Review
Identifying Emerging Technologies and Skills Required for
Construction 4.0
Alex Sander Clemente de Souza 1,* and Luciana Debs 2
Citation: Souza, A.S.C.d.; Debs, L.
Identifying Emerging Technologies
and Skills Required for Construction
4.0. Buildings 2023, 13, 2535.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings13102535
Academic Editor: Krishanu Roy
Received: 22 August 2023
Revised: 18 September 2023
Accepted: 26 September 2023
Published: 7 October 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102535
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos 13565-905, Brazil
2 School of Construction Management Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA;
ldecresc@purdue.edu
* Correspondence: alex@ufscar.br
Abstract: Connectivity, digitization, and emerging Industry 4.0 technology such as AI, automation,
robotics, IoT, and cyber-physical space have transformed social relations, the means of production,
and the world of labor. The construction industry has also been transformed by Industry 4.0 tech-
nologies, mainly through Building Information Modeling (BIM)-based digitization. This revolution
in the construction industry has been called Construction 4.0 and is based on the use of innovative
technologies that promote digitalization and automation of design, construction, and management
processes. Furthermore, the workforce for the construction industry in the context of Construction
4.0 must have adequate skills for this new scenario. Previous literature reviews have analyzed the
idea of transitioning the construction industry to Construction 4.0 and implementing specific tech-
nologies in the industry. However, there has been limited exploration of the skills necessary for the
Construction 4.0 workforce. This article aims to address this gap by identifying the technologies and
skills that have been scientifically researched and applied in the construction industry, specifically
related to the concepts of Industry 4.0 and Construction 4.0. Utilizing a scoping literature review in
the Scopus database, this study seeks to identify: (i) emergent C4.0 technologies in the AEC industry;
and (ii) which skills or competencies are demanded when using these technologies. All of our bibli-
ographical searches are inserted and restricted to the concept of Construction 4.0. A total of 108
articles related to technologies and 15 related to skills in the Construction 4.0 context were selected
for analysis. Twenty-one technologies were identified and grouped into five sets according to their
similarities and applications: AI-assisted technologies, Advanced manufacture, Smart tools, Digital
simulation/Visualization, and Data acquisition/detection. The skills were identified and grouped
into soft and hard skills. However, the findings point out that the new skills needed by the work-
force are described in a dispersed way, without a central theme of research in the context of Con-
struction 4.0. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the transformations towards Con-
struction 4.0 and provide data for industry and universities to respond appropriately to the new
demands of the construction industry.
Keywords: Construction 4.0; construction industry; emerging technologies; skills; competency
1. Introduction
Compared to other industrial sectors, there is a common sense that the construction
industry is conservative, has low productivity, and significant waste. However, new tech-
nologies, digitalization, and the modernization of production processes can change this
scenario. The fourth industrial revolution, or Industry 4.0, has been characterized by in-
novative technologies, digitalization, and connectivity (machine–machine and human–
machine), ensuring smarter production processes and changing deeply social, commer-
cial, economic, and educational relationships [1–5].
www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 2 of 24

The construction industry has followed and benefited from Industry 4.0 technologi-
cal advancements. This new scenario has been called Construction 4.0. According to For-
cael et al. [6], the first time ‘Construction 4.0′ was mentioned in association with Industry
4.0 was in 2014. However, it was only in 2016 that the term ‘Construction 4.0′ was charac-
terized as a concept. Therefore, the concept of Construction 4.0 is derived from the context
of Industry 4.0, focusing on the industrialization of construction, digitalization, the use of
new materials, new administration, communications, and marketing procedures. The
term Construction 4.0 is not a consensus and has been dynamically and continuously
evolving. Moreover, researchers have developed frameworks presenting key concepts
and emerging technologies in order to characterize architecture, engineering, and con-
struction (AEC) in the context of Construction 4.0 [6–10]. The most relevant Construction
4.0 key concepts are automation, connectivity, digitalization (digital access/digital data),
and industrialization of the construction process [6–10].
In addition to frameworks and concept definition, previous research has shown that
the transformation of the construction industry toward Construction 4.0 can result in in-
creased productivity, improved quality, greater added value, better sustainability indexes,
optimization of natural resources, reduction of waste, and better safety conditions for
workers [6–10]. However, profound changes are needed throughout the design and con-
struction process and its stakeholders to successfully introduce the innovative technolo-
gies reported in the literature [6,7,10–18].
Automation processes in construction manufacturing [19,20] have been identified as
a key point in transforming the construction industry towards Construction 4.0. Further-
more, the Internet of Things (IoT) and cyber-physical systems [21–25], virtual reality (VR)
and augmented reality (AR) [26–32], artificial intelligence (AI), deep learning, and ma-
chine learning [33–36], and blockchain and cybersecurity [37–42] are some technologies
originating from Industry 4.0 that have been mentioned in research on the construction
industry in the context of Construction 4.0. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is the
main process pointed out by the industry and the academy that allows digital integration
planning, construction, and operation of buildings and infrastructure [43,44].
With so many transformations and the availability of new technologies and pro-
cesses, it is essential to clearly identify which technologies/processes have been adopted
by the construction industry in the current scenario and the future trends. On the other
hand, it is also essential to understand how these technologies interact with each other
and how they modify planning, design, construction, and operation procedures for build-
ings and infrastructure works.
From the above, it is easy to see the impact of moving to Construction 4.0 and how
this new era has been influenced and directed by Industry 4.0 technologies. However, in
addition to changes in the construction processes, the convergence of Construction 4.0
technologies will impact and potentially change the role of the workforce and the rela-
tionship between industry employees and industry society.
If, on the one hand, Construction 4.0 technologies can significantly reduce unhealthy
tasks and make the work environment safer, on the other hand, there is a fear of job re-
duction and wage decrease. All job categories linked directly or indirectly to the construc-
tion supply chain could be affected somehow. The application of robots and automation
suggested that increased productivity will not necessarily reduce total jobs in the long run
and that new jobs and opportunities will be created. However, the changes have been
profound and fast, and the construction industry stakeholders need to be prepared for the
constant training and requalification of the workforce to meet current needs and future
demands [45–47]. There is already a knowledge and skill gap and a fear among employees
of losing their jobs due to the lack of skills required in Construction 4.0 [48–51]. A strategy
to reduce the skills gap must involve reskilling (training an employee to relocate to a new
position) and upskilling (teaching a worker new skills to optimize their performance) to
prepare the current workforce in 4.0 paradigms to improve soft and hard skills [49]. Fur-
thermore, the future workforce needs to be trained to meet the skills that this new scenario
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 3 of 24

will demand in construction. In this context, the transformation of the curricula of engi-
neering courses needs to follow the transformations brought about by Industry 4.0 and
Construction 4.0. This transformation starts with identifying which skills professionals
require for different roles and tasks in the context of the rise of Construction 4.0.
Considering the upcoming technological changes driven by Construction 4.0 and its
effects on aspects related to the performance and training of new engineers and upskilling
or reskilling of current ones, this paper aims to identify the leading Construction 4.0 tech-
nologies and their impact on transforming professionals’ activities. Additionally, our pa-
per identifies and analyzes which skills are necessary for implementing Construction 4.0.
The use of new technologies in the construction industry has been reported in the litera-
ture in isolation and with a focus on the description of the technology itself, and often not
contextualized within a larger Construction 4.0 transformation. This article fills this gap
by delimiting its analysis to technological innovations and skills directly linked to Indus-
try 4.0 and Construction 4.0 concepts.
Understanding the technologies utilized in the construction industry and the essen-
tial skills required by professionals in the sector will aid in developing effective training
programs for the current workforce and preparing the future workforce for the era of
Construction 4.0.

2. Materials and Methods

We conducted a scoping literature review to address the aforementioned gaps and
analyzed the quantitative and qualitative results. Our analysis focused on identifying key
themes and relationships between them by establishing word frequency. Scoping litera-
ture reviews have proven to be an effective way to evaluate and interpret thematics in the
Construction 4.0 technology area and identify knowledge gaps and tendencies [52]. Our
protocol for this study was based on [53,54] and included: (1) defining research issues, (2)
the search process, inclusion and exclusion criteria, (3) data selection, and (4) data analy-
sis. To visualize bibliometrics data and networks, we used VOSviewer software Version
1.6.18 [55].

2.1. Research Questions

Construction 4.0 is a dynamic and multi-perspective concept. However, this study
focuses on emerging technologies and new skills required of the workforce, especially
construction engineers and managers. In this sense, the main research questions are:
Research question Q1: What are the emerging technologies in Construction 4.0, and
how do they affect the construction industry and engineering professionals?
Research question Q2: What skills are required in engineering and construction man-
agement for Construction 4.0?

2.2. Literature Research Process

This section describes the search process and its inclusion and exclusion criteria. The
papers evaluated in the present study represent the publications from 2017 to 2023 and
only include journal and conference papers written in English from the Scopus database.
This study is limited to the concepts of Construction 4.0. In other words, we are in-
terested in the technologies and skills linked to these concepts in recent research and ap-
plications. The intention is to analyze the new technologies and skills directly related and
in synergy with the 4.0 concepts. Therefore, the primary term for the conducted searches
was “Construction 4.0”.
Search 1 had three stages. An initial search was performed, which resulted in 168
documents. By analyzing the titles and documents classified in the review type, 11 docu-
ments were selected for preliminary reading, which allowed the identification and defini-
tion of 46 terms related to construction technologies 4.0 (Appendix A—Table A1). During
the second stage, we narrowed down our search to those 46 terms associated with the
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 4 of 24

technologies that we had identified earlier. We carefully reviewed the titles and abstracts
to exclude any duplicated documents and documents with incomplete or unavailable ref-
erences. As a result, we selected 108 documents for the next stage (stage 3), which included
bibliometric analysis, classification by technology, and content analysis—Figure 1.
Search 2 also occurred in two stages. Firstly, we searched 24 documents with the pri-
mary term “Construction 4.0” and terms related to skills and competencies shown in Fig-
ure 2. We then thoroughly reviewed the titles and abstracts to eliminate duplicates or doc-
uments that did not match our research goals (to identify skills and their impact on the
workforce and training). This led us to select 15 papers for the next stage (stage 2), which
involves bibliometric analysis, classification by technology, and content analysis—Figure
2.

Figure 1. Literature research process—Search 1 for the research question Q1.

Figure 2. Literature research process for the research question Q2.

To apply the inclusion and exclusion criteria and obtain the final selection of articles
for analysis, titles and abstracts of the initial selection documents were read. In this study,
we analyzed the frequency of words and phrases in the papers, as well as bibliometric
data. To create a co-occurrence keyword map, we utilized VOSviewer. We selected the
“all keyword” and “full counting” options to analyze the co-occurrence keywords. The
keywords were extracted from the abstract and title fields of the references, and we ap-
plied the full counting method with a minimum of five occurrences. A cluster was defined
as having at least five items.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 5 of 24

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Search 1—Construction 4.0 Technologies (Question Q1)
In stage 1 (Figure 1), 168 documents were pre-selected using the term “Construction
4.0”. The search included complete documents, written in English, covering the period
from 2017 to June 2023, published in a journal or conference proceeding. Books, book
chapters, work in press, and editorials were excluded.
The 46 terms identified in stage 1 (Appendix A) and their variations were used to
refine the initial search, which resulted in 122 documents in stage 2. After analyzing the
abstracts, 14 documents were eliminated, resulting in 108 documents for analysis in stage
3. The exclusion criteria removed duplicate documents, papers without complete biblio-
graphic information, and those which did not present objectives related to technologies in
the Construction 4.0 context.
Therefore, the 108 documents selected for analysis in stage 3 represent a critical
global view of research focused on Construction 4.0 and emerging technologies. The first
five documents were published in 2019; in 2022, there were 41 publications; and by June
2023, there were 13 publications. The annual growth rate of publications was 69.2% be-
tween 2019 and 2022. The leading countries in this field’s publications were the UK (n =
16), USA (n = 13), and United Arab Emirates (n = 9). The predominant subject area was
engineering (n = 39, 35.77%), but there was an essential contribution from computer sci-
ence (n = 20, 18.34%) and social sciences (n = 10, 9.17%). “Buildings” (n = 14), “Sustainabil-
ity” (n = 9), “Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in
Construction” (n = 8), and “Automation in Construction” (n = 6) were the most relevant
publication sources.
Table 1 displays how often 21 different technologies are identified and mentioned in
the 108 selected documents and the total number of articles focusing on each technology.
We obtained the frequency of citations through bibliometric analysis in VOSviewer using
the “Full keyword” and “Full count” options. We determined the total number of articles
for each technology through content analysis.

Table 1. Technologies and processes mentioned in the option “all keyword” and number of articles
(n = 82).

n. Articles/Year
Technologies/Processes Keyword Frequency
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023/06 Total
1 BIM 48 2 2 4 7 1 16
2 Cyber-physical systems 18 - - - 1 - 3
3 Internet of Things (IoT) 18 - 1 1 2 1 5
4 Automation 17 - 1 1 5 - 7
5 Robotics/industrial robot 15 - - 2 3 1 6
6 Cybersecurity 13 - - 3 3 - 6
7 Learning systems/deep learning 12 - - - - 2 2
8 3D printing 12 1 2 - - - 3
9 Digital twins 11 - - 5 2 1 8
10 Embedded systems 11 - - - - - 0
11 Machine learning 11 - 1 2 - 1 4
12 Artificial intelligence 9 - 1 1 1 - 3
13 Augmented reality 7 - 1 2 - - 3
14 Big data/digital storage 7 - - - 1 - 1
15 Virtual reality 7 - - - 3 2 5
16 Blockchain 4 - - - 2 - 2
17 Drones 4 - 1 - 2 - 4
18 Sensor 4 - 1 - - - 1
19 Terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) 4 - - - 2 - 2
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 6 of 24

20 Photogrammetry 3 - - - 1 - 1
21 Prefabrication/Modular construction 3 - - 1 - - 1
The total number of articles focusing on each technology 82

Furthermore, we note that of the 108 original articles, 82 focus on Construction 4.0
technologies. The other 26 articles consist either of systematic review papers (n = 11) that
cover 46 different technology-related terms presented in Appendix A [6,7,10–18], or doc-
uments (n = 15) discussing technologies in a broader sense and their effects on the civil
construction industry, including sustainability, education, life cycle, infrastructure works,
customization, and lean construction [56–69]. Further analysis focused on the 108 papers
that focused on Construction 4.0 technologies. All 108 documents were analyzed for bib-
liometric and content analysis to identify emerging technologies and their impact on the
construction industry within the context of Construction 4.0.
Figure 3 displays the co-occurring keywords. The node size indicates how frequently
a keyword appears in the literature, and the link density between nodes illustrates how
often they are cited together.

Figure 3. Co-occurrence keywords for search 1

We can see three clusters with the expected synergies between the construction in-
dustry/Construction 4.0 and Industry 4.0. The first cluster (red) is centered on BIM, the
second cluster (green) focuses on Construction 4.0 and technologies, followed by a third
cluster (blue) around automation. Table 2 presents the items that form each of the clusters.
These three clusters encompass research on innovative technologies and processes used
in the Construction 4.0 context. There is also a strong link between the three clusters, as
highlighted in Figure 4.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 7 of 24

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. Co-occurrence keywords for search 1: (a) cluster 1; (b) cluster 2; (c) cluster 3.

Table 2. Cluster content.

Cluster 1—Red Cluster 2—Green Cluster 3—Blue

BIM Construction 4.0/Construction Industry
3D printing
AR
Digital twins
VR
Building/Construction
Architectural design
Industry 4.0/industrial revolutions
Lean construction
Sustainability/sustainable development
Automation
construction projects AI
Cyber-physical systems Internet of Things (IoT)
cyber security Machine learning
Robotic Deep learning
digital technologies/digitalization Learning systems
embedded systems Big data
life cycle Project management
Risk assessment Construction management

Furthermore, Table 1 summarizes the 21 emergent technologies found in the 108 se-
lected previous literature. These studies reflect the work of researchers from various coun-
tries, including Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, the United States, the United King-
dom, Spain, and South Africa. The global representation of research efforts suggests that
these technologies are widely used and recognized globally.
The findings require thorough discussion as some items mentioned as “technologies”
may not fit that definition. Additionally, there are instances where the same technology is
referred to using different terms, such as 3D printing and additive manufacturing. Some-
times, technology is mistaken for a concept, process, or equipment. Furthermore, Building
Information Modeling (BIM) can be seen as a technology and a digital process utilized for
planning, designing, constructing, and operating buildings and infrastructure [70].
In the same way, we did not consider prefabrication or modular construction [71] as
a technology in itself. These construction processes have been in use at scale since the
1900s. Embedded systems are not a technology but one or a set of technologies installed
in equipment with specific purposes, for example, the scanner or thermal camera installed
on a drone. We believe this generalization is due to the lack of an adequate taxonomy that
defines and differentiates technologies, processes, and equipment within the context of
Construction 4.0.
By analyzing keyword co-occurrence and links (Figures 3 and 4a, and Table 1), we
see that BIM undoubtedly plays a central role in the digitization of the construction in-
dustry towards Construction 4.0. BIM has aroused the interest of both industry and aca-
demia [11] and consolidated itself as a trending theme for research and application in all
phases of the construction life cycle [43]. Our findings indicate that BIM, as a process of
virtual representation of buildings and infrastructure, has advanced with the
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 8 of 24

incorporation of AR, VR, Blockchain, and IoT, among other technologies [72–75]. Beyond
that, we believe that BIM is an enabler of using those technologies. This is because BIM
allows for the digitization of design and construction data. Without this data, using many
other technologies would not be feasible.
Computer vision applications such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality
(AR) have been used in the whole building lifecycle from the planning, construction, op-
erational/maintenance stages, and workforce training. Virtual tours can be created as a
sales tool, allowing potential buyers to immerse themselves in the designed spaces. The
workspace can also be simulated virtually with AR and VR to train or predict risk situa-
tions. Moreover, as already mentioned, integrating these technologies with BIM has im-
proved design and management processes [26–32].
As a result of the digital transformation, large amounts of data are generated. Artifi-
cial intelligence (AI) technology incorporating deep learning, machine learning [1,33–36],
and learning systems have been used to systematically analyze these data and develop
predictive models. Big data, cloud computing, blockchain, and cybersecurity [37,42] have
been used to store, manage, and share large amounts of data. Intelligent systems trans-
form data into shared information and support decision-making, management, and mon-
itoring at various stages of the construction life cycle.
Several technologies, such as laser scanners, GIS, GPS, and RFID, have been em-
ployed for data acquisition in the context of Construction 4.0 [76–78]. These systems can
be embedded in tools, equipment (trucks, excavators, etc.), and personal protective equip-
ment. They can also be embedded in autonomous vehicles such as drones ensuring more
flexibility, speed, economy, and security in these data collection operations [79–81].
Construction data can be collected in real-time and transmitted to other devices via
the Internet of Things (IoT). The collection and processing of data in real-time associated
with connectivity between equipment and predicting behavior through digital twins form
what is called cyber-physical systems (CPS) [21,25].
Construction industrialization as prefabricated and modular construction has been
taken to another level with automation robotics in manufacturing [19,20] and additive
manufacturing as 3D printing that can be used to manufacture components or entire
buildings on-site or off-site [82–86].
In Table 1, there are various technologies that are commonly mentioned, such as
cyber-physical systems, deep learning/learning systems, big data/digital storage, and em-
bedded systems. However, the number of articles that specifically address the implemen-
tation and effects of these technologies in the construction industry as a part of Construc-
tion 4.0 is limited.
The co-occurrence, frequent words, and cluster analysis allow identifying the rele-
vant technologies and the relationships/connections between them and with activities in-
herent to the planning, construction, and operation. However, it does not make explicit
the differences in perception or interests between academia and industry.
For example, research conducted by survey indicates that in China, only Building
Information Modeling (BIM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) had common in-
terest from industry and academia [6], while there are significant differences in perceived
technology use and level of implementation between academia and industry; 3D printing
and artificial intelligence are the technologies with the most common interest in the USA
[12]. Another survey conducted with construction industry professionals in Nigeria [14]
revealed good knowledge about automation, the Internet of Things, Building Information
Modeling (BIM), 3D printing, and big data; moderate understanding of cloud computing,
radio frequency identification (RFID), robotics, and augmented/virtual reality; and low
knowledge about cyber-physical systems (CPS) and embedded systems.

3.2. Search 2—Construction 4.0 Skills and Competencies (Question Q2)

Search 2 returned 15 documents and presented a global vision of research focused on
skills driven by Construction 4.0. The first documents were published in 2020 (n = 2),
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 9 of 24

showing significant growth in 2022, with 11 published articles. The leading countries in
this field’s publications were UK and South Africa (n = 3 each) and Malaysia, Spain, and
USA (n = 2 each). “Buildings” (n = 4) and “Frontiers in Education Conference—FIE” (n =
2) were the most relevant sources. The co-occurrence keywords are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Co-occurrence keywords.

Figure 5 visually represents the connection between Industry 4.0/Construction In-

dustry (red) and Construction 4.0 (green). These two research groups involve identifying
and analyzing skill requirements within the construction industry. The third group (blue)
focuses on engineering education and how emerging technologies can be used as learning
tools for developing Construction 4.0 skills among engineers and the workforce. How-
ever, we did not find any research cluster that looked explicitly at the impact of emerging
technologies on the workforce and the skills that are in demand.
Our results indicate that the impact of emerging technologies on demand for new
skills/competencies and professional engineering roles has not yet become a significant
Construction 4.0 research theme. However, it is possible to identify from the existing lit-
erature key competencies that are driven or demanded by construction 4.0 [45,46,50,51]—
(Appendix B—Table A2).
Overall, 34 skills related to Construction 4.0 were cited in the literature review. There
is agreement among authors on the relevance of soft skills, emphasizing Communication,
Problem Solving, Learning Agility/Active Learning, and Team Building/Collaboration.
Digital literacy [46,50,51], and Programming/coding [45,46,51] have been identified as fun-
damental skills for all workforce positions in the face of the digitization process of the civil
construction industry. Specific competencies such as management, quality control, auto-
matic manufacturing, the skill to use BIM, and cybersecurity have also been identified as
necessary for Construction 4.0.
The division of skills into technical and personal/interpersonal skills is evident. In
this paper, we will use the term “hard skill” to refer to technical skills and soft skills to
personal and interpersonal skills. Based on content analysis, we separated the documents
found in Search 2 into two groups. The first group of research focuses on identifying the
skills required for construction 4.0 and the new role of the workforce in this digital trans-
formation scenario. There is a consensus on the radical change in business models, the
roles of the workforce, and the need for new skills and abilities for Construction 4.0 [46,48–
51,87–90]. The second group focuses on engineering education research. Its objective was
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 10 of 24

to find ways to teach Construction 4.0 technologies or use them as a tool for teaching and
learning [47,91–94].
The impact of new technologies on the construction industry goes beyond the roles
and skills of the workforce. Garcia de Soto [46] points out organizational changes and new
workforce roles brought about by digital fabrication that blends prefabrication, digitiza-
tion, and construction automation. In digital fabrication, the role of project manager, en-
gineers and designers, construction manager, and site supervisor will be less demanded
by companies, and they must adapt to the use of new technologies and new interaction
and communication protocols with stakeholders in construction projects. However, other
positions and roles will be created such as digital fabrication management, digital fabri-
cation management coordinator, digital fabrication programmer, digital fabrication tech-
nician, and contractor’s digital fabrication programmer. These new functions are related
to using Construction 4.0 processes and technologies such as BIM, automation, and robot-
ics.
The other works analyzed follow a different line from Garcia de Soto [46], focusing
on identifying and discussing the necessary competencies without explicitly defining new
roles of the workforce in the context of Construction 4.0. For Bolpagni et al. [45], the critical
elements of Construction 4.0 are technologies, concepts/methodologies, and skills. The
main obstacle to developing Construction 4.0 is the lack of personal and interpersonal
skills (soft skills) such as communication, relationship skills, leadership, problem-solving,
capacity to learn, change, adapt, and evolve.
Adepoju and Aigbavboa [51] recognize the importance of interpersonal/personal
skills (soft skills); however, relevant gaps still need to be identified in these skills. On the
other hand, the author identified a more significant technical skill gap (hard skills) in Hu-
man–Machine Communication, Data Analysis, Cybersecurity, and Computer Program-
ming. The findings were the results of a survey approach research on gaps in knowledge
and skills among professionals in the construction industry with a focus on ten pre-se-
lected skills.
Yang [50] identified 22 construction-related competencies in a literature review fo-
cused on leadership skills. These competencies were categorized into four groups: cogni-
tion, interpersonal communication, business, and strategy. While not explicitly stated, the
competencies are separated into personal/interpersonal skills (soft) and technical skills
(hard). They are intended for management roles in the construction industry, specifically
leadership positions. In the same way, lack of leadership, poor managerial skills, and
workforce education and skills gaps are identified as significant barriers for the construc-
tion industry [70].
The construction industry is currently facing a challenge to train its workforce, which
may become even more difficult in the future. To investigate this issue, data from the Eu-
ropean Union–Eurostat statistical office and scientific papers published between 2015 and
2020 were analyzed by [88]. The findings revealed significant gaps between the skills cur-
rently possessed by the workforce and those needed in the construction industry [88].
In the current context, we need to focus on training future professionals in the con-
struction industry and the current workforce. Survey research on the construction sector
in Central Europe shows that employees fear losing their jobs because of new technologies
and insufficient skills [48]. In order to improve the productivity of the current workforce,
it is important to offer training that helps them acquire new skills and enhance their cur-
rent skills [49].
Despite the necessary skills, Construction 4.0 technologies must be used in civil en-
gineering, construction management, and architecture curricula teaching–learning pro-
cesses. Our findings indicate an emerging research niche linking the concepts of Construc-
tion 4.0 and its technology with engineering education. Strategies and activities seeking
developing skills related to digital technologies, programming, digital twin, VR, and AR
have been discussed in the literature [47,91,92]. Additional general discussion about
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 11 of 24

introducing emerging technologies in the engineering curriculum and teaching is also

present in the Construction 4.0 literature [93,94].

4. Synthesis
After conducting research, we have identified 21 technologies and processes to re-
spond to the first part of question 1. The top five most cited technologies and processes
are BIM, cyber-physical systems, Internet of Things (IoT), automation, and robotics/indus-
trial robots. Additionally, the five technologies and processes with the most publications
and specific studies are BIM [43,44,95–108], digital twins [21,92,109–114], automation
[19,20,76,115–118], robotics [118–124], cybersecurity [41,42,125–128], and Internet of
Things (IoT) [75,129–132].
Previous review articles have identified and analyzed the importance and use of
emerging technologies in the context of Construction 4.0 [6,7]. These technologies have
caused profound changes in the design, construction, and management processes, bring-
ing more integration between the different phases of the construction as well as between
professionals, investors, clients, and others involved in projects in the construction indus-
try.
The digitalization of design, construction, and management processes is already a
consolidated reality through the use of Building Information Management (BIM) [95–108].
The integration of BIM with other technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented
reality (AR) means an advance in the visual representation and simulation of construction
processes, allowing everything from improvements in business strategies (sales and con-
tacts with potential customers) to the prediction of risk situations for workers [26–32].
However, the digital construction industry needs data. Data are collected to feed dig-
ital systems that generate more data that need to be transformed into information. In this
context, technologies for data collection gain importance, such as laser scanner, Geo-
graphic Information System (GIS), global positioning system (GPS), and radio frequency
identification (RFID) [56,77,78]. Artificial intelligence (AI) technology has been used to
mine data, transforming it into information to make decisions [33] and the Internet of
Things (IoT) allows the systematic sharing of data and information. For data security and
online contractual or financial transactions, the construction industry has adopted block-
chain [39,40] and cybersecurity [41,42].
AI-based tools can be used to generate innovative designs and improve construction
and operating safety, reducing embodied and operational energy requirements, reducing
operating costs and payback periods, and increasing sustainability [34–36].
Real-time data acquisition, processing, and sharing technologies can be used to create
digital twins that allow the simulation of physical systems (e.g., buildings, bridges, dams,
or infra-structure) for testing different scenarios, predicting risk situations, need for pre-
ventive maintenance, or improve performance [112–114]. The integration of sensing tech-
nologies, digital modeling, and networking into physical objects connecting them to the
internet and to each other are named cyber-physical systems [23,25].
The contextualization of some of the Construction 4.0 technologies in the previous
paragraphs outlines a new profile for the construction industry with profound impacts
that are not yet completely known.
Although no studies were explicitly conducted to analyze the impact of innovative
technologies on civil construction, to answer the second part of question 1, the literature
provides insights and projections about the changes these technologies are expected to
bring. The introduction of innovative technologies and the subsequent digital transfor-
mation of the construction industry are expected to enhance productivity, promote
greater integration among the various stakeholders in the sector, integrate among the mul-
tiple phases of the construction process, reduce waste, and improve labor safety at con-
struction sites [8,10,58–60,70].
New technologies have brought about safer work environments for the workforce.
However, there is a concern about potential job loss resulting from job closures or changes
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 12 of 24

to job roles. The need for continuous knowledge updates at all levels of the production
chain also directly affects the construction industry workforce [46–49].
Few studies were found that have classified or grouped technologies according to
their use within different stages of the construction project lifecycle [16,18,70]. In [16], five
clusters are used to group the concepts and technologies of Construction 4.0: Data Intelli-
gence, Robotics and Automation, Virtual environments, Smart objects and technologies,
and Advanced manufacturing, but it does not address application per project stage. Paper
[70] discusses the construction project lifecycle’s current and future applications of BIM,
AR, VR, AI, robotics, drones, and 3D printing. It suggests that robotics and 3D printing
will play a more significant role in the construction phase, while BIM, AR, VR, AI, and
drones have applications throughout all stages of the work’s life cycle. However, in [71],
technologies are treated independently and not grouped in clusters. Meanwhile, a de-
scription from [18] details the application of 47 “technologies” in the construction industry
through the construction project lifecycle. The clustering of technologies per project stage
allows for a high-level understanding of the implications of technology development in
each phase of the project life cycle.
Existing classifications have failed to establish a clear distinction between technology
and processes. Therefore, based on the findings, we suggest grouping and classifying tech-
nologies based on their similarities and applications. Based on our literature review re-
search synthesis, we propose a classification system that categorizes technologies accord-
ing to the tasks performed in the construction life cycle, specifically in planning, construc-
tion, and operation/monitoring. The adopted guidelines for grouping and classification
were as follows:
1. Artificial intelligence (AI) encompasses a set of technologies, such as machine learn-
ing and deep learning, which constitute learning systems that use data for analysis
and decision-making. Good data storage, mining, and sharing practices require the
simultaneous use of cloud computers, blockchain, and cybersecurity systems. This
group was called “AI-assisted technologies”.
2. The construction industry utilizes a range of technologies for automation, such as
robotics for industrial construction, drones that operate with minimal human inter-
vention, and advanced manufacturing techniques such as 3D printing that can func-
tion independently in both the site and off-site construction. These technologies were
classified as “advanced manufacturing”.
3. BIM as the process used in the planning, management, and operation of buildings
can be associated with visualization technologies such as virtual reality and improv-
ing and expanding the level of digital models towards digital twins and cyber-phys-
ical systems—CPS. These technologies were classified as “digital simulation and vis-
ualization”.
4. Wearable and portable technologies, embedded tools, and portable equipment con-
nected through IoT form a group called “smart tools”. This category is limited to
portable technology or can only be attached to workers’ equipment and clothing.
5. Various technologies used for data acquisition, including laser scanners, radio fre-
quency scanners, and location and geographic information systems, are grouped as
“data acquisition and detection” technologies. These technologies are mainly utilized
in specific construction sites or integrated into autonomous or non-autonomous ve-
hicles, such as drones, to optimize monitoring or data acquisition.
The technology groups defined and presented in Figure 6 can be used in all phases
of the work, as shown in Figure 7. In addition, Table 3 summarizes the activities that might
be influenced by these technologies, grouped by construction project stage. In the litera-
ture, definitions of these technologies and their potential usage in civil construction tasks
can be found in [6,8–10,16,18,60,70]. However, explanations of these technologies as
phases in the life cycle of the construction work, where each technology has a more sig-
nificant impact, are rare [9,10,16,18].
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 13 of 24

Figure 6. Proposed Construction 4.0 technology groups. Source: Authors’ text with icons from
https://www.freepik.com/ (accessed on 7 July 2023).

Figure 7. Technology groups and construction phase.

Table 3. Construction 4.0 technology groups and applications.

Technology Applications
Technologies
Group Planning Design Construction Operations
Artificial intelligence
Blockchain/big data
Feasibility Architec- Smart contracts, supply Labor management,
Machine learning
AI-assisted analysis tural and chain, financial flow, building manage-
Deep learning/Learning
technologies smart con- structural equipment management, ment, and durability
systems
tracts design labor management. monitoring.
Cybersecurity
Cloud computing
Robotics Loading material, dan-
Site assess-
automation gerous tasks, pre-fabrica-
Advanced ment and re-
Unmanned vehicles tion construction, pro-
manufacturing connaissance
3D printers ducing concrete, steel,
using drones
Internet of Things (IoT) and wood components.
Internet of Things (IoT) Construction site man- Real-time operation
Embedded systems agement, control, loca- and monitoring in
Smart tools Radiofrequency identifica- tion, and quality control use (vibration, defor-
tion (RFID) of materials, equipment, mation/displace-
QR code supply, and workers. ments).
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 14 of 24

digitaliza-
BIM tion, archi-
Digital simula-
Virtual reality tectural and
tion Construction monitoring Operation monitoring
Augmented reality structural
and visualiza- in real-time. in real-time.
Digital twins design,
tion
CPS manage-
ment
GIS/GPS
Laser Scanner
Operation monitor-
Data acquisi- RFID
Data acquisi- Site construction moni- ing.
tion and detec- Photogrammetry
tion toring. Smart home/smart
tion Sensors
building.
Drones
(IoT)

Related to education and training for Construction 4.0, there is a consensus on the
radical change in business models, the roles of the workforce, and the need for new skills
and abilities for Construction 4.0 [46,48–51,87–90]. Furthermore, new professional roles in
the construction industry require hard skills, which are knowledge and skills for using
and developing new technologies in the Construction 4.0 context. In this sense, knowledge
about BIM and its various uses and integration with other technologies stands out. Con-
sequently, knowledge of programming, data analysis, and visualization plays a funda-
mental role in the activities of civil engineers and construction managers.
Civil engineers, construction managers, and the workforce in general must have
knowledge and skills for planning, managing, and executing constructions by manufac-
turing and assembly processes. Therefore, we propose a grouping based on the compe-
tencies mentioned in the literature, grouping them into technical skills (hard) and per-
sonal/interpersonal skills (soft) that we believe will contribute to understanding the new
roles of the workforce in the construction industry—Table 4.
Communication, teamwork, problem-solving, decision-making, and critical thinking
are relevant soft skills, according to Construction 4.0 literature review [45,46,50,51]. In
Leadership, we group together skills mentioned in references such as Learning Agility,
Persuasion, Active Listening, Building Trust, Vision, and Time Management. Analo-
gously, Social Perception/Relationship, Active Learning, Empowerment/Encouragement,
and Failure Tolerance were grouped under Resilience.
Regarding technical skills, digital literacy and programming/coding are unanimous
in the literature [45,46,51]. Other technical skills cited in the literature were grouped into
Planning or Management. Automation and BIM are the technological processes identified
as having the most significant impact on the construction industry, and therefore, the
knowledge and skills to use these processes are essential.

Table 4. Grouped mentioned skills.

Personal/Interpersonal Skills Technical Skills

Communication Digital Literacy
Teamwork Programming/coding
Problem-solving Data analysis and management
Critical thinking Management (construction, manufactory, human and natural resources)
Leadership Planning (construction, manufactory, human and natural resources)
Resilience Automation processes
Decision making BIM process
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 15 of 24

Personal and interpersonal skills are crucial in all fields, especially the construction
industry. These skills play a key role in advancing the industry towards Construction 4.0.
However, there is still a gap in research when it comes to technical skills. It is challenging
to identify, classify, and categorize skills clearly and relate them to different professional
positions in the job market, especially for engineering and architecture professionals. This
is because there is no consistent definition of technologies, their application throughout
the design and construction process phases, and how they affect the workforce and or-
ganizational structure.
Based on our research, we did not observe a clear connection between the technolo-
gies we identified and the necessary skills or new position responsibilities of engineers
and construction managers. However, we propose an initial association in Figure 8 that
shows how the different technology groups are linked with the skills we identified in our
Construction 4.0 findings. This association could be further tested and developed by fu-
ture research.

Figure 8. Linking technologies and skills.

Insights from cited documents throughout this article have been used to create a Fig-
ure 8 scheme. It highlights the importance of both soft and hard skills in the construction
industry. Soft skills are necessary for all positions and activities, while digital literacy
seems to emerge as an essential hard skill required in every aspect of the industry
[46,50,51]. For example, the general construction workforce must have digital literacy to
use smart tools and operate data collection equipment. Moreover, data processing and
management through AI-assisted technologies will require programming/coding and
data analysis skills [45,51]. Automating construction processes with technologies from the
advanced manufacturing group and the project with simulation and visualization tech-
nologies required BIM, management, and planning skills [46].
In order to adequately train engineers for Construction 4.0 and equip them with the
necessary skills, it is imperative to modify the curriculum of engineering courses. These
changes must involve developing a competency-based curriculum that offers insight into
emerging technologies and utilizes technologies as teaching–learning tools. The goal is to
ensure students are well-prepared to handle and develop advanced construction technol-
ogies.

5. Conclusions
This study employed a scoping literature review method to identify and analyze
emerging technologies and Construction 4.0 professional skills in the Construction 4.0
context. Our findings reveal that industrial technologies in Construction 4.0 have captured
the interest and attention of researchers and industry. On the other hand, the impact of
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 16 of 24

technologies on the workforce and the identification of skills required by this new tech-
nological scenario in the construction industry is still an underexplored topic. Through
our results, discussions, and synthesis, we propose the following summary considera-
tions.
The literature review identified 21 technologies related to construction (Table 1). BIM,
cyber-physical systems, Internet of Things (IoT), automation, and robotics/industrial ro-
bots are the most cited in the context of Construction 4.0. BIM, digital twins, automation,
robotics, cybersecurity, and Internet of Things (IoT) are the five technologies and pro-
cesses with the most publications and specific Construction 4.0 framework.
However, only some frameworks are currently available to categorize and group
these technologies based on their usage, construction phase, or level of maturity. This lack
of organization can confuse defining these technologies in the context of Construction 4.0.
To address this gap, we categorized various technologies into five groups based on their
similarities and applications: AI-assisted technologies, Advanced Manufacturing, Digital
simulation/visualization, Smart tools, and Data acquisition/detection.
According to industry and academic perspectives, BIM plays a significant role in the
digitalization of construction. Research has shown a clear trend in integrating BIM with
other technologies such as VR, AR, and digital twin that can be used from the planning
phase to the operation phase. According to our findings, discussion, and synthesis results,
this convergence and integration of technologies is a trend in transforming the driven con-
struction industry, Construction 4.0.
Despite the emergence of new technologies, few studies have systematically investi-
gated their impact on the construction workforce. However, it is generally agreed that the
workforce will need to develop new skills to adapt to the changing demands of Construc-
tion 4.0. This necessitates the development of strategies to train and re-skill the current
and future workforce.
The skills required for the 4.0 workforce are still unclear, particularly in the context
of Construction 4.0. However, both personal/interpersonal skills (soft skills) and technical
skills related to emerging technologies (hard skills) are deemed equally important.
Among the hard skills, programming and BIM expertise in all its applications and inter-
actions with other technologies seem essential.
In our analysis and synthesis of the results, it was not possible to identify clear cor-
relations between technologies, processes, and skills. It is also not clear what the new roles
of the workforce will be in this new scenario of technological innovations contained in
Construction 4.0. Nonetheless, the research findings presented and analyzed can help de-
fine strategies for universities and companies in the change processes towards Construc-
tion 4.0, whether in the adoption of technologies or in workforce training. The research
findings help better understand how emerging technologies are being incorporated into
the construction industry and how they affect the workforce’s roles, particularly regard-
ing training and skill demands, and points out the need for continued future research on
this topic.
For future research, we suggest (i) identifying technologies and competencies
through survey and Delphi studies with participants from industry and academia; (ii) an-
alyzing differences in perception or interests between academia and industry about Con-
struction 4.0 technologies and skills that will impact the construction industry in the next
decade; (iii) identifying and comparing workforce roles and skills for unskilled laborers,
skilled laborers, administrative, and professional positions in the context of Construction
4.0; and (v) further exploring the connections between Construction 4.0 technologies and
the respective skills required proposed in this paper. These research suggestions can en-
hance the presented findings by exploring antecedents that enable industries to develop
strategic plans for ongoing technological transformations. Additionally, universities and
educational institutes can adapt to prepare professionals for the job market in line with
the principles of Industry 4.0, particularly in the field of Construction 4.0.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 17 of 24

The study was limited in identifying only 4.0 technologies and skills related to the
construction of 4.0 key concepts, and it relied solely on the Scopus database. The research
criteria established in the methodology with “Construction 4.0” as its primary key goal
only allowed the inclusion of research that establishes links between technologies and
skills with the concepts of Construction 4.0. Therefore, this article did not consider or cite
other emerging technologies and skills that have been studied outside this context. Fur-
thermore, a detailed description of the identified technologies and their applications is
outside the scope of the work.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.S.C.d.S. and L.D.; methodology, A.S.C.d.S. and L.D.;
validation, A.S.C.d.S. and L.D.; formal analysis, A.S.C.d.S. and L.D.; writing—original draft prepa-
ration, A.S.C.d.S.; writing—review and editing, A.S.C.d.S. and L.D.; supervision, L.D. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data is available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Identified emergent technologies terms in previous research.

References
Emergent Technologies Terms
[6] [7] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
1 Augmented reality (AR) X X X X X X X X X X X
2 BIM X X X X X X X X
3 3D printing X X X X X X X X X X X
4 Virtual reality (VR) X X X X X X X X X X
5 Big data X X X X X X X X
6 Robotics X X X X X X X
7 RFID X X X X X X X X
8 IoT X X X X X X X X X X
9 Cloud computing X X X X X X X
10 Artificial intelligence (AI) X X X X X X X
11 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/UASs) X X X X X
12 Mobile computer/device X X X X X X
13 Cyber-physical system (CPS) X X X X X
14 Blockchain X X X X X
15 Sensor X X X X
16 Simulation model X X X X
17 Machine learning (ML) X X X
18 Cybersecurity X X X
19 GIS X X X
20 Drones X X
21 Prefabrication/modularization X X X
22 Wearable technology X
23 Digital signature X X
24 Automation X X
25 Active bridge monitoring X
26 Advanced submersible X
27 Neural network (NN) X X
28 Deep learning (DL) X X
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 18 of 24

29 Digital twin X X
30 Laser scanning X
31 5G X X
32 Social media X X
33 Scanning and photogrammetry X X
34 Human–computer interaction (HCI) X X
35 New material X X
36 EDM X
37 GPS X
38 Distributed grid X
39 Proximity equipment safety technology X
40 Realtime audio translation X
41 Smart materials X
42 Smart vehicles and equipment X
43 Supercomputing X
44 TLS—Terrestrial laser scanning X
45 Horizontal and vertical system integration X
46 Product-lifecycle management (PLM) X

Appendix B

Table A2. Mentioned competencies/skills for Construction 4.0.

References
Competencies/Skill
[45] [46] [50] [51]
1 Communication X X X X
2 Problem-solving X X X X
3 Learning agility/active learning X X X
4 Critical thinking X X X
5 Team building/collaboration X X X X
6 Programming/coding X X X
7 Digital literacy X X X
8 Persuasion X X
9 Social perceptiveness/relationship X X
10 Strategy plan development X X
11 Decision making X X
12 Leadership X
13 Active listening X
14 Ethical X
15 Trust-building X
16 Financial management X
17 Talent management X
18 Resource allocation X
19 Empowerment/encouragement X
20 Visioning X
21 Environmental scanning X
22 Partnership development/coordination X
23 Tolerance to failure X
24 Gathering information X
25 Purpose-oriented X
Buildings 2023, 13, 2535 19 of 24

27 Cyber security X
28 Human–machine communication X
30 Capacity to change, adapt, and evolve X
31 Knowledge of BIM X
32 Control the manufacturing and assembly processes X
33 Cost and quality control X
34 Time management X

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