Science 11 | Living Systems: Concepts and Principles

Module 3 | Biological Cycles and Patterns

1 | Biological Cycles

Cell Division
● Mitosis: produces two exact daughter cells identical to the parent cell.
● Meiosis: makes four genetically different cells which are destined to be gametes.

Reproductive Cycles

● Haplontic Life Cycle

○ Asexual reproduction
○ The zygote is the only diploid (having two pairs of each chromosome)
undergoing meiosis. This results in haploid (having only one of each
chromosome) cells called spores. This haploid is an independent,
functional organism. Individual gametes produced from the process fuses
with another gamete to produce zygotes.
○ Also called zygotic meiosis.
● Diplohaplontic
○ Asexual reproduction
○ Also called alternation of generations.
○ Both the gametophyte (haploid state) and sporophyte (diploid state)
are fully functioning individuals.
○ From the gametophyte, it releases tiny individual cells and since they are
haploid, they function as gametes. A gamete fuses with another forming a
zygote. Then, the fertilized egg divides by Mitosis and eventually becomes
the sporophyte. Certain tissues from the sporophyte undergoes Meiosis
and produces haploid gametes, the resulting cells are called spores. The
spores divide into many cells and become the gametophyte.
● Diplontic
○ Sexual reproduction
○ The organism is in diploid condition.
○ It contains 2n=46 chromosomes. That is, 2(23)=46, half of the
chromosomes are from the mother and the other half, from the father.
○ The only haploid cell in the process are gametes, but unite it with another
and it forms a diploid zygote.
○ Zygote grows by Mitosis and forms a fully functioning, multicellular
organism.
Human Life Cycles

● Like in most diploid organisms, human cycle starts with fertilization (sexual
reproduction)
● Zygote is an egg cell whose chromosomes combine with that of the sperm,
making a complete set of chromosomes needed for a fully functional multicellular
individual.
● The zygote divides into many cells (blastocyst) and is set to be implanted in the
uterine lining of the mother called the endometrium. The embryonic blastocyst
acquires nourishment from the mother; from which the fetus grows in size. Then,
the offspring is born.
● As the individual grows and develops, the same cycle also follows as sex cells
are initiated to complete spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

Angiosperm Life Cycle

● Angiosperm is the term for plants that bear flowers.

● It is the development of functional gametes that make the reproduction in
flower-bearing plants successful.
● The male part is the stamen: consisting of the anther and filament.
○ The anther contains pollen sacs that house pollen grains.
○ One pollen grain contains sperm nuclei and tube nucleus which develop
through microsporogenesis.
● The female part is the carpel: consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary.
○ The ovary contains ovules that house the female megagametophyte.
○ Megasporogenesis produces eight (8) nuclei: egg nuclei, fused polar
nuclei, synergids, and antipodals.

2 | Patterns in Living Systems

From sunrise to sunset, you and I are part of the patterns and cycles that govern and
define how it is to be “alive”. There are patterns everywhere like in how plants and
animals interact, behave, and reproduce. Other than those, patterns are displayed in
phyllotaxis, bird flying formation, spotted animals, even growth of bacteria in colonies.

Reproductive Patterns

● Reproduction can be asexual. For one, Apomixis occurs in some plants where
the gametes chromosome doubles and begets new life; no need for fertilization.
● Other forms of asexual reproduction patterns: parthenogenesis,
hermaphroditism, and sex reversal.
 ● Parthenogenesis
○ Unfertilized egg cells develop into mature organisms; although egg cells
may also be fertilized and develop into mature organisms.
● Hermaphroditism
○ The organism has both functioning male and female reproductive
systems; meaning it contains both the gametes (sperm and egg) needed
in reproduction.
○ Nonetheless, self-fertilization does not commonly occur. Mating is required
to fertilize both organisms.
○ In their environment, there is a rare chance of finding the opposite sex.
Their coping mechanism involves evolution of male and female
reproductive tissues.
● Sex Reversal
○ In a pattern known as Sequential Hermaphroditism, there is a reversal
in the sex of an organism through time.
○ For example: protandrous species are born as males but eventually
become females. In protogyny, an individual is first a female and then
becomes a male.

Pattern Formation in Animal Development

● Different animals have extensive variations as to their development. From

sponges to mammals, variations in life cycles and developmental patterns are
due primarily to the differential expression of genes in specific cells and tissues.

Social Organizations/Social Insects

● It is interesting to note that animals like social insects behave more efficiently in
gathering food, for instance than us humans. They assume roles and follow
rules. They cooperate for survival.
● The best example is the phenomenon of Eusociality.
○ It is an elaborate form of social organization, involving a reproductive
division of labor among members, overlapping generations, and
cooperative care of the young (Lorenzi, 2016).
● Social interactions may affect the way genes behave or become expressed.
● Genes may affect certain behaviors that determine an organism’s success in life
and survival via adaptations.
 Module 5 | Population Dynamics

It is important to relate population growth to resource use as biogeochemical

cycles through ecosystems influence the rates at which populations of organisms
reproduce. In the same manner, the size and pattern of distribution of populations of
organisms influences biogeochemical cycles. Microorganisms, for instance, are known
to be key drivers of global biogeochemical cycles (Madsen, 2011).

The human population contributes to global change by altering biogeochemical

cycles. Such modifications are partially a function of the growth in size and productivity
of the human population. Population size and productivity are intricately connected
through both technologies and socio-cultural activities that allow us to harness energy
as well as feed us (Suarez and Sajise, 2010; Wright, 2005).

1| Thomas Malthus’ Essay on the Principle of Population (1978)

● The first theoretical treatment on population was proposed.

● Malthus mentioned that population grows logistically under ideal environmental
circumstances and conditions.
● Yet, he also stated that population growth depended on the constant availability
of resources.
● Pierre François Verhulst’s logistic equation: dN/dt = rN(1 – N/K)
○ N = Population size, r = intrinsic rate of increase in a given time period (t),
K = carrying capacity

2 | Factors Affecting Population

Demographic Factors
● Factors influencing population growth:
○ Birth
○ Immigration
● Factors influencing population decline:
○ Death
○ Emigration
● How demographic factors affect population can be visualized through:
○ Life Tables
○ Survivorship Curves
○ Age Structures
Life Tables
Source: UK Faculty of Public Health | healthknowledge.org

● A life table is a table which shows, for a person at each age, what the probability
is that they die before their next birthday.
● From this starting point, a number of statistics can be derived and thus also
included in the table is:
○ the probability of surviving any particular year of age
○ the remaining life expectancy for people at different ages
○ the proportion of the original birth cohort still alive.
● Usually constructed separately for different sexes because of their substantially
different mortality rates.

Figure 1. Philippines’ Life Table (2000–present)

Source: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/philippines-population/

Survivorship Curve
Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/survivorship-curve

● A graphic representation of the number of individuals in a population that can be

expected to survive to any specific age.
● Three general types of curves:
Type I curve: Low death rate, high
survivorship rate; there is a dramatic
increase in the death rate.
Type II curve: Characterized by a relatively
constant mortality or survivorship rate
throughout their life expectancies.
Type III curve: Opposite of Type I:
High death rate (or low survivorship rate)
immediately following birth.
Population Growth Models

● Modeling population dynamics mathematically helps to:

○ Quantify changes occurring in a population
○ Predict future changes

● Exponential Growth Model

○ Represents population growth without the influence of environmental
impedance factors.
○ Yields a J-shaped curve since population only goes up.
● Logistic Growth Model
○ Since it is known that resources can be depleted, population growth will
eventually cease. This limitation is called the carrying capacity.
○ This model represents population growth with consideration of the carrying
capacity.
○ Yields an S-shaped curve since there is a limiting line that is the carrying
capacity; thus, the graph will go down after reaching the limit.

According to Molles (2010), environmental checks affect population growth by altering

demographic processes such as birth and death rates.

Limiting Factors

● Density-dependent factors
○ Biotic factors: resulting from living things, in their ecological relations.
○ The effects of these factors on birth and death intensifies as population
increases in size.
○ Examples: disease, predation, lack of resources
● Density-independent factors
○ Abiotic factors: physical rather than biological; not from living organisms.
○ Poses the same influence as density-dependent factors, only that it does
not regard population size.
○ Examples: calamities, climate, social conditions
References:

Barrion-Dupo, A. L. (n.d.). Science 11. Module 5. Population Dynamics. In Living

Systems: Concepts and Principles. University of the Philippines Los Baños.
Duka, I. M. (n.d.). Science 11. Module 4. Biological Cycles and Patterns. In Living
Systems: Concepts and Principles. University of the Philippines Los Baños.
Lorenzi, M.C. (2016). Eusociality. In: Weekes-Shackelford, V., Shackelford, T.,
Weekes-Shackelford, V. (eds) Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological
Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3086-1
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998). Survivorship curve | Population
Dynamics, Life Expectancy & Mortality. In Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/survivorship-curve
UK Faculty of Public Health. (n.d.). Life-tables and their demographic applications.
Health Knowledge.
https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/health-information/3a
-populations/life-tables-demographic-applications#:~:text=A%20life%20table%20i
s%20a,any%20particular%20year%20of%20age