in kg) of that piece of
galena? Draw a road map to show how you plan the solution. (See Brief Solutions.)

Temperature There is a key distinction between temperature and heat:

• Temperature (T) is a measure of how hot or cold one object is relative to another.
• Heat is the energy that flows from the object with the higher temperature to the
object with the lower temperature. When you hold an ice cube, it feels like the “cold”
flows into your hand, but actually, heat flows from your hand to the ice.
In the laboratory, we measure temperature with a thermometer, a narrow tube
containing a fluid that expands when heated. When the thermometer is immersed in a
substance hotter than itself, heat flows from the substance through the glass into the
fluid, which expands and rises in the thermometer tube. If a substance is colder than
the thermometer, heat flows to the substance from the fluid, which contracts and falls
within the tube.
We’ll consider three temperature scales: the Celsius (8C, formerly called centi-
grade); the Kelvin (K), which is preferred in scientific work (although the Celsius
scale is still used frequently); and the Fahrenheit (8F) scales. The SI base unit of
temperature is the kelvin (K, with no degree sign, 8). In the United States, the Fahr-
enheit scale is used for weather reporting, body temperature, and so forth.
The three scales differ in the size of the unit and/or the temperature of the zero
point. Figure 1.6 shows the freezing and boiling points of water in the three scales.
The Celsius scale sets water’s freezing point at 08C and its boiling point (at nor-
mal atmospheric pressure) at 1008C. The Kelvin (absolute) scale uses the same size
1
degree as the Celsius scale— 100 of the difference between the freezing and boiling
points of water—but it has a different zero point; that is, 0 K, or absolute zero, equals
2273.158C. Thus, in the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are positive; for example,
water freezes at 1273.15 K (08C) and boils at 1373.15 K (1008C).

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 18 9/28/11 1:45 PM

 1.4 • Measurement in Scientific Study    19

Celsius, °C Kelvin, K Fahrenheit, °F Figure 1.6 ​​Freezing and boiling points

of water in the Celsius, Kelvin ­(absolute),
and Fahrenheit scales. At the bottom of
the figure, a portion of each of the three
thermometer scales is expanded to show
Boiling point 100°C 373.15 K 212°F the sizes of the units.
of water

100 100 180

Celsius kelvins Fahrenheit
degrees degrees

Freezing point 0°C 273.15 K 32°F

of water

0°C 273 K 32°F

–5°C 268 K 23°F

We convert between the Celsius and Kelvin scales by remembering the different
zero points: 08C 5 273.15 K, so
T (in K) 5 T (in 8 C) 1 273.15 (1.2)
And, therefore,
T (in 8C) 5 T (in K) 2 273.15 (1.3)
The Fahrenheit scale differs from the other scales in its zero point and in the
size of its degree. Water freezes at 328F and boils at 2128F. Therefore, 180 Fahren-
heit degrees (2128F 2 328F) represents the same temperature change as 100 Celsius
degrees (or 100 kelvins). Because 100 Celsius degrees equal 180 Fahrenheit degrees,
1 Celsius degree 5 180 9
100 Fahrenheit degrees 5 5 Fahrenheit degrees

To convert a temperature from 8C to 8F, first change the degree size and then adjust
the zero point:
T (in 8F) 5 95T (in 8C) 1 32 (1.4)
To convert a temperature from 8F to 8C, do the two steps in the opposite order: adjust
the zero point and then change the degree size. In other words, solve Equation 1.4
for T (in 8C):
T (in 8C) 5 3 T (in 8F) 2 32 4 59 (1.5)
Table 1.5 compares the three temperature scales.

Table 1.5 The Three Temperature Scales

Size of Degree Freezing Point Boiling Point T at Absolute

Scale Unit (Relative to K) of H2O of H2O Zero Conversion
Kelvin (absolute) kelvin (K) — 273.15 K 373.15 K 0K to 8C (Equation 1.2)
Celsius Celsius 1 08C 1008C 2273.158C to K (Equation 1.3)
degree (8C) to 8F (Equation 1.4)
Fahrenheit Fahrenheit 5 328F 2128F 2459.678F to 8C (Equation 1.5)
9
degree (8F)

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 19 9/28/11 4:15 PM

 20   Chapter 1 • Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Sample Problem 1.7 Converting Units of Temperature

Problem ​A child has a body temperature of 38.78C, and normal body temperature is
98.68F. Does the child have a fever? What is the child’s temperature in kelvins?
Plan ​To see if the child has a fever, we convert from 8C to 8F (Equation 1.4) and
compare it with 98.68F. Then we convert the temperature in 8C to K (Equation 1.2).
Solution ​Converting the temperature from 8C to 8F:
T (in 8F) 5 95T (in 8C) 1 32 5 95(38.78C) 1 32 5 101.7°F; yes, the child has a fever.
Converting the temperature from 8C to K:
T (in K) 5 T (in 8C) 1 273.15 5 38.78C 1 273.15 5 311.8 K
Check ​From everyday experience, you know that 101.78F is a reasonable temperature for
someone with a fever. In the second step, we can check for a large error as follows: 38.7°C
is almost 40°C, and 40 1 273 5 313, which is close to our answer.
Follow-Up Problem 1.7 Mercury melts at 234 K, lower than any other pure metal. What
is its melting point in 8C and 8F?

Time The SI base unit of time is the second (s), which is now based on an atomic
standard. The most recent version of the atomic clock is accurate to within 1 second in
20 million years! The atomic clock measures the oscillations of microwave radiation
absorbed by gaseous cesium atoms cooled to around 1026 K: 1 second is defined as
9,192,631,770 of these oscillations. Chemists now use lasers to measure the speed of
extremely fast reactions that occur in a few picoseconds (10212 s) or femtoseconds
(10215 s).

Extensive and Intensive Properties

Some variables are dependent on the amount of substance present; these are called
extensive properties. On the other hand, intensive properties are independent of
the amount of substance. Mass and volume, for example, are extensive properties,
but density is an intensive property. Thus, a gallon of water has four times the mass
of a quart of water, but it also has four times the volume, so the density, the ratio of
mass to volume, is the same for both samples.
Another important example concerns heat, an extensive property, and temperature,
an intensive property: a vat of boiling water has more heat, that is, more energy, than
a cup of boiling water, but both samples have the same temperature.

Summary of Section 1.4

• The SI unit system consists of seven base units and numerous derived units.
• Exponential notation and prefixes based on powers of 10 are used to express very
small and very large numbers.
• T
 he SI base unit of length is the meter (m); on the atomic scale, the nanometer
(nm) and picometer (pm) are used commonly.
• V
 olume (V ) units are derived from length units, and the most important volume
units are the cubic meter (m3) and the liter (L).
• T
 he mass of an object—the quantity of matter in it—is constant. The SI unit of
mass is the kilogram (kg). The weight of an object varies with the gravitational field.
• D
 ensity (d ) is a characteristic physical property of a substance and is the ratio of
its mass to its volume.
• T
 emperature (T ) is a measure of the relative hotness of an object. Heat is energy
that flows from an object at higher T to one at lower T.
• T
 emperature scales differ in the size of the degree unit and/or the zero point. For
scientific uses, temperature is measured in kelvins (K) or degrees Celsius (8C).
• E
 xtensive properties, such as mass, volume, and energy, depend on the amount of
a substance. Intensive properties, such as density and temperature, do not.

siL02699_ch01_002_031.indd 20 9/28/11 1:45 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
XXI.

On mittumaarin aatto. Vainioilla kukkivat leiniköt ja kurjenpolvet, ja

ilmassa on jo keskikesän henki. Aurinkoisia päiviä on ollut yhtämittaa
ja taivaan ranta on peittynyt hienoon auerpilveen. Aurinko on
laskiessaan hohtavan punainen ja suuri.

Juhannuskoivuja tuodaan kylään hevoskuormittain. Pystytetään

rappujen pieliin ja pihamaille. Joku kantaa niitä pirttiinkin ja kamariin.
Tunnelma yhä nousee, kun saunan jälkeen istutaan valkoisissa
ateriapöydän ympärillä.

Sekä Kolmon että Korpijoen kylissä näyttää juhla-aaton ehtoo

erilaiselta kuin muulloin. Tytöt siivilöivät hätäisesti maidon, lypsävät
hosimalla lehmät ja, käytyään saunassa, pukevat uudet
valkopohjaiset, puna- ja mustakukkaiset mekot ylleen ja tirskuttavat
salaperäisesti. Ehtoo-ateriaa ei syödä yhdessäkään talossa ja
miehetkin jo pukeutuvat juhlavaatteisiinsa.

Mitä on tekeillä?

Häät Mikkolassa ja Ylä-Rietulassa! Ja minkälaiset häät! Sellaiset,

ettei ole miespolviin nähty eikä kuultu Kuivalassa.
 Hieman aikaisemmin vaeltavat korpijokelaiset Mikkolaan kuin
kolmolaiset
Ylä-Rietulaan.

Iisakki on jo ajoissa kutsunut myöskin kirkonkylän herrasväet

häihin ja kernaasti nämä ovat kutsua noudattaneetkin saatuaan
tietää, että Mikkolan isäntä on valmistanut kahdesta vanhasta
nuottavenheestä kokon heitä varten.

Mikkolan pirtti on jo täynnä juhlavieraita. Arvokkaimmat emännät

istuvat peräpenkillä ja huojuttelevat hiljaa ruumistaan. Pihamaalla
lojuu miehiä nurmella poltellen hyvänhajuisia tupakoita, joita kukitettu
poika on yhtämittaa jakelemassa. Iisakki on antanut satamarkkasen
Kuivalan nimismiehelle ja pyytänyt tämän hankkimaan juhlatupakat,
ja nytpä höyryävätkin Pedro Moredon Havannat ukkojen suupielissä
pihamaalla. Rietulassa ei ollut kuin "ruunakriimoja", ja, kuultuaan
Mikkolan ylellisyydestä, mutta saatuaan liian myöhään siitä tiedon,
kirosi kukitettu ylkämies karkeasti.

Mikkolassa olivat häät alkaneet. Rovasti oli vihkinyt avioparin ja

herrat maistelivat sen jälkeen kamarissa väkeviä. Muille
kaukaisemmille ja korpijokelaisille tarjottiin muita herkkuja.

Juhla-aterian jälkeen kohosi tunnelma, varsinkin kun pirtistä

kannettiin pöydät ulos ja soittajat virittelivät koneitaan.

Soittajien lukukaan ei ollut vähäinen. Vanha Noro-Tuomas,

kuuluisa viuluniekka, viritteli viuluaan, jonka jälkeen alkoivat toisetkin
näppäillä säveliä kojeistaan. Oli kaksi isoäänistä hanuria, kolme
viulua ja kaksi kanteletta ja sen lisäksi Nuusperilla klarinetti.
 Nuoret polkivat malttamattomasti jalkaa. Milloinka, milloinka se
alkaa?

Pelurit aloittivat kesä-illan valssin, ensin hiljaa, mutta sitten yhä

kiihtyen. Soittajat haisivat väkeviltä ja se ei ennustanut hyvää. Jo
alkoivat ikkunan pielet täristä, ja Mutkalan Ransu hihkasi
Nuusperille:

— Puhalla lujemmin, tai muuten heitän pelivärkkis' nurkkaan!

Ja Nuusperi puhalsi, puhalsi niin, että silmät pullistuivat päästä ja

näyttivät ulos tipahtavan.

— Sillä lailla! Lujemmin, Noro-Tuomas, sitä ensiviulua!

*****

Rietula oli kutsunut kirkonkylän herrasväet häihinsä, mutta

myöhemmin kuin Iisakki. Arveltiin pihamaalta, mentäisiinkö.
Sopisihan käydä sielläkin. Miks'ei, kun oli kerran kutsuttu.

Juhla oli alkanut suurin piirtein Rietulassakin. Oli syöty yhtämittaa

kolme tuntia ja Horttanaisen leipälaukku oli revennyt. Suutari
korjattiin pois ja aloitettiin tanssi.

Ja jos oli Mikkolassa Pedro Moredon-sikaareja, niin olipa

Rietulassa torvisoittajat, jotka lautamies oli puuhannut häihinsä.

Pihamaalta tärisivät torvet ja sileä tanner jymisi tanssijain alta.

Pirtissä luritettiin kahdella harmonikalla, ja permanto oli ahdinkoon
asti täynnä pareja hypähtelemässä rehevää polkkaa.
 Rietula ei tietänyt, vaikka oli koettanut urkkia, että mikkolainen kävi
kaupungista — ties mistä asti — noutamassa juomatavaroita.
Olivathan Rietulankin rahat yhtä riittävät kuin mikkolaisenkin. Siihen
sijaan oli edellisellä viikolla Rietulan sydänmaapalstalla, tiheimmässä
näreikössä tupruillut sakea savu erään kuusen juurella, ja Rietula oli
suu naurun mareessa kantanut kotiinsa kirkasta viinaa, jota oli
auliisti tarjonnut jokaiselle, jolle vaan kelpasi. Ja miesten korvalliset
punoittivatkin ja joku hihkaisi jo tallin takana.

Kun Mikkolassa huomattiin, että torvet räikyivät Rietulan

pihamaalla, komensi Iisakki orkesterinsa myöskin pihamaalle ja
kehoitteli:

— Antakaa tulla ääntä niistä kojeistanne niin paljon kuin lähtee!

Räätäli Romppanen oli käynyt tekemässä mahdottoman ison
lepänkuoritorven ja sanoi sillä soittavansa passoa. Ja oli nyt ääntä
Mikkolan pihamaalla. Vanhat emännät pakenivat siunaillen ja
korviaan pidellen sisähuoneisiin, mutta nuoret polkivat pihamaata
että jytisi.

Huomattuaan ohjelman muutoksen Mikkolassa, kehoitti Rietula

soittajiaan:

— Eikö niistä heru enempää sitä ääntä? Hyttysen hyrinälle kuuluu

koko loru. Puhaltakaa lujemmin, sanon minä, tai juoskaa hiiteen
torvinenne!

Soittajien silmät pullistuivat ja hiki tippui haivenista. Mutta kohta

loppuivat heidän voimansa. Johtaja meni Rietulan luokse ja vaikeroi:

— Kuulkaa, hyvä isäntä, me emme totisesti jaksa enää! Onhan

tässä nuorta väkeä ja jos ääntä tarvitaan, niin piiritanssi käyntiin ja
kyllä silloin ei kuulu Mikkolasta muuta kuin itikan laulu.

Noudatettiin ohjetta ja ilmojen pielet alkoivat täristä, kun

äänijänteet pingoitettiin mahdollisimman kireälle.

Jo laulettiin ja pyörittiin Mikkolankin pihamaalla:

"Vanhat piiat, vanhat piiat ei saa olla jouten".

Mutta tämän katsoi Rietula morsiamensa pilkaksi ja neuvoteltiin

laulusta. Ja kohta kajahtikin Rietulan pihamaalta:

"Herrat tuli Mikkolasta rali tuli tii, kun Mikkolasta leipä loppu,
rali tuli tii, ja Iisakill' ol' siitä hoppu, rali tuli tii".

Mutta kirkonkyläläiset katsoivat parhaaksi poistua häätalosta, ja

Mikkolan pihamaalla suunniteltiin uutta laulua. Ja kohta kuului
voitonvarmana Rietulan pihamaalle:

"Rietulassa säkkipillit soi: Rietula se muijan Miirusta toi,

Eedla rakensi paulan, hii, ladon takana, lensi Rietulan
kaulaan! Hali tuli tii".

Rietula karjasi raivosta ja komensi joukkonsa harjulle, jossa piti

jokaisen huutaa niin paljon kuin kurkusta lähti:

— Äääääää!

Mutta Mikkolan pihamaalta eivät siihen viitsineet vastata muut kuin

räätäli Romppanen, joka nousi korkealle peltokivelle, nosti
leppätorven suulleen ja huilautti niin, että kaukaiset metsän rannat
kajahtivat.
 Mikkolan pirtissä jatkettiin häätanssia, mutta Rietula suuttui
torvisoittajiinsa, koskapa nämä eivät jaksaneet enää kylliksi
kuuluvasti tärisytellä:

— Pistäkää pillit pussiinne ja marssikaa hiiteen ja siinä

silmänräpäyksessä!

Ja kun juhannusyön aurinko nousi, kuului Rietulan pirtistä vain

hanurin yksitoikkoinen sävel.
XXII.

Juhannusyön aurinko oli noussut yhä korkeammalle. Kaste väreili

nurmella ja puiden oksilla, ja käkien kukunta kiihtyi tuoksuvissa
metsissä. Mikkolan peltokummulla sauhusivat vielä hiiltyneet
kokkotulien jätteet.

Hymyilevä aurinko kurkisti tallin päädyn takaa tallatulle

pihanurmelle ja Iisakin kamariin, jossa Taava vielä nukkui
onnellisena aviovuoteessaan. Iisakki oli jo herännyt ja, keitettyään
kahvit, valmistautui lähtemään verkon nostoon. Pyörähteli siinä
tuvan ja kamarin välillä aikoen herättää Taavan, mutta ei hennonut.

— Kovin koreastipa se nukkuu, armahainen… Antaa hänen

nukkua nyt tarpeekseen. Siinä tulikin valvottua sen hääväen kanssa.
On tämä nyt somaa, kun saa tästä lähtien eukon vieressä…

Iisakki hymähteli, kepsakehteli liinahoususillaan tuvassa, jossa

kärpäset surisivat pöydän ympärillä. Pistäytyi ulos ja seisahti
portaille. Piha oli tulvillaan aurinkoa. Ihan silmiä huikaisi. Kylässä
vielä nukuttiin. Karjatarhoissa ammahtelivat kellokkaat odotellen
lypsäjiä, jotka vielä nukkuivat aitoissaan. Iisakki käveli pihamaalla
sipristellen silmiään.
 Kovimpa olivatkin tallanneet pihanurmen sileäksi. Tietää sen kun
koko yön siinä jytistivät… heh… saivat kai kerrankin tarpeekseen.

Rengit kuorsailivat lutissa, niin että seinät tärisivät. Kas, eikös ollut
Soittaja-Kimperi nukahtanut nurkan taakse pidellen toisella kädellään
vielä hanurin olkaremmistä. Oli tyhjennellyt pullojen pohjia ja siihen
väsähtänyt. Antaapa hänen nukkua. Iisakki meni jälleen pirttiin ja
raotti morsiuskamarin ovea. Vieläpähän nukkui Taava. Suu oli
auennut ja aurinko paistoi kitalakeen. Palavissaan oli Taava
potkaissut peitteen pois ja täyteläiset sääret olivat paljastuneet
yläpuolelle polven. Iisakki hymähti. Suloinenpa olikin Taava siinä
nukkuessaan, kun vaan olisi suunsa sulkenut. Kyllä pitäisi kiittää
kaiken antajata, kun tuli saaneeksi Taavan, joka nukkui siinä
täyteläisessä kauneudessaan hänen yksinomaisuutenaan. Kiittää
pitäisi, kun ei sallinut Eedlaa avioksi, ikuiseksi kiusankappaleeksi.

Kello löi tuvassa rämähtäen, Taava heräsi ja peitti kainostellen

kinttunsa, joita Iisakki oli siinä katsellut.

— Nousehan, kultaseni, kahvi on jo valmis.

Iisakin äänessä helähti aivan poikamainen nuorteus.

— Kas, kun se Iisakki on jo ehtinyt kahvitkin keittämään.

*****

Oli keskipäivä. Tuvan avonaisista ikkunoista virtaili helteinen ilma

sisään, ja juhannuskoivujen lehdet nuutuivat. Rengit ja piiat olivat
menneet aamiaisen jälkeen jatkamaan keskeytynyttä untaan.
Taavakin oli nukahtanut kamarin sänkyyn.
 Iisakki istui pirtin pöydän päässä ja veisaili suvivirttä, ensin
lujemmin, mutta sitten vähitellen hiljentäen ääntään, niin että sen yli
kuului pihamaalta pääskysen viserrys ja joelta poikien melu.

Saatuaan virren loppuun, nosti Iisakki kirjan nurkkalaudalle, kaatoi

hellalta pannusta kupin kahvia itselleen ja juotuaan pisti piippuunsa.
Häntä jotenkuten kiusasi Taavan uneliaisuus. Aamiaisten jälkeen oli
heittäytynyt sänkyyn ja sanonut hieman levähtävänsä ja yhä vaan
kuorsaili, vaikka päivä oli jo puolessa. Iisakki oli käynyt jo pari kertaa
herättämässä, mutta Taava ei vaan jaksanut nousta.

— Lempoko sitä nyt rupesi nukuttamaan, jurahti Iisakki ja meni

kamariin.

— Nouse, rakas Taava, kun minulla on tässä yksin niin ikävä.

Mennään hakaan vasikoita katsomaan ja karitsoita. Ka, nouse, hyvä
ihminen, muuten tässä saattaa suuttua jo tähän alinomaiseen
makaamiseen. No, perhana!

Taava kuorsasi vain ja Iisakki poistui murheellisena tupaan. Meni

ulos ja käveli joelle jotain tehdäkseen.

Muisti siinä osuuskaupan kohdalla, että tupakat olivat lopussa.

Hääväki olikin kovin huvasti poltellut. Sopisi pistäytyä Nuusperin
pakeilla ja samalla tupakkaa varata. Iisakki jyskytti ovea ja kuunteli,
mutta mitään ei kuulunut.

— Kovinpa se on raskaasti nukkunut, arveli Iisakki. Taisi se

klarinetin puhallus antaa unilahjaa miehelle.

Tuli räätäli Romppasen poika ja katseli isännän puuhia.

 — Nuusperi ei ole kotona. Se näkyi tänä aamuna säkki selässä
menevän
Kuivalaan päin, tiesi poika.

— Lie mennyt kylään, murahti Iisakki ja kaiveli avainta nurkanpään

kolosta, jossa se säilytettiin silloin, kun Nuusperi ei ollut kotona.

Saatuaan avaimen ja päästyään kauppaan, ihmetteli Iisakki sitä

sekasortoa, mikä siellä vallitsi. Myymäpöydällä oli Nuusperin likaiset
housut ja kuluneet kenkärajat. Tavaratkin olivat kovin vähissä ja
huiskin haiskin hyllyillä.

Iisakki löysi sikaarilaatikon ja maksoi sen rahalaatikkoon, jossa

romisi vain yksi kymmenpenninen. Pisti kaupan puolesta sikarin
hampaisiinsa ja kun tuntui viileämmälle kuin ulkona, istui
selailemaan tilikirjoja.

Käänneltyään lehtiä, seivästyivät Iisakin silmät eräälle sivulle ja

häneltä pääsi haikea kirous.

— Mitä se Nuusperin perhana on tähän piirrellyt?

Nuusperi oli joutohetkinään piirrellyt tilikirjoihin kaikenmoisia kuvia

ja koukerolta, viitsimättä vaivata päätään numeroilla ja muilla asiaan
kuuluvilla merkinnöillä. Olipa piirrellyt sinne tänne koiria, isoja ja
pieniä, luppakorvia ja pitkähäntäisiä rutkaleita ja kun se oli
väsyttänyt, jatkanut kissoilla. Niitä oli toinen sivu aivan täynnä.
Alanurkassa oli köyryselkäinen mirri, jonka hännän Nuusperi oli
ulottanut sivun laitaa yläreunaan saakka. Alareunaan oli
koristeellisesti kirjoitettu:

"Mahraaks' tämä lysti kauanki' kestää?"

 Iisakki kirosi nyt jo niin, että lesken tupa heilahti, ja käänteli
edelleen lehtiä. Yhä edelleen samaa. Aiheet olivat vaan muuttuneet.
Yhdellä sivulla puski kaksi äkäistä sonnia vastakkain. Toisella kaksi
äijää tavoitteli naisihmistä, joka helmojaan kokoillen ja taakseen
vilkuen näytti pakenevan. Alareunaan oli se juutas kirjoittanut:

"Tässä on Rietula ja tässä Iisakki ja vaimoihminen on Eedla."

Iisakki löi kiroten kirjan kiinni. Hänelle oli samalla selvinnyt, mihin
Nuusperi oli mennyt ja mitä varten hän oli pirullisia kuviaan kirjoihin
piirrellyt.

— Jo teki jutkun, perhana, mutisi Iisakki sulkiessaan kaupan oven

ja pistäessään avaimen taskuunsa. Kauppa tulisi nähtävästi olemaan
suljettuna, koska Iisakki tallensi avaimen.

— Jo pilasi mittumaarin, pirulainen, mutisi Iisakki vielä

noustessaan
Mikkolan pihaan.
XXIII.

Korpijoen osuuskaupan edustalla on vilkasta liikettä. Nuusperia on

turhaan odoteltu palaavaksi, ja vihdoin on Iisakki kutsunut
kirkonkylästä Kuivalan osuuskaupan hoitajan selvittämään sotkuisia
kaupan asioita ja antamaan lausuntonsa kaupan tilasta.

Kaksi päivää on papereita pengottu ja nyt on saatu selville, että

Nuusperi on pistänyt useita tuhansia taskuunsa ja kiitollisuutensa
osoitukseksi piirrellyt kuvia kaupan kirjoihin.

Kuivalan osuuskaupan hoitaja on juuri päättänyt selvityksen ja

uteliaana odotellaan asian päättymistä. Varsinkin vaimoihmiset ovat
piirittäneet kaupan edustan ja peukaloitaan pyöritellen siunailevat
Nuusperin tekemää jutkua.

Kuivalan poliisi Pekkarinen oli saanut tehtäväkseen etsiä Nuusperi

käsiinsä, mutta kaksi päivää käveltyään paahtavassa helteessä, jätti
hän puuhan sikseen, arvellen, ettei maksanut vaivaa penkoa jokaista
Kuivalan nurkkaa semmoisen miehen takia. Ja kun Korpijoen miehet
julmistuneina vaativat Pekkarista jatkamaan Nuusperin etsimistä,
kivahti tämä:
 — Hakekaa itse, jos haluttaa! Lempoko sitä tällaisella helteellä
jaksaa… ja piruko ne joka nurkat nuuskii.

Ja kun esivallan edustaja tunnusti voimattomuutensa Nuusperin

löytämiseksi, tyytyivät Korpijoenkin miehet mutisten toteamaan, että
Nuusperi teki jutkun ja säilytti kauniisti nahkansa. Hyökättiin Iisakin
kimppuun, kun tämä ei paremmin pitänyt miestä silmällä, eikä kirjoja
ja asioita ennemmin tarkastellut.

Iisakki otti myhäillen vastaan nämä syytökset. Ensin oli asia

saanut hänetkin korvallista kynsimään, mutta nautittuaan uudesta
avio-onnestaan ja saatuaan hellää lohdutusta Taavalta, oli asia
käynyt hänestä pian pikku seikaksi, jonka jotenkuten saattoi
selvittää. Eivät edes kolmolaisten pilapuheet saaneet hänen sisuaan
kuohumaan. Ei nytkään, vaikka poriseva akkalauma oli piirittänyt
kaupan ja odotti asian ratkaisua. Lempeästi vain hääteli Iisakki liian
lähelle tuppautuvia akkoja ja kuunteli suu naurun mateessa Kuivalan
osuuskaupan hoitajan myrkyllistä sanatulvaa.

Korpijoen miehiä oli kokoontunut kauppaan ja oli päätettävä,

jatketaanko kauppaa vai hajoitetaanko se.

Yksimielinen päätös oli, että kauppaa jatketaan, kun kirkonkylän

kaupasta saadaan uusi hoitaja.

Miehet myhähtelivät jo tyytyväisenä. Olisihan saattanut käydä

hullumminkin, esim. jos koko kauppa olisi jonakin kauniina kesäyönä
hävinnyt joen rannalta. Olihan nyt vielä seinät jälellä ja osa
tavaroitakin, joita Nuusperi ei ollut ehtinyt myydä eikä jaksanut
mukanaan kuljettaa. Ja olihan tulevina aikoina hupaisaa katsella
Korpijoen osuuskaupan hoitajan koristeellista kirjanpitoa.
XXIV.

On poutainen sunnuntain iltapäivä Rietulassa. Piiat ja rengit ovat

menneet kylälle ja lautamies lukee postillaa tuvan pöydän päässä.
Hiljaisuutta ei riko muu kuin kärpästen surina hiestävän kuumassa
tuvassa. Missä on Eedla, talon nuori emäntä?

Äänekäs kuorsaus kuuluu kamarista ja sielläpä on nuori emäntä

rauhallisena unien maailmoissa. Sängyssä kellottaa selällään, kädet
pään alla ja suu on suloisesti auki.

Rietula jatkaa yhä lukemistaan, vaikka kärpäset tekevät yhtämittaa

salahyökkäyksiään hänen kaljulle päälaelleen. Vähitellen näyttää
Rietulan kärsivällisyys loppuvan ja, kun kärpäset purasevat
päälakea, hotaisee, hän niitä ja kiroaa kesken
hartausharjoituksensa.

Rietula on koettanut sanaa tutkimalla häätää pois painavaa mieltä,

joka on häntä viime päivinä lakkaamatta ahdistanut. Nytkin on
istunut puoli päivää postillan ääressä ja hiki valuu miehen
korvallisilta.

Rietula oli odottanut avioliitostaan suurinta onnea, mutta se oli

tuonutkin suurinta murhetta hänelle. Eedla oli tyttönä ollessaan ollut
ynseä miesväelle ja nyt tullut vielä ynseämmäksi. Päivisin tuiskahteli
miehelleen, kun tämä ystävällisesti lähenteli ja illoin, kun onneton
aviomies aikoi samaan sänkyyn, polkaisi Eedla jalkaa ja karjaisi:

— Tulehan siihen, tampun koira!

Rietula oli koettanut hyvitellä Eedlaa karamelli- ja rinkiläpusseilla

ja joskus saanutkin hänen kovan sydämensä pehmenemään, mutta
sitten taas tuli riivaajainen Eedlalle entistä ankarampana.

Rietula oli arvellut suutari Horttanaiselle, että mitä pitäisi tehdä

ilkeän aviovaimon ojentamiseksi. Ja Horttanainen oli siihen tietänyt
neuvon. Hän oli suositellut parhaimpana keinona selkäsaunaa tai
muurahaispesää.

— Jos et kehtaa peitota akkaasi, niin on toinenkin keino, oli suutari

selittänyt. Varustat muurahaispesän säkkiin ja kun eukkosi nukkuu
makeimpaan ilta-uneensa, pudistat säkin sisällön sänkyyn, niin jo
luonto lauhtuu. Minä olen tuon keinon koettanut ja nähnyt sen
varmasti auttavan.

Eihän Rietula tullut koettaneeksi ystävänsä hyvää neuvoa. Pistäysi

vain joka toinen ilta noutamassa makeispussin Kolmon
osuuskaupasta ja ojensi sen Eedlalle, joka pussin saatuaan virkkoi
alahuultaan venyttäen:

— Y…hyy. Kaikkeen se rahansa tuhlaa.

Mutta nyt oli tämäkin keino käynyt Rietulasta vastenmieliseksi ja

alakuloisena hän muisteli menneitä poikamiespäiviään. Ja kun kuuli,
että Iisakki oli onnellinen avioliitossaan, kirosi hän katkerasti. Taava
olisi kyllä tullut hänellekin, vaan mikä kehno lienee saanut Eedlaan
takertumaan.

Rietula lopetti lukunsa ja alkoi tuprutella savuja rätisevästä

piipustaan. Eedla kuului yhä kuorsahtelevan kamarissa. Viime
yönäkin se pahus oli hänet ajanut keskellä yötä saunaan
makaamaan. Pitäisi puhua rovastille, jos tuo tietäisi paremmat
neuvot antaa kuin Horttanainen.

Portailta kuului askeleita ja kohta astui tupaan muutamia Kolmon

miehiä. Rietula toimitteli istumaan ja tarjosi tupakkamassiaan. Mutta
miehet eivät istuneet eikä massi kelvannut yhdellekään. Rietula jäi
ihmeissään katselemaan miehiä, joiden korvallishaivenet olivat
nousseet pystyyn.

— Mitä sitä kuuluu, kysyi hän hämillään miesten

odottamattomasta jurotuksesta.

— Vielä häntä kehtaa kysellä, niinkuin ei tietäisi, jurahti joku

miehistä.

— Ka, mitä nyt?

— Etkö tuota tienne, että kanki on Kolmon osuuskaupan oven

päällä, kivahti Möttösen Eero.

Rietula oli pelkkänä kysymysmerkkinä.

— Niin aivan, älä toljota, eilen oli nimismies käynyt sulkemassa

kaupan.

— Älä!
 — Ka, kun vielä siinä… Samoin kävi meidän kaupalle kuin
Korpijoenkin, ellei vielä hullummin. Olisit, Rietula, aikanaan katsonut.

— Mikäs korpijokelaisten on yrittäessä, kun on uusi hoitajakin ja

hiljaisuudessa sopivat asiansa, mutta meidän… kun sinä, Rietula,
et…

Mutta Rietulan ylenmäärin kiusaantunut luonto kuohahti.

— Painakaa pellolle joka sorkka siitä! Perhana… vai minulle

tässä… ulos siitä!

— Mennään, mutta itse sinä saat vahingot maksaa…

— Niin, ei osuuskunta…

— Helvettiin kaikki osuuskunnat! karjasi Rietula poistuvien miesten

jälkeen.

Uutinen oli niin järkyttävä, että Rietula tunsi melkein pökertyvänsä.

Oliko hän todellakin naimapuuhissaan tullut syrjäyttäneeksi kaupan
asiat, joiden valvominen kuului hänelle? Ja vielä sellaisissa
naimapuuhissa! Jos olisi edes saanut oikean vaimon, mutta
tällaisen!

Rietula otti hattunsa ja painui ulos. Ilmaa piti saada vihasta

huohottaviin keuhkoihin.

Tyhmyri, pässinpää hän oli, saakeli soikoon, ollut näinä

kuukausina. Vaimoihminen, heittiö lutka, oli saanut hänen,
lautamiehen, pään sekoittumaan niin, että tärkeät asiat jäivät
takapajulle.
 Rietula harppaili osuuskaupalle. Hoitajaa siellä ei näkynyt tällä
kertaa. Vihtahousut vain irvistelivät Rietulalle nimikilvestä ja äijät
kiskoivat edelleen väsymättä heitä hännästä.

Rietula kirosi.

Pilkannut oli Mikkelsonkin heidän osuuskauppahommaansa, kun

oli maalannut moisen nimikilven.

Rietula otti seipään, pudotti kilven alas ja alkoi peitota sitä

voimiensa takaa. Kun nimikilpi oli säpäleinä, heitti Rietula kappaleet
pellon ojaan ja lähti puhkuen menemään.

Muutamat Korpijoen miehet olivat nauraen katselleet Rietulan

hävitystyötä.
XXV.

Rietula asteli kirves kainalossa korjaamaan raja-aitaa, joka oli

Mikkolan ja Rietulan niittyjen välillä. Rietulan karja oli särkenyt aidan
ja karjapiika oli tuonut sanan, että mennä korjaamaan.

Päivä oli illoillaan. Rastas lauleli kuusikossa, jonka keskellä niitylle

vievä karjapolku luikersi. Rietula käveli mietteissään. Hartioita painoi
jäytävä alakuloisuus. Häntä oli viime päivinä alkanut painaa kylien
väliset riidat ja hän oli alkanut tuntea sovinnon halua, vaikka ei ollut
valmis sitä vielä oikein itselleenkään myöntämään.

Mikkolan Iisakki oli sattumalta vastaan tullessa sanonut aina

jonkun ystävällisen sanan, mutta hän oli mennyt vaieten ohi.
Jälestäpäin oli se tuntunut pahalta ja vastenmieliseltäkin. Oliko
Iisakin syy hänen onneton naimiskauppansa ja osuuskaupan
rettelöt? Iisakkihan oli kaikin keinoin koettanut Eedlaa itselleen,
mutta hän oli sen riistänyt melkein väkipakolla Iisakilta. Ja eikö ollut
hänen oma syynsä, että kauppa meni nurin? Niinhän oli käynyt
Korpijoellakin, mutta siellä maksettiin hiljaisuudessa vahingot ja
jatkettiin, niinkuin ei mitään olisi tapahtunutkaan.
 Rietula tunsi tällä kertaa halua sovintoon, mutta koetti painaa
tunnettaan alas. Häpeähän olisi hänen, vanhan miehen, ruveta tässä
oikein ystävyysliittoja rakentelemaan.

Rietula saapui niitylle. Siellä oli Iisakki jo aitaa korjaamassa.

Rietula koetti salaa tarkastella, näyttikö Iisakki olevan äkeissään.
Mitä vielä. Iisakki myhähteli vain ja virkkoi:

— Huonoksipa tämä aita on jo käynytkin. Eiköhän, naapuri,

pistettäisi tähän vielä uutta aitaa kesän kuluessa?

— Näkyisi sietävän, jurahti Rietula, mutta ei sanonut enempää.

— Kanna sinä puita, niin minä latelen paikoilleen, toimitteli

Iisakki… Pitäisi tästä joutua illalliselle.

Sillä on kiire akkansa luokse, mietti Rietula ja tunsi taas

katkeruuden kasvavan povessaan. Mistä hyvästä se Iisakille
semmoinen eukko ja minulle piti sattua peto, joka ei anna yölläkään
rauhaa.

Iisakki koetti virittää keskustelua, mutta se katkesi aina alkuunsa.

Kun aita oli saatu kuntoon, tarjosi Iisakki sikaarit Rietulalle ja istahti
kannolle polttelemaan.

— Huokaise nyt sinäkin, kehoitteli Iisakki. Mennään tästä sitten

yhtä matkaa.

Rietula aprikoi, istuako vai ei. Siinä olisi ollut sopiva kantokin,
mutta maa tuntui polttavan kantapäitä.

— Saunaanpa tästä pitäisi joutua, virkkoi ja, ottaen kirveen

kainaloonsa, pyörähti polulle.