BEE Module 1 - Merged

Basic Electrical Engineering 15ELE15/25
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING :
MODULE - 1
I . DC CIRCUITS :
Syllabus : Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws, analysis of series, parallel & series parallel circuits
excited by independent voltage sources, power & energy, examples.
Ohm's law : " The potential difference between the two ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature & other
parameters remain unchanged ".
VαI
I V=RI
R - Constant of proportionality called Resistance

V - voltage in volts
V I - current in Amps
R - resistance in Ohms (Ω)
Limitations of Ohm's law :
- It is not applicable to non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide. Their v-i relationship
is given by ,
[ V= K Im ] - Here the relation between V & I is non linear. (m< 1)
- It is not applicable to non-linear devices like diodes.
- It is not applicable to 'arc lamps', because arc produced exhibits non-linear characteristics.
Kirchhoff's laws :-
I. Kirchhoff's current law [ KCL ] -
" Algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a node is zero in any electric circuit"
OR
" Sum of all currents entering a node is equal to sum of all currents leaving a node in any
electrical circuit."
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KCL is illustrated below .
II. Kirchhoff's voltage law [KVL] -
" In any electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of voltage drops of all branches & emf's is zero."
or
" In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of voltage drops of all branches and emf's
forming a closed loop is zero."
Series , parallel , series-parallel combination circuits:-
Resistances in series :-
V = V1 + V2 + V3
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IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistances in parallel :-
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V/ Rp = V/ R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
1/ Rp = 1/ R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Current divider rule and voltage divider rule :
a) Current divider rule :
V = I1R1 = I2R2
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I2 = ( I1R1 / R2) ...... (1)
I = I1 + I2 as per KCL
I = I1 + ( I1R1 / R2 ) ...... from (1)
I = I1 (R1 + R2)
R2
I1 = IR2
(R1+R2)
In general it can be expressed as follows :
Current through R1 = Main current X opposite resistance

Sum of resistances
b) Voltage divider rule :
I = V / (R1+R2)
V1 = IR1 = [ VR1 / (R1 + R2)]
In general it can be expressed as follows :
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Voltage across R1 = Main voltage X same resistance

Sum of resistances
II . ELECTROMAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION :

Syllabus : Review of field around a conductor & coil, magnetic flux & flux density, mmf ,
magnetic field intensity, reluctance & permeability, definition of magnetic circuit
& analogy between electric & magnetic circuit.
- Definition of electromagnetic induction, faradays laws, Fleming's right hand rule,

Lenz's law, statically & dynamically induced emf. Self inductance, mutual
inductance and coefficient of coupling. Energy stored in magnetic field. Force on
current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, Fleming's left hand rule.
Basic definitions :
1. Magnetic field :-
The space around a magnet in which the magnetic effects are felt is known as magnetic
field.
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2. Magnetic flux :- [Ø]
The magnetic lines of force originate from north pole N & go into south pole S. The entire
magnetic lines of force representing a magnetic field is magnetic flux. It is expressed in
[WB] . It is analogous to current .
3. Magnetic flux density:- [B]
The magnetic flux per unit area, area being normal to lines of flux is flux density. It is
expressed in (Wb/m2) or Tesla (T) .
4. Magneto motive force (mmf) :-
mmf is the force that drives flux through a magnetic circuit. Or it can also be defined as
the force required to drive flux through a magnetic circuit. It is analogous to emf . It is
expressed in [AT].
5. Magnetic field intensity / Magnetising force/ Magnetic field strength:-
It is defined as number of ampere turns produced per unit length or it can also be defined
as the force experienced by unit N pole placed at that point
[ H= NI / l] AT/m
6. Reluctance:-
Opposition offered to the production of magnetic flux. Or it can also be defined as

opposition offered to the passage of magnetic flux through a material.
It is expressed in (AT/Wb)
It is analogous to resistance. It is given by ,
[S = l /µ0 µr A]
l - length of magnetic material or circuit
A- area of cross section
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µ0 - permeability of free space
µr - relative permeability
7. Permeability:-
It is the property of a magnetic material by virtue of which magnetic flux can be easily
created in it. It is analogous to conductance.
a) Absolute permeability (µ) [µ = B / H]
b) Relative permeability (µr) [µr = B / B0] B0 - flux induced in free space
8. Magnetic circuit:-
Path followed by magnetic flux is magnetic circuit .
Mean circumference of the ring is taken as length of magnetic circuit. (l = π d)
Analogy Between Electric & Magnetic Circuits :
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

1. mmf creates magnetic flux. (At) Emf drives current (V)
2. Reluctance is opposition offered Resistance is opposition to

magnetic flux. offered to flow of current
3. Magnetic flux Ø (Wb) Electric Current I, (A)
4. Permeability µ (Tm/A) Conductivity (S/m)
5. Permeance, G (Wb/A) Conductance, G (S)
6. Flux density B (Wb/m2) or T Current density (A/m2) J
7. Magnetic field intensity H (At/m) Electric field intensity E (V/m)
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Differences Between Magnetic Circuit And Electric Circuit
Magnetic circuit Electric circuit

1. Once set up, no energy is Energy must be continuously
required to maintain it . supplied to maintain current flow.
2. It stores energy It dissipates energy in the form of

heat.
3. Saturation exists in magnetic circuits There is no concept of saturation in

( B.H curve) electric circuit
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION :
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction -
I law :- Whenever magnetic flux linking a coil changes, emf is induced.
or
Whenever there is a relative motion between flux & conductor emf is induced in that
conductor.
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II law:- The magnitude of induced emf is equal to rate of change of flux linking the coil.
[e = dØ / dt]
For a coil with 'N' turns, (emf is induced in each turn)
Total emf induced is given by -
e = N dØ/dt
Lenz's law-
The direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the cause producing it.
e e==- -NNdØ
dØ/dt
/ dt
Property of electromagnetism :
" Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux around it " . The direction of the
flux is given by Right hand thumb rule.
Right hand thumb rule :
When a conductor is held in the palm - Thumb points towards direction of current
Curled fingers represent direction of flux
Types of induced emf :
1. Dynamically induced emf -
Emf induced due to the relative motion between flux & conductor is called dynamically
induced emf .
Example - Generators
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2. Statically induced emf -
Emf induced in the coil when the varying flux links with itself is called statically induced
emf and is called so because it involves no moving parts .(flux and conductor remain
stationary)
a) Self induced emf - Current is passed through a coil, flux develops around it.
When the current is varied flux varies which links with coil and emf is
induced.
b) Mutually induced emf - Emf induced when varying flux in a coil links with the
neighbouring coil and induces emf in neighbouring coil .
Example - transformer
Self inductance :
The ability of a coil to induce emf in itself (by changing current flowing through it) is self
inductance.
Or
When current is increased through a coil, it is opposed by instantaneous production of emf

(self induced / counter emf) or when current is decreased , it is also opposed by self induced
emf [delayed]. This property of coil due to which it opposes an increase or decrease of
current through it, is called self inductance.
Self inductance is measured in terms of co efficient of self induction.
where L is the self inductance (coefficient of self induction) given by ,
L = N dØ/di
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Since Ø α I , dØ/di can be replaced by Ø/i
L = N Ø/i
When flux is expressed in terms of the ratio of mmf & reluctance , L is given by ,
L = N2 µA / l
Energy stored in an inductor:-

When current through an inductor is increased from 0 to I in time 't', an emf 'e' is induced in
the coil.
Work done to overcome the opposition due to induced emf for an increase in current is given
by
Total energy W absorbed is given by-
W= ʃe i dt = ʃL (di/dt) i dt = ʃLi di = L i / 2 = (1/2) LI

2 2
Mutual inductance :
The ability of a coil to induce emf in the neighbouring coil by induction due to change in
current in 1st coil .
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Consider two coils having turns N1 & N2 respectively as shown above .
Let V1 be the applied voltage in coil1 .
I1 be the current flowing in coil1 due to V1
Flux Ø1 is produced in coil 1 due to I1
emf is induced in coil 1 given by ,
e1 = - N1 dØ1/dt
Part of the flux Ø1 which is Ø12 links with both coils 1 & 2 . emf induced in coil 2 is given
by ,
e12 = - N2 dØ12/dt
e12 = - N2 (dØ12/di1) X (di1/dt)
e12 = - M12 di1/dt
M12 = N2 dØ12/di1
where M12 is the mutual inductance given by ,
Coefficient Of Coupling :- [ Relation between L1 , L2 & M ]
It is a measure of proximity between two coils . It gives an idea about what portion of flux
produced links with other coil.
Consider two magnetically coupled coils A & B with turns N1 & N2.
Coil A is energized by a.c. supply Coil B is energized by a.c. supply
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Fleming's rules :
Force on current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field -
" Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force."
Direction given by Flemings left hand rule
Thumb represents direction of motion (force)
forefinger represents direction of flux
second finger represents direction of current carrying

conductor
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QUESTION BANK :
1(a) D.C CIRCUITS

1. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws as applied to DC Circuits.(Jan 2014,6M)
2. What are the advantages of parallel circuit over series circuit?(Jan 2010,5M)
3. State and explain Ohm’s law & state its limitation.(Jan 2013,6M)
4. A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising two resistances of
12Ω & 8Ω respectively. The total power dissipation in the circuit is 70W when the applied
voltage is 20V. Calculate R.(June 2014,6M)
5. The total power consumed by the network shown in the figure (a) is 16W. Find the value
of R & the total current. (Jan 2013,6M)
6. Obtain the potential difference Vxy in the circuit shown in figure (b).(Jan 2012,6M),(Jan
2015,8M)(June 2015,8M)
7. Find the currents in all the resistors of the network shown in the figure (c). Also the
voltage across AB.(June 2013,6M)(Jan 2015,6M)
8. A current of 20A flows through two ammeters A & B in series. The potential difference
across A is 0.2V & across B is 0.3V. Find how the same current will divide between A &
B when they are in parallel.(Jan 2012,6M)(June 2014,6M)(Jan 2015,6M)
9. A circuit consists of two parallel resistors having resistances of 20Ω & 30Ω respectively,
connected in series with a 15Ω resistor. If the current through 15Ω resistor is 3A find, (a)
the currents in 20Ω & 30Ω resistors, (b) the voltage across whole circuit, & (c) the total
power consumed in allresistor.(Jan 2009,6M)(June 2010,6M)
10. Using Kirchhoff’s laws, determine R1, R2, I1,I2& I3 in the circuit shown in figure (d).(Jan
2012,6M)
11. For the network shown in figure (e), calculate the currents Ix&Iy.(Jan 2013,6M)
12. Three 60W, 120V light bulbs are connected across a 120V power line as shown in the
figure (f). Find (a) the voltage across each bulb & (b) the total power dissipated in the
three bulbs.(Jan 2011,6M)(June 2012,6M)(June 2013,6M)
13. For the circuit shown in figure (g), find the current supplied by each battery and power
dissipated in 1Ω resistor.(Jan 2015,5M)
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14. In the parallel arrangements of resistors shown in the figure (h), the current flowing in the
8Ω resistor is 2.5A. Find the current in other resistors, resistor X and the equivalent
resistance.
1(b) ELECTROMAGNETISM
1. With examples, clearly differentiate between statically induced emf & dynamically induced
emf.(Jan 2013,6M)(June 2014,5M)
2. Explain Fleming’s rules & their use in electromagnetism.(Jan 2015,6M)
3. Prove that the co-efficient of mutual inductance between two coils of self-inductances L1 and
L2 is given by M= k(L1L2), where k is the co-efficient of coupling between the two
coils.(Jan 2011,7M)(June 2014,8M)(June 2015,6M)
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4. What is meant by electromagnetic induction? State and explain Faraday’s laws of

electromagnetic induction.(Jan 2015,5M)(June 2009,7M)
5. Derive an expression for energy stored in the magnetic field.(Jan 2010,5M)(June
2013,5M)(Jan 2015,5M)(June 2014,4M)(Jan 2014,5M)
6. What are the factors on which the inductance of the coil depends? Derive the necessary
expression for calculating the inductance.(June 2014,6M)(June 2013,6M)
7. A coil A of 1200 turns & another coil B of 800 turns lie near each other so that 60% of the
flux produced in one coil links with the other. It is found that a current of 5A in coil A
produces flux of 0.25mWb, while the same current in coil B produces a flux of 0.15mWb.
Determine the mutual inductance & coefficient of coupling between the coils.(Jan
2013,8M)(June 2015,8M)(Jan 2012,8M)(June 2014,8M)
8. A coil consists of 600 turns & a current of 10A in the coil gives rise to a magnetic flux of
1mWb. Calculate self-inductance, the emf induced & the energy stored when the current is
reversed in 0.01 second.(Jan 2015,4M)(June 2014,4M)(Jan 2013,6M)
9. A coil of resistance 150Ω is placed in a magnetic field of 0.1mWb. The coil has 500 turns &
a galvanometer of 450Ω is connected in series with it. The coil is moved in 0.1second from
the given field to another field of 0.3mWb. Find the average induced emf & the average
current through the coil.(Jan 2011,5M)(June 2012,5M)(Jan 2013,7M)
10. A solenoid 1m in length & 10cm in diameter has 5000 turns. Calculate the inductance &
energy stored in the magnetic field when a current of 2A flows in a solenoid.(Jan
2013,5M)(Jan 2015,5M)(June 2013,6M)(Jan 2010,6M)
11. A coil of 750 turns & a current of 10A gives rise to a magnetic flux of 1200µWb. Determine
the inductance of the coil & the average emf induced in the coil when this current is reversed
in 0.01 second.(June 2015,8M)(June 2013,7M)(Jan 2012,8M)
12. Two identical coils of 1200 turns each, are placed side by side such that 60% of flux
produced by one coil links with the other. A current of 10A in the first coil sets up a flux of
0.12mWb. If the current in the first coil changes from +10A to -10A in 20msec, find the self-
inductances of the coil & the emfs’ induced in both the coils.(Jan 2015,8M)
13. Coils A& B in a magnetic circuit has 600 & 500 turns respectively. A current of 8A in coil A
produces a flux of 0.04 Wb. If the coefficient of coupling is 0.2, calculate: (a) self inductance
of coil A with coil B open circuited. (b)flux linkage with coil B. (c)the average emf induced
in coil B when flux with it changes from 0 to full value in 0.02sec. (d)mutual inductance.
14. Two coils having 1000 turns & 1600 turns respectively are placed close to each other such
that 60% of the flux produced by one coil. If a current of 10A flowing in the first coil
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produces a flux of 0.5mWb. Find the inductance of the second coil. (June 2014,8M)(Jan
2012,7M)(Jan 2011,8M)
15. An air cored solenoid with length 30cm & internal diameter 1.5cm has a coil of 900 turns
wound on it. Estimate its inductance & amount of energy stored in it when the current
through the coil rises from 0A to 5A.(Jan 2013,8M)(June 2015,7M)
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D.C. Machines:
Syllabus: Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator and a motor. Types,
constructional features and Types of armature windings. Emf equation of
generator, relation between induced Emf and terminal voltage with an enumeration
of brush contact drop and drop due to armature reaction. Operation of D.C. motor,
back Emf and its significance, torque equation. Types of D.C. motors,
characteristics and applications. Necessity of a starter for D.C. motor.
Introduction:
➢ The converters which are used to continuously translate an electrical input to a
mechanical output or vice versa are called as DC machines.
➢ If the conversion is from mechanical to electrical energy then it is called ad DC
Generator and if the conversion is from electrical to mechanical energy then it is
called as DC Motor.
Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator and a motor:

Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator:
➢ Whenever a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an Emf will be induced in this coil and
is given by e=B*l*v*Sinθ volts/coil side where, B=The flux density in Tesla, l=the
active length of the coil side in meters v=the velocity with which the coil is moved in
meters/sec and θ is the angle between the direction of the flux and the direction of
rotation of the coil side.
➢ The direction of the induced voltage can be ascertained by applying Fleming's right
hand rule.
Working principle of D.C.Machine as a motor:

➢ Whenever a current coil is placed under a magnetic field the coil experiences a
mechanical force, and is given by F= B*I*l*Sinθ Newton/coil side where, I is the
current through the coil.
➢ Applying Fleming's left hand rule, we note torque Te will be produced in the counter
clockwise direction causing the rotor to move in the same direction.
Construction of DC Machine:
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Salient parts of a D.C.Machine are:

(i)Field system (poles)
(ii)Coil arrangement (armature)


(iii)Commutator
(iv)Brushes
(v)Yoke
Yoke:
i) It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating
materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various
gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
ii) It provides mechanical support to the poles.
iii) It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic
flux.
Poles:
Each pole is divided into two parts a) pole core and b) pole shoe
➢ Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
➢ It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.
➢ Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is
necessary to produce larger induced emf. to achieve this, pole shoe has given a
particular shape
Field winding [F1-F2]:
➢ The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.
➢ To carry current due to which pole core on which the winding placed behave as an
electromagnet, producing necessary flux. As it helps in producing the magnetic field
i.e. exciting the pole as electromagnet it is called Field winding or Exciting winding.
Armature:
➢ It is further divided into two parts
namely,
I) Armature core and
II) Armature winding
➢ Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its
periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves
cooling purpose.
Commutator:
➢ The basic nature of Emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating.
➢ This needs rectifications in case of D.C. generator which is possible by device
called commutator.
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Brushes and brush gear:

➢ To collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external
circuit.
➢ Ball bearings are usually used as they are more reliable.
➢ For heavy duty machines, roller bearings are preferred.
Types of D.C. Armature Windings
Lap Winding Wave Winding
In this winding all the coils carrying current in

In this winding all the pole groups of
the same direction are connected in series i.e.,
the coils generating emf in the same
coils carrying current in one direction are
direction at any instant of time
connected in one series circuit and coils carrying
are connected in parallel by the brushes.
current in opposite direction are connected in
other series circuit.
2. Lap winding is also known as parallel 2. Wave winding is also known as series
windings. winding.
3. The number of parallel path is equal 3. The number of parallel paths is always equal
to the number of poles i.e., A = P. to 2 i.e., A = 2.
4. The number of brush required by this

4. The number of brushes required by this
winding is always equal to the number
winding is always equal to 2.
of poles.
5. The machine using lap winding 5. The machine using wave winding does
requires equalizer rings for obtaining require dummy coils to provide the mechanical
better commutation. balance for the armature.
6. Lap windings are used for low 6. Wave windings are used for high voltage and
voltage and high current machines. low current machines.
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Emf Equation of DC Generator:

For one revolution of the conductor,
Let, Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and
P = number of poles in the DC generator. Therefore,
Total flux produced by all the poles
Time taken to complete one revolution

Where, N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is
denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux. Therefore,
Induced emf of one conductor is Induced emf of one conductor is
Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here, Z = total numbers of conductor A = number of parallel paths
Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
We know that induced Emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore, Induced Emf of DC generator E = Emf of one conductor × number of conductor
connected in series.
Induced Emf of DC generator is
Simple wave wound generator Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A Therefore,
Induced Emf for wave type of winding generator is
Simple lap-wound generator Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors
in one path i.e. P = A Therefore,
Induced Emf for lap-wound generator is
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Types of DC Generators
➢ It is characterized by the manner in which field excitation is provided.
➢ In general the method employed to connect field and armature winding has classify
into two groups.
Separately Excited Generators:
In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied from a separate power
source. That means the field winding is electrically separated from the armature circuit.
Self Excited Field Generators:
➢ This type of generator has produced a magnetic field by itself without DC sources
from an external.
➢ The electromotive force that produced by generator at armature winding is supply to a
field winding (shunt field) instead of DC source from outside of the generator.
➢ Therefore, field winding is necessary connected to the armature winding.
They may be further classified as: a) DC Shunt generator
b) DC Series generator
c) DC Compound generator.
a) Shunt generator:
➢ This generator, shunt field winding and armature winding are connected in parallel
through commutator and carbon brush.
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b) Series generator:
➢ The field winding and armature winding is connected in series.
➢ There is different from shunt motor due to field winding is directly connected to the
electric applications (load).
➢ Therefore, field winding conductor must be sized enough to carry the load current
consumption and the basic circuit
c) Compound generator :
➢ The compound generator has provided with magnetic field in combine with excitation
of shunt and series field winding, the shunt field has many turns of fine wire and
caries of a small current, while the series field winding provided with a few turns of
heavy wire since it is in series with an armature winding and caries the load current.
➢ There are two types of Compound generators such as
(i) Long shunt Compound Generator
(ii) Short Shunt Compound Generator
Long Shunt Compound generator:
Short Shunt Compound Generator:
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DC Motors:
Operation of a DC motor:
➢ When a DC machine is loaded as a motor, the rotor conductors carry current.

➢ These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.
➢ Thus, each conductor experiences a force.
➢ The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its centre
➢ Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the rotor, and the rotor starts
rotating.
Back Emf and its Significance:
➢ When the armature of a D.C. motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque,
the armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence an emf is induced
in them.
➢ The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V(Lenz’s law) and is
known as back emf.
➢ Back EMF always acts to reduce the changing magnetic field through the coils. It
does so by generating a voltage which opposes the supply voltage, thus reducing the
current.
Significance:
➢ The presence of back emf. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e., it
makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the
torque required by the load.
➢ Back emf in a D.C. motor regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically
changes the armature current to meet the load requirement.
Types of DC Motors:
Motors are classified into 3 types: a) DC Shunt motor.

b) DC Series motor.
c) DC Compound motor.
a) DC Shunt motor:
➢ In shunt wound motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature.
➢ The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current.
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b) DC Series motor:
➢ In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
➢ Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current.
c) DC Compound motor:
➢ Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it.
➢ There are two types of compound motor connections :
1) Short-shunt connection Compound Motor
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➢ When the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature
terminals it is called short-shunt connection.
2) Long shunt connection Compound Motor
➢ When the shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the series combination
of armature and series field it is called long-shunt connection.
Torque equation of a DC Motor:
Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get
Where,
VIa is the electrical power input to the armature.
I2aRa is the copper loss in the armature.
We know that,Total electrical power supplied to the armature = Mechanical power

developed by the armature + losses due to armature resistance
Now, the mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm.
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Also, the mechanical power rotating armature can be given regarding torque T and speed n.
Where n is in revolution per seconds (rps) and T is in Newton-Meter.
Hence,
But,
Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and
Where, n is the speed in (rps).
Therefore,
So, the torque equation is given as
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Characteristics of DC Motors:
The three important characteristic curves are
1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)
DC Shunt Motor Characteristics:
In this circuit the field winding is directly connected to the source voltage, so the field current
Ish and the flux in a shunt motor are constant.
Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):
We know that in a DC Motor Ta α ΦIa.
In this the flux Φ is continuous by ignoring the armature reaction, since the motor is working
from a continual source voltage
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Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia):
➢ At normal condition the back EMF Eb and Flux Φ both are constant in a DC
Shunt motor.
➢ Hence the armature current differs and the speed of a DC Shunt motor will
continue constant which is shown in the fig (dotted Line AB).
➢ Whenever the shunt motor load is increased Eb=V-IaRa and flux reduces as a
result drop in the armature resistance and armature reaction.
➢ On the other hand, back EMF reduces marginally more than that the speed of
the shunt motor decreases to some extent with load.
Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta):
➢ The speed reduces when the load torque increases.
DC Series Motor:
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):
We know that Ta ∝ ΦIa
➢ Up to Magnetic Saturation Φ ∝ Ia, the armature torque Ta is directly proportional to

square of the armature current (i.e.. Ta ∝ I2a).
➢ If armature current is doubled over, then armature torque is almost increasing
fourfold
➢ Thus the armature torque vs. armature current curve up to magnetic saturation is a
parabola, which is shown in the characteristic curve OA.
➢ On the other hand once the magnetic saturation is reached, the Ta is directly
proportional to the Ia.
➢ As a result the armature torque vs. armature current magnetic saturation characteristic
is a straight line, which is shown in the curve AB.
Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia):
The Series Motor Speed N is known as N α (Eb/Φ).
We know that back EMF Eb = V-Ia (Ra+Rse).
As soon as the Ia increases, the back EMF Eb reduced due to drop in Ia (Ra+Rse) even
though the flux increased. Still, Ia (Ra+Rse) is less in usual circumstance and might be
vomited. Therefore, N α (1/ Φ).
The speed vs. armature current characteristic follows the hyperbolic curve up to magnetic
saturation {α (1/ Φ)}.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

In series motor the current flows in the field winding and the armature are same.
The armature current will increases whenever the mechanical load of the motor increase.
As a result the flux will increase in the series motor when the armature current increases and
vice versa.
Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta):
➢ From this curve it is evident that the series motor runs at low speed when it develops
high torque and vice versa. .
➢ This is due to the increase in armature torque need to increase the armature current
and also the field current.
➢ As a result flux gets strengthened and drops the speed of the motor. If the speed gets
increased the torque must be low.
Characteristic of Compound motor:
Necessity of a Starter:
➢ In a D.C motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its supply voltage,
it is likely that the fuses protecting the motor will burn out because the armature
resistance is small, frequently being less than one ohm.
➢ Thus, additional resistance must be added to the armature circuit at the instant of
closing the switch to start the motor.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

➢ Back Emf create critical role in governing the operation of dc motor. Back emf is
generated as the motor armature start to rotate in presence of magnetic field and
it is counter to the supply voltage.
➢ The back emf at the starting is zero and develops as the motor gradually speed
up.
➢ We know that general emf equation E=Eb+laRa.
➢ At starting Eb=0 so la=E/Ra, which indicates that current will be dangerously
high at starting (As Armature resistance Ra is small).Hence it is necessary to use
starter to limit the starting current to allowable lower value.
II. Measuring Instruments:

Syllabus: Construction and Principle of operation of dynamometer type wattmeter and single
phase induction type energy meter.
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter:
Construction:
It consists of the following parts:

Moving coil - Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring control instrument In
electrodynamometer type wattmeter, moving coil works as pressure coil. Hence moving coil
is connected across the voltage and thus the current flowing through this coil is always
proportional to the voltage.
Fixed coil - The fixed coil is divided into two equal parts and these are connected in series
with the load, therefore the load current will flow through these coils. Now the reason is very
obvious of using two fixed coils instead of one, so that it can be constructed to carry
considerable amount of electric current. These coils are called the current coils of
electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Earlier these fixed coils are designed to carry the current
of about 100 amperes but now the modern wattmeter are designed to carry current of about
20 amperes in order to save power.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Control system - Out of two controlling systems i.e. gravity control and spring control, only
spring controlled systems are used in these types of wattmeter. Gravity controlled system
cannot be employed because they will contain appreciable amount of errors.
Damping system - Air friction damping is used, as eddy current damping will distort the
weak operating magnetic field and thus it may lead to error.
Scale - There is uniform scale is used in these types of instrument as moving coil moves
linearly over a range of 40 degrees to 50 degrees on either sides.
Working:
Let
v=supply voltage
i=load current and
R=resistance of the moving coil circuit
Current through fixed coils, if = i
Current through the moving coil, im = v/R
Deflecting torque,
For a DC circuit the deflecting torque is thus proportional to the power.

For any circuit with fluctuating torque, the instantaneous torque is proportional to
instantaneous power. In this case due to inertia of moving parts, the deflection will be
proportional to the average power. For sinusoidal alternating quantities the average power is
V.I.cosϕ, where
V= RMS value of voltage I = RMS value of current, and ϕ= phase angle between V and I
Hence an electrodynamometer instrument, when connected as shown in figure, indicates the
power, irrespective of the fact it is connected in an AC or DC circuit.
Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter:
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Construction:
➢ It consists of a pressure coil made of thin copper wire of many turns (also called shunt
magnet); a current coil made of thick copper wire of one or two turns (also called
series magnet), an aluminium disc mounted on spindle
➢ A braking magnet is arranged on a disc to control its movement and to stop the
movement under no load.
➢ A phase difference of 900 is set between current coil and pressure coil with the help of
copper shaded rings.
Working:
➢ This instrument works on the principle of induction that when both the shunt and
series coils are energized by ac, there will be tow alternative fluxes are in the shunt
coil and one in the series coil these time varying fluxes are cut by a stationary disc.
➢ Inducing currents in the disc.
➢ These currents interacts with the fluxes and results in a torque.
➢ The disc rotates in a particular direction and the number and speed of rotations
depends on the energy consumed by the load.
Numerical:
1. A 4 pole d.c shunt motor takes 22A from 220V supply. The armature & the field
resistances are 0.5Ω & 100Ω respectively. The armature is lap connected with 300
conductors. If the flux/pole is 20mWb, calculate the speed & gross torque.
2. A d.c series motor is running with a speed of 1000rpm, while taking current of 22A
from the supply. If the load is changed such that the current drawn by the motor is
increased to 55A, calculate the speed of the motor on new load. The armature & series
winding resistances are 0.3Ω & 0.4Ω. assume supply voltage is 250V
3. A 4 pole, 1500 rpm d.c generator has a lap wound armature having 24 slots with 10
conductors/slot. If the flux/pole is 0.04Wb, calculate the Emf generated in the
armature. What would be the generated Emf if the winding is converted as wave?
4. The current drawn from the mains by a 220V d.c shunt motor is 4A on no load. The
resistance field & armature windings are 110 ohms & 0.2 ohms respectively. If the
line current on full load is 40A at a speed of 1500 rpm, find the no load speed.
5. A 200V, 4 pole, lap wound, d.c shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature. The
resistance of armature winding is 0.5 ohm & that of shunt field winding is 200 ohm.
The motor takes a current of 21A, the flux/pole is 30mWb. Find the speed & gross
torque developed in the motor
6. An 8 pole, lap connected armature has 40 slots with 12 conductors/slot, generates a
voltage of 500V. Determine the speed at which it is running if the flux/pole is
50mWb.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

7. An 8 pole generator has 500 armature conductors and has a useful flux/pole of 0,065
Wb. What will be the Emf generated if it is lap connected & runs at 1000 rpm? What
must be the speed at which it is to be driven to produce the same emf if it is wave
wound?
8. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24
conductors. The flux/pole is 0.01 Wb. At what speed the armature rotates to give an
induced Emf of 220V? What will the voltage of the winding in lap & the armature
rotates at the same speed.
9. A d.c shunt motor takes an armature current of 110a at 480V. The armature resistance
is 0.2 ohm. The machine has 6 poles & armature is lap connected with 864
conductors. The flux/pole is 0.05 Wb. Calculate the speed, the torque developed in
armature.
10. A 4 pole DC shunt motor takes 22.5 A from 250V supply Ra =0.5ohms,
Rsh=125ohms, the armature is wave wound with 300 conductors. If the flux per pole
is 0.02Wb, calculate speed, torque and power developed.
11. 200V lap wound DC shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature, the resistance of the
armature winding is 0.5ohms and that of field winding is 200ohms, the motor takes a
current of 21A, the flux per pole is 30mWb. Find the speed and torque developed by the
motors.
12. 200V lap wound DC shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature, the resistance of the
armature winding is 0.5ohms and that of field winding is 200ohms, the motor takes a
current of 21A, the flux per pole is 30mWb. Find the speed and torque developed by the
motors.
13. A 30 KW, 300 V DC shunt generator has armature and field resistance of 0.05ohms and
100 ohm respectively. Calculate the total power developed by armature when it delivers
full output power.
14. A DC shunt motor takes an armature current of 110A at 480V. The armature resistance is
0.2 ohms, The machines has 6 poles, and armature is lap connected with 864 conductors.
The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb, calculate speed and torque developed by the armature.
15. The emf generated in the armature of a shunt generator is 625 V, when delivering its full
load current of 400A to the external circuit. The field current is 6 A and the armature
resistance is 0.06 ohms. What is the terminal voltage?
16. 220 V series motor is taking a current of 40A, resistance of armature 0.5 ohms, resistance
of series field is 0.25 ohms. Calculate voltage at the brushes, back Emf, power wasted in
armature, and power wasted in series field.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Single-phase A.C. Circuits

Syllabus: Generation of sinusoidal voltage, frequency of generated voltage, definition and
numerical values of average value, root mean square value, form factor and peak factor of
sinusoidally varying voltage and current, phasor representation of alternating quantities.
Analysis, with phasor diagrams, of R, L, C, R-L, R-C and R-L-C circuits and, parallel and
series- parallel circuits. Real power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor.
Introduction:
 An Alternating Current is one in which the magnitude and direction of an electrical
quantity changes with respect to time.
Generation of sinusoidal voltage:

 Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in
the figure.
 The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at a uniform angular velocity of ω

rad/sec.
 When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the
plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this
position, the emf induced in the coil is zero.
 When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of
change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil.
 When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is maximum,
and hence the emf induced is also maximum.
 When the coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the
coil reduces.
 Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf induced becomes zero.
 After that the same cycle repeats and the emf is induced in the opposite direction.
 When the coil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is
generated.
 An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction
at regular intervals of time.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Important terms associated with an alternating quantity are defined below.

1. Amplitude
 It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as maximum
or peak value.
2. Time Period (T)

 It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity.
3. Instantaneous Value
 It is the value of the quantity at any instant.
4. Frequency (f)
 It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or
cycles/sec.
 The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as follows.
 Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second
 Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T = 1/f
5. Angular Frequency (ω)

 Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie the
angle covered by the rotating coil).
 The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.
 The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in
the coil. Only the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil
i.e Φmax cosωt induces an emf in the coil.
d
e=−N Φ max cosωt / dt
e = NΦ max ω sin ωt
e = Em sin ωt
Advantages of AC system over DC system

1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer.
2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors.
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Average Value
 The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is
called its average value
Average value = Area under one cycle
Base
 For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes
equal to zero because the positive area cancels the negative area.
 Hence for symmetrical waveforms, the average value is calculated for half cycle.
1 2π
V  vd (ωt )
av 2 π ∫ 0
1 π
V  vd (ωt )
av π ∫0
Average value of a sinusoidal current
i  I m sin ωt
1π
I
av π ∫ id (ωt )
0
1π
I
av π ∫ I m sin ωtd (ωt )
0
I av  2I m  0.637I m
π
Average value of a full wave rectifier output
i  I m sin ωt
1π
I
av π ∫ id (ωt )
0
Dept of EEE, SVIT

1π
I
av π ∫ I m sin ωtd (ωt )
0
I av  2I m  0.637I m
π
Average value of a half wave rectifier output
i  I m sin ωt
2π
I 1
av  2π ∫ id (ωt )
0
1π
I
av  2π ∫ I m sin ωtd (ωt )
0
Im
I av   0.318I m
π
RMS or Effective Value
 The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount
of heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for
the same time.
1 2π
∫
2
V v d (ωt )
rms 2π
0
RMS value of a sinusoidal current
i  I m sin ωt
1 2π
2
I rms  ∫ i d (ωt )
2π
0
1π
I
 π ∫ I m sin ωtd (ωt )
2 2
rms
0
Dept of EEE, SVIT

I rms  I m  0.707I m
2
Form Factor
The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form
Factor
FF = RMS Value
Average Value
Peak Factor or Crest Factor
The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as the
peak factor
PF = MaximumValue
RMSValue
Phasor Representation
 An alternating quantity can be represented using
(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor
 A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a
Phasor.
 A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity.
Phase
 Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the
quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference.
Phase Difference
 When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points,
they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the
angle of phase difference.
In Phase
 Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is
zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

 The waveform, phasor and equation representation of two sinusoidal quantities which
are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.
AC circuit with a pure resistance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is
given by
v  Vm sin ωt ---------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is given as VR which is
the same as v.
Using ohms law, we can write the following relations
v Vm sin ωt
i R  R
i  I m sin ωt (2)
V
-------- -------
Where
I m
m R
From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are
in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasor can be drawn as below.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows
p  vi
p  (Vm sin ωt )(I m sin ωt )
2
p  Vm I m sin ωt
Vm I m
p (1 − cos 2ωt )
2
V I V I
p m m − m m cos 2ωt
2 2
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power term
and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.
Average power
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows
2π
1 V I V Im
m
P ∫ m
− m
cos 2ωt dωt
2π 0 2 2
2π
V I m
1 V Im
P m
− ∫ m
cos 2ωt dωt
2 2π 0 2
V I I
P m m
 V m m
2 2 2
P  V .I
As seen above the average power is the product of the rms voltage and the rms current.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

AC circuit with a pure inductance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v
is given by
v  Vm sin ωt ---------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as V L which is
the same as v.
We can find the current through the inductor as follows
From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind the
voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.
Inductive reactance
The inductive reactance XL is given as
X L  ωL  2πfL
Vm
Im 
XL
It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The unit is ohms ( )
Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows
Dept of EEE, SVIT

P  vi
 (Vm sin ωt) (I m sin (ωt − π / 2))
 −Vm I m sin ωt cos ωt
Vm I m
− sin 2ωt
2
Average power
2π
VI
P1 ∫ − sin 2ωtdωt
m m
2π 0 2
P0
The average power in a pure inductive circuit is zero. Or in other words, the power consumed
by a pure inductance is zero.
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a purely inductive circuit is as shown in the figure.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

AC circuit with a pure capacitance
q  Cv
q  CVm sin ωt
dq
i
dt
i  CVmω cos ωt
i  ωCVm sin(ωt  π / 2)
i  I m sin(ωt  π / 2) -------------------(2)
Where I m  ωCVm
R-L Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown in

the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v  Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is V R and that across
the inductor is VL.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the
figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ
or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived as follows.
2 2
V  VR  VL
VR  IR
VL  IX L
2 2
V  (IR)  (IX L )
2 2
VI R XL
V  IZ
Where impedance 2 2
Z R XL
The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for impedance
is ohms ( ).
Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in an RL series circuit can be derived as follows
p  vi
p  (Vm sin ωt )(I m sin(ωt − Φ)
Vm I m Vm I m
p cos Φ − cos(2ωt − Φ)
2 2
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power term
and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.
Average power
Dept of EEE, SVIT

1 2π V I m V Im
P ∫ m
cos Φ − m
cos(2ωt − Φ) dωt
2π 0 2 2
P  Vm I m cos Φ
2
P  V m I m cos Φ
2 2
P  VI cos Φ
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a RL series circuit is as shown in the figure.
As seen from the power waveform, the instantaneous power is alternately positive and negative.
When the power is positive, the power flows from the source to the load and when the power in
negative, the power flows from the load to the source. The positive power is not equal to the
negative power and hence the average power in the circuit is not equal to zero.
From the phasor diagram,
P  VI cos Φ
R
P  (IZ )  I 
Z
2
PI R
Hence the power in an RL series circuit is consumed only in the resistance.

The inductance does not consume any power.
Power Factor
The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and
current ie cosΦ
P = VI cos Φ
The power in an AC circuit is equal to the product of voltage, current and power factor
Dept of EEE, SVIT

R-C Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and a capacitance C connected in series as shown

in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v  Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that
across the capacitor is VC.

VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in
the figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags behind the current by
an angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.
R-L-C Series circuit
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected

in series as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v  Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage
across the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.
VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown. The current I is
taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL leads the
current by 90⁰ and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. There are two cases that can
occur VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC. And hence there are two
possible phasor diagrams. The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the resultant voltage
V is drawn.
Numerical:
1. Two impedances Z1=(10+j15) & Z2=(5-j8) are connected in parallel across a voltage
source. If the total current drawn is 10A, calculate currents in Z1& Z2 and power
factor of the circuit.
2. A circuit consists of resistance 10 ohm, an inductance of 16mH & a capacitance of
150µF connected in series. A supply of 100V at 50Hz is given to the circuit. Find the
current, power factor & power consumes by the circuit..
3. A parallel circuit comprises of a resistor of 20 ohm in series with an inductive
reactance of 15 ohm in one branch & a resistor of 30 ohm in series with a capacitive
reactance of 20 ohm in the other branch. Determine the current & power dissipated in
each branch of the circuit if the total current drawn by the parallel circuit is 10-300
Amps
4. Two circuits A & B are connected in parallel across 200V, 50Hz supply. Circuit A
consists of 10 ohm resistance & 0.12H inductance in series while circuit B consists of
20 ohm resistance in series with 40µF capacitance. Calculate (i) Current in each
branch (ii) Total power factor (iii) Draw phasor diagram.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

5. A 60 ohm resistor is connected in parallel with an inductive reactance of 80 ohm to a

240V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (i) the current through the resistor & inductor, (ii) the
supply current, (iii) the circuit phase angle; (iv) draw the phasor diagram.
6. An inductor coil is connected to supply of 250V at 50Hz & takes a current of 5A. The
coil dissipates 750W. Calculate power factor, resistance, & inductance of the coil.
7. Impedance in parallel with a 100µF capacitor is connected across a 200V, 50Hz
supply. The coil takes a current of 4A & power loss in the coil is 600W. Calculate (i)
resistance of the coil (ii) inductance of the coil (iii) the power factor of the circuit.
Measuring Instruments:
Syllabus: Construction and Principle of operation of dynamometer type wattmeter and single
phase induction type energy meter.
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter:
Construction:
It consists of the following parts:

Moving coil - Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring control instrument In
electrodynamometer type wattmeter, moving coil works as pressure coil. Hence moving coil
is connected across the voltage and thus the current flowing through this coil is always
proportional to the voltage.
Fixed coil - The fixed coil is divided into two equal parts and these are connected in series
with the load, therefore the load current will flow through these coils. Now the reason is very
obvious of using two fixed coils instead of one, so that it can be constructed to carry
considerable amount of electric current. These coils are called the current coils of
electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Earlier these fixed coils are designed to carry the current
of about 100 amperes but now the modern wattmeter are designed to carry current of about
20 amperes in order to save power.
Control system - Out of two controlling systems i.e. gravity control and spring control, only
spring controlled systems are used in these types of wattmeter. Gravity controlled system
cannot be employed because they will contain appreciable amount of errors.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Damping system - Air friction damping is used, as eddy current damping will distort the
weak operating magnetic field and thus it may lead to error.
Scale - There is uniform scale is used in these types of instrument as moving coil moves
linearly over a range of 40 degrees to 50 degrees on either sides.
Working:
Let
v=supply voltage
i=load current and
R=resistance of the moving coil circuit
Current through fixed coils, if = i
Current through the moving coil, im = v/R
Deflecting torque,
For a DC circuit the deflecting torque is thus proportional to the power.

For any circuit with fluctuating torque, the instantaneous torque is proportional to
instantaneous power. In this case due to inertia of moving parts, the deflection will be
proportional to the average power. For sinusoidal alternating quantities the average power is
V.I.cosϕ, where
V= RMS value of voltage
I = RMS value of current, and
ϕ= phase angle between V and I
Hence an electrodynamometer instrument, when connected as shown in figure, indicates the
power, irrespective of the fact it is connected in an AC or DC circuit.
Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter:
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Construction:
It consists of a pressure coil made of thin copper wire of many turns (also called shunt
magnet); a current coil made of thick copper wire of one or two turns (also called series
magnet), an aluminium disc mounted on spindle
A braking magnet is arranged on a disc to control its movement and to stop the movement
under no load.
A phase difference of 900 is set between current coil and pressure coil with the help of copper
shaded rings.
Working:
This instrument works on the principle of induction that when both the shunt and series coils
are energized by ac, there will be tow alternative fluxes are in the shunt coil and one in the
series coil these time varying fluxes are cut by a stationary disc.
These currents interacts with the fluxes and results in a torque.
The disc rotates in a particular direction and the number and speed of rotations depends on
the energy consumed by the load.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

MODULE - 4
I . THREE PHASE CIRCUITS :

Syllabus : Necessity and advantages of 3 phase systems, generation of three phase power.
Definition of phase sequence, balanced supply & balanced load. Relationship
between line & phase values of balanced star & delta connections. Power in
balanced three-phase circuits, measurement of power by two-wattmeter method.
Determination of power factor using wattmeter readings. Illustrative examples.
Advantages of three-phase systems :
1. Three phase transmission lines require much less conductor material. The return
conductor is replaced by single neutral conductor of small size.
2. Three phase machine gives higher output than a single phase machine.
3. Three phase motor develops uniform torque whereas single phase motor develops
pulsating torque.
4. Three phase can generate rotating magnetic field & hence three phase induction motors
are self starting.
5. Three phase system can be used to supply domestic & industrial power.
6. Voltage regulation is better in three phase system compared to single phase supply.
7. Three phase system is more efficient & less expensive compared to single phase system.
Generation of three phase power :
Three phase power is generated using alternator. Alternator contains stator (stationary part)
and rotor (rotating part). The stator is cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner periphery
as shown in the figure below. The conductors are placed in the slots. They are connected
either in star or delta. Rotor is a magnet with two poles „N & S‟.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Generation of three phase emf :
Stator conductors aa' , bb' and cc' are mutually displaced by 1200. As the rotor rotates , the
stator conductor cuts the flux and hence emf is induced in all 3 conductors.
eA = Em sinwt
eB = Em sin(wt-120)
eC = Em sin(wt-240)
Phase sequence :
Phase sequence is the order in which the 3 phase voltages reach their maximum. It is either
'abc' or 'acb' .
'abc' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'b' and 'c' .
'acb' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'c' and 'b' .
In the figure , phase1 reaches the peak first , followed by 'phase 2' and 'phase 3' .
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Importance of phase sequence :
- 3 phase supply of a particular sequence is given to 3 phase load (static load). If the phase
sequence is changed then the direction of current flow will also change.
- If the 3 phase supply is given to 3 phase induction motor , and if phase sequence is
changed then the direction of current flow will reverse and also the direction of
rotation changes.
Balanced supply and balanced load :
Balanced supply :
If the magnitude of 3 phases are same and are displaced by 1200 it is said to be balanced
supply.
VA = VB = VC VA ≠ VB ≠ VC
All 3 vectors are All 3 vectors are displaced

displaced by 1200 by different angles
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Balanced load : If the impedances in all the three phases are equal in magnitude then the
load is said to be balanced .
Relation between line & phase values of balanced star connections :
Let IR, IY, IB → Line Currents
VRY, VYB, VBR → Line Voltages
VR, VY, VB → Phase Voltages
Phase voltage is the voltage between line & neutral
Line voltage is the voltage between any two lines
3Ø system is a balanced system :
VR = VY = VB = Vph
VR = Vph 00
VY = Vph -1200 (here VY lags VR by 1200)
VB = Vph -2400 (here VB lags VR by 2400)
VRY = VR - VY
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= Vph 00 – Vph -1200
= Vph 00 – [Vph {cos(-1200) + jsin(-1200)}]
= Vph 00 – [Vph(cos1200) – jsin1200]
= Vph 00 – [Vph (– ½ – j.√3/2)]
= Vph [1 + ½ + j 𝟑/2]
VRY = Vph [3/2 + j 𝟑/2]
VRY = (3/2)2 + ( 𝟑/2)2 * Vph
VRY = 𝟑 Vph
Similarly,
VYB = 𝟑Vph & VBR = 𝟑 Vph
Therefore, VL = 𝟑Vph
IL = IPH
Power consumed by 3 phase circuit is given by ,
P = 3 x Power in each phase
P = 3 Vph Iph * cosØ
P=3 VL IL * cosØ
P= 𝟑 VL IL* cosØ
Relation between line & phase values of balanced delta connections :
Let IR, IY, IB → Line currents
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IRY, IYB, IBR → Phase Currents
IRY = IYB = IBR = Iph
IRY = Iph 00
IYB = Iph -1200
IBR = Iph -2400
Apply KCL @ R ,
IRY = IBR + IR
IRY – IBR = IR
Iph 00 – Iph -2400 = IR
IR = Iph 00 – Iph -2400
IR = Iph 00 – [ Iph {cos(-2400) + jsin(-2400)}]
IR = Iph 00 – [ Iph {– ½ + j 𝟑/2}]
IR = Iph [ 1 + ½ 𝟑/2 j ]
IR = Iph [3/2 – j 𝟑/2 ]
IR = Iph (3/2)2 + ( 𝟑/2)2 = Iph 𝟑
IR = IY = IB = IL
Therefore, IL = 𝟑 Iph
VL = Vph
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Power consumed by 3Ø circuit is given by,
P = 3 Vph Iph Cos Ø
P = 𝟑 VL (IL / 𝟑 ) Cos Ø
P = 𝟑 VL IL Cos Ø
Measurement of Power by two wattmeter method :
Here load and supply are balanced
Power can be measured using two wattmeters.
Va, Vb, Vc → Phase Voltages
Vab, Vbc, Vca → Line Voltages
Ic lags Vc by Ø
Ia lags Va by Ø
Reading of Wattmeter W1 :
W1 = Voltage across potential coil x Current through CC x cos angle between V & I
W1 = Vab Ia Cos ( Vab – Ia )
W1 = Vab Ia Cos ( 300 – Ø )
W1 = VL IL Cos(300 – Ø ) → (1)
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Reading of Wattmeter W2 :
W2 = Vcb Ic Cos (300 + Ø )
W2 = VL IL Cos (300 + Ø ) → (2)
By adding both the equations (1) and (2),
We get,
W1 + W2 = [ VL IL Cos(300 – Ø ) ] + [ VL IL Cos (300 + Ø ) ]
W1 + W2 = VL IL [ Cos(300 – Ø ) + Cos (300 + Ø ) ]
W1 + W2 = VL IL 2 cos300 cosØ
Therefore, W1 + W2 = 𝟑VL IL CosØ = Three Phase Power
Two wattmeter‟s are sufficient to measure 3Ø power.
Determination of power factor from wattmeter‟s readings–
W1 – W2 = VL IL Cos(300 – Ø ) – VL IL Cos (300 + Ø )
W1 – W2 = VL IL [ Cos(300 – Ø ) – Cos (300 + Ø ) ]
W1 – W2 = VL IL 2 sin300 sinØ
Therefore, W1 – W2 = VL IL sinØ
Take ratio,
W1 – W2 = VL IL sinØ = tanØ
W1 + W2 𝟑 VL IL cosØ 𝟑
Therefore, tanØ = 𝟑 W1 – W2
W1 + W2
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Ø = tan–1 𝟑 (W1 – W2)
(W1 + W2)
cosØ = cos tan–1 𝟑 (W1 – W2)
(W1 + W2)
II . THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS :

Syllabus : Principle of operation , types and constructional features, advantages of rotating
field type alternator, synchronous speed, frequency of generated voltage, emf
equation. Concept of winding factor (excluding the derivation of distribution &
pitch factors). Illustrative examples on calculation of distribution factor, pitch
factor and emf equation.
Principle: Whenever a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an EMF will be induced in the coil.
This is called the dynamically induced EMF.
 Alternators are also called as Synchronous Generators due to the reason that under
normal conditions the generator is to be rotated at a definite speed called
“SYNCHRONOUS SPEED”, Ns R.P.M. in order to have a fixed frequency in the
output EMF wave.
 Ns is related with the frequency as Ns = 120f / P, where f is the frequency and P is
the total number of poles.
The following table gives the idea of the various synchronous speeds for various numbers of
poles for the fixed frequency of 50 Hz.
P 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 ……….
Ns rpm 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 375 ……….
TYPES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION:

Their two basic parts in an alternator: (i) Stator, (ii) Rotor.
 Stator is the stationary part and Rotor is the revolving part.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

 There are two possibilities that (i) The armature can be the stator and the field system
can be the rotor, and (ii) The armature can be the rotor and the field system be the
stator.
 In practice large alternators are of the first type where in the stator is the armature
and the rotor is the field system. And this type is called the “REVOLVING FIELD
TYPE”.
Revolving field types are preferred due to the following reasons:
(i) More conductors can be easily accommodated and with these high voltage and
higher power capacity can be achieved.
(ii) Armature conductors can be easily braced over a rigid frame.
(iii) It is easier to insulate a stationary system.
(iv) Cooling of the conductors will be very effective with proper cooling ducts / vents in
the stationary part.
(v) Power can be tapped easily without any risk from the stationary part through
terminal bushings.
(vi) The armature conductors are totally free from any centrifugal force action which
tends to drag the conductors out of the slots.
CONSTRUCTION:
Revolving field type alternators are further classified into two types:
(i) Salient pole type, (ii) Non-salient pole type or cylindrical rotor type.
Figs. (a), (b) and (c) shows the constructional features of the Alternator. Fig. (a)
represents the stator, the core of which is made of steel laminations with slots cut in its
inner periphery and all the stator stampings are pressed together and are fixed to the stator
frame.
 Three phase windings are accommodated in these slots. These coils are identical
to each other and are physically distributed such that they are displaced from each
other by 120 degrees as shown in fig. (d).
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Fig. (b) represents the structure of a salient pole rotor where the poles are of projected
type and are mounted on a spider and the field or the pole windings are wound over the
pole core as shown.
 This type is preferred where the running speeds are low. Fig.(c) represents the
structure of a non-salient pole rotor where the overall structure is like a cylinder
having 2 or 4 poles.
 This type is preferred where the running speeds are very high.
 The armature windings in the stator are made of copper and are normally arranged
in two layers and are wound for lap or wave depending on the requirements and
are usually connected in star with the neutral terminal brought out.
EMF Equation:
 Let P be the total number of poles, Ns be the synchronous speed, f be the
frequency of the induced EMF and the flux Φ considered to be sinusoid ally
distributed.
 As we know that the induced emf is due to the rate of change of flux cut by coils,
the average induced emf in Tph number of turns is
Eavg = Tph dΦ / dt volts.
For a flux change from Φm to Φm is d Φ = 2 Φm in time dt= T / 2 seconds,
The average induced Emf = Tph. 2 Φ m / ( T/2 ) = 4 Tph .f. m volts.
For a sine wave we know that the form factor is of value 1.11= Erms / Eavg.
Therefore, Erms = 1.11.Eavg.
Erms = 4.44 f Φm Tph volts per phase. . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Dept of EEE, SVIT

If the armature windings are connected in star the line emf is El = 3 Ephase.
If the armature windings are connected in delta the line emf is the phase emf itself.
QUESTION BANK
1. Obtain the relationship between the phase & line values of voltages & currents in a balanced
star connected system.(Jan 2015,9M)(Jan 2014,8M)(June 2015,8M)
2. With relevant vector diagram, show that two wattmeter are sufficient to measure three phase
power.(Jan 2013,10M)(Jan 2012,8M)
3. Obtain the relationship between line currents & phase currents in a balanced 3ф delta
connected system.(Jan 2012,8M)
4. State the advantages of three-phase system over a single-phase system.(Jan 2010,6M)
5. With a help of connection diagram & phasor diagram show that the two wattmeters are
sufficient to measure the active power in a three phase three wire system with a balanced star
connected load.(Jan 2011,8M)(Jan 2012,7M)(June 2014,8M)
6. A 3ф, 400V, motor takes an input of 40kW at 0.45 p.f. lag. Find the reading of each of the
two single phase wattmeters connected to measure the input.(Jan 2010,4M)
7. A 3 phase 230V supply is given to balanced load which is connected in delta. Impedance in
each phase of the load is (8+j6) ohm. Determine the phase current & total power power
consumed.(Jan 2014,6M)(Jan 2012,6M)(June 2014,6M)
8. A 3 phase delta connected load consumes a power of 60kW taking a lagging current of 200A
at a line voltage of 400V, 50Hz. Find the parameters of each phase. What would be the power
consumed if the load were connected in star?(Jan 2010,7M)
9. Three identical coils, each having resistance of 10 ohm & a reactance of 10 ohm are
connected in delta, across 400V, 3 phase supply. Find the line current & the readings on the
two wattmeters connected to measure the power.(Jan 2013,7M)(June 2014,8M)(Jan
2010,8M)
10. Three similar impedances are connected in delta across a 3 phase supply. The two
wattmeters connected to measure the input power indicate 12kW & 7kW. Calculate power
input & power factor of the load.(Jan 2014,4M)(Jan 2010,5M)(June 2012,6M)(Jan 2012,6M)
11. Three similar coils each having resistance of10 ohm & a reactance of 8 ohms are
connected in star across a 400V, 3 phase supply. Determine the line current, total power &
Dept of EEE, SVIT

readings of each of the two wattmeters connected to measure the power.(Jan 2012,8M)(Jan
2011,7M)(June 2014,7M)
12. A balanced three phase star connected system draws power from 440V supply. The
two wattmeters connected indicate W1 = 5kW & W2 = 1.2kW .calculate power, power factor
& current in the circuit.(Jan 2015,5M)(June 2014,6M)(Jan 2010,6M)
4 (b) Synchronous generators

1. Derive an expression for emf equation of an alternator. What is the necessity of considering
pitch factor & distribution factor for emf equation.(Jan 2012,6M)(June 2010,5M)(June
2014,6M)(Jan 2014,6M)(June 2015,6M)
2. With the help of sketches, explain the different parts of an alternator. Mention their salient
features(Jan 2014,8M)(Jan 2015,8M)(Jan 2009,7M)
3. Enumerate the advantages of having stationary armature & rotating field system in large
size alternator.(Jan 2010,6M)(June 2014,6M)
4. With a neat diagram, explain the constructional features of a 3 phase alternator.(Jan
2011,8M)
5. Explain the essential difference between cylindrical & salient pole rotors.(Jan 2013,4M)
6. Sketch the two types of rotors used in alternators.(Jan 2013,4M)(June 2014,4M)
7. A 2 pole, 3 phase alternator is running at 3000 rpm has armature slots with 2 conductors in
each slot. Calculate the flux/pole required to generate a line voltage of 230V. distribution
factor is 0.952 & pitch factor is 0.956(Jan 2015,6M)(June 2014,6M)(Jan 2011,6M)
8. A 12 pole 500 rpm star connected alternator has 48 slots with 15 conductors/slot. The
flux/pole is 0.02Wb & is distributed sinusoidally. The winding factor is 0.97 & pitch factor
0.98. Calculate the line emf(Jan 2014,6M)(Jan 2012,6M)(June 2014,6M)
9. A 3 phase, 6 pole, Y connected A.C generator revolves at 1000 rpm. The stator has 90 slots
&8 conductors/slot. The flux/pole is 0.05Wb. Calculate the generated line voltage by the
machine if the winding factor is 0.96(Jan 2011,7M)(Jan 2012,8M)
10. A 3 phase, 16 pole, Y connected alternator has 144 slots on the armature periphery. Each
slot contains 10 conductors. It is driven at 375 rpm. The line voltage available across the
terminals is 2.657kV. Find the frequency of the induced emf & flux/pole.(Jan 2014,8M)
11. A 6 pole, 3 phase Y connected alternator has 90 slots & 8 conductors/slot & rotates at 1000
rpm. The flux/pole is 50mWb. Find the induced emf across the line. Take Kd = 0.97 & Kc =
0.96(Jan 2013,7M)(Jan 2010,6M)(June 2014,6M)
Dept of EEE, SVIT

12. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 16 pole alternator with star connected winding has 144 slots with 10
conductors/slot. The flux/pole is 24.8mWb is sinusoidally distributed, the coils are full
pitched. Find the speed, the line emf. Assume winding factor is 0.96(Jan 2009,5M)
13. A 12 pole, 500 rpm, Y connected alternator has 60 slots, with 20 conductors/slot. The
flux/pole is 0.02Wb & is distributed sinusoidaly. The winding factor is 0.97. Calculate
frequency, phase emf & line emf.(June 2012,8M)
Dept of EEE, SVIT

MODULE 5(a)
TRANSFORMERS
Unit 5 (a): Single Phase Transformers:-

 Transformer is a static device which transfers electric energy from one electric
circuit to another with the desired change in voltage and current levels without
any change in power and frequency
CONSTRUCTION:
There are two basic parts of a transformer:
1) Magnetic core 2) winding
 The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.

 The core is divided into i) Yoke ii)Limb
 Core is made up of silicon steel which has high permeability and low
hysteresis co-efficient.
 The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
 The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
 The core forms the magnetic circuit
 There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which forms
the Electric circuit. made up of conducting material like copper.
 The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding and
having 'N1' number of turns.
 The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having
'N2' number of turns.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:
Based on Construction the transformer are divided into:
a) CORE TYPE b) SHELL TYPE.
Core type transformer:
 the fig.1 shows the core type of transformer.

 This type of transformer has a single magnetic circuit.
 The core has 2 limbs and windings encircled the core
 The primary and secondary windings are wound on two limbs of the core .
 The core is made of very thin laminations of high grade silicon steel material
to reduce the eddy current loss and Hysteresis losses in the core.
Shell type transformer:
 The fig.2 shows the shell type of transformer.

 This type of transformer has a two magnetic circuit.
 The core has 3 limbs .
 The core surrounds the windings.
 The primary and secondary windings are wound on the central limb.
 The core is made of very thin laminations of high grade silicon steel material
to reduce the eddy current loss and Hysteresis losses in the core.
WORKING PRINCIPLE: - A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction

between two magnetically coupled coils
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 The fig shows the general arrangement of a transformer.

 An alternating voltage applied to Primary winding it circulates an alternating
current.This current produces an alternating flux in the iron core which
completes its path through common magnetic core as shown in dotted line in
the above fig .
 This flux induces an Emf 'E1' in primary winding.
 The flux also links secondary winding and thereby induces an emf 'E2' in
Secondary.
 Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an
electrical energy gets transferred from primary to secondary.
EMF EQUATION:
Principle:- Whenever a coil is subjected to alternating flux, there will be an induced emf in
Nd
it and is called the statically induced emf e 
dt
Let N1, N2 be the no. of turns of the primary and secondary windings, E1, E2 the induced emf
in the primary and secondary coils.  be the flux which is sinusoidal f be the frequency in Hz
Figure showing the sinusoidal varying flux of peak value Фm .
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Whenever a coil of N no- of tunes are linked by a time varying flux  , the average emf
induced in this coil is
Nd
e
dt
As the flux is sinusoidal the change in flux from +  m to -  m is d  = 2  m, and this change
takes place in a duration dt = T/2 seconds.
The average induced emf in these N numbers of turns is
Eavg = N.d  /dt = N.2  m / (T/2) = 4  mN/T = 4f  m N volts (as f =1/T)
We know that the Form factor of a pure sine wave F.F. = Erms/Eavg = 1.11
Therefore, Erms = 1.11 Eavg.
= (1.11) (4f  m N) = 4.44 f  m N volts.
In the primary coil, N = N1 , E1 = 4.44f  m N1 volts
In the secondary coil, N = N2 , E2 = 4.44f  m N2 volts
LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY:

There are two types of power losses occur in a transformer
1) Iron loss 2) Copper loss
1) Iron Loss (Pi): This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the
alternating frequency of the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.
a) Eddy current loss b) Hysteresis loss
The Iron losses are called as the constant losses.
a) Eddy current loss (We) :
 This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will induced an
emf , due to which a current called the eddy current is being circulated in the core.
 As there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts into
heat called the eddy current power loss.
 Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply frequency.
 Eddy current loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon
steel material, and each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the
path of the eddy currents.
b) Hysteresis loss (Wh): This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the
flux in the core, which results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional
to the supply frequency.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

 Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high permeability.
Total Iron loss Pi = We + Wh
2) Copper loss or I2R losses (Pcu) :

 This is the power loss that occurs in the primary and secondary coils when the
transformer is on load.
 This power is wasted in the form of heat due to the resistance of the coils.
 This loss is proportional to the sequence of the load hence it is called the
Variable loss where as the Iron loss is called as the Constant loss as the supply
voltage and frequency are constants
Total losses of the transformer = Pi + Pcu
Efficiency: It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a transformer
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ῃ=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Input = Output + Total losses
= Output + Iron loss + Copper loss
Efficiency =
outputpower

outputpower  Ironloss  copperloss
V2 I 2 cos

V2 I 2 cos  Pi  Pcu
Where, V2 is the secondary (output) voltage, I2 is the secondary (output) current and
cosФ is the power factor of the load.
The transformers are normally specified with their ratings as KVA
Therefore,
(KVA) (103) cosΦ

Efficiency = ----------------------------------------------
(KVA)(103) cosΦ + Pi + Pcu
Since the copper loss varies as the square of the load the efficiency of the transformer at
any desired load n is given by
Dept of EEE, SVIT

n (KVA)(103) cosΦ
Efficiency = ----------------------------------------------------
n (KVA)(103) cosΦ + Pi + (n)2 Pcu
where Pcu is the copper loss at full load
Pcu = I2R watts
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

 In general for the efficiency to be maximum for any device the losses must be
minimum.
 Between the iron and copper losses the iron loss is the fixed loss and the copper
loss is the variable loss.
 When these two losses are equal and also minimum the efficiency will be
maximum.
Therefore the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer is
Iron loss = Copper loss (whichever is minimum)
*******
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Problems
1. Find the number of turns on the primary & secondary side of a 440/230 V, 50 Hz single
phase transformer, if the net area of cross section of the core is 30 cm 2& the maximum
flux density is 1 Wb/m2
2. A single phase transformer working at 0.8 p.f. has an efficiency 945 at both three fourth
full load & full load of 600kW. Determine the eefficiency at half full-load, unity power
factor.
3. A 600 kVA, 1 phase transformer has an efficiency of 92% both at full load & half load
upf. Determine its efficiency at 75% full load 0.9 p.f.
4. A 50 kVA, 400/200 V, single phase transformer has an efficiency of 98% at full load &
0.8 p.f., while its efficiency is 96.9% at 25% of full load & unity power factor.
Determine the iron & full load copper losses & voltage regulation, if the terminal voltage
on full load is 195 V.
5. A transformer is rated at 100 kVA. At full load its copper loss is 1200W & its iron loss is
960W. calculate (i) the efficiency at full, upf (ii) the efficiency at half load, 0.9 p.f (iii)
the load kVA at which maximum efficiency will occur.
6. The maximum efficiency at full load & upf of a single phase, 25 kVA, 500/1000 V, 50
Hz, transformer is 98%. Determine its efficiency at (i) 75% load, 0.9 p.f. (ii) 50% load,
0.8 p.f. (iii) 25% load, 0.6 p.f.
7. A single phase has 1000 turns on its primary & 400 turns on the secondary. An A.C
voltage of 1250 V, 50 Hz is applied to its primary side with the secondary open circuited.
Calculate the secondary emf, maximum value of flux density, given that the effective
cross sectional area of core is 60 cm2
8. A 250 kVA, 1 phase transformer has 98.135% efficiency at full load & 0.8 lagging p.f.
The efficiency at half load & 0.8 lagging p.f. is 97.751%. calculate the iron loss & full
load copper loss.
9. The primary winding of a transformer is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. The
secondary winding has 1500 turns. If the maximum value of the core flux is 0.00207 Wb,
determine the secondary emf, number of turns on primary, cross sectional area of the
core if the flux density has a maximum value of 0.465 Tesla.
10. A 40 kVA single phase transformer has core loss of 450 W & full load copper loss of
850 W. if the p.f. of the load is 0.8, calculate , (i) full load efficiency (ii) load
corresponding to maximum efficiency (iii) maximum efficiency at upf.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Unit 5 (b):
Induction Motors:-
 The asynchronous motors or the induction motors are most widely used ac motors in
industry.
 They convert electrical energy in AC form into mechanical energy.
 They work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 They are simple and rugged in construction, quite economical with good operating
characteristics and efficiency, requiring minimum maintenance, but have a low
starting torque.
 They run at practically constant speed from no load to full load condition.
 The 3 - phase induction motors are self starting while the single phase motors are not
self starting as they produce equal and opposite torques (zero resultant torque) making
the rotor stationary.
 The speed of the squirrel cage induction motor cannot be varied easily.
CLASSIFICATION:
They are basically classified into two types based on the rotor construction
1. Squirrel cage motor

2. Slip ring motor or phase wound motor
CONSTRUCTION
 Induction motor consists of two parts (1) stator (2) rotor
1. Stator
 It is the stationary part of the motor supporting the entire motor assembly.
 This outer frame is made up of a single piece of cast iron in case of small machines.
 In case of larger machines they are fabricated in sections of steel and bolted together.
 The core is made of thin laminations of silicon steel and flash enameled to reduce
eddy current and hysteresis losses.
 Slots are evenly spaced on the inner periphery of the laminations.
 Conductors insulated from each other are placed in these slots and are connected to
form a balanced 3 - phase star or delta connected stator circuit.
 Depending on the desired speed the stator winding is wound for the required number
of poles. Greater the speed lesser is the number of poles.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

2. Rotor
1. Squirrel cage motor :
 Squirrel cage rotors are widely used because of their ruggedness.

 The rotor consists of hollow laminated core with parallel slots provided on the outer
periphery.
 The rotor conductors are solid bars of copper, aluminum or their alloys.
 The bars are inserted from the ends into the semi-enclosed slots and are brazed to the
thick short circuited end rings.
 This sort of construction resembles a squirrel cage hence the name “squirrel cage
induction motor”.
 The rotor conductors being permanently short circuited prevent the addition of any
external resistance to the rotor circuit to improve the inherent low starting torque.
 The rotor bars are not placed parallel to each other but are slightly skewed which
reduces the magnetic hum and prevents cogging of the rotor and the stator teeth.
2. Slip ring motor or phase wound motor
 The rotor in case of a phase wound/ slip ring motor has a 3-phase double layer
distributed winding made up of coils, similar to that of an alternator.
 The rotor winding is usually star connected and is wound to the number of stator
poles.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

 The terminals are brought out and connected to three slip rings mounted on the rotor
shaft with the brushes resting on the slip rings.
 The brushes are externally connected to the star connected rheostat in case a higher
starting torque and modification in the speed torque characteristics are required.
 Under normal running conditions all the slip rings are automatically short circuited by
a metal collar provided on the shaft and the condition is similar to that of a cage rotor.
 Provision is made to lift the brushes to reduce the frictional losses. The slip ring and
the enclosures are made of phosphor bronze.
 In both the type of motors the shaft and bearings (ball and roller) are designed for
trouble free operation.
 Fans are provided on the shaft for effective circulation of air.
 The insulated (mica and varnish) stator and rotor windings are rigidly braced to
withstand the short circuit forces and heavy centrifugal forces respectively. .
 Care is taken to maintain a uniform air gap between the stator and the rotor.
Comparison of the squirrel cage and slip ring rotors
The cage rotor has the following advantages:
1. Rugged in construction and economical.

2. Has a slightly higher efficiency and better power factor than slip ring motor.
3. The absence of slip rings and brushes eliminate the risk of sparking which helps in a
totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) construction.
The advantages of the slip ring rotor are:
1. The starting torque is much higher and the starting current much lower when
compared to a cage motor with the inclusion of external resistance.
2. The speed can be varied by means of solid state switching
Dept of EEE, SVIT

ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider a 3- phase induction motor whose stator windings mutually displaced from
each other by 120° are connected in delta and energized by a 3- phase supply.
. The currents flowing in each phase will set up a flux in the respective phases as shown.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

The corresponding phase fluxes can be represented by the following equations
 R   m sin t   m sin 
 Y   m sin t  120
 Y   m sin   120
 B   m sin t  240

 B   m sin   240
The resultant flux at any instant is given by the vector sum of the flux in each of the
phases.
(i) When   0  , from the flux waveform diagram ,we have
R  0
3
Y   km sin(120 )   m
2
3
 B   m sin(240 )  m
2
The resultant flux  r is given by,
3
r  2 *  m cos(30 )  1..5 m
2
3
B  m
2
3
Y   m
2
 r  1.5 m
Dept of EEE, SVIT

(ii) When   60o
3
R  m
2
3
Y    m
2
B  0
(iii) When   120 
3
R  m
2
Y  0
3
B   m
2
Dept of EEE, SVIT

(iv) When   180
 R  0;
3
Y  m
2
3
B   
2
From the above discussion it is very clear that when the stator of a 3-phase induction motor
is energized, a magnetic field of constant magnitude (1.5 φm) rotating at synchronous speed
(Ns) with respect to stator winding is produced.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
 When a 3-Φ supply is given to the stator winding a magnetic field of constant
magnitude 1.5Φm and rotating with the synchronous speed Ns is produced.
 This rotating speed sweeps across the conductors and hence an emf is induced in rotor
conductors.
 According to lenz's law, the direction of the induced emf is such as to oppose the
very cause producing it. The cause is the relative speed between the rotating magnetic
field and static stator
 Since rotor conductors are short circuited by themselves, the induced emf sets up the
current in rotor conductors in such a direction to produce torque, which rotates the
rotor in same direction as the magnetic field.
 But as the speed of the rotor is in the same direction of rotating magnetic field , the
relative speed decreases.
 The speed of the rotor gradually increases and tries to catch up the speed of rotating
magnetic field . But if it catches up the speed , then the relative speed becomes zero
and hence , no emf will be induced in the rotor conductors hence the torque becomes
zero hence motor stops . thus rotor will not be able to catch the speed of the magnetic
field ,but rotates at a speed slightly lesser than the synchronous speed.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Consider a 3- phase stator winding energized from a 3 phase supply. As explained earlier a
rotating magnetic field is produced running at a synchronous speed NS
120 f
NS = ---------
P
Where f = supply frequency
P = Number of stator poles
CONCEPT OF SLIP (S):

 According to Lenz’s law, the direction of rotor current will be such that they tend to
oppose the cause producing it.
 The cause producing the rotor current is the relative speed between the rotating field
and the stationary rotor.
 Hence, to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as
that of stator field and tries to catch it.
 In practice the rotor can never reach the speed of the rotating magnetic field produced
by the stator.
 This is because if rotor speed equals the synchronous speed, then there is no relative
speed between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor.
 This makes the rotor current zero and hence no torque is produced and the rotor will
tend to remain stationary.
 In practice, windage and friction losses cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the
rotor speed (N) is always less than the stator field speed (NS).
 Thus the induction motor cannot run with ZERO SLIP. The frequency of the rotor
current fr = sf.
 The difference between the synchronous speed (NS) of the rotating stator field and the
actual rotor speed (N) is called the slip speed.
 Slip speed = NS – N depends upon the load on the motor
Dept of EEE, SVIT

NS - N
% Slip (s) = ---------- * 100
NS
Note: In an induction motor the slip value ranges from 2% to 4%
APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION MOTORS:

Squirrel cage induction motor
 Squirrel cage induction motors are simple and rugged in construction, are relatively
cheap and require little maintenance.
 Hence, squirrel cage induction motors are preferred in most of the industrial
applications such as in
i) Lathes
ii) Drilling machines
iii) Agricultural and industrial pumps
iv) Industrial drives.
Slip ring induction motors
 Slip ring induction motors when compared to squirrel cage motors have high starting
torque, smooth acceleration under heavy loads, adjustable speed and good running
characteristics.
They are used in
i) Lifts
ii) Cranes
iii) Conveyors , etc.,
Necessity of starters for 3 phase induction motor
 When a 3- phase motor of higher rating is switched on directly from the mains it
draws a starting current of about 4 -7 times the full load (depending upon on the
design) current.
 This will cause a drop in the voltage affecting the performance of other loads
connected to the mains.
 Hence starters are used to limit the initial current drawn by the 3 phase induction
motors.
 The starting current is limited by applying reduced voltage in case of squirrel cage
type induction motor and by increasing the impedance of the motor circuit in case of
slip ring type induction motor.
 This can be achieved by the following methods.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

1. Star –delta starter
2. Auto transformer starter
3. Soft starter
Star delta starter
 This is the cheapest starter of all.

 It uses TPDT [Triple pole double through switch] which connects the stator winding
in star and in delta during normal running conditions.
 Hence this starter is suitable only for those motors designed to run with the delta
connected stator winding.
 The two ends of each phase of the stator winding are drawn out and connected to the
starter terminals as shown in the following figure.
Initially when the TPDT Switch is in start position, the stator winding gets connected
in star, hence phase voltage gets reduced by a factor of 1/√3. Due to this starting current also
gets reduced by a factor of 1/√3.
When motor attains 50% to 60% of normal speed, the TPDT switch is thrown in the
run position. Hence, the stator winding now gets connected in delta and each phase of the
winding gets the rated voltage.
*****
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Problems
1. The frequency of the emf in the stator of a 4 pole induction motor is 50 Hz, & that in the
rotor is 1.5 Hz. What is its slip, & at what speed is the motor running?
2. A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a speed of 1470 rpm. Find the
frequency of the induced emf in the rotor under this condition
3. A 10 pole induction motor is supplied by a 6 pole alternator which is driven at 1200 rpm.
If the motor runs with a slip of 3% , what is its speed?
4. A 3-phase, 6 pole, 50 Hz induction motor has a slip of 1% at no load, & 3% at full load.
Determine synchronous speed, no-load speed, full-load speed, frequency of rotor current
at stand still & frequency of rotor current at full load.
5. An 8 pole alternator runs at 750 rpm & supplies power to a 6 pole, 3 phase induction
motor which runs at 970 rpm. What is the slip of induction motor?
6. If the electromotive force in the stator of an 8 pole induction motor has a frequency of 50
Hz & that in the rotor 1.5 Hz, at what speed is the motor running & what is the slip?
7. A 6 pole, 3 phase, star connected alternator has an armature with 90 slots & 10
conductors/slot. It revolves at 1000 rpm. The flux/pole is 0.05 Wb. Calculate the emf
generated/phase, if the winding factor is 0.97 & all conductors in each phase are in
series.
8. A 6 pole induction motor supplies from a 3 phase, 50 Hz supply has a rotor frequency of
2.3 Hz. Calculate the %slip & the speed of the motor.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

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Basic Electrical Engineering 15ELE15/25

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING :

R - Constant of proportionality called Resistance

Limitations of Ohm's law :

[ V= K Im ] - Here the relation between V & I is non linear. (m< 1)

- It is not applicable to non-linear devices like diodes.

I. Kirchhoff's current law [ KCL ] -

Dept of EEE, SVIT

KCL is illustrated below .

II. Kirchhoff's voltage law [KVL] -

Series , parallel , series-parallel combination circuits:-

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IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Current divider rule and voltage divider rule :

a) Current divider rule :

Dept of EEE, SVIT

I2 = ( I1R1 / R2) ...... (1)

I = I1 + ( I1R1 / R2 ) ...... from (1)

In general it can be expressed as follows :

Current through R1 = Main current X opposite resistance

b) Voltage divider rule :

V1 = IR1 = [ VR1 / (R1 + R2)]

In general it can be expressed as follows :

Dept of EEE, SVIT

Voltage across R1 = Main voltage X same resistance

II . ELECTROMAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION :

- Definition of electromagnetic induction, faradays laws, Fleming's right hand rule,

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2. Magnetic flux :- [Ø]

3. Magnetic flux density:- [B]

4. Magneto motive force (mmf) :-

5. Magnetic field intensity / Magnetising force/ Magnetic field strength:-

Opposition offered to the production of magnetic flux. Or it can also be defined as

It is analogous to resistance. It is given by ,

l - length of magnetic material or circuit

A- area of cross section

Dept of EEE, SVIT

µ0 - permeability of free space

a) Absolute permeability (µ) [µ = B / H]

b) Relative permeability (µr) [µr = B / B0] B0 - flux induced in free space

Path followed by magnetic flux is magnetic circuit .

Mean circumference of the ring is taken as length of magnetic circuit. (l = π d)

Analogy Between Electric & Magnetic Circuits :

Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

2. Reluctance is opposition offered Resistance is opposition to

3. Magnetic flux Ø (Wb) Electric Current I, (A)

4. Permeability µ (Tm/A) Conductivity (S/m)

5. Permeance, G (Wb/A) Conductance, G (S)

6. Flux density B (Wb/m2) or T Current density (A/m2) J

7. Magnetic field intensity H (At/m) Electric field intensity E (V/m)

Dept of EEE, SVIT

Differences Between Magnetic Circuit And Electric Circuit

Magnetic circuit Electric circuit

2. It stores energy It dissipates energy in the form of

3. Saturation exists in magnetic circuits There is no concept of saturation in

I law :- Whenever magnetic flux linking a coil changes, emf is induced.

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For a coil with 'N' turns, (emf is induced in each turn)

Total emf induced is given by -

Right hand thumb rule :

Types of induced emf :

1. Dynamically induced emf -

Dept of EEE, SVIT