JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 17, NO.

2, JUNE 2019 161

Digital Object Identifier:10.11989/JEST.1674-862X.80730010

Infrared Radiance Simulation and Application

under Cloudy Sky Conditions Based on HIRTM
Jian-Hua Qu | Jun-Jie Yan* | Mao-Nong Ran

Abstract—An algorithm based on hyperspectral infrared cloudy radiative transfer model (HIRTM) is introduced and
a simulation method for infrared image of the generation geostationary meteorological satellite is proposed. Based
on the parameters from weather research and forecast (WRF), such as the water content, atmospheric temperature,
and humidity profile, the simulation data for the advanced Himawari imager (AHI) infrared radiative (IR) channels of
Himawari-8 are obtained. Simulated results based on HIRTM agree well with the observed data. Further, the
movement, development, and change of the cloud are well predicated. And the simulation of IR cloud image for the
weather forecast has been obtained. This paper provides an improved method for evaluation and improvement of
regional numerical model for weather forecast.

Index Terms—Hyperspectral infrared cloudy radiative transfer model (HIRTM), regional numerical model, satellite
cloud image.

1. Introduction
The meteorological satellite data has attracted lots of attention of research institutes, companies, and
governments for its unique characteristics and advantages[1]. High-resolution remote sensing data plays a key role
in the fields of weather analysis and forecasting, climate change research[2], environmental monitoring[3], and
disaster prevention and reduction[4],[5], which is critical for the economic development of a country.
Recently, the weather forecast theory and the data acquisition technology have been improved effectively.
Meanwhile, methods and technologies have been greatly improved for weather forecast. However, the catastrophic
weather, such as rainstorm, is still hard to be predicted, and the meteorological departments are unable to present
a timely warning for residents[6]. In addition, the rainstorm details (time, location, and intensity) and prediction
timeliness still have great limitations. Therefore, making full use of the observed data, especially the high-resolution
data of the new geostationary meteorological satellite, is one of the effective means to improve the early warning
and the prediction of the disaster weather in the future.
The new generation geostationary meteorological satellites has been launched by China, United States, and
Japan. These satellites carry advanced high-resolution observation instrument (1-minute to 15-minute
observational frequency, 0.5 km to 4.0 km spatial resolution), which can be helpful to increase the forecast

*Corresponding author
Manuscript received 2018-07-25; revised 2018-09-19.
This work was supported by the Climate Change Special Project under Grant No. CCSF201834.
J.-H. Qu, J.-J. Yan, and M.-N. Ran are with Huayun Shinetek Company, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081,
China (e-mail: qujh@cma.gov.cn; yanjj@cma.gov.cn; ranmn@cma.gov.cn).
Publishing editor: Xin Huang

Copyright © 2019 University of Electronic Science and Technology of China. Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).
162 JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 2019

accuracy of weather and climate in China[7],[8]. Although the quantitative application of Fengyun-4 will be the main
development direction, the traditional qualitative identification (satellite cloud image) is still a popular method for
weather analysis and severe convective weather monitoring. With the high temporal and spatial resolution of the
multi-spectral infrared brightness temperature measurement, the forecasters need to recognize current weather
situation from the cloud map, and then predict the change of the mesoscale weather system in the next 1 day to
7 days according to the numerical weather forecast (NWP). Compared with the situation of NWP, simulated
satellite cloud images can provide more information for forecasters. The simulated method based on the NWP can
improve the effect of the observed data of the new geostationary meteorological satellite, which is significant for the
daily weather forecast.
Cloud simulation can convert the output of the NWP model into the simulated satellite cloud image, establishing
an operator or mapping between the atmospheric state and the satellite observation for transforming the
atmosphere parameters into satellite observed data.
Since cloud has great influence on the simulation results of the radiative transfer model, more attention has
been attributed to researches on cloud simulation under cloudy conditions. Two typical radiative transfer models,
the general radiative model community radiative transfer model (CRTM)[9] from United States and the radiative
transfer for the tiros operational vertical sounder (RTTOV)[10] developed by Europe, have been widely used.
Although these two models consider the radiative effects of aquatic products and have been improved effectively,
there are still lots of limitations in the simulation of the infrared band under the cloudy sky, especially in cloud
radiance or brightness temperature calculation. Aiming to solve the problems of slow calculation speed and low
precision, a fast and accurate radiative transfer model: Hyperspectral infrared cloudy radiative transfer model
(HIRTM)[11],[12], for infrared bands is proposed to improve the simulated accuracy of brightness temperature in the
cloudy sky based on RTTOV and CRTM. This research proposes a simulation system based on HIRTM by
transferring weather research and forecast (WRF) data to the simulated data.

2. Algorithm and Processes

The radiative transfer model is an observation operator, which is the fundamental for the direct assimilation of
satellite radiative data and cloud simulation. According to the atmospheric temperature, humidity profile, and
surface state variables, the fast radiative transfer model follows the observation direction (scanning angle) of the
satellite scanner and calculates the simulated observation value of the satellite in high precision by using the
spectral response function (SRF) of the instrument detection channel. The simulated results under the clear air
condition have quite high precision. In addition, the assimilation application of satellite data in current NWP model
should be under the clear air condition. However, the calculation precision under the cloudy and rain conditions
needs to be improved because of the complexity of the radiative effect of water.
Several key problems remain unsolved in the simulation of cloud atmosphere radiance in the infrared radiative
(IR) channels. Firstly, there are lots of uncertain parameters for both the numerical forecast and the radiative
transfer model in the cloud region. Secondly, the results of the satellite observation may not be consistent with the
results of the numerical prediction. Thirdly, the atmospheric temperature and humidity in the clear sky and cloudy
sky have obvious structural differences in the vertical direction. Lastly, the energy of infrared radiance in the cloudy
region is more nonlinear than other atmospheric parameters[12]. Based on the advantages and disadvantages of
various models, HIRTM considers the atmospheric transmittance caused by molecular absorption, cloud
absorption, and scattering of water under the condition of cloud. Further, compared with the simple cloud region
simulation, HIRTM considers the cloud scattering and absorption model based on the parameters of the effective
cloud top, cloud phase, cloud particle size, and cloud optical thickness.
QU et al.: Infrared Radiance Simulation and Application under Cloudy Sky Conditions Based on HIRTM 163

2.1. Calculation of Clear Air Atmospheric Radiance

The calculation of clear sky atmospheric radiance is relatively mature. The atmospheric state can be
interpolated into the vertical pressure layer of the radiative transfer model from the NWP prediction field by the
method of linear interpolation, and then the reliable and accurate infrared brightness temperature calculation can be
carried out. The calculation of atmospheric transmittance model is critical among the calculation of clear sky
radiance. So, based on the typical high temperature humidity profile library and the corresponding accurate
transmittance, the linear regression model is applied to calculate the transmittance coefficient to realize the rapid
calculation of the atmospheric transmittance. Moreover, the atmospheric transmittance, radiance, and brightness
temperature could be calculated according to the real-time profile.
HIRTM divides the atmospheric vertical layer from 0.005 hPa to 1100 hPa into 101 layers. The atmospheric
transmittance calculation model is from the stand-alone 98 radiative transfer algorithm (SARTA)[13],[14].

2.2. Cloud Radiative Model

In the cloudy sky, different shapes and sizes of cloud and particles have much complex scattering and
absorption characteristics in different optical wavebands. Therefore, a lookup table is built, which includes different
types of cloud optical thicknesses, cloud particle sizes, and transmittance and reflectivity functions. The model
assumes that the cloud is in a plane parallel, uniform, and horizontal isothermal layer in a given perspective. In
addition, the model also offers a given angle of view to calculate the absorption of energy by the mixture including
nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, ozone, and carbon dioxide. The main elements of the model include the cloud
types, equivalent cloud top pressure height, 0.55-μm cloud optical thickness, and cloud particle size. In the model
of cloud absorption and scattering, cloud is divided into water cloud and ice cloud. Water cloud is assumed to be a
spherical droplet. Meanwhile, the classical Lorenz-Mie theory is applied to calculate its single scattering
characteristics. For ice cloud, the single scattering properties[14] are calculated according to the particle size
assumption of large particles (more than 300 μm), hexagonal geometric crystals (50 μm to 300 μm), and small
particles of supercooled water ice droplets (below 50 μm). The visible light thickness is set to be 0.55 m. The
optical thickness of the infrared band can be calculated by the mean extinction coefficient:
Qe( ) = vis hQ( )i =2 (1)
where Qe( ) is the volume average extinction coefficient, vis is the visible optical thickness at 0.55 m, and
Q( ) is the cloud optical thickness for the IR channel.
In this model, the discrete coordinate radiative transmission (DISORT) method is used to establish the
parameter lookup table based on different cloud optical thicknesses, cloud sizes, single scattering albedo, and
asymmetric factors, which can be checked[14] in accordance with the radiative characteristics of ice clouds and
water clouds. Through coupling of the optical thickness of the clear sky and the optical effect of the cloud, the cloud
radiance of the given IR channel can be calculated. The optical effects of cloud can be obtained based on the
principles of radiative transfer and the lookup tables of reflection and transmission of the cloud. Hence, the cloud
radiative transfer equation can be obtained for radiance simulation of the given infrared channels.
The effective single cloud is only considered in the cloud model, which can simulate the cloud region radiance
under multiple cloud conditions[11],[13],[15].
If we consider only the radiative effects of single layer cloud (Fig. 1), the radiative transfer equation can be
described by
R=R 0F T C + RC C + R 1 + R 1# F R C (2)

where R 0 indicates the upward of cloud top radiance; F T is the cloud transmittance; R C is the cloud radiance;
164 JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 2019

R 1 is the upward of cloud radiance; C is the air

#
transmittance of the cloud top; R 1 indicates the
downward of cloud top atmosphere radiance; F R is R0FTτC R0τC R1 R1↓FRτC
the cloud reflection. Single
Height layer
Focused on HIRTM, the attenuation function of cloud
cloud radiance is simplified for transmission and
reflection. DISORT is used to calculate the
transmittance and reflectivity lookup table related to the
Surface
effective radius of the particles, optical thickness,
content of ice cloud and water cloud, angle of Fig. 1. Diagram of an effective single layer cloud
observation, and center wavelength. After comparing assumption.
with the actual the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) observations, HIRTM has the following
advantages (compared with RTTOV and CRTM): The calculation speed is several times than that of RTTOV and
CRTM; the calculation precision[11] is far superior to that of RTTOV; the cold deviation is better than that of CRTM.

2.3. Simulation Processes

HITRM was designed for the infrared hyper-spectral channel, but it was also applied to the multispectral
channel[12]. HITRM was applied to the simulation of the infrared channel for Himawari-8 advanced himawari imager
(AHI). The central wavelength and spatial resolution of AHI/ABI/AGRI are show in Table 1.

Table 1: Central wavelength and spatial resolution of AHI/ABI/AGRI bands

Himawari-8/AHI GOES-R/ABI FY-4A/AGRI

Center Spatial Center Spatial Center Spatial
Channel Channel Channel
wavelength (μm) resolution (km) wavelength (μm) resolution (km) wavelength (μm) resolution (km)
1 0.46 1.0 1 0.47 1.0 1 0.46 1.0
2 0.51 1.0 2 0.64 0.5 2 0.64 0.5 to 1.0
3 0.64 0.5 3 0.86 1.0 3 0.86 1.0
4 0.86 1.0 4 1.37 2.0 4 1.38 2.0
5 1.60 2.0 5 1.60 1.0 5 1.61 2.0
6 2.30 2.0 6 2.20 2.0 6 2.25 2.0 to 4.0
7 3.90 2.0 7 3.90 2.0 7 3.80 (high) 2.0
8 6.20 2.0 8 6.29 2.0 8 3.80 (low) 4.0
9 7.00 2.0 9 6.90 2.0 9 6.50 4.0
10 7.30 2.0 10 7.30 2.0 10 7.20 4.0
11 8.60 2.0 11 8.40 2.0 11 8.50 4.0
12 9.60 2.0 12 9.60 2.0 – – –
13 10.40 2.0 13 10.30 2.0 – – –
14 11.20 2.0 14 11.20 2.0 12 11.00 4.0
15 12.30 2.0 15 12.30 2.0 13 12.00 4.0
16 13.30 2.0 16 13.30 2.0 14 13.30 4.0

Besides the spectral response function of the instrument, the real-time atmospheric state and optical
transmission path need to be determined in the cloud simulation of the geostationary meteorological satellite. The
real-time state of the atmosphere comes from the numerical forecast data, and the transmission path mainly
considers the influence of the zenith angle of the satellite. In this paper, the output product of WRF is used as the
input parameters of the numerical forecast data of HIRTM. As a popular mesoscale prediction model, WRF3.5.1 is
applied and the initial field is used as the input of the global forecast field of National Environmental Prediction
Center.
It is necessary to calculate the atmospheric transmittance of the channel according to the spectral response
QU et al.: Infrared Radiance Simulation and Application under Cloudy Sky Conditions Based on HIRTM 165

function of the instrument, the transmission function, and the albedo function of different types of clouds (cirrus
cloud, water cloud, and ice cloud) under different wavelengths and optical thicknesses. These parameters
participated in the lookup table for real-time computation, which effectively improves the computational efficiency.
With WRF simulation results, the parameters, such as the wind speed, mixture ratio of cloud, water, and ice
(see Table 2), are obtained to calculate the effective particle radius of the type of cloud water available. According
to the effective particle size and mixing ratio, the optical thickness of the visible light is calculated including water,
ice, rain, snow, snow pellets (shotgun, soft hail), and
liquid path. The size and the cloud pressure of the Table 2: List of parameters
effective particles are calculated, including the cloud, Number Parameters Physics parameters
liquid cloud, solid cloud, water cloud, ice cloud, rain 1 U10 10 m wind speed U-vector

cloud, snow cloud, and cloud state (The cloud state is 2 V10
3 PSFC
divided into water cloud and ice crystal cloud). 4 TSK
The Strow-Woolf model[16],[17] of the middle dry gas, 5 T2
6 Q2
water vapor, and ozone in the rapid transfer model of
7 HGT
satellite instrument is established based on the satellite 8 LU_INDEX
zenith angle, and then the transmittance coefficients of 9 QVAPOR
10 QCLOUD
the 101 layers are calculated. The water formation 11 QRAIN
cloud in the atmosphere is used, then the transmissivity 12 QICE
and reflectivity of the cloud are obtained. 13 QSNOW
10 m wind speed V-vector
Surface pressure
Surface temperature
2 m temperature
2 m mixing ratio
Surface height
Surface category number
Mixing ratio of water vapor
Mixing ratio of water cloud
Mixing ratio of water rain
Mixing ratio of ice
Mixing ratio of snow

Calculating Transmissivity Calculating the

Albedo
satellite zenith function of the effective
coefficient
angle instrument channel particle radius

Building strow- Calculating the

Woolf model optical thickness of
effective particles

Calculating the
channel transmittance Calculating the size
coefficients of effective
particles and the
cloud state

Calculating the
Calculating the transmittance and
radiation of clear sky reflectivity of the
cloud

Calculating the temperature of the

top atmosphere and coupling
radiation of clear sky and cloud

Fig. 2. Flow chart of cloud simulation process.

166 JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 2019

Finally, the brightness temperature on the top of the atmosphere is calculated by coupling the clear sky and
cloud radiance. The simulation calculation process is shown in Fig. 2.

3. Results and Discussion

From July 29 to July 31 in 2017, No. 1709th typhoon "NESAT" and No. 1710th tropical storm "HAITANG"
landed in Fuqing, Fujian, China. The merger of typhoons and storms affected the eastern part of China[18].
Meanwhile, in the east of Japan, the 1705th typhoon "NORU” moved to the south of Ogasawara Islands, and
was affected by the high temperature of the sea and the lower vertical wind shear. So, "NORU" began to form
convective ring, and then the wind eye gradually opened. Finally, the “NORU” typhon gradually burst.
Using the 0.5×0.5 degree forecast data of national centers for environmental prediction (NCEP) on July 28,
2017 as the input and running the WRF model, we obtain the 24 hour numerical prediction of WRF in 9 km
horizontal resolution in China and the surrounding sea area (0° to 55° N, 70° E to 145° E). When using this data to
perform the cloud simulation test on Himawari-8 AHI, we obtain the simulated cloud images with the resolution of
9 km.
Fig. 3 shows the simulated brightness temperature (K) of Channels 9 to 16 of AHI at 0:00 o’clock on July
29, 2017. The data was all projected by Lambert. The tropical storm “HAITANG” was basically taken shape
and “NESAT” was ready to land. Meanwhile, the cloud system around “NARU” began to develop vigorously
with a clear spiral.
The simulation results from different channels can clearly identify the spiral structure of the typhoon, the location
of the outer cloud system, and the center of the typhoon. At the same time, the water vapor transport path can be
clearly seen in the water vapor channel.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the comparison of Channel 9 (7.1 μm) AHI and Channel 14 (11 μm) cloud simulation and
observed data. The NWP data has 9 km resolution, which is consistent with the simulated data after the
reprojection of the observation data. The simulated cloud images of the water vapor channel (Channel 9 to 11) and
infrared channel (Channels 12 to 16) agree well with the actual observation clouds in the clear sky area, typhoon
center area, and large range of rainfall cloud areas. It well reflects the transport of the large cloud system, structure
of the typhoon cloud system, and position of the typhoon. However, the surrounding cloud system of the typhoon is
weak and the structure is loose.
Meanwhile, in the south of “NORU”, there is a large rain cloud cannot be simulated in all channels. The
reason of the lack of simulation results may lay in two aspects: Firstly, the error of cloud parameters
prediction in numerical prediction. The cloud top pressure is calculated from the effective particle size of the
numerical prediction and the mixture ratio of cloud water. The accuracy of the cloud top pressure directly
affects the number of the integral in the calculation process. Therefore, the top of the cloud is high, but the
observational radiance of the cirrus clouds is mostly below the cirrus cloud, leading to the lower simulation
results of the cirrus cloud than the observation. Secondly, at present, HIRTM is weak in simulating the thick
ice cloud[11]. Therefore, further research attention should be paid to the cloud models and parameters used.

4. Conclusions
The earth is covered by cloud, and the meso scale weather system is often accompanied by occurrence,
development, and decline of cloud. Therefore, the simulation of infrared radiance brightness temperature in cloudy
conditions plays a key role in weather forecast.
In this paper, the satellite cloud images were simulated by using HIRTM with Himawari-8 AHI, and then the
QU et al.: Infrared Radiance Simulation and Application under Cloudy Sky Conditions Based on HIRTM 167

Longitude (°) Longitude (°)

70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E 70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E
50N 50N
40N 40N
Latitude (°)

Latitude (°)
30N 30N
20N 20N
10N 10N
EQ EQ
Channel 9 Channel 10
187.5 211.8 236.2 260.5 183.4 211.5 239.6 267.7
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)

70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E 70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E
50N 50N
40N 40N
Latitude (°)

Latitude (°)
30N 30N
20N 20N
10N 10N
EQ EQ
Channel 11 Channel 12

184.2 221.5 258.7 296.0 199.2 220.5 241.9 263.3

Longitude (°) Longitude (°)

70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E 70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E
50N 50N
40N 40N
Latitude (°)

Latitude (°)

30N 30N
20N 20N
10N 10N
EQ EQ
Channel 13 Channel 14
184.4 222.5 260.5 298.6 189.4 228.1 266.8 305.5

Longitude (°) Longitude (°)

70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E 70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E
50N 50N
40N 40N
Latitude (°)

Latitude (°)

30N 30N
20N 20N
10N 10N
EQ EQ
Channel 15 Channel 16
189.4 227.9 266.4 305.0 189.9 222.7 255.6 288.5

Fig. 3. Simulated brightness temperature (K) of AHI from Channels 9 to 16.

atmospheric profile and cloud parameters obtained by WRF. Compared with the actual observation cloud image,
the results showed that the HIRTM model could well simulate the brightness temperature under cloudy condition.
The simulation of all kinds of cloud systems was consistent with the actual observation cloud image, though the
error of the numerical forecast may lead to differences.
While, cloud observation only reflects the past or real-time weather processes, and it is unable to predict the
future weather situation. With HIRTM, the future satellite cloud map can be simulated, the movement and change
168 JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 2019

Longitude (°) Longitude (°)

70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E 70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E
50N 50N

40N 40N
Latitude (°)

Latitude (°)
30N 30N

20N 20N

10N 10N

EQ EQ
Channel 9 Channel 10
187.5 211.8 236.2 260.5 187.5 211.8 236.2 260.5
(a) (b)

Fig. 4. UTC 2017-7-29 00:00 simulated brightness temperature (K) for Himawari-8 AHI (Channel 9): (a) simulated data
and (b) observed data.

Longitude (°) Longitude (°)

70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E 70E 85E 100E 115E 130E 145E 160E
50N 50N

40N 40N
Latitude (°)

Latitude (°)

30N 30N

20N 20N

10N 10N

EQ EQ
Channel 9 Channel 10
187.5 211.8 236.2 260.5 187.5 211.8 236.2 260.5
(a) (b)

Fig. 5. UTC 2017-7-29 00:00 simulated brightness temperature (K) for Himawari-8 AHI (Channel 14): (a) simulated
brightness temperature (K) and (b) observed brightness temperature (K).

of the cloud system from the cloud map can be intuitively judged, and the condition of other systems, such as
rainstorms and typhoons, can be predicted. Further, the weather forecast can be improved and the losses caused
by disastrous weather can be reduced. Cloud simulation carried out by HIRTM can also check and improve the
numerical forecast model. Compared with the actual cloud image, the model and parameter scheme can be
evaluated, and the optimization and improvement can be made.
By comparing the simulation and observation of AHI, the satellite observation can be simulated under the
cloudy sky condition. To a certain extent, the infrared radiance can be used to predict the movement, development,
and change of typhoon. In addition, the research not only provides an important section for the weather forecast,
but also gives a method for the evaluation and improvement of the regional numerical model.

Acknowledgment
Thanks for the reviewers’ comments, the paper is significantly improved with their help.

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170 JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 2019

Jian-Hua Qu was born in Sichuan, China in 1976. He received the B.S. degree from Nanjing
University, Nanjing, China in 1999. He is a senior engineer with Huayun Shinetek Company, China
Meteorological Administration, Beijing, China. His research interests include data processing, image
processing, remote sensing, and climate change.

Jun-Jie Yan was born in Hubei, China in 1980. She received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from
Wuhan University, Wuhan, China in 2002 and 2005, respectively. She is the Chief Engineer with
Huayun Shinetek Company, China Meteorological Administration. Her research interests include big
data processing, image processing, weather forecast, and system architecture design.

Mao-Nong Ran was born in Sichuan, China in 1964. He received the B.S. degree from Nanjing
University in 1986. He is a senior engineer with Huayun Shinetek Company, China Meteorological
Administration. His research interests include data processing, image processing, and remote
sensing in atmosphere and sea.