Md.

Abdullah Al-Mamun
c`v_©weÁvb cÖ_g cÎ B.Sc.(Hons) 1st Class
M.Sc.(Physics) 1st Class
Associate Professor
Aa¨vq-10: Av`k© M¨vm I M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡ Dept. of Physics, DRMC
Cell- 01819102499
1| Av`k© M¨vm I Av`k© M¨v‡mi m~Îvejx|

msKU ZvcgvÎvi Dc‡i †Kv‡bv c`v‡_©i evqexq Ae¯’v‡K M¨vm e‡j| †h mKj M¨vm M¨v‡mi MwZZ‡Ë¡i †gŠwjK ¯^xKvh©mg~n
†g‡b P‡j Ges mKj ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c e‡qj I Pvj©‡mi m~Î hyM¥fv‡e †g‡b P‡j Zv‡`i‡K Av`k© M¨vm e‡j| Pvc, AvqZb, ZvcgvÎv-
GB wZbwU Pjivwki Ici M¨v‡mi AvPiY wbf©i K‡i e‡j G¸‡jv‡K M¨v‡mi Ae¯’vi Dcv`vb ev ZvcMwZq ¯’vbv¼ e‡j| M¨v‡mi AvPiY
ch©v‡jvPbvq weÁvbxMY cÖ_‡g Av`k© M¨vm we‡ePbv K‡ib Ges Av`k© M¨v‡mi D‡jøwLZ wZbwU Dcv`v‡bi †h †Kvb GKwU w¯’i †i‡L Aci
`ywUi g‡a¨ m¤úK© cÖwZôv K‡ib hv Av`k© M¨v‡mi m~Î bv‡g cwiwPZ| m~θ‡jv nj:
(K) e‡q‡ji m~Î (w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq Pvc I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK©)
(L) Pvj©‡mi m~Î (w¯’i Pv‡c AvqZb I ZvcgvÎvi g‡a¨ m¤úK©)
(M) Pvcxq m~Î (w¯’i AvqZ‡b Pvc I ZvcgvÎvi g‡a¨ m¤úK©)
(K) e‡q‡ji m~Î: Bs‡iR weÁvbx ievU© e‡qj 1662 mv‡j Zvui cixÿv jä djvd‡ji Dci wfwË K‡i w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi Pvc I
ZvcgvÎvi m‡a¨ m¤úK© cÖwZôv K‡ib hv e‡q‡ji myÎ bv‡g cwiwPZ| m~ÎwU wb¤œiƒc:
w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb wbw`©ó f‡ii Av`k© M¨v‡mi AvqZb Gi Dci cÖhy³ Pv‡ci e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| aivhvK, w¯’i Pv‡c †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó f‡ii
1
M¨v‡mi Pvc P Ges V AvqZb | Zvn‡j e‡q‡ji m~Îvbymv‡i, V  ev PV = K |
P
GLv‡b K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK hvi gvb M¨v‡mi fi, ZvcgvÎv I GK‡Ki c×wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| D³ mgxKiY‡K M¨v‡mi
m‡gvò mgxKiY e‡j| w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq wbw`©ó f‡ii †Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi Pvc P1 , P2 , P3 ,........., Pn n‡j hw` AvqZb h_vµ‡g,
V1 , V2 , V3 ........, Vn nq Z‡e e‡q‡ji myÎvbymv‡i, P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 =,............, = PnVn = K |

(L) Pvj©‡mi m~Î: divwm weÁvbx †R. Pvj©m 1787 mv‡j Zvui cixÿv jä djvd‡ji Dci wfwË K‡i w¯’i Pv‡c †Kv‡bv Av`k© M¨v‡mi
AvqZb I ZvcgvÎvi m‡a¨ m¤úK© cÖwZôv K‡ib hv Pvj©‡mi myÎ bv‡g cwiwPZ| m~ÎwU wb¤œiƒc:
w¯’i Pv‡c ‡Kv‡bv wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb 0 0 C †_‡K cÖwZ †Kjwfb e„w× ev n«vm Ki‡j D³ M¨v‡mi 0 0 C †h AvqZb nq Zvi
1
fvM e„w× ev n«vm cvq| aivhvK, w¯’i Pv‡c 0 0 C ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb V0 | Zvn‡j 0 0 C †_‡K cÖwZ
273
1
†Kjwfb ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ M¨v‡mi AvqZb V0 Gi fvM cwieZ©b n‡e| myZivs Pvj©‡mi myÎvbymv‡i,
273
1 2
10 C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi AvqZb n‡e V0 + V0 Gi , GKBfv‡e 2 0 C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi AvqZb n‡e V0 + V0 Gi
273 273
  273 +    T 
  0 C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi AvqZb, V = V0 + V0 Gi ev, V = V0   ev, V = V0    V  T
273  273   273 
A_v©r, wbw`©ó Pv‡c wbw`©ó f‡ii †Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi AvqZb Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK| GwU cig †¯‹‡j Pvj©‡mi m~Î|
(M) Pvcxq m~Î: weL¨vZ weÁvbx ‡i‡bv 1842 mv‡j Zvui cixÿv jä djvd‡ji Dci wfwË K‡i w¯’i AvqZ‡b †Kv‡bv Av`k© M¨v‡mi Pvc
I ZvcgvÎvi m‡a¨ m¤úK© cÖwZôv K‡ib hv ‡i‡bvi Pvcxq myÎ bv‡g cwiwPZ| m~ÎwU wb¤œiƒc:
1
w¯’i AvqZ‡b ‡Kvb wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc 0 0 C †_‡K cÖwZ †Kjwfb e„w× ev n«vm Ki‡j D³ M¨v‡mi 0 0 C †h Pvc nq Zvi
273
fvM e„w× ev n«vm cvq| aivhvK, w¯’i AvqZ‡b 0 0 C ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc P0 | Zvn‡j 0 0 C †_‡K cÖwZ
1
†Kjwfb ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ M¨v‡mi Pvc P0 Gi fvM cwieZ©b n‡e| myZivs Pvj©‡mi myÎvbymv‡i,
273
1 2
10 C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi Pvc n‡e P0 + P0 Gi , GKBfv‡e 2 0 C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi Pvc n‡e P0 + P0 Gi
273 273
  273 +    T 
  0 C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi Pvc, P = P0 + P0 Gi ev, P = P0   ev, P = P0    P  T
273  273   273 
A_v©r, wbw`©ó AvqZ‡b wbw`©ó f‡ii †Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi Pvc Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK| GwU cig †¯‹‡j ‡i‡bvi Pvcxq m~Î|
2| Av`k© M¨v‡mi Ae¯’vi mgxKiY: PV = nRT |

‡h M¨vm Pvjm© I e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j Zv‡K Av`k© M¨vm e‡j| wbw`©ó fi wewkó Av`k© M¨v‡mi Pvc ( P ), AvqZb ( V ) I
cig ZvcgvÎvi ( T ) g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcbKvix mgxKiY‡K Av`k© M¨vm mgxKiY e‡j| aiv hvK, †Kvb wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb,
Pvc I cig ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g V , P Ges T | e‡qj Ges Pvj©‡mi m~Î †_‡K h_vµ‡g cvB,
1
V , hLb T aªyeK|
p
Avevi, V  T , hLb P aªyeK|
T
myZivs, Abycv‡Zi m~Îvbymv‡i, V  , hLb me KqwU ivwk cwiewZ©Z nq| d‡j,
p
T PV
V =K ev, =K
P T
GLv‡b K GKwU aªye msL¨v, Gi gvb M¨v‡mi fi Ges GK‡Ki c×wZi Ici wbf©i K‡i| hw` T1,T2 ,.........Tn cig ZvcgvÎvq
P1 , P2 ,.........Pn Pv‡c †Kvb wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb h_vµ‡g V1 ,V2 ,.........Vn nq, Zvn‡j DcwiD³ mgxKiY Abymv‡i,
P1V1 P2V2 PnV n
= = .......... = K aªæeK
T1 T2 Tn
hw` GK †gvj ev GK MÖvg AYy M¨vm we‡ePbv Kiv nq Zvn‡j mKj M¨v‡mi Rb¨ GB aªæe msL¨vi gvb GKB nq| ZLb GB aªæeK‡K R
w`‡q wb‡`©k Kiv nq, Ab¨‡ÿ‡Î G‡K K w`‡q cÖKvk Kiv nq| myZivs GK †gvj M¨v‡mi Rb¨
PV
= R ev, PV = RT ..............................(1)
T
hw` GK †gvj ev GK MÖvg AYy M¨vm bv w`‡q m cwigvY M¨vm †bqv nq hvi AvqZb V Ges H M¨v‡mi AvYweK fi hw` M nq, Z‡e
M M
GK †gvj Z_v GK MÖvg AYy M¨v‡mi AvqZb n‡e V | myZivs (1) bs mgxKi‡Y V Gi cwie‡Z© V ewm‡q cvB,
m m
M M
P V = RT ev, PV = RT
m m
M
wKš‘, n‡”Q M¨v‡mi †gvjvi msL¨v hv c~Y© msL¨v ev fMœvsk n‡Z cv‡i| G‡K n w`‡q cÖKvk Kiv n‡j DcwiD³ mgxKiY `vuovq,
m
PV = nRT
GB mgxKiY n‡”Q e‡qj I Pvj©‡mi m~‡Îi mshy³ iƒc| GB mgxKi‡Y‡K mvaviYZ M¨vm mgxKiY ev Av`k© M¨v‡mi Ae¯’vi mgxKiY ejv
nq|

3| M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡ I Gi ¯^xKvh©¸‡jv|

c`v‡_©i AYyM‡jv MwZkxj ev Kw¤úZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K| M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i AYy¸‡jv `ªæZ MwZkxj| M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i AYyi AvPiY
ch©‡eÿY K‡i †h ZË¡ m„wó n‡q‡Q †mwUB M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡ bv‡g cwiwPZ| M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡‡K MvwYwZK wfwËi Dci cÖwZôv Kivi Rb¨
wb¤œwjwLZ K‡qKwU ¯^xKvh© cÖ‡qvRb| 1857 wLª÷v‡ã K¬wmqvm cÖ_g GB ¯^xKvh©¸‡jv eY©bv K‡ib| ¯^xKvh©¸‡jv nj :
• ‡Kvb GKwU M¨v‡mi AYymg~n GKB iKg, wewfbœ M¨v‡mi AYy wewfbœ iKg| AYy¸‡jv GK ev GKvwaK cigvYy wb‡q MwVZ|
• AYy¸‡jv we›`y fi ev fi KYv| G‡`i AvqZb M¨vm-cv‡Îi AvqZ‡bi Zzjbvq AZ¨šÍ bMY¨|
• M¨v‡mi AYy¸‡jv m¤ú~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK `„p †MvjK Ges (msNl© Qvov) ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ †Kvb AvKl©Y ev weKl©Y ej †bB|
• AYy¸‡jv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ Ges cv‡Îi †`qv‡ji mv‡_ av°v Lvq| msN‡l©i ga¨eZx© mg‡q AYy¸‡jv mg‡e‡M mij‡iLvq P‡j|
msNl©Kvj LyeB mvgvb¨| `ywU msN‡l©i ga¨eZx© mg‡q GKwU AYy †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K gy³ c_ e‡j|
• ‡h‡nZz AYy¸‡jv m¤ú~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK †MvjK, ZvB msN‡l©i c~‡e© I c‡i G‡`i fi‡eM I MwZkw³ msiwÿZ _v‡K|
• AYy¸‡jv wewfbœ MwZ‡Z G‡jv‡g‡jvfv‡e BZ¯ÍZ Qz‡UvQzwU ZK‡i Ges wbDU‡bi MwZm~Î †g‡b P‡j| G‡`i †eM k~b¨ ‡_‡K
Amxg ch©šÍ we¯Í…Z Ges mew`‡K cÖmvwiZ|
• Aby¸‡jvi ga¨eZx© `~i‡Z¡i Zzjbvq G‡`b AvqZb D‡cÿYxq|
• Aby¸‡jv mZZ mÂviYkxj| G‡`i †eM k~b¨ †_‡K Amxg ch©šÍ we¯Í…Z|
Av`k© M¨vm DcwiD³ ¯^xKvh©mg~n †g‡b P‡j| wKš‘, ev¯Íe M¨vm me †ÿ‡Î G me wbqg †g‡b P‡j bv|
4| MwZZ‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨ Av`k© M¨v‡mi Pvc, ‡eM I MwZkw³i ivwkgvjv cÖwZcv`b|
aivhvK, GKwU NbKvK…wZi cv‡Îi g‡a¨ ‡Kvb M¨vm ivLv n‡q‡Q Ges cv‡Îi †`qvj m¤ú~Y©fv‡e w¯’wZ¯’vcK I Gi cÖwZ cv‡k¦©i
ˆ`N©¨ l | Av‡iv aiv hvK, X A‡ÿi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e Aew¯’Z `ywU †`qvj A1 I A2 | cv‡Îi g‡a¨ C †eM wewkó GKwU AYy we‡ePbv
Kiv nj hvi X , Y I Z Aÿ eivei †e‡Mi Dcvsk h_vµ‡g u , v , w | aiv hvK, M¨v‡mi †gvU AYyi msL¨v N | aiv hvK,
we‡ewPZ AYywU A1 †`qv‡j av°v †L‡j AYyi fi hw` m nq Zvn‡j AYywU mu fi‡e‡M av°v Lv‡e| av°vi c~‡e© X Aÿ eivei
fi‡eM mu | av°vi c‡i D³ Aÿ eivei fi‡eM − mu |
AZGe, AYywUi fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b n‡e − mu − mu = −2mu
GKwU †`qv‡j GKevi AvNvZ Kivi ci Avevi †m †`qv‡j wd‡i G‡m
AvNvZ Ki‡Z AYy †h mgq †bq †m mg‡q AYy 2l `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i|
`yiZ¡ 2l
 `ywU av°vi ga¨eZx© mgq= =
‡ eM u
− 2mu u − mu 2
AZGe, cÖwZ †m‡K‡Ð AYyi fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b = = −2mu  =
2l / u 2l l
wKš‘ wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq m~Î Abymv‡i GK †m‡K‡Ð fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b cÖhy³ e‡ji mgvb| A_©vr D³ AYywUi Dci †`qvj KZ…©K
− mu 2
cÖhy³ ej= | wbDU‡bi MwZi Z…Zxq m~Î Abymv‡i H AYywU GKB cwigvY ej †`qv‡ji Dci wecixZ w`‡K cÖ‡qvM K‡i|
l
+ mu 2
AZGe, AYywU Øviv †`qv‡j cÖhy³ ej | AZGe, M¨v‡mi N msL¨K KZ…©K A1 Z‡j cÖhy³ †gvU ej,
l
m 2
Fx = (u1 + u 2 + ........u N ) GLvb, u1 , u2 ..... BZ¨vw` n‡jv 1, 2..... BZ¨vw` AYy¸‡jvi †e‡Mi X eivei Dcvsk|
2 2

l
Avgiv Rvwb, Pvc n‡jv GKK †ÿÎd‡ji Dci cÖhy³ ej|  l 2 ‡ÿÎdjwewkó A1 †`qvj Pvc,
mN  u1 + u 2 + ........u N 
2 2 2
F m Nmu 2
Px = 2 = 2 (u1 + u 2 + ........u N ) ev, Px = 3 = 
2 2 2
 ev, Px = 3 .........(1)
l l l l  N  l
cx_v‡Mviv‡mi m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ †`Lv‡bv hvq, †h †Kvb AYyi Rb¨ C 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2  Mo eM© †e‡Mi Rb¨ C 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2
‡h‡nZz, N GKwU e„nr msL¨v Ges AYy¸‡jv Pviw`‡K BZ¯ÍZ Ny‡i †eovq, ‡m‡nZz Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, u 2 = v 2 = w2
C2 NmC 2
A_©vr C 2 = 3u 2  u 2 = | Gevi, Px = Py = Pz = P a‡i (1) bs mgxiKY n‡Z cvB, P =
3 3l 3
GLv‡b, l 3 n‡jv cv‡Îi AvqZb| wKš‘, MwZZ‡Ë¡i ¯^xKvh© Avbymv‡i cv‡Îi AvqZbB n‡e M¨v‡mi AvqZb V |
1 1 Nm 2 1 21 2
 PV = NmC 2 ev, P = C  P = C 2 ev, P = C 2 P = E
3 3 V 3 32 3
1
GLv‡b, E =  C 2 nj GKK AvqZ‡bi M¨v‡mi Mo MwZkw³| A_v©r M¨v‡mi Pvc Gi GKK AvqZ‡bi AYy¸‡jvi MwZkw³ `yB
2
1 1 mN
Z…Zxqvsk| GLb Av`k© M¨v‡mi mgxKiY †_‡K cvB, PV = nRT |  NmC 2 = nRT ev, nM C 2 = nRT [ n = ]
3 3 M
1 3 3
ev, M C 2 = 3RT ev, M C 2 = RT ev, Ek = RT
2 2 2
AZGe, GK MÖvg AYy †h †Kvb M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK| Avevi, GK MÖvg AYy †h †Kvb M¨v‡m mgvb msL¨K
AY~ _v‡K- hvi gvb‡K A¨v‡fvM¨v‡Wªv msL¨v ( N A ) e‡j| AZGe, †h †Kvb M¨v‡mi GKwU AYyi MwZkw³,
3 R 3
Ek = T ev, Ek = kT GLv‡b k ‡K †evj&Rg¨vb aªæeK e‡j hvi gvb 1.28 10 −23 Jk −1 |
2 NA 2
1 1 mN 3RT 3RT
NmC 2 = nRT ev, nM C 2 = nRT [ n = ] ev, M C = 3RT ev, C 2 = ev, C 2 =
2
Avevi,
3 3 M M M
3RT
ev, Crms =  C rms = T | AZGe, M¨vm AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡eM Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK|
M
5| Mo gy³c_ I Gi ivwkgvjv|

Mo gy³c_: ci¯úi `ywU av°vi g‡a¨ †h †Kvb GKwU AYy †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i †m `~iZ¡¸‡jvi Mo wb‡j †h gvb cvIqv hvq Zv‡K H
AYyi Mo gy³ c_ ejv nq| hw` n msL¨K av°vi g‡a¨ AYy †gvU S `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zvn‡j
S
Mo gy³ c_, =
n
ivwkgvjv: aiv hvK, Ave× M¨v‡mi cÖwZ GKK AvqZ‡b AYyi msL¨v N Ges cÖwZ AYyi e¨vm d |
GLb wnmv‡ei myweavi Rb¨ Avgiv g‡b Ki‡ev †h, Ab¨vb¨ AYy¸‡jv w¯’i Av‡Q, ïaygvÎ †h AYywUi
Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e GwUB mÂiYkxj| GB mÂiYkxj AYywU H me AYy¸‡jvimv‡_ av°v
Lv‡e †h me AYyi †K›`ª Gi †K›`ª †_‡K d `~i‡Z¡i g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z| mÂiYkxj AYywUi MwZ‡eM
hw` v nq, Zvn‡j GK †m‡KÛ mg‡q H AYywU †h me AYyi mv‡_ av°v Lv‡e Zviv wbðqB v ˆ`‡N©¨i
Ges d e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨ _vK‡e A_©vr AYy¸‡jv d 2 v AvqZ‡b Ave× _vK‡e|
GLb, GKK AvqZ‡b AYyi msL¨v = N |
 d 2 v AvqZ‡b AYyi msL¨v= d 2vN |  av°vi msL¨v = d 2vN ev, n = d 2vN |
S v l
Avevi, †h‡nZz mÂiYkxj AYywU 1sec mg‡q v `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i,   = = 2 = 2 |
n d vN d N
l
K¬wmqvm Mo gy³c‡_i G m¤úK©wU cªwZôv K‡ib| ZvB K¬wmqv‡mi Mo gy³c‡_i ivwkgvjv n‡jv:  = |
d 2 N
l
• g¨v·I‡qj Zvui †eM eÈb m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Mo gy³c‡_i †h ivwkgvjv wbY©q K‡ib Zv n‡jv:  = |
2d 2 N
3
• †evëR&g¨vb mKj Abyi Mo‡eM mgvb a‡i Mo gy³c‡_i †h ivwkgvjv wbY©q K‡ib Zv n‡jv:  = |
4d 2 N
6| ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv I g¨v·I‡q‡ji kw³i mgwefvRb bxwZ|
¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv: GKwU e¯‘i MwZkxj Ae¯’v m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cÖKvk Kivi Rb¨ hZ msL¨K ¯^vaxb Pjivwki cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡K ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv
e‡j| †hgb- GKwU GK cigvYweK M¨vm AYyi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv wZbwU| Avevi, GKwU wØcvigvYweK M¨vm AYyi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv cvuPwU-
wZbwU nj ˆiwLK MwZi Rb¨ Ges `ywU N~Y©b MwZi Rb¨| †Kvb M¨vm Aby‡Z cigvYy msL¨v n n‡j Ges cigvYy¸‡jvi cvi¯úwiK Ae¯’vb
msL¨v r n‡j ¯^vaxbZvb gvÎv, N = 3n − r | wKš‘, mKj Av`k© M¨v‡mi ¯^vaxbZvi gvÎv n‡jv wZbwU|
kw³i mgwefvRb bxwZ: †Kvb MZxq e¨e¯’vi †gvU kw³ Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯’vq wewfbœ ¯^vZš¿¨ msL¨vi g‡a¨ mgfv‡e ew›UZ nq| cÖ‡Z¨K ¯^vZš¿¨
1
msL¨vi kw³i cwigvb nq kT | GwUB kw³i mgwefvRb bxwZ| 1859 mv‡j weÁvbx g¨v·I‡qj m~ÎwU cÖ`vb K‡ib|
2
cÖgvY: M¨v‡mi MwZZË ¡ Abymv‡i, Zvcxq mvg¨ve¯’vq wZbwU Aÿ X , Y , Z eivei †Kvb M¨vm AYyi †eM C - Gi Dcvsk¸‡jvi Mo eM©gvb
ci¯úi mgvb| A_v©r u 2 = v 2 = w2 | Kv‡RB Dcvsk †eM¸‡jvi Avbylw½K MwZkw³ mgvb|
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 mu 2 = mv 2 = mw2 wKš‘, C 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2 Ges u 2 = v 2 = w 2 |  mu 2 = mv 2 = mw2 =  mC 2 |
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1
Avevi, mC 2 = kT |  mu 2 = mv 2 = mw2 =  kT ev, mu 2 = mv 2 = mw2 = kT
2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2
1
AZGe, cÖ‡Z¨K AYyi ¯^vZš¿¨ msL¨vi kw³i cwigvb nq kT |
2
7| Rjxqev®ú Pvc I evqyi Pvc: Rjxqev®ú Pvc I evqy Pv‡ci g‡a¨ m¤úK©|
Rjxqev®ú n‡”Q cvwbi M¨vmxq Ae¯’v| cvwb ev®úxf’Z n‡q evZv‡mi mv‡_ wg‡k _vK‡j Zv n‡”Q Rjxqev®ú| cvwb †Lvjv ¯’v‡b ivL‡j Gi
gy³ Zj n‡Z AbeiZ AYy ev®úvqb cÖwµqvq ev®úxf’Z n‡q evqyi mv‡_ wg‡k hvq| evqygÛ‡j Rjxqev‡®úi cwigvY wewfbœ mg‡q wewfbœ nq| †hgb,
el©vKv‡j evqy‡Z Rjxqev‡®úi cwigvY Lye †ewk Ges kxZKv‡j evqy‡Z Rjxqev‡®úi Kg _v‡K| cvwb Qvov Ab¨vb¨ Zij c`v‡_©iI ev®úvqb nq|
‡Kv‡bv Zij c`v_©‡K GKwU Ave× cv‡Î †i‡L w`‡j ev®úvq‡bi d‡j †`Lv hv‡e †h, H cvÎ µgk ev®úØviv c~Y© n‡”Q|
ev‡®úi AYy¸‡jv mvaviYZ M¨v‡mi g‡Zv G‡jv‡g‡jvfv‡e Ny‡i †eovq| d‡j AYy¸‡jv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_, cv‡Îi †`qv‡ji
mv‡_ Ges Zi‡ji gy³Z‡j av°v Lvq| G av°vi `iyY AYy¸‡jv cv‡Îi †`qv‡j Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i| G Pvc‡K ev®ú Pvc ejv nq|
wKš‘, wKQzÿY ci Ave× cv‡Î ivLv Zij n‡Z ev®úvqb eÜ n‡q hvq| KviY H Ae¯’vq H ¯’vb mev©waK cwigvY ev®ú Øviv
c~Y© nq|G Ae¯’vq evqy‡Z AYyi msL¨v evo‡Z evo‡Z Ggb GK ch©v‡q Av‡m hLb Zij †_‡K ev®úxf’Z AYyi msL¨v I Zi‡j
wd‡i Avmv AYyi msL¨v mgvb nq| G Ae¯’vq H Ave× ¯’v‡b Zi‡ji AYyi msL¨v m‡ev©”P Ges ev‡®úi PvcI me©vwaK nq|
G Ae¯’vq ev®ú‡K m¤ú„³ ev®ú Ges ev‡®úi Pvc‡K m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc e‡j|
wb‡Pi cixÿvi mvnv‡h¨ Rjxqev®ú Pvc I evqy Pv‡ci g‡a¨ m¤úK© †`Lv‡bv nj:
 GKB iKg cÖvq GK wgUvi j¤^v GK gyLeÜ KvP bj weï× cvi` Øviv c~Y© K‡i Aci GKwU cvi` c~Y© cv‡Z Dcyo K‡i ivLv
n‡jv| evqygÛjxq Pvc Abymv‡i b‡ji cvi` wKQzUv wb‡P †b‡g wM‡q Dfq b‡ji cvi` ¯Í¤¢ GKUv wbw`©ó D”PZvq w¯’i nq Ges Dc‡i
wKQzUv k~b¨ ¯’vb m„wó nq| GB k~b¨ ¯’vb‡K Uwi‡mwji k~b¨ ¯’vb e‡j| G Ae¯’vq cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv h1 n‡j evqygÛjxq Pvc,
P1 = h1 g |
GLv‡b  n‡”Q cvi‡`i NbZ¡ Ges g n‡”Q H ¯’v‡bi AwfKlx©q Z¡iY|
GKwU evuKv wc‡c‡Ui mvnv‡h¨ †h †Kvb GKwU b‡j †dvuUv †dvuUv cvwb cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv n‡j †`Lv hvq b‡j
cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv ax‡i ax‡i K‡g hv‡”Q| cvwb cvi` A‡cÿv nvjKv e‡j cvi` Dc‡i D‡V hvq Ges
Uwi‡mwji k~b¨ ¯’v‡b `ªæZ ev®úvwqZ nq| GB ev®ú Pv‡c cvi` ¯Í¤¢ wb‡P †b‡g Av‡m| cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv
n«v‡mi cwigvb †_‡K ev®ú Pv‡ci cwigvY wbY©q Kiv hvq|
GLb b‡ji g‡a¨ cvwbi cwigvY ax‡i ax‡i e„w× Ki‡Z _vK‡j GK mgq †`Lv hv‡e cvwb Avi
ev®úvwqZ bv n‡q cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i Dci mwÂZ n‡”Q Ges cvi` ¯’¤¢ Avi wb‡P bvg‡Q bv| G †_‡K ‡evSv hvq
Uwi‡mwji k~b¨ ¯’vb Rjxq ev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³ n‡q †M‡Q| G Ae¯’vq Uwi‡mwji k~b¨ ¯’v‡b Rjxq ev®ú †h
Pvc †`q Zv m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc| Uwi‡mwji k~b¨ ¯’vb Rjxq ev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³ Ae¯’vq cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv h2 n‡j Gi Pvc,
P2 = h2 g |
Gevi m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc F n‡j, P1 = P2 + F
ev, h1 g = h2 g + F
ev, F = (h1 − h2 )g
ev, F = hg  h = h1 − h2 |
myZivs m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®úPvc evovi mv‡_ mv‡_ evqyi Pvc Kg‡Z _v‡K|

8| m¤ú„³ ev®ú Ges Am¤ú„³ ev‡®úi cv_©K¨|

m¤ú„³ ev®ú: wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv Ave× ¯’vb mev©waK †h cwigvY ev®ú aviY Ki‡Z cv‡i, †m cwigvY ev®ú †mLv‡b _vK‡j H
ev®ú‡K m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j| m¤ú„³ ev®ú †h Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i _v‡K m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc e‡j|
Am¤ú„³ ev®ú: wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv Ave× ¯’vb mev©waK †h cwigvY ev®ú aviY Ki‡Z cv‡i, Zv A‡cÿv Kg ev®ú †mLv‡b _vK‡j H
ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j| Am¤ú„³ ev®ú †h Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i _v‡K Am¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc e‡j|
wb‡Pi Q‡K m¤ú„³ I Am¤ú„³ ev‡®úi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kiv n‡jv:
m¤ú„³ ev®ú Am¤ú„³ ev®ú
1| GKwU Ave× ¯’v‡b ˆZwi Kiv hvq| 1| GKwU Ave× ev †Lvjv †h †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡b ˆZwi Kiv hvq|
2| hw` †Kv‡bv Ave× ¯’v‡b Zij c`v‡_©i ms¯ú‡k© wKQz ev®ú 2| hw` †Kv‡bv Ave× ¯’v‡b ev®ú _v‡K wKš‘ Zij c`v_© bv _v‡K
_v‡K Z‡e H ev®ú m¤ú„³ ev®ú| Z‡e H ev®ú Am¤ú„³ ev®ú|
3| m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡qj I Pvj©‡mi m~Î gv‡b bv| 3| Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡qj I Pvj©‡mi m~Î ‡g‡b P‡j|
4| GKwU wbw`©ó cwigvY m¤ú„³ ev‡®úi ZvcgvÎv w¯’i †i‡L 4| GKwU wbw`©ó cwigvY Am¤ú„³ ev‡®úi ZvcgvÎv w¯’i †i‡L
Zvi AvqZb µgvMZ evov‡Z _vK‡j GK mgq H ¯’vb ev‡®ú Zvi AvqZb µgvMZ Kgv‡Z _vK‡j GK mgq H ¯’vb ev‡®ú
Am¤ú„³ nq| m¤ú„³ nq|
5| ZvcgvÎv e„w× K‡i GKwU wbw`©ó cwigvY m¤ú„³ ev®ú‡K 5| ZvcgvÎv n«vm K‡i GKwU wbw`©ó cwigvY Am¤ú„³ ev®ú‡K
Am¤ú„³ ev‡®ú cwiYZ Kiv hvq| m¤ú„³ ev‡®ú cwiYZ Kiv hvq|
6| m¤ú„³ ev‡®ú Zij †_‡K DwÌZ AYyi msL¨v Zi‡j wd‡i 6| Am¤ú„³ ev‡®ú Zij †_‡K DwÌZ AYyi msL¨v Zi‡j wd‡i
Avmv AYyi msL¨vi mgvb nq| Avmv AYyi msL¨v †_‡K †ewk nq|

9| wkwkiv¼: †Kv‡bv ¯’v‡bi ZvcgvÎv 300 C Ges wkwkiv¼ 200 C Kx eySvq|

evqygÛ‡ji Rjxq ev‡®úi aviY ÿgZv ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©i K‡i| ZvcgvÎv e„w× †c‡j Rjxq ev®ú aviY ÿgZv ev‡o| Avevi
ZvcgvÎv n«vm †c‡j Rjxq ev®ú aviY ÿgZv K‡g| evqygÛj Rjxq ev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³ n‡j H evqygÛj Avi Rjxq ev®ú aviY Ki‡Z
cv‡i bv| mvaviYZ evqygÛ‡j †h Rjxq ev®ú _v‡K, Zvi Øviv evqygÛj m¤ú„³ nq bv| wKš‘ evqy ax‡i ax‡i kxZj n‡Z _vK‡j, †Kv‡bv
GK ZvcgvÎvq evqy‡Z Dcw¯’Z Rjxq ev®ú ØvivB evqy m¤ú„³ nq| †h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evq Gi g‡a¨ Dcw¯’Z
Rjxq ev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³ n‡q hvq Zv‡K wkwkiv¼ e‡j|
†Kv‡bv ¯’v‡bi ZvcgvÎv 300 C Ges wkwkiv¼ 200 C ej‡Z eySv hvq, H ¯’v‡bi evqy 300 C ZvcgvÎvq Rjxq ev®ú Øivi Am¤ú„³
wKš‘, ZvcgvÎv Kwg‡q 200 C Kiv n‡j evqy Gi g‡a¨ Dcw¯’Z Rjxq Øviv m¤ú„³ n‡q hvq|
10| Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv: ﮋ I wm³ evj&e nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv wbY©q|
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv: ‡Kvb mg‡q wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evqy‡Z Dcw¯’Z Rjxq ev‡®úi fi I GKB ZvcgvÎvq GKB AvqZ‡bi
evqy‡K m¤ú„³ Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Rjxq ev‡®úi f‡ii AYycvZ‡K H ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv e‡j| hw` G‡K R Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq,
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq wbw`ó AvqZ‡ bi evqy‡ Z Dcw¯’ Z Rjxq ev‡¯úi fi
Zvn‡j Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv, R =
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq H AvqZ‡ bi evqy‡ K m¤ ú„³ Ki‡ Z cª ‡ qvRbxq Rjxq ev‡¯úi fi
‡h‡nZz wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi Rjxq ev‡®úi fi Pv‡ci mgvbycvwZK,
evqygÛ‡ j Rjxq ev‡¯úi Pvc
R=
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq H ¯’ vb † K m¤ ú„³ Ki‡ Z cª ‡ qvRbxq Rjxq ev‡¯úi Pvc
wkwkiv‡¼ m¤ ú„³ Pvc
ev, R =
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ ú„³ Rjxq ev‡¯úi Pvc
mvaviYZ evqyi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv‡K kZKiv wn‡m‡e cÖKvk Kiv nq| aiv hvK, wkwkiv‡¼ m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc f Ges evqyi ZvcgvÎvq
f
m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc F | AZGe, Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv, R = 100%
F
ﮋ I wm³ evj&e nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv wbY©q:
h‡š¿i eY©bv: GB h‡š¿ GKB iKg `ywU cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi Av‡Q †h¸‡jv cvkvcvwk Dj¤^fv‡e GKwU Kv‡Vi †d«‡gi
mv‡_ jvMv‡bv _v‡K| GKwU _v‡g©vwgUvi evqygЇji ZvcgvÎv cÖ`vb K‡i, Ab¨wUi evj&‡e gmwj‡bi ev wj‡b‡bi
cj‡Z Rov‡bv _v‡K Ges GB cj‡Z GKwU cv‡Î ivLv cvwbi g‡a¨ Wzev‡bv _v‡K| cvwb gmwjb ev wj‡bb
†e‡q Ic‡i I‡V Ges _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj&e‡K me mgq wfRv iv‡L| gmwjb ev wj‡bb †_‡K cvwb ev®úvwqZ nq
d‡j wm³ evje _v‡g©vwgUvi ﮋ evje _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †P‡q Kg ZvcgvÎv wb‡`©k K‡i| GB `yB ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
evqygÛ‡ji Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zvi Ici wbf©i K‡i| evqygÛ‡ji Av`ª©Zv Kg n‡j ev®úvqb `ªæZ nq, d‡j `yB ZvcgvÎvi
cv_©K¨ †ewk nq, Acic‡ÿ Av`ª©Zv †ewk n‡j ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ Kg nq| Avi hw` evqygÛj Rjxqev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³
nq, Z‡e †Kvb ev®úvqb nq bv d‡j Dfq _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvV GKB nq|
Kvh©c×wZ: †h ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e ‡mB ¯’v‡b hš¿wU‡K †i‡L Gi _v‡g©vwgUvi `ywUi cvV
†bqv nq| Gici †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ wkwkiv¼ †ei K‡i Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Kiv nq| g‡b Kiv hvK, ﮋ I wm³ evje
_v‡g©vwgUv‡i wb‡`©wkZ ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g  1 Ges  2 , Ges H mg‡q wkwkiv¼  |
Zvn‡j †MøBmv‡ii m~Îvbymv‡i, 1 −  = G (1 −  2 ) ev,  = 1 − G(1 −  2 )
GB mgxKiY †_‡K wkwkiv¼ wbY©q Kiv hvq, GLv‡b G n‡”Q 10C ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K| wkwkiv¼ cvIqv †Mj †i‡bvi
ZvwjKv †_‡K wkwkiv†¼ (  ) m¤ú„³ Rjxqev‡®úi Pvc f , evqyi ZvcgvÎvq ( 1 ) m¤ú„³ Rjxqev‡®úi Pvc F wbY©q K‡i Av‡cwÿK
f
Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Kiv hvq| myZivs R = 100%
F
11| wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î|
wee„wZ: e¯‘i c„‡ôi cÖK…wZ I †ÿÎdj AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j wewKi‡Yi Rb¨ e¯‘ †h nv‡i Zvc nvivq Zv e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv I cwicv‡k¦©i
ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡K¨i mgvbycvwZK| ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ hLb Kg n‡e ZLb GB m~Î Kvh©Ki n‡e|
dQ
e¨vL¨v: ‡Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv  , Gi cwicv‡k¦©i ZvcgvÎv  0 Ges e¯‘ KZ©„K ewR©Z Zv‡ci nvi − n‡j, GB m~Îvbymv‡i,
dt
dQ dQ
−  ( − 0 ) ev, − = K ( − 0 ) ............................(1)
dt dt
GLv‡b K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK hvi gvb e¯‘i c„‡ói ‡ÿÎdj I cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| hw` e¯‘i fi m, Av‡cwÿK Zvc s nq
dQ d
Ges dt mg‡q e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv hw` d n«vm cvq Z‡e e¯‘ KZ…©K ewR©Z Zvc, dQ = msd ev, = ms
dt dt
d d K d
 mgxKiY (1) n‡Z cvB, − ms = K ( − 0 ) ev, − = ( − 0 ) ev, − = K ( − 0 ) ..................(2)
dt dt ms dt
myZivs (2) bs mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv n«v‡mi nvi A_©vr kxZjxKi‡Yi nvi Gi wbR¯^ ZvcgvÎv I cwicv‡k¦©i
ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡K¨i mgvbycvwZK| GRb¨ GB m~·K wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î ej nq|
12| wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY c×wZ‡Z Zi‡ji Av‡cwÿK Zvc wbY©q|
wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~‡Îi Ici wfwË K‡i Zij c`©v‡_i Av‡cwÿK Zvc wbY©q Kiv hvq| wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~ÎwU nj,
Ô‡Kvb e¯‘ wewKi‡Yi Rb¨ †h nv‡i Zvc nvivq Zv e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv Ges Zvi cvwicvwk¦©i ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡K¨i mgvbycvwZK| Ó hw` †Kvb
Dò Zij c`v_©‡K Zvi cvwicv‡k¦©i mv‡c‡ÿ †ewk ZvcgvÎvq ivLv nq Zvn‡j Dò Zij c`v_© KZ…©K ewR©Z Zv‡ci nvi wbf©i K‡i :
(K) Zij c`v‡_©i ZvcgvÎvi Ici
(L) cvwicv‡k¦©i ZvcgvÎvi Ici
(M) Zij c`v‡_©i gy³Z‡ji †ÿÎd‡ji Ici
(N) Zij c`v_© †h cv‡Î ivLv nq †mB cv‡Îi Dcv`v‡bi Ici
(O) cv‡Îi †`qv‡ji †ÿÎd‡ji Ici|
hw` `ywU wfbœ Zi‡ji †ÿ‡Î DcwiD³ kZ©¸‡jv Awfbœ nq Zvn‡j Zv‡`i Zvc eR©‡bi nvi GKB n‡e, Zvc eR©‡bi nvi Zij c`v_©
`ywUi a‡g©i Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
Kvh©cÖYvjx: (1) GKwU ﮋ I cwi®‹vi K¨vjwiwgUvi wb‡q Gi fi cwigvc Kiv nq| K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii GKwU wbw`©ó `vM ch©šÍ Kÿ
ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q 250 C ‡_‡K 300 C D”P ZvcgvÎvi cixÿYxq Zij c`v_© w`‡q c~iY Kiv nq|
(2) Gevi K¨vjwiwgUvi‡K GKwU Zvc wb‡ivaK cÖ‡Kv‡ô †i‡L bvovwb w`‡q AbeiZ bvov nq Ges GKwU my ‡e`x
_v‡gv©wgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ GK wgwbU ci ci ZvcgvÎvi cvV †bqv nq|
(3) Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv Kÿ ZvcgvÎvq †cŠQ‡j Zijmn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi cwigvc Kiv nq| GB fi †_‡K K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii
fi ev` w`‡q Zij c`v‡_©i fi wbY©q Kiv nq|
(4) Gici K¨vjwiwgUvi †_‡K Zij c`v_© †d‡j cwi®‹vi K‡i ïwK‡q wbw`©ó `vM ch©šÍ Kÿ ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q 250 C
‡_‡K 300 C D”P ZvcgvÎvi cvwb Øviv c~iY Kiv nq Ges GKB c×wZ‡Z D”P ZvcgvÎv †_‡K Kÿ ZvcgvÎv kxZj
Kivi mgq GK wgwbU ci ci ZvcgvÎvi cvV †bqv nq| c‡i cvwbi fi wbY©q Kiv nq|
‡jLwPÎ A¼b: Gevi GKwU QK KvM‡R Zij c`v_© I cvwbi mgq ebvg ZvcgvÎvi `ywU †jL A¼b Kiv nq| †jLwPÎ †_‡K †h †Kvb
GKwU ZvcgvÎv 10C Ges Aci GKwU ZvcgvÎv  20C ch©šÍ kxZj n‡Z Zij c`v_© Ges cvwbi KZ mg‡qi cÖ‡qvRb Zv MYbv Kiv
nq|
wnmve: aiv hvK, bvovwbmn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi = m1 Kg
cixÿY Zij c`v‡_©i fi = M Kg
cvwbi fi = m2 Kg
K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Zvc, S1 = Jkg − K −1
cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc, S2 = 4200Jkg −1K −1
cixÿY Zij c`v‡_©i Av‡cwÿK Zvc, S = Jkg − K −1
10C ‡_‡K  20C Gi kxZj n‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i mgq jv‡M= t1Sec
10C ‡_‡K  20C G kxZj n‡Z cvwbi mgq jv‡M= t 2 Sec
( Ms + m1s1 )(1 −  2 ) −1
 Zij c`v_© I K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Zvc eR©‡bi nvi = Js
t1
(m s + m1s1 )(1 −  2 ) −1
Ges cvwb I K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Zvc eR©‡bi nvi = 2 2 Js
t2
 kxZjxKiY Ae¯’v GKBiƒc _vKvq Zvc eR©‡bi GB `yB nvi mgvb n‡e| A_©vr ,
( Ms + m1s1 )(1 −  2 ) (m2 s2 + m1s1 )(1 −  2 )
=
t1 t2
t
ev, Ms = (m1s1 + m2 s2 ) 1 − m1s1
t2
1  t1  − −1
s= (m1s1 + m2 s2 ) − m1s1  Jkg K |
M  t 2 
MvwYwZK mgm¨vejx: (Av`k© M¨v‡mi m~Î msµvšÍ)

1| 0.64m cvi` Pv‡c Ges 390 C ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi AvqZb 5.7 10−4 m3 | cÖgvY Pvc I ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb KZ?

2| cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡ci wKQz M¨vm‡K DËß Kivq Pvc I AvqZb DfqB wظY n‡jv| M¨v‡mi P‚ovšÍ ZvcgvÎv KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
3| GKwU Ave× cv‡Îi M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 10 C e„w× Ki‡j Pvc 1% e„w× cvq| M¨v‡mi cÖv_wgK ZvcgvÎv KZ wbY©q Ki|
4| GKwU wmwjÛv‡i iwÿZ Aw·‡Rb M¨v‡mi AvqZb 1 10 −2 m 3 , ZvcgvÎv 27 0 C Ges Pvc 2.5 105 Pa | ZvcgvÎv w¯’i †i‡L
wKQz cwigvY Aw·‡Rb †ei Kiv n‡jv| G‡Z Pvc K‡g 1.3 105 Pa n‡jv| wmwjÛv‡i ‡_‡K wbM©Z Aw·‡R‡bi fi wbY©q Ki|

5| hw` R = 8.31JK −1mol −1 nq Z‡e 72cm cvi` Pv‡c Ges 27 0 C ZvcgvÎvq 20 g Aw·‡R‡bi AvqZb wbY©q Ki|
6| 1litre AvqZ‡bi GKwU cv‡Î 10 25 wU Aw·‡Rb AY~ Av‡Q| hw` cÖwZwU Aw·‡Rb AYyi fi 2.7  10 −25 g nq Ges g~j Mo
eM©‡eM 4  104 ms −1 nq Z‡e M¨v‡mi Pvc KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
7| ‡Kvb n«‡`i Zj‡`k †_‡K c„‡ô Avmvi c‡i GKwU evZv‡mi ey`ey‡`i AvqZb e„w× †c‡q 2 ¸Y nq| n«‡`i c„‡ô evqygЇji Pvc
105 Nm−2 n‡j n«‡`i MfxiZv KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
8| ‡Kvb n«‡`i Zj‡`k †_‡K c„‡ô Avmvi c‡i GKwU evZv‡mi ey`ey‡`i AvqZb e„w× †c‡q 3 ¸Y nq| e¨v‡ivwgUv‡ii cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i
D”PZv 75cm n‡j n«‡`i MfxiZv KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki| cvi‡`i NbZ¡ 13596kgm −3 |
9| ‡Kvb n«‡`i Zj‡`k †_‡K c„‡ô Avmvi c‡i GKwU evZv‡mi ey`ey‡`i e¨vm e„w× †c‡q 3 ¸Y nq| n«‡`i c„‡ô evqygÛ‡ji Pvc GK
evqygÛjxq Pv‡ci mgvb n‡j n«‡`i MfxiZv KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
10| GKwU Rjvk‡qi KZ MfxiZvq GKwU ey`ey‡`i AvqZb DcwiZ‡j _vKvKvjxb AvqZ‡bi A‡a©K n‡e? H mgq evqyg Û‡ji Pvc
GK evqygÛjxq Pv‡ci mgvb wQj|
11| 260m Mfxi ‡Kv‡bv n«‡`i Zj‡`k †_‡K 25cm3 AvqZ‡bi GKwU M¨vm †ejyb cvwbi DcwiZv‡j Av‡m| †ejy‡bi cÖmviY
ÿgZv 20 ¸Y n‡j †ejybwU cvwbi DcwiZ‡j AÿZ _vK‡e wK? n«‡`i c„‡ô evqygÛ‡ji Pvc GK evqygÛjxq Pv‡ci mgvb|

MvwYwZK mgm¨vejx: (Av`k© M¨v‡mi gj Mo eM©‡eM I MwZkw³ msµvšÍ)

12| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c Aw·‡Rb AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡eM KZ wbY©q Ki| H ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c Aw·‡R‡bi NbZ¡ 1.43kgm −3 |
13| †Kvb& ZvcgvÎvq bvB‡Uªv‡Rb AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡eM cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡ci g~j Mo eM©‡e‡Mi wظY n‡e wbY©q Ki|
14| KZ ZvcgvÎvq bvB‡Uªv‡Rb AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡e‡Mi gvb 1270 C ZvcgvÎvq Aw·‡Rb AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡e‡Mi gv‡bi mgvb n‡e?
15| 1270 C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU Aw·‡Rb AYyi g~j Mo eM©‡eM KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
16| 2270 C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb AYyi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
17| 300 C ZvcgvÎvq 14 g bvB‡Uªv‡Rb M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
18| 27 0 C ZvcgvÎvq cÖwZ MÖvg AYy wnwjqvg M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ wbY©q Ki|
19| Avgiv k¦vm-cÖk¦v‡m 1litre evqy MÖnb Ki‡j H mgq ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎvq evqyi Kx cwigvY MwZkw³ MÖnb Kwi wbY©q Ki|

MvwYwZK mgm¨vejx: (Av‡cwKÿ Av`ª©Zv msµvšÍ)

20| ‡Kvb GKw`b evqyi ZvcgvÎv 260 C Ges wkwkivsK 20.4 0 C | H w`‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki| 200 C ,
220 C Ges 260 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc h_vµ‡g 17.54mm , 19.83mm Ges 25.21mm cvi` Pvc|
21| ‡Kvb GKw`b evqyi ZvcgvÎv 18.50 C Ges wkwkivsK 7.50 C | Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki| ( 7 0 C , 80 C , 180 C Ges
19 0 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc h_vµ‡g 7.53mm , 8.05mm , 15.48mm Ges 16.46mm cvi` Pvc|
22| ‡Kvb ¯’v‡bi ZvcgvÎv 300 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 50% n‡j H ¯’v‡bi wkwkivsK KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki| 20.250 C Ges
300 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc h_vµ‡g 17.83 10 −3 m Ges 35.66 10 −3 m cvi`|
23| ‡Kvb GK w`‡bi wkwkivsK 10 0 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 67.3% n‡j H w`‡bi evqyi m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
10 0 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc 13.64 10 −3 m cvi`|
24| ZvcgvÎv 200 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 40% n‡j cÖwZ NbwgUvi evqy‡Z Kx cwigvY Rjxq ev®ú _v‡K wbY©q Ki| 200 C
ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi NbZ¡ 17.30 gm −3 |
25| ‡Kvb GKw`b GKwU ﮋ I wm³ evj¦ nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii ﮋ I wm³ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g 200 C Ges 12 0 C | H ¯’v‡bi
wkwkivsK I Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv KZ wbY©q Ki| 200 C ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`‡Ki gvb 1.79 | 200 C Ges 5.680 C
ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc h_vµ‡g 17.6 10 −3 m Ges 6.856 10 −3 m cvi` Pvc|
26| GKwU N‡ii ZvcgvÎv 300 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 50% | H mgq evB‡ii ZvcgvÎv 10 0 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 75% |
hw` N‡ii GKwU Rvbvjv †Lv‡j ‡`qv nq Zvn‡j Rjxqev®ú †Kvb w`‡K cÖevwnZ n‡e? 300 C Ges 10 0 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³
Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc h_vµ‡g 33.6 10 −3 m Ges 9.8 10 −3 m cvi` Pvc|
27| †Kv‡bv GKw`‡bi evqyi ZvcgvÎv 250 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 50% | Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv AcwiewZ©Z Ae¯’vq hw` ZvcgvÎv
n«vm †c‡q 10 0 C nq Zvn‡j evqy¯’ Rjxq ev‡®úi kZKiv KZ Ask NYxf’Z n‡e wbY©q Ki| 250 C Ges 10 0 C ZvcgvÎvq
m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc h_vµ‡g 23.52 10 −3 m Ges 9.22 10 −3 m cvi` Pvc|
28| GKwU kxZZvc wbqš¿K hš¿ 300 C ZvcgvÎvi 90% Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wewkó evqy‡K VvÛv K‡i ZvcgvÎv 200 C Kij| G‡Z
Av‡cwÿK Av`ªv©Zv n«vm †c‡q 50% n‡jv| H hš¿ cÖwZ NbwgUvi evqy n‡Z Kx cwigvY Rjxq ev®ú †ei K‡i w`j wbY©q Ki|
300 C Ges 200 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi NbZ¡ h_vµ‡g 30 10 −3 kgm −3 Ges 17 10 −3 kgm −3 |

MvwYwZK mgm¨vejx: (m„Rbkxj)

29| ‡Kvb GKw`b GKwU ﮋ I wm³ evj¦ nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii ﮋ I wm³ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g 300 C Ges 280 C |
200 C , 260 C , 280 C , 290 C Ges 300 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 17.6 10 −3 m , 25.21 10−3 m ,
28.35  10−3 m , 29.93  10−3 m Ges 31.83  10−3 m cvi` Pvc| 300 C ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`‡Ki gvb 1.65 |
K| H w`‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
L| H w`‡bi ZvcgvÎv nVvr 10 C n«vm †c‡j wkwkiv‡¼i †Kvb cwieZ©b n‡e wK? we‡kølY Ki|
M| H w`‡bi ZvcgvÎv nVvr 100 C n«vm †c‡j Kx cwigvY Rjxq ev®ú NYxf‚Z n‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

30| GKwU evqyc~Y© M¨vm †ejyb‡K GKwU n«‡`i 40.81m MfxiZvq wb‡q hvIqvq †mwU 1litre AvqZb aviY K‡i| nª‡`i Zj‡`‡k
†ejy‡b AviI 1litre evqy cÖ‡ek Kwi‡q †Q‡o †`Iqv n‡jv| evqygÛ‡ji Pvc 105 Nm−2 Ges †ejy‡bi m‡ev©”P cÖmviY ÿgZv 9litre |
K| wbg¾‡bi c~‡e© †ejy‡bi AvqZb KZ wQj wbY©q Ki|
L| †ejybwU nª‡`i DcwiZ‡j AÿZ Ae¯’vq †cŠQv‡e wK? MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

31| †Kvb GK e¨w³ Zvui Awdm K‡ÿ cÖ‡ek K‡i †`L‡Z †c‡jb nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii ﮋ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv 300 C Ges H w`‡bi
Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wQj 75% | wZwb wKQzÿY Gwm Pvjv‡bvi ci nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii ﮋ I wm³ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g 230 C Ges
14.760 C n‡jv| 300 C Ges 230 C ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`‡Ki gvb 1.65 Ges 1.74 | 300 C , 230 C , 80 C Ges 90 C
ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 29.93  10−3 m , 20.24  10−3 m , 8.29  10−3 m Ges 9.22  10−3 m cvi` Pvc|
K| Gwm Pvjy Kivq H e¨w³ Avivg‡eva Ki‡jb †Kb- MvwYwZKfv‡e e¨vL¨v Ki|
L| Gwm Pvjy Kivq kZKiv Kx cwigvY Rjxq ev®ú Nbxf‚Z n‡jv- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

32| GKwU M¨vm wmwjÛv‡ii AvqZb 1.5m3 | wmwjÛviwU‡Z 270 C ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv M¨v‡mi 30  1025 wU AYy Ave× Av‡Q| cÖwZwU
M¨vm AYyi e¨vm 25  10−10 m | cieZ©x‡Z D³ M¨vm wmwjÛv‡ii mv‡_ mgAvqZ‡bi Aci GKwU Lvwj M¨vm wmwjÛvi hy³ Kiv n‡jv|
K| wmwjÛv‡i Ave× M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
L| Lvwj wmwjÛviwU hy³ Kivi ci Mo gy³ c‡_i Kxiƒc cwieZ©b n‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

33| GKwU M¨vm wmwjÛ‡i ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c M¨vm Aby¸‡jvi g~jMo eM©‡eM 500ms −1 | wmwjÛv‡i cÖwZ Nb‡mw›UwgUv‡i AYyi
msL¨v 6  1020 Ges cÖwZwU M¨vm AYyi e¨vm 3  10−10 m |
K| N .T .P †Z M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
L| K¬wmqvm, †evjR&g¨vb I g¨v·I‡qj- GB wZb R‡bi g‡a¨ Kvi `„wó‡Z cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û msN‡l©i msL¨v †ewk n‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e
we‡kølY Ki|
34| V = 5cm3 ; P = 3  105 Nm−2 V = 5cm3 ; P = 4  105 Nm−2
n = 5 mole n = 10 mole

cvÎ- A : O 2 M¨vm cvÎ- B : N 2 M¨vm

K| cvÎ- A †Z Aew¯’Z O 2 M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|

L| cvÎ `ywU‡K Zvc cwievnK Øviv hy³ Ki‡j Zvc †Kvb w`‡K cÖevwnZ n‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|
M| †Kvb M¨v‡mi g~jMo eM©‡eM †ewk n‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

35| †Kvb GKw`b ivRkvnxi ZvcgvÎv 350 C Ges Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 50% | GKB mg‡q K·evRv‡i ¯’vwcZ GKwU nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii
ﮋ I wm³ ev‡j¦i ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g 350 C Ges 300 C | 350 C ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`‡Ki gvb 1.60 | 260 C , 280 C
Ges 350 C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 25.21 10−3 m , 28.35  10−3 m Ges 42.16  10−3 m cvi` Pvc|
K| K·evRv‡ii wkwkiv¼ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
L| †Kv‡bv e¨w³ †Kv_vq †ewk A¯^w¯Í‡eva Ki‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

36| DÏxc‡Ki GKwU cv‡Î bvB‡Uªv‡Ri M¨vm Ges Aci cv‡Î ARvbv M¨vm Av‡Q|

V = 10−3 m3 ; P = 42  106 Nm−2 V = 10−3 m3 ; P = 52  106 Nm−2

n = 2mole ; Crms = 1500ms −1 n = 2mole ; Crms = 1600ms −1

cvÎ- A cvÎ- B

K| ‡Kvb cv‡Îi M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|

L| †Kvb cv‡Î bvB‡Uªv‡Rb M¨vm Av‡Q e‡j Zywg g‡b Ki? MvwYwZK we‡kølYmn gZvgZ `vI|

37| 1  10−2 m3 AvqZ‡bi GKwU Aw·‡Rb wmwjÛv‡i 270 C ZvcgvÎvq Aw·‡Rb M¨vm fwZ© wQj| wKQz Aw·‡Rb e¨evnv‡ii d‡j
Gi Af¨šÍ‡ii Pvc 2.5  105 Nm−2 †_‡K K‡g 1.3  105 Nm−2 n‡jv|
K| wmwjÛvi n‡Z Kx cwigvY M¨vm e¨envi Kiv n‡jv wbY©q Ki|
L| Kx e¨e¯’v MÖnb Ki‡j Gi Af¨šÍ‡ii Pvc AwciewZ©Z _vK‡e- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

38| 250 C ZvcgvÎvq 32cm e¨v‡mi GKwU †MvjvKvi †ejyb‡K wnwjqvg M¨vm Øviv dzjv‡bvi Rb¨ 2.8  105 Nm−2 Pv‡c
1  10−2 m3 AvqZ‡bi GKwU M¨vm c~Y© wmwjÛv‡ii mv‡_ hy³ Kiv n‡jv| wmwjÛv‡ii Pvc K‡g 1.1  105 Nm−2 n‡j M¨v‡mi cÖevn
eÜ Kiv nq|
K| wmwjÛvi n‡Z †ejy‡b wbM©Z M¨v‡mi cwigvY wbY©q Ki|
L| †ejybwU wbivc‡` dzjv‡bv n‡qwQj wKbv- MvwYwZKfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

39| gvnvw` 5litre M¨vm c~Y© GKwU †ejyb wb‡q wZZvm b`xi 40.8m Mfx‡i †M‡j †ejybwU 1litre AvqZb aviY K‡i| †ejy‡bi
m‡ev©”P cÖmviY ÿgZv 14litre |
K| wZZvm b`xi DcwiZ‡j evqyi Pvc KZ wbY©q Ki|
L| b`xi Mfx‡i †ejybwU‡Z AviI 2litre M¨vm cÖ‡ek Kwi‡q †Q‡o w`‡j GwU b`xi DcwiZ‡j Avm‡j AÿZ _vK‡e wK?
MvwYwZfv‡e we‡kølY Ki|

40| DÏxc‡K A cvÎ Ges B cv‡Îi AvqZb h_vµ‡g 1litre Ges 5litre |
A cvÎ Ges B cv‡Îi M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv I Pvc h_vµ‡g 300 K I 400 K Ges
5  105 Nm−2 I 1  105 Nm−2 |
K| X evj¦ Ae¯’vq A cv‡Îi M¨v‡mi g~jMo eM©‡eM wbY©q Ki|
L| X evj¦ Ae¯’vq B cv‡Îi M¨v‡mi GKwU AYyi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e wbY©q Ki|
M| X evj¦ Ly‡j ‡`Iqvi ci hLb M¨v‡mi cÖevn eÜ n‡q hvq ZLb Dfq cv‡Îi ZvcgvÎv I Pvc KZ n‡e wbY© Ki|