Chapter No 1 Measurements

1. Science→ Latin word means to know

2. Physics →Greek word means nature
3. First book physics was written by Aristotle
4. Astronomical unit 1au = 1.49× 1011 m (distance between sun and earth)
5. Light year 1Ly = 9.46 × 1015m → unit of distance
6. Parsec → parallactic sec→ unit of distance =3.26 LY
7. 1 yard= 0.9144 m~ 1𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
8. 1 tonne =1000kg
9. 1 mile= 1.6093 km
10. 1 pound =4.45 N
11. 1 slug =14.6 kg
12. 1 pound =0.453 Kg
13. 1 m =3.28 foot
14. 1 acre=4840 yards
15. Standard of meter define by → speed of light
16. Standard of second define by→ Cs-133 atom fine levels vibrations
17. Shake → unit of time = 10 -8 sec
18. Knott → unit of speed
19. Triple point temperature =0.01 0C = 273.16 K
𝑆
20. Equation for plane angle θ = 𝑟
𝐴
21. Equation for solid angle Ω= r2
22. 2π rad = 3600→ 1 revolution
23. 1 revolution =3600
24. 1 radian = 57.30
25. 1 degree = 60 minute
26. 1 minute = 60 seconds
27. Angle at circle is 2π radian. =6.28 radian
28. Angle at sphere is 4π steradian =12.56 steradian
29. π define→ Ratio of circumference to diameter
30. Volume of slid cylinder = πr2 L
31. Circumference of circle =2πr
32. Area of circle = π r2
33. Area of sphere = 4π r2
34. Volume of sphere = 4/3 πr3
35. Systematic error → measurable and assignable
36. Rusting of instrument → Systematic error
37. Parallax error → personal error
38. Random error → statistical error → environmental error
39. One decimal place→ 3.7 cm

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 40. Two decimal place → 3.47 cm
41. Meter rule or half meter rule → 0.1 cm or 1 mm
42. Vernier caliper → 0.01 cm or 0.1 mm
43. Screw gauge → 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm
44. Screw gauge → Micrometer
45. Leading zeros→ non-significant→ 0.03 → 1 Significant figure
46. Middle zeros → Significant → 2.03→ 3 Significant figure
47. Trailing zeros→ significant→3.0 → 2 Significant figure
48. 10 power in a data must be non-significant → 23 ×106 → 2 significant figure
49. Precision → measured values closed to each other
50. Accuracy → measured values closed to actual values
51. Precision ∝ number of decimal places
1
52. Error ∝ L.C ∝ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
53. Accuracy relates with relative error
54. In addition and subtraction data must be least precise
55. In multiplication and division data must be least
56. Uncertainty → estimate of range of possible error
57. Absolute uncertainty = L.C→ least count of device
𝐿.𝐶
58. Absolute uncertainty = → in case of meter rod
2
59. Uncertainty in a data always be added
60. Dimensions of angular momentum and planks constant are same
61. Dimensions of work, torque and all type of energies are same
62. Dimensions of pressure, stress , elasticity, young modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and
energy density are same
63. Dimensional less quantities→ strain, magnification, refractive index, specific gravity, co-
efficient of friction, mechanical equivalent of heat, efficiency, plane angle, solid angle
64. Exponential function e and π both are dimensionless constant
65. Homogeneity principle→ Dimensions on both sides of a physical equation must be same
66. Dimensional analyses→ Derive physical formula
67. Dimensional analyses→ check the correctness of a physical formula
68. Dimensional analyses →can’t give the magnitude of a physical equation
69. Dimensional analyses→ can’t differentiate between vector and scalar.

Chapter No 2: Vectors and equilibrium

70. Scalars are added ,subtracted, multiplied and divide → algebraically
71. Vectors are added and subtracted → geometrically
72. Vectors division cannot possible
73. Unit vector gives the direction of vector
𝐴⃗
74. Unit vector is unit less because of ratio → ratio of vector to its magnitude𝐴̂ =
𝐴
75. Null vector magnitude zero and direction arbitrary→ represents graphically as a dot.

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76. Position vector→ bond vector, Displacement vector→ free vector
77. Addition of vectors by rectangular components is more accurate than Head to tail method
78. Commutative property of vector= 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
+ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
79. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴+ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ → 𝜃 = 90 (Magnitude form)
80. A+B =C and A2 +B2 = C2 than → 𝜃 = 90
81. If R= A+B than 𝜃 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
82. If R= A-B than 𝜃 = 180 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
83. If R =√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 Than 𝜃 = 90 Resultant intermediate
84. Possible sum or resultant always lies between maximum and minimum
85. R≤ 𝐴 + 𝐵 but R ≯ A+B
86. R=√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 for general angle 𝜃
87. Two vectors of equal magnitude gives a resultant of same magnitude than 𝜃 = 120
88. Resolution of vector → reverse of addition of vectors
89. Ax =A cosθ and Ay = Asinθ
90. Minimum rectangular components → 2→ X and Y
91. Maximum rectangular components → 3→ X ,Y and Z
92. Maximum components of a vector→∞
93. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴. 𝐵 ⃗⃗= AB cos θ→ Scalar product or dot product
94. 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = AB sin θ 𝑛̂→ Vector product or cross product
95. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴. 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ → 𝜃 = 45 (Magnitude form)
𝐴⃗.𝐵
⃗⃗
96. Finding angle between two vectors 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1( 𝐴𝐵 )
97. Dot product commutative 𝐴⃗. 𝐵 ⃗⃗. 𝐴⃗ while cross product anti- commutative 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗= 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗= - 𝐵
98. Dot product obey distributive law
99. Cross product obey distributive law
100. Cross product is not associative
101. Dot product gives linear effect
102. Cross product gives rotatory effect
103. Scalar product; work and power
104. Vector product; torque τ = r x F , Lorentz force, angular momentum etc
105. Angle condition 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≥ 𝜋
106. Projection of A on B = Ax =Acos 𝜃
107. Magnitude of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
̂ 𝑘̂. = 1 → Dot product of same unit vectors gives 1
108. 𝑖̂.𝑖̂ = 𝑗.̂ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘.
109. 𝑖̂.𝑗̂ = 𝑖̂̂. 𝑘̂= 𝑗.̂ 𝑘̂ = 0→ Cross product of different unit vectors gives 0
110. 𝐴⃗. 𝐴⃗ =A2
̂ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0̂ null vectors or zero →𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ =0̂
111. 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗 ×
112. 𝑖̂×𝑗̂ =𝑘̂ , 𝑗 × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂ for reverse remember 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗= - 𝐵
113. No torque Exerted by satellite on center of earth,
114. No torque produce when force apply on center of mass
115. Torque on uniformly rotating fan → Zero

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116. Torque is also called moment of force
117. Concurrent forces→ same point of action
118. Collinear forces→ same line of action
119. Couple force→ Tow equal and opposite fores having different point of action
120. Coplanar forces→ all forces which lies in same plane
121. Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can be zero→ 2
122. Minimum number of co-planer vectors whose resultant can be zero→ 3
123. Minimum number of co-planer vectors whose resultant can be zero→ 4
124. First condition of equilibrium; ∑F = 0
125. First condition Guarantee Translatory equilibrium
126. Couple only in Translatory equilibrium
127. Second condition of equilibrium; ∑τ = 0
128. Second condition Guarantee Rotatory equilibrium
129. First condition is necessary but not sufficient→ Both conditions required for complete
equilibrium

Chapter 3 # Motion and Force

130. <V> =( vi + vf )/2→ Average speed
2𝑉1𝑉2
131. <V> = 𝑉1+𝑉2 →when distance on both sides is same
132. Relative velocity = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 for opposite direction
133. Relative velocity = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 for same direction
134. Relative velocity =√𝑉12 + 𝑉22
𝑉1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1
135. 𝑉2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 → finding velocities from slope
136. Slope of distance – time graph gives speed
137. Slope of velocity –time graph gives acceleration
138. Area under speed – time graph gives distance
139. Area under acceleration – time graph gives velocity
140. g = 9.8 ms-2 = 32 ft-2 =980 cm/s2 → Free fall motion
141. For free fall motion Sn =(2n-1)S1→ S2 =3S1, → S3 =5S1, → S4= 7S1, → S5 =9S1…..
142. The value of g → maximum at pole→ minimum at equator→ zero at center of earth
143. Free fall velocity V =√2𝑔ℎ
1
144. h = 2gt2 → t ∝ √ℎ
145. F = 0 First Law → law of inertia → inertia depends upon mass, momentum and direction
146. Newton laws holds → inertial frame of reference
147. F=ma Second law for constant mass
∆𝑃
148. F= Second Law → actual form
∆𝑡
149. P = mv
150. FA = - FR Third Law
151. Impulse; J = F x ∆t = ∆P

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152. J = ∆P→ impulse is equal to change in momentum
153. N-sec is unit of linear momentum and impulse
154. Law of conservation of momentum; ∆p = 0
155. ∆P =2mv for rebounding bodies
𝑚𝑣
156. Recoiling velocity =𝑉 = − →Negative sign shoes opposite direction
𝑀
157. Elastic collision in one dimension; [v1 - v2] = [V2’- Vi’]
→ For Elastic Collision after collision
/ (𝑚1 −𝑚2 )𝑉2 +2𝑚2 𝑉2
158. 𝑉1 =
𝑚1 −𝑚2
(𝑚2 −𝑚1 )𝑉2 +2𝑚1 𝑉1
159. 𝑉2/ = 𝑚1 +𝑚2
160. 𝐾. 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0
→For inelastic collision
𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑉2
161. 𝑉 / = → for same direction
𝑚+𝑚
1 𝑚1 𝑚2
162. 𝐾. 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑣1 −𝑚2 𝑉2
163. 𝑉 / = → for opposite direction
𝑚1 +𝑚2
1 𝑚1 𝑚2
164. 𝐾. 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2 (𝑣1 + 𝑣2 )2s
𝑚1 +𝑚2
165. Ballistic is science of projectile while parabola is path of projectile
166. Projectile is 2- dimensional having angle condition 0 < 𝜃 > 90
167. In projectile motion X-component of velocity remains constant While Y- component changes
168. In projectile ax= 0 and ay = -g
169. Height of projectile; H = vi2sin2θ/2g ,for summit 𝜃 = 90
170. Hmax = vi2/2g
171. Time of flight; T = 2 vi sinθ/g
172. Time of summit or time to reach to highest point; T = vi sinθ/g
173. Range; R = vi2 sin 2θ/g =2Vi2sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃/𝑔
174. Span of long jump depends upon→ 1. Velocity, 2. Sin2𝜃, 3. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔
175. Rmax = vi2/g
176. R = Rmax at 450
177. R=H → θ = 76, R=2H → θ = 63, R=3H → θ = 52, R=4H → θ = 45,
1 1
178. At summit point P.E = mV2Sin2𝜃 and K.E = mV2Cos2𝜃
2 2
179. 𝐾. 𝐸ℎ < 𝐾. 𝐸𝑝
180. 𝐾. 𝐸ℎ /𝐾. 𝐸𝑝 = cos2𝜃 for height and projection
181. At summit pointvelocity is perpendicular to acceleration
182. At summit point projectile motion is 1 dimension
183. Complementary angles 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 90 for which range will be same
184. Supplementary angles 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 180

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Chapter No 4 Work and Energy
185. W = Fd cosθ→ unit joule → dimension [ML2T-2]
186. Work depends upon Force, displacement, cos𝜃 and frame of reference and independent of
time and velocity
187. Work done against gravity and against friction is negative
188. Variable force → 1. positiopn dependent 2. velocity depenedent 3. time dependent
189. Conservative Forces→ 1. W = 0 on closed path, 2. work done is path independent W1 =W2
190. Examples→ force of gravity, electric force , magnetic force, spring force
191. Non-Conservative Forces→ 1. W ≠ 0 on closed path 2. work done is path dependent W1≠W2
192. Examples →Friction force, drag force, normal force, tension force and all dissipative forces
193. Power; p=W/t or p =Fv
194. 1 watt = Js-1 → dimensions of power[ML2T-3]
195. 1 hp = 746 watts= 550 lbft/sec
196. 1BTU = 1052 joule → British thermal unit
197. kilowatt-hour → unit of energy =3.6 × 106 𝐽 → BOTU → Board of trade Unit
198. Efficiency = output/input = W x D/P x d
199. Absolute potential energy =P.Eg = - GmMe/Re (- because work is done against gravity)
200. Gravitational potential = PEg/m = GMe/Re→ independent of mass of body
201. For escape velocity Vesc =√2GMe/Re → Vesc =√2gRe =11.2 km/sec
202. On moon surface Ves = 2.3 Km/sec
203. Ves → independent of mass of body and depends upon mass of planet , radius of planet,
gravity of planet and position of projection
204. G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg-2
205. Re = 6.4 x 106 m
206. Me = 6 x 1024 kg
𝑔 𝑊
207. At height 𝑔, = (1+ℎ/𝑅)2 and weight 𝑊 , = (1+ℎ/𝑅)2 → both decreases
208. P.E = K.E + fh → ( loss in potential energy)
209. Loss in P.E = Gain inn K.E + work done against friction
210. Tiddle energy → Due to gravational pull of moon
211. Renewable energy→ Sunlight, water, wind erergy etc
212. Non-renewable energy→ petrol, coal, CNG, Diesel etc

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Chapter No 5Rotational and circular motion
213. Angular velocity; ω = ∆θ/∆t → V = ω× 𝑟
214. Angular acceleration; α = ∆ω/∆t → a = α x r
2𝜋
215. ω= 𝑇
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ω= 2𝜋𝑓
216. s=r𝜃, v = r ω, a=r𝛼
217. Direction of angular velocity → Along axix of rotation → Outawrd or inward
2𝜋 𝜋
218. For our earth T= 24 hours , ω= 𝑇
= 12 rad/mhr
2𝜋 𝜋
219. For Second hand of watch T=60 sec , ω= 𝑇
= 30 rad/sec
2𝜋 𝜋
220. For minute hand of watch T= 60 min , ω= 𝑇 = 30 rad/min
2𝜋 𝜋
221. For hour hand of watch T= 12 hour , ω= = rad/hr
𝑇 6
222. Fc = mv2/r
223. ac = -(v2/r) → - sign shows directed towards center of circle
224. Centrepetal acceleration → radial acceleration → directed toaward center of circle
225. ac = v2/r = rω 2 = v ω
226. Centrifugal force= mv2/r =m rω 2 = m v ω
227. For bending of roads F sin θ = mv2/r and F cos θ = mg
228. Tan θ = v2/gr
229. Torque = r F =( m r2)α = I α
230. Moment of inertia(M.O.I) I = mr2 → unit kg m2 → dimension → [M𝐿2 ]
231. M.O.I depends upon → mass, radius, shape, size, mass distribution. axis of rotation
232. M.O.I independent of→ angular velocity. angular momentum, torque and angular K. E
233. Ring or thin walled cylinder inertia(I) = MR2
234. Disc or solid cylinder inertia = ½ MR2
235. Disc inertia = ½ M (R22 + R12 )
236. Solid sphere inertia = 2/5 MR2
237. Hollow sphere inertia = 2/3 MR2
238. M.O.I of hollow bodies is greater than solid bodies
239. Solid rod or meter stick inertia = 1/12 Ml2
240. Rectangular plate inertia = 1/12 M (a2+b2)
241. Angular momentum = L = r x p =m r2ω = Iω
242. ∆L/∆t = τ torque, L = constant τ = 0
243. Linear kinetic energy = ½ mv2
244. Rotational kinetic energy = ½ Iω2
245. Velocity of hoop = v = √𝑔ℎ→independent of mass of body
4𝑔ℎ
246. Velocity of disc = v = √ 3
→independent of mass of body
247. Acceleration on inclined plane a =g sin𝜃→independent of mass of body
248. Critical velocity of satellite= v =√gRe
249. Critical velocity of satellite= v = 7.9 km/s

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 1
250. The orbital velocity = √GMe/r → Vo ∝
√𝑟
𝑉𝑒𝑠
251. Critical or orbital velocity of satellite is less than escape velocity→ Vo =
√2
252. Velocity of parking orbit =3.1 km/sec
253. Geostationary satellite r ∝ T2/3 with r= 4.2× 104 km
254. If the distance between earth and sun reduce to half the number of days reduce to 129
255. Minimum Geostationary satellite to covers the whole globe =3 with 𝜃 = 120
256. Lift at rest → Tension =T =w → also for uniform velocity
257. Lift moving downward → T = w – ma
258. Lift moving upward → T = w + ma
259. Lift falling freely = T mg-ma = 0
260. A pilot diving down his weight is negative
261. A pilot diving down with a=g=9.8m/s2 than its weight is zero
262. A boy whirling a stone in vertical circle tension will be maximum at lower point
263. Satellite is in free fall state and weightlessness condition T=o
264. Artificial gravity produce by spinning with g = earth gravity 9.8 m/s2
265. Weightlessness problems overcome by artificial gravity
266. Artificial satellite spin clock wisely
𝑅 1 𝑔
267. Frequency for artificial satellite → T =2𝜋√ and f= √
𝑔 2𝜋 𝑅

Chapter No 6 Fluid dynamics

268. Drag force → Fd = 6 𝜋𝜂 r v → stocks law → only applicable to spherical object
269. For very high speed →Fd∝ 𝑉 2
270. Unit of viscosity poise =gcm-1s-1 and poisulle =kgm-1 s-1 1PL= 10 poise
271. Viscosity depends upon density, temperature , inter molecular forces
272. Rain drop is spherical due to →surface tension
273. Mosquito walks on surface of water due→ surface tension
274. With increase in temperature surface tension decreases
275. With addition of detergent in water surface tension decreases
276. Surface tension is also called →surface energy
277. Floating of clouds due to→ low density
278. With increase in temperature viscosity of liquid decrease while gas increases
𝑚𝑔 1
279. Terminal velocity → Vt = 6 πη r → Vt ∝ 𝑚 and Vt ∝ 𝑟 when m= constant
2𝜌𝑔𝑟2
280. Terminal velocity → Vt = 9η
→ Vt ∝ 𝑟 2 when density = constant
281. Lighter body attain terminal speed first, while heavy body possess more speed
282. When no drag force there will be no terminal velocity
283. When body moves with terminal speed Fd =W
284. When body moves with terminal speed than a=0 and no net force acts on it.
285. For eight drops collapse → R=2r and Vt = 4vt
286. For 27 drops collapse →R =3r and Vt =9vt

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287. Paratrooper attain terminal velocity twice during his fall
288. Streamline flow→ speed less than critical speed
289. Turbulent flow → speed greater than critical speed
290. Ideal fluid →non viscous, incompressible and streamline (laminar flow)
291. Continuity equation → A1 V1 = A2 V2→ conservation of mass
292. Av=∆V/∆t = constant volume flow rate
293. ∆m/∆t = ρ ∆V/∆t → mass rate
294. Bernoulli’s Equation = P + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant → conservation of Energy
295. Torricelli’s Theorem → v = √2𝑔ℎ → speed of E-flux= speed of free falling object
2𝑔ℎ
296. Flow meter or the venture meter → v1 = √𝐴21
−1
𝐴22
297. Aero foil → Exert an upward push to the flow of object due to pressure difference
298. Sphygmomano meter → Blood flow meter → measure blood pressure
299. Barometer → measure atmospheric pressure→ discovered by Torricelli

Chapter No 7 Oscillation
300. Frequency → f=1/T
301. Angular frequency → ω = 2πf and Time period → T = 2π/ω
302. Circular motion is periodic but not S.H.M
303. Projection on diameter on circular path is S.H.M
304. S.H.M a ∝ −𝑋 → F=-KX → hooks law
305. The ball will perform S.H.M when hole made at the center of earth
1 1 1
306. Spring constant → K=K1+K2 (in parallel) →𝐾 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 (in series)
307. Velocity of projection → Vy =r ω
308. Mass spring system potential energy = ½ kx2
309. Mass spring system kinetic energy = ½ kX20 -½ kx2
310. Total energy of simple pendulum =½ kX20
311. K.E maximum at mean position, P.E maximum at extreme position and energy max at both
312. Velocity maximum at mean position while acceleration maximum at extreme position
𝑋0 𝐴
313. When K.E= P.E then X= =
√2 √2
314. E ∝ X20 (Amplitude)
𝐿
315. Simple pendulum time period → T = 2π √
𝑔

316. Tension force → at mean position = weight (maximum) → at extreme position = mg Cos𝜃 (min)
317. Restoring force = - mg sin𝜃
318. In free fall motion time period T= ∞ → No vibration
319. At center of earth T= ∞ →pendulum stops vibration because g =0
320. At poles pendulum T =decreases (become fast) because g is maximum
321. At equator pendulum T = increases (become slow) because g is minimum
322. When bus accelerate pendulum T decreases and vibrates quickly

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 1 1
323. Pendulum in lift →up ward motion T∝ 𝑔+𝑎 , downward motion T∝ 𝑔−𝑎 and in free fall T= ∞
324. Time period of simple pendulum independent of mass and amplitude
325. At height pendulum T increases because g decreases (just like in muree)
𝑔
326. At moon gravity 6 so pendulum time period √6𝑇→ increases (become slow )
327. Free oscillation → No external force and amplitude of oscillation remains constant
328. Forces oscillation → Under external force and amplitude changes
329. Resonance and damping both are forced oscillation
330. In resonance amplitude increases→ f1= f2 and Resonance frequency = fn = nf1
331. Examples→ Radio (Electrical resonance) → micro wave oven and MRI (EM resonance)
332. Damped oscillation (Die oscillation) → amplitude decreases due to work against frictional force
333. Damping device → Shock observer → control the jerks by decreasing the amplitude
334. Wave form of SHM→ sinusoidal→ Which varies between maximum and minimum
335. For mean position use X=X0 Sin θ and for extreme position use X=X0Cos θ
336. Phase gives displacement and angle of oscillation→ θ =ω t

Chapter No 8 Waves
337. Waves transport energy and momentum
338. Waves do not transport charge and matter
339. Origen of sound waves → Vibrating body and EM waves → accelerating charges
340. Earth quack or seismic waves → longitudinal in nature (Mechanical)
𝑇𝑙
341. Transverse wave speed → V =√𝑚 → by crest and trough
𝐸
342. Longitudinal waves speed → V=√𝜌→ by compression and rarefaction
343. V=f λ
Phase difference
344. 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 2π/λ
345. Intensity of wave ∝ X20 (Amplitude)
1
346. Intensity of wave ∝ 𝑟2
Distance from the source
𝑃
347. Speed of sound by newton → v = √𝜌→ 281 ms-1→ 16% error

𝛾𝑃
348. Laplace correction → v = √ → 333 ms-1 Where 𝛾 = 1.41 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐
𝜌

349. Speed of sound depends upon density of gas, moisture, temperature and direction of wind.
350. Speed of sound independent of pressure→ With increase in pressure speed remains constant
351. Superposition of waves → mixing or overlapping of waves
352. Interference → same frequency and same direction for sound
353. Beats →Slightly different frequency and same direction
354. Standing waves →same frequency but opposite in direction
355. Beats to be heard frequency difference should be 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛10 ℎ𝑧
𝑣
356. Standing waves in string fundamental frequency f =2𝐿

10
 𝑣
357. Standing waves in resonance tube fundamental frequency f
4𝐿
𝑣
358. Standing waves in closed organ pipe fundamental frequency f 4𝐿
𝑣
359. Standing waves in open organ pipe fundamental frequency f =2𝐿
360. In string number of nods = no of loops +1= n+1
361. In string number of anti-nodes = no of loops=n
362. Doppler effect applicable on both light and sound waves
𝑣
363. Sounding source moving towards stationary listener f’ =(𝑣−𝑎)f → f’ increases
𝑣
364. Sounding source moving Away stationary listener f’ =( )f → f’ decreases
𝑣+𝑎
𝑣+𝑏
365. Listener moving toward stationary sounding source f’ =( 𝑣 )f → f’ increases
𝑣−𝑏
366. Listener moving away stationary sounding source f’ =( 𝑣 )f → f’ decreases
𝑣+𝑏
367. both sounding source and listener moving towards each other f’ =(𝑣−𝑎)f → f’ increases
𝑣−𝑏
368. both sounding source and listener moving away from each other f’ =(𝑣+𝑎)f → f’ decreases
369. Red shift → A star moving away from observer→ λ increases appear red
370. blue shift → A star moving towards observer→ λ decreases appear blue
371. Sonic Boom occurs in supersonic phenomena ( In Which speed of body ~ speed of sound)

Chapter No 9 physical optics

372. Constructive interference
Path difference =m𝜆
Phase Difference = 0,2𝜋, 4𝜋 … . . 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
373. Distractive interface
1
Path difference = (m+ )𝜆
2
Phase difference = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, 7𝜋 … . 𝑜𝑑𝑑
374. Mono chromatic source→ single color ,single frequency and single wave length
375. Color of light determined by wave length
376. Visible light→ 𝑉𝐼𝐵𝐺𝑌𝑂𝑅
377. Most visible color → 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 , 𝑀𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟 → 𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 , 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟 → 𝑟𝑒𝑑
378. Color of sky is blue, sunset is reddish→ 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎
379. Twinkling of stars due to →
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
380. Coherent source→ Same frequency ,same amplitude and constant phase relationship
381. Coherent source can be produce by two ways 1. Division of wave front 2. Division of amplitude
382. YDSE works on division of wave front or wave length
𝑚𝜆𝑐
383. Ymb= 𝑑
position of bright spot
384. Central spot in YDSE is bright → Young Double Slit Experiment
1 𝜆𝑐
385. Ymd=(m+2) 𝑑
position of dark spot

11
 𝜆𝐿
386. Fringe spacing =
𝑑
387. Fringe spacing in dependent of order and depends upon 𝜆, 𝐿, 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
388. In case of monochromatic light alternate bright and dark fringes formed
389. If white light used in YDSE fringes will be colorful
390. If YDSE apparatus taken into water fringe spacing or size of fringe decreases
391. In Newton rings central spot is dark
392. Soap bubbles due to interference phenomena
393. Thin film interference works on division of amplitude
2𝑝
394. Michelson interferometer 𝜆 = 𝑚
→ basic principle division of amplitude
395. Diffraction m𝜆 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
396. Diffraction phenomena occurs in all types of waves
397. Diffraction of sound is more than diffraction of light
398. Slit size → micron= 10-6m
𝐿
399. Space grating d=𝑁 → 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠
400. Braggs law = m𝜆 = 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 →X- rays→ used to determine crystal structure
401. X-rays cannot diffract through slit ,They diffract through crystal
𝑐 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
402. Refraction index=n= 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 → 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
403. Intensity =I=𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
404. Wave enter from one medium to other frequency remains constant
405. Polarization is not common between light and sound
406. Polarization shows transverse nature of light
407. EM waves → 𝐺𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 , 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑈𝑣, 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝐼𝑅, 𝑀𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜 can be polarized)
408. Longitudinal wave can’t be polarized (sound waves cannot be polarized)
409. Ultrasound waves cannot be polarized because of longitudinal nature
410. Snell’s law = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑛
411. Brewster law = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛1 → find angle of polarization
2
412. Brewster angle for glass =570 and for water 530
413. Optical activity→ bending or rotation of light due to different refractive index
414. Polari-meter→ Measure sugar level in human blood
415. Photo elasticity → 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Chapter No 10 Thermodynamics
416. Temperature → 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾 . 𝐸 (Energy transit)
417. Heat and work are not state variables
418. Thermal equilibrium → 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
419. Temperature at which F=C → −40 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
420. Temperature at which F=K → 574.25
421. Thermodynamic temperature scale → 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 → 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
422. Thermodynamic work Δ𝑊 = 𝑃Δ𝑉

12
423. Internal energy ;= Δ𝑈 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑇 + 𝑃. 𝐸𝑇
424. Internal energy mostly depend on temperature
𝑊
425. Mechanical Equivalent of heat J = 𝑄
426. 1st law of thermodynamic Δ𝑄 = Δ𝑈 + Δ𝑊
427. Isochoric process Δ𝑄 = Δ𝑈, Δ𝑊 = 0 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
428. On PV diagram graph along P-axis. Slope = ∞
429. Isobaric process Δ𝑄 = ΔU + PΔV → 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
430. On PV diagram graph along V-axis. Slope = 0
431. Isothermal process Δ𝑄 = PΔV, ΔU = 0 → 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
432. Melting and boiling points are isothermal processes
433. Adiabatic process Δ𝑄 = 0, Δ𝑊 = −Δ𝑈 → 𝑁𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Δ𝑄 𝐽
434. Heat capacity = C= Δ𝑇
→ unit 𝐾 Dimensions [ML2T-2K-1]
Δ𝑄 𝑗
435. Specific heat capacity = 𝐶𝑚 = 𝑀Δ𝑇 → 𝑘𝑔.𝐾
Δ𝑄
436. Molar heat capacity = 𝐶𝑛 = →J/mol.K
𝑛Δ𝑇
437. Cp –Cv = R , Cp>Cv
𝐶𝑝
438. =𝑟
𝐶𝑣
3 5
439. 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑟 = 1.66, 𝐶𝑣 = 2 𝑅, 𝐶𝑝 = 2
𝑅
5 7
440. Diatomic atomic gas 𝑟 = 1.41, 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅, 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅
2 2
441. Poly atomic gas 𝑟 = 1.33, 𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑟, 𝐶𝑝 = 4𝑅
442. Heat engine convert heat energy into mechanical energy
𝑇 𝜃
443. efficiency = 𝜂= (1-𝑇2)× 100%, 𝑇2 < 𝑇1 𝜂= (1-𝜃2 )× 100% 𝑇2 < 𝑇1
1 1
444. A heat engine works between ice point and steam point it efficiency = 26.8%
445. Second law of thermodynamics
Kelvin statement → 𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
Clausius statement→
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐿𝑇𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝐻𝑇𝑅 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
446. Entropy → 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
∆𝑄
∆𝑆 = 𝑇
→Thermal
S = Klnw → statistical
𝐽
447. Entropy unit = 𝐾 Dimensions [ML2T-2K-1]
448. In adiabatic process, reversible process , Carnot cycle, cyclic process entropy remains constant
and change in entropy is zero
449. Law of entropy → entropy of universe always increases
450. Entropy → acts as time arrow
451. When hot and coold water mixed the entropy of system increases
452. Latent heat = ∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝐻𝑓
453. Refrigerator

13
 𝑄2 𝑄2
E cooling = =
𝑊 𝑄1 −𝑄2
𝑄 𝑄1
E Heating = 𝑊1 = 𝑄 −𝑄
2 1
454. Refrigerator works on → 2nd law → clausius statement
455. E = ∞ (coefficient of performance for perfect refrigerator ) because W =0

Chap No.11 ELECTROSTATICS

456. Neutral atom 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑒 → p=proton, e= electron
457. Positive charge 𝑛𝑝 > 𝑛𝑒
458. Negative charge 𝑛𝑒 > 𝑛𝑝
459. Charge → quantized (Q = ne), conserved and invariant
460. Unit of charge C→ SI system
461. Unit of charge esu (Electro static unit)= statcolumb= franklin→ 𝐶𝐺𝑆 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
462. ampere –hour unit of charge= 3600 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑏
463. Faraday unit of charge= 96500 coulomb
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
464. Coulomb law F = 𝑟2
→ 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
1 𝑐2
465. K= 4𝜋∈ = 9 × 109 → 𝑛 ∈0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝑁𝑚2
466. Dimension of ∈0 = [𝑀−1 𝑙 −3 𝑇 4 𝐴2 ]
467. Dimension of K =[ 𝑀𝐿3 𝑇 −4 𝐴2 ]
∈𝑚
468. Relative permittivity (Dielectric constant) ∈𝑟 = ∈𝑜
→ no unit → no dimension
469. ∈𝑟 ≥ 1 (∈𝑟 = 1 → 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒 , ∈𝑟 > 1 → 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚)
470. K depends on medium and system of units
𝐹𝑣
471. By insertion of medium between charges electric force decreases by a factor∈𝑟 → 𝐹𝑚 =
∈𝑟
𝑞
472. When a third charge placed between two equal charge the system will be in equilibrium if q=-4
𝐹 𝑁 𝑉 𝐽
473. Electric field E = 𝑞 → 𝑐
= 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑚 = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ]
𝑘𝑞
474. Electric field due to point charge E = 𝑟2
475. Electric field independent of magnitude of test charge
476. The concept of electric field lines was given by faraday
𝐸𝑣
477. By insertion of medium between charges electric field decreases by a factor∈𝑟 → 𝐸𝑚 = ∈𝑟
𝑁𝑚2
478. Electric flux ∅𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 → 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐶
= 𝑉𝑚 = [𝑀𝐿3 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ]
1
479. Gauss law ∅𝐸 = 𝜖 𝑞𝑇 → ∅𝐸 is independent of r
𝑜
480. Inside conductor E=0, V= constant
𝑞
481. Surface charge density = 𝜎= 𝐴
𝜎 𝑞
482. Electric field due to infinite sheet E = = → 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2∈0 2𝐴∈0
𝜎 𝑞
483. Electric field due to parallel plates = E = ∈0
= 𝐴∈
0
484. 𝐸𝑝 = 2𝐸𝑠

14
 𝑊 𝐽
485. 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∆𝑉 = 𝑞
= 𝑐 = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ]
𝑊 𝑘𝑞 𝐽
486. 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙 = 𝑉 = 𝑞
= 𝑟 𝑐 = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ]
−19
487. 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 1𝑒𝑣 = 1.6 × 10 𝑐
488. Earth is conductor, its potential is zero
2𝑒𝑣
489. Velocity of electron = v= √ 𝑚
∆𝑣
490. Potential gradient = E = - ∆𝑟 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉
491. Equipotential surface = V = constant → W=0
492. Capacitor → condenser = storage charge → Electrical
𝑄
493. C= → 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 → [𝑀−1 𝐿−2 𝑇 4 𝐴2 ]
𝑉
494. Net charge on capacitor is zero
495. Capacitor store or block DC→ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷. 𝐶
496. 𝐶𝑚 =∈𝑟 𝐶𝑣 → by insertion medium capacitance increases by a factor ∈𝑟
1 1 1 1
497. 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 stored in capacitor = U = 2 𝑄𝑉 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 𝑄 2 𝐶 = 2
𝐴 ∈𝑜 ∈2 𝑑
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1
498. Energy density= Ud= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2 ∈𝑜 𝐸 2
499. Electric dipole p = qd → unit =coulomb-m and debay → 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [𝐿𝐴𝑇]
500. 1 debay =3.34× 10 -30 coulomb meter
501. Toner → Negative charged ink
502. Selenium → photo conductor→ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
503. Croton →charge transferring device
504. 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 C
505. Capacitors In Series;
Q = Q1 = Q2 =Q3
V =V1 + V2 + V3
1/Ce = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
506. Capacitors In Parallel;
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
V = V1 = V2 =V3,
Ce = C1 + C2 + C3
507. q/q0 = 63.2 % →for charging
508. q/q0 = 36.7 % →for discharging
509. q = q0 (1-e-t/RC ) →for charging
510. q = q0 e-t/RC →for discharging
511. Charging and discharging → Exponential function
512. When capacitor fully charged current I=0 and resistance R=∞
513. Time constant t=RC,
514. For smaller RC capacitor discharged quickly and vice versa
515. Biased capacitor→ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 → 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
516. Unbiased capacitor→ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 → 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

15
Chap No. 12 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
517. Current, I = Q/t → C s-1 = A → 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐼 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
518. Biot =emu (electromagnetic unit ) → 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐺𝑆 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
519. Conventional current→ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
520. Electronic current→ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
521. Drift velocity = 10-5 m/s. Thermal velocity = 105 m/s.
522. V = IR→ 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤
523. Tan θ = I/V = 1/R → Slope
524. Ohmic materials → 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
525. Non Ohmic materials→ 𝑇𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠,PN-junction, Thermistor,
Vacuum tubes ,diode, transistor, Amplifier etc. → 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
526. Resistance, R = V/I → 1Ω = 1V/1A → dimensions → [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−2 ]
527. R = ρ L/A
528. Resistivity → specific reistance →1Ω m = 1V m/1A → dimensions → [𝑀𝐿3 𝑇 −3 𝐴−2 ]
529. 𝑅 , =n2R→ if a wire stretched to double than resistance increased to 4 times
𝑅
530. 𝑅 , = 4→If wire stretched to half of its radius than resistance increased to 16 times
𝑛
531. Conductance, G = 1/R → Siemen(S) or mho
532. Conductivity, σ = 1/ρ =L/RA →mho/m or S/m
533. For metals R increases with T increases → Temperature coefficient of resistance 𝛼 → positive
534. Electrolytes, semiconductor and insulators, R decreases with T increases → Temperature
coefficient of resistance 𝛼 → Negative
535. For carbon → Temperature coefficient of resistance 𝛼 → Negative
536. ΔR = αR0 T → RT = R0 (1+αT)
537. Temperature co-efficient of Resistance, α = RT – R0/R0T → K-1
538. Resistivity, ρ T = ρ 0 (1+αT) OR α = ρ T – ρ 0/ ρ 0T → K-1
539. Resistivity is same for both iron and platinum
540. Electromotive Force, ε = W/q → 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb→ Dimensions= [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ]
541. Open circuit, I = 0 , R = ∞ and short circuit I= ∞ , 𝑅 = 0
542. Terminal Voltage, Vt = ε – Ir
543. For open circuit Vt = ε because I =0
544. For ideal battery internal resistance is zero → Vt = ε
545. Power, P = W/t = VI =I2R=V2/R → 1 Watt = 1V x 1A
546. 1 kWh = 1 unit of electrical energy
547. Maximum output power r =R→ Pout = ε2 /4r = ε2 /4R
548. Thermo emf, ε = αT + ½ βT2 where 𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
549. Neutral temperature → at which maximum thermo Emf produce
550. Inversion temperature → At which thermo Emf reduce to zero
551. Thermo Emf depends upon separation between the metals
552. RTDs →Resistance temperature detector→ Resistance thermometer→ measure temperature
by co-relating the resistance→ mostly made of platinum → accurate than thermocouple

16
 553. KCL→ Kirchhoff’s current law→ ƩI = 0 → junction rule
554. Current entering the junction → positive and leaving the junction → negative
555. KVL→ Kirchhoff’s voltage law→ Ʃε = ƩV = ƩIR =0→ Loop rule
556. KCL based on Law of conservation of CHARGE
557. KVL based on Law of conservation of ENERGY
558. Wheatstone Bridge, X = PQ/R → find unknown resistance
559. Wheatstone Bridge works on the principle of balanced bridge and null condition
560. Null condition → the condition at which current is zero and voltage is same
561. Potentiometer, ε2 /ε1 = L2 /L1 → Compare and measure Emfs
562. Potentiometer gives true Emf and works on null condition

Chap No. 13 ELECTROMAGNETISM

563. Force on current carrying wire, F=BIL sin θ. → θ is between L and B
564. When L is parallel to B than F=0
565. Magnetic field or magnetic induction, B = F/IL →1 tesla =1 NA-1 m-1 = 1 Wb m-2
566. 1 T = 104 G
567. Magnetic Flux, Ф = B A cos θ → 1 Wb = 1 N m A-1.
568. Maxwell unit of magnetic flux
569. 1Web =108 Max
570. Ampere’s Law, B = μ0 (I/2πr) → for uniform OR ƩB.ΔL = μ0 I→ for non-uniform
571. Two parallel wires having current in same direction → attract each other Bnet = B1 -B2
572. Two parallel wires having current in opposite direction → Repel each other Bnet = B1 +B2
573. Two protons beam moving in same direction → Repel each other→ electric field is strong
574. Magnetic field due to current carrying solenoid, B = μ0 n I → n=N/L
575. Solenoid gives uniform magnetic field→ inside solenoid magnetic field is strong
576. Inside toroid magnetic field is zero
577. Motion of charge particle in uniform magnetic field, F=q v B sin θ → θ is between V and B
578. When charge particle moves parallel to B field than F=0
579. Work done by magnetic force =0 → in magnetic field K .E= constant
580. Centripetal Force = Magnetic force → mv2/r = qvB
581. Time period of charge particle in B, T = 2πm/qB
582. Frequency of charge particle in B, f = qB/2πm →Cyclotron frequency
583. Velocity selector, FE = FM → qE = qvB → v = E/B
584. Torque on current carrying coil, τ = NBIA cos θ
585. Restoring torque, τ = C θ
586. Galvanometer, NBIA cos θ = C θ → I = Cθ/NAB → I ∝ θ
587. Sensitive galvanometer : large deflection for small current
588. MLS(Mirror lamp scale) method is more sensitive than pivoted coil galvanometer
589. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter, small R connected in parallel

17
 590. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter, high or large R in series are connected
591. Ammeter, Rs = Rg Ig / (I – Ig) → Ideal ammeter → 0 R
592. Voltmeter, Rh = (V/I-g) – Rg → Ideal voltmeter → infinite R

Chap No. 14 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

593. Faraday’s Law, → ε = N (ΔФ/Δt )
594. Lenz Law, ε = –N (ΔФ/Δt ) → Emf produce in such a direction that it always oppose its cause
595. Lenz Law → obey law of conservation of energy
596. Seismo meter measure shocking waves or earth quack waves
597. motional emf, ε = Blv sin θ → mostly depends upon speed of coil
598. Rate of work done, P= BiLv power
599. Rate of production of electrical energy, energy =ε I
600. ε = -L ΔI/Δt or ε = N ΔФ/Δt → LI = NФ
601. Self-Inductance, L = NФ /I
602. ε = M ΔI/Δt or ε = N ΔФ/Δt → MI = NФ
603. Mutually inductance, M = NФ /I
604. Unit of mutual and self-induction is hennery= Volt sec/amp and dimensions [ML2T-2A-2]
605. Generator→ converts mechanical energy into electrical energy → works on Faraday law of
Electromagnetic induction
606. Armature → Whole assembly of the coil
607. Commutators → converts AC into DC → used in DC generator
608. Induced emf, ε = NAB ω sinωt → ε = εmax sin ωt
609. Electric motor → converts electrical energy into mechanical energy → Works on torque on a
current carrying coil
610. Stator → rest part of motor which consist of several electromagnets (6 in this case)
611. Rotor → Moving part of motor which acts like coil
612. Ac motor → No Commutators and no carbon brushes
𝜋
613. The shaft or angle covered by single magnet in motor= 60 = 3
614. Back motor effect →Negative effect of generator
615. Back motor effect→ Negative effect of motor →V = ε + IR
616. Back Emf = NABω
617. When load connected with motor back emf decreases because motor slows down and angular
velocity ω decreases
618. Fleming Right hand Rule → Find direction of current or Emf
619. Fleming left hand Rule→ Find direction of magnetic force or deflection
620. Thumb gives→ direction of force
621. Fore finger gives → direction of magnetic field
622. Middle finger gives→ Direction of current
623. Eddy current (Foucault current) → arises due to time rate of change of magnetic field
624. Transformer → step up or step down the voltage level→ working principle →mutual induction
625. Ns / Np = Vs / Vp = Ip /Is

18
 626. Transformer does not change the frequency of AC
627. Transformer works on Ac → Can’t work on Dc
628. Step up transformer→ Ns> Np → Vs > Vp → Is< Ip =power → constant
629. Step up transformer→ Ns<Np →Vs< Vp→ Is> Ip=power → constant
630. Transformer cant step-up power
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
631. Efficiency of transformer 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛
×100%
632. In ideal transformer power remains constant ,no energy loss, 𝜂 = 100%
Energy loss in transformer
633. Eddy current→ reduce by lamination
634. Hysteresis loss→ reduces by using soft iron

Chap N0.15 Alternating current

635. D.C –Direct current unidirectional and time independent current
636. A.C- Alternating current time dependent current → I = Io sincot
637. Average of A.C→ <I> =0, <v>=0
638. fD.C=0 , fA.C = 50 HZ→ houses Electricity
639. TD.C = ∞ , TA.C = 1/50 = 0.02 sec = 20m sec
𝐼𝑜
640. Irms= = 0.707 Io → Irms< Io Where Io is peak or maximum current
√2
𝑉
641. Vrms= 𝑜2= 0.707 Io → Vrms< Vo Where Vo is peak or maximum voltage
√
642. In ouer houses Voltage = Vrms = 220 V and Vo=310 v
643. Voltage measure by voltmeter = Vrms
644. power factor = Cos𝜃
645. Resistance in A.C circuit
→Voltage and current are in phase V= Vo sin𝜃and I = Io sin𝜃
→Phase angle = 0, power factor = cos 0= 1
→ Power loss <P> = Vrms Irm → energy cant store
646. Inductor in A.C Circuit
→Voltage leads current V= Vo Cos𝜃 and I= I sin𝜃
→ Phase angle =90, P.F = Cos=90= 0
→ No power loss → magnetic energy stored
647. Capacitor in AC circuit
→ Current leads the voltage by 90
→ I = Io Cos𝜃 and V= V0 sin𝜃
→ Phase angle = 90, P.F = Cos90= 0
→ No power loss <P> =0, Electrical energy store
648. Reactance → opposition proved by capacitor or inductor for energy storage Init =Ω
649. Inductor reactance → opposition proved by inductor
→ XL = 2𝜋fL
→For D,C XL = 0, provide no opposition
→ Inductor allow D.C and block AC

19
650. Capacitor Reactance → opposition proved by capacitor
1
→ XC = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐
→ For D.C Xc = ∞ → provede maximum opposition
→ Capacitor blocks D.C and allows A.C
651. Impedance (z) → total opposition (Resistance + Reactance )
652. Unit =Ω
653. For RC series circuit Z = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐2 and P.F = 0 to 1
654. For RL series circuit Z = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 and P.F = 0 to 1
655. For RLC series circuit Z = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and P.F = 0 to 1
656. Resonance condition = XL = XC
1
657. Resonance frequency = f = → independent of R
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
658. At high frequency RLC Circuit behave like inductor
659. At high frequency RLC Circuit behave lie capacitance
660. At resonance frequency RLC Circuit behave like resistance
661. At resonance → Z=R, phase angle = 0 , P.F cos0=1
662. At resonance energy can’t be stored
663. In RLC series Circuit VL and VC out of phase by 180
664. Resonance curve → current V frequency to resistance
665. Chock coil → inductive coil used to prevent a device from unwanted signals
666. Active power → 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
667. Reactive power→ 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 Capacitor or inductor in which I and V are out of phase by 90
668. Apparent power→The product of root mean square (RMS) voltage and current
669. Quality factor Q.F=XL/R → XC/R= No unit , No Dimension
670. Maximum power put theorem Zs=ZL Pout max, 𝜂= 50%
671. Metal detector → work on principle of beat note
672. In absence of metal Circuit will be in resonance and no beats produced.
673. In presence of metal → resonance breaks and beats produced
674. EM waves → 𝐷𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 → 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑀 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
675. TV remote signals → 𝐼𝑅, Human body radiation → 𝐼𝑅
676. Gamma rays →shortest wave length and radio waves→ longest wave length
677. Visible light→ 𝑉𝐼𝐵𝐺𝑌𝑂𝑅
678. In visible light , Violet →shortest wave length and red→ longest wave length
679. ECG → 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜 − 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑜 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → Gives graphic record of heart waves
680. Positive deflection→ 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑠
681. Negative deflection→ 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑠
682. P-Deflection→ 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡
683. QRS deflection→ 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠
684. T-deflection→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡

20
Chapter N0 16 PHYSICS OF SOLIDS
685. Number of atom in S.c=1, B.C.C = 2, F.c.c = 4 , h.c.p=6
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐽 𝑁
686. Elastic modulus = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚3 = 𝑚2
𝐹
687. Tensile stress = 𝐴
∆𝐿
688. Tensile strain = 𝐿
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
689. Modulus of elasticity = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝐿
690. Young modulus = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴∆𝐿
691. Young modulus Measure by searl,s Apparatus
𝐹 ∆𝐴
692. shear stress = 𝐴, shear stain = 𝐴
= 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴 𝐹 𝐹
693. shear modulus = = = = : also called rigidity modulus
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝐴𝜃
𝐹 ∆𝑉
694. bulk stress = 𝐴, Bulk strain = 𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑉
695. bulk modulus = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴∆𝑉
1
696. compressibility = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
697. hook law :stress × strain
1 ! 1
698. strain energy = 2 𝐹𝑒 = 2
𝐹∆𝐿 = 2 𝐹𝑥
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1𝐹 ∆𝐿 1
699. strain energy density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2𝐴 × 𝐿
= 2 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
700. Strain energy per unit volume = = ½ (stress) (strain )

Chapter No.17 Electronics

701. Intrinsic semi-conductor 𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 e.g 𝐺𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑖
702. Extrinsic semi-conductor 𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ≠ 𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
703. N type = group 4 + group 5 → majority charge carriers→ electron
704. P type = group 4 + group 3 → majority charge carriers →holes
705. Knee voltage 𝐺𝑒 = 0.3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡, 𝑆𝑖 = 0.7 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
706. Diode rectifier → AC Convert to DC
707. Invertor or oscillator→ 𝐷. 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐴. 𝐶
708. Transistor → Amplifier → Amplify AC
709. 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝑐
710. ∝ −𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ∝ = → ∝≤ 1
𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝑐
711. 𝛽 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟= 𝛽 = 𝐼𝐵
→ 𝛽=∞
∝
712. 𝛽 = 1−∝
713. 𝐸𝐵 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, CB = Collector base junction
714. 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 region → transitor fully on → EB and CB Junction = Forward Biased
715. 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 → Q.Point → E.B = Forward biased , C.b = Reversed biased

21
 716. 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 → fully OFF , E.B and C.B junction = Reversed biased
717. 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

Chapter N0 18 DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS

𝑉2
718. L = 𝐿𝑜 √1 − 𝐶 2 → Length contraction → 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑜
719. T = 2
→ time dilation → 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
√1−𝑉2
𝐶
𝑚𝑜
720. m= 2
→ mass dilation → 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
√1−𝑉2
𝐶

721. Wien’s law 𝜆𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0.28998 × 10−3 m-k

722. Stefan law E=𝑆𝑇 4 , 𝜎= 5.67× 10−8 𝑊 𝑚−2 𝑘 −4
723. Planks theory E = n h f
724. Photo Electric Effect (P.E.E) shows particle nature of light→ 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
725. K.Emax = e V0- → 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
726. Photon theory of Photo electric effect → 𝐸 = Ф + K.E → 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑝 𝑃. 𝐸. 𝐸
727. K.Emax = h f – Ф
728. H f0 = Ф = work function
729. K.Emax = hf - Hf0
730. Compton effect shows particle nature of light→ 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ
731. Compton shift ∆𝜆 = 𝑚0𝑐2 (1-cos𝜃 ) → occur at intermediate energy up to 1 MeV
ℎ
732. Compton wave length= 𝑚0𝑐2 = 2.43 × 10−12 m
733. Pair production→ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
734. Pair production→ 𝐸𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒
735. Presence of heavy nucleus is just to conserve momentum
736. Pair production cannot take place in vacuum because OF NO NUCLEUS
737. Ephoton = Eelectron + Epositron
738. Photon rest mass energy = 2m0c2 = 1.02 MeV
739. Rest mass energy of electron =0.51 MeV
740. Pair Annihilation→ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
741. Two photons produce in pair annihilation to conserve momentum
742. At energy less than 0.5MeV, photoelectric effect is dominant
743. At energy more than 1.02MeV, pair production is dominant
744. At intermediate energy 1 MeV, Compton effect is dominant
ℎ ℎ ℎ
745. De-Broglie hypothesis → 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜆 = 𝑝 = =
√2𝑚𝐾.𝐸 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
746. Lighter objects dominant wave nature and vice versa
747. Uncertainty principle 1. (Δp)(Δx) = h 2.(ΔE)(Δt) = h
748. Uncertainty principle violate Bohr model

22
Chapter No19 ATOMIC SPECTRA
749. Hydrogen spectrum is atomic spectra.
750. Four lines emitted by hydrogen in visible region (v, B, G, R)
1 1 1
751. Balmr formula for emission spectrum 𝜆 = 𝑅ℎ (𝑛2 − 𝑝2 )
752. Lyman series → uv region, Balmr series → visible region, Panchen series → near IR
753. Bracket series→ mid IR, pfund series → far IR (Infra-Red)
754. Rydberg constant R =E0 / hc = 1.097 x 107m-1.
𝑛 (𝑛−1)
755. Number of spectral lines emission N= 2
756. h = planks constant = 6.6256 x 10-34 j s.
𝑛2 ℎ 2
757. rn = 2
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘𝑒
758. rn = n2 r1 → r1 = 0.53 0A.
1 2𝜋2𝑚𝑘2𝑒4
759. En = - 𝑛2
[ ℎ2 ]
𝐸0
760. En =− = 2.17 x 10-18 j/ n2 = +13.6 ev/ n2
𝑛2
761. 1 0A = 10-10 m
762. eV → hfmax = hc/λmin
763. λmin = hc/eV
764. Bohr model can’t explain stark and Zeeman effect
765. Bohr model only applicable to hydrogen or hydrogen like atoms
766. De-Broglie hypothesis agree with Bohr model
767. 1St excitation energy of hydrogen =10.2 eV and 2nd 12.1 eV
768. Ionization energy of hydrogen atom= 13.6 eV
769. X-ray wavelength: 1 0A to 2 0A
770. Characteristics x-ray→ Due to inner shell transition of electrons
771. Continuous X-ray → Due to decelerating of electron under nuclear effect
772. X- ray is reverse process of photo electric effect
ℎ𝑐
773. 𝜆 = 𝑒𝑉
774. LASER =Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation→
775. Laser light →Intense, uni directional, monochromatic ,coherent
776. Stimulated emission → Two photons releases
777. Excited state for 10-8 s.
778. metastable state for 10-3 s→ long lived state
779. metastable state of Ne= 20.66 ev→ 15 %→ lasing or active medium
780. metastable state of He=20.61 eV → 85% → helping step
781. Helium –Neon Laser light
E =1.96 ev, 𝜆 = 632.8 𝑛𝑚, 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑑

23
 Chapter No 20 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
782. Nuclear size is of the order of 10-14 m.
783. The mass of the nucleus is of the order of 10-27 kg.
784. Mass spectrogram m = qr2B2/2V
785. Radius of atom is about 5 times the radius of nucleus
786. Nucleus consists of nucleons(protons and neutrons)
787. A proton has a positive charge equals to 1.6×10-19C
788. Atomic no. = no. Of protons = Z
789. Atomic mass = p + n = A
790. light elements n = p
791. heavy elements n > p
792. Stability depends upon no. of neutron
793. 1amu = 1.67 × 10-27kg = 931 Mev
794. 1amu = mass of C-12/12
795. An atom on the whole is electrically neutral
796. Δm = Zmp + Nmn – M(A,Z)
797. Mass defect = Zmp + (A-Z) mn - Mnucleus
798. The binding energy in MeV is 931 x Δm.
799. The binding energy per nucleon = Eb/A.
800. B.E/nucleon = mass defect × c²/A
801. B.E/nucleon 1st increases then decreases
802. B.E/nucleon is maximum for Fe-56 = 8.8Mev
803. B.E/nucleon is minimum for U-238 = 7.6Mev
804. Lighter nuclei → 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
805. Heavy nuclei → unstable due to columbic repulsive force
806. Intermediate nuclei → 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
807. Iron is most stable element
808. B.E for deuteron = 2.23MeV = 1.2×10-¹²J
809. B.E for tritium = 7.97MeV
810. B.E for Helium = 28.2 MeV
811. Beta particle is a fast moving e- that come out of nucleus
812. Beta decay occurs when n/p ratio is too high
813. Alpha decay occurs when n/p ratio is too low
814. Alpha and beta emission occurs when nucleus undergoes excitation
815. Gama decay occurs when nucleus undergoes dexcitation
816. Radioactivity is purely a nuclear phenomenon. This is not affected by chemical or
physical reaction

24
817. During nuclear changes, law of conservation of mass, energy, momentum and
charge remains applicable
818. In alpha decay, mass no. And charge no. both are decreases by 4 and 2
respectively
819. Emission of alpha particle from radium-226 gives radon-222
820. In beta decay, mass no. does not change while charge no. is increased by ±1.
821. The emission of beta particle from Polonium-218 gives Astatine-218
822. The emission of beta particle from Thorium-234 gives Protactinium-234
823. Emission of alpha particle from uranium-238 gives Thorium-234
824. Gama radiation is simply a photon that has neither any charge nor any mass. So
no change in mass no. and charge no. will occur with its emission
825. Radioactive decay process is quite random so we cannot tell about any
particular atom as to when will it decay
1
826. 0n → 1H1 + -1β0 + antineutrino 12 MIN
827. ΔN/Δt =-λN
828. R =- ΔN/Δt =λN
829. N= N0e-λt
830. Unit of activity 1 Bq = 1 decay per second, 1 Ci = 3.70 x 1010 decay/s
831. Rutherford is also unit of activity
832. Decay rate is inversely proportional to half-life
833. Activity is directly proportional to half-life A=λN (here λ is decay constant)
834. Decay constant is directly proportional to no. of decaying atoms. △ N = - λN t
835. Unit of decay constant is s-¹
836. Mean life > Half life
837. Mean life = 1/λ
838. λT½ = 0.693 half life
839. T½ =0.693 Tmean
840. Half life of Radon = 3.8 days ,U-239 = 23.5 mint ,U-238 = 4.5×109 years
I-131 = 8 days ,I-125 = 60 days ,Np = 2.4 days ,Pu = 24000 years ,
Na-24 = 15 hours ,Fe-59 = 45 days
841. Range of beta particle is 100 times greater than alpha particle
842. Ionizing ability of beta particle is 100 times less than alpha particle
843. Alpha particle is about 7000 times massive than an electron that’s why it does
not suffer appreciable deflection from its straight path
844. Intensity of gamma rays falls off as the inverse square of distance from source
845. Typical source of alpha particle is Radon-222
846. Typical source of beta particle is Strontium-94
847. Typical source of gamma rays is Cobalt-60
848. Gamma rays are absorbed by lead sheet.

25
849. Gamma rays are more penetrating as compared to alpha and beta particle
850. Neutrons are more penetrating than gamma rays
851. Ionizing ability of alpha particle > beta particle > gamma rays > neutrons
852. He+² is an alpha particle
853. Only alpha particles emit with same energy while beta particles and gamma rays
emit with variable energy
854. When alpha particle strikes with 7N14 then we get one proton and 8O17
855. In nuclear fission, 0.8MeV/nucleon energy is released
856. In nuclear fusion, 6.4MeV/nucleon energy is released
857. U-235 : naturally occurring 0.7%. Usually fissionable with thermal neutron or slow
neutron. % increase in fuel 2-4%
858. Plutonium-239 : fission with Slow neutron is easy
859. fission chain reaction is controlled by cadmium rod because these rods are
capable of absorbing large no. Of neutrons
860. Now-a-days Plutonium-239 and Uranium-233 are also being used as fuel
861. In nuclear reaction, heavy water is used as moderator to slow down neutrons
862. Graphite also used as graphite
863. No. of neutrons are controlled by Cadmium or boron rods in nuclear reactor
864. For fission reactions, ratio of mass of products to mass of reactants is less than 1
865. Fast reactors are designed to make use of U-238 which is about 99%
866. Plutonium can be fission by fast neutron
867. Moderators are not needed in fast reactors
868. When two deuterons are merged to form a helium nucleus, 24MeV energy is released
869. When deuteron and tritium are merged, 17.6MeV energy is released
870. Subatomic particles are divided into three groups
a. Photons b. Leptons (e-, muons)/do not experience strong nuclear force
c. Hadrons (n, mesons, p)/experience strong nuclear force
871. The charge on up, top and charm, quarks in term of electron is +2/3e.
872. The charge on down, top and bottom in term of electron is -1/3e.
873. Meson = 1Quark and 1Antiquark
874. Baryon = 3 Quarks
875. Proton = 2up Quarks + 1down Quark
876. Neutron = 1up Quark + 2 down Quark
877. Color force : the interacting force among quarks

26