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Graduate Texts in Physics
Sune Svanberg
Atomic and
Molecular
Spectroscopy
Basic Aspects and Practical Applications
Fifth Edition
Graduate Texts in Physics
Series Editors
Kurt H. Becker, NYU Polytechnic School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, USA
Jean-Marc Di Meglio, Matière et Systèmes Complexes, Bâtiment Condorcet,
Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
Sadri Hassani, Department of Physics, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, USA
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, Department of Physics, Blindern, University of Oslo, Oslo,
Norway
Bill Munro, NTT Basic Research Laboratories, Atsugi, Japan
Richard Needs, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
William T. Rhodes, Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering and
Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
Susan Scott, Australian National University, Acton, Australia
H. Eugene Stanley, Center for Polymer Studies, Physics Department, Boston
University, Boston, MA, USA
Martin Stutzmann, Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich,
Garching, Germany
Andreas Wipf, Institute of Theoretical Physics, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena,
Jena, Germany
Graduate Texts in Physics publishes core learning/teaching material for graduate- and
advanced-level undergraduate courses on topics of current and emerging fields within
physics, both pure and applied. These textbooks serve students at the MS- or
PhD-level and their instructors as comprehensive sources of principles, definitions,
derivations, experiments and applications (as relevant) for their mastery and teaching,
respectively. International in scope and relevance, the textbooks correspond to course
syllabi sufficiently to serve as required reading. Their didactic style, comprehensive-
ness and coverage of fundamental material also make them suitable as introductions
or references for scientists entering, or requiring timely knowledge of, a research field.
Sune Svanberg
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Katarina, Emilie, Kristina,
and the memory of my Parents
Soli Deo Gloria
Preface to the Fifth Edition
Eighteen years have elapsed since the publishing of the fourth edition of the book,
and clearly much has happened in the field of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy
at this time. Thus, there was a very urgent need for an updated edition, which has
now been filled. Many new techniques have been introduced both regarding basic
aspects and practical applications—both areas have been addressed in the present
quite substantially revised edition. Further, the formation of images based on multi-
spectral recordings of objects is more emphasized in this edition, since such aspects
constitute a very important part of spectroscopic practical applications.
Based on his 50-year experience in lecturing spectroscopy and its interdiscipli-
nary applications, and having personally worked with a large number of techniques
from X-rays to radio waves, and covering basic and applied aspects, certain peda-
gogical “tricks” and parallels were developed, and have to some extent been incor-
porated in this edition, hopefully of help for the reader to better understand the
phenomena and their interrelations. The field of spectroscopy is full of fascination,
and the author’s wish is to convey it to the reader. Hopefully, this new edition will
serve a good purpose for students on the Master’s or PhD level, while also others,
including seniors, might find it useful for an overview with many new references.
Since each chapter is reasonably self-contained, certain chapters can be selected for
a course focusing on specific aspects of spectroscopy.
The author is most grateful for the fruitful collaboration with numerous colleagues
and students through the years.
Special thanks go to Dr. Zachary Evenson of Springer-Nature for organizing the
publication of this new edition.
vii
Preface to the Fourth Edition
The present book – Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy – Basic Aspects and Prac-
tical Applications – has been developed over a long time. The Third Edition, which
appeared in 2001, was fully revised and updated to the state of the field at that time.
The book appeared in hard cover well suited for individual and library use. However,
the book is basically a text, also well suited as a base for a course on the topic. A
lower-cost paper-back edition better serves such purposes, as did the Second (paper-
back) Edition of the book. The Fourth Edition presented has now been corrected
for misprints and contains some additional text. A number of important literature
references up until mid-2003 have been added to provide a fully updated account of
the dynamic field of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy.
ix
Preface to the Third Edition
Atomic and molecular spectroscopy – both in its basic and in its applied aspects – is in
a dynamic state of development. It continues to provide new fascinating possibilities
for a deeper understanding of the fundamental properties of the building blocks
of matter and their interaction with electromagnetic irradiation. It generates new
possibilities for practical applications in industry, chemistry, astronomy, geosciences,
biology, medicine and information technology.
Ten years after the appearance of the first edition there was a need for a thorough
revision of the book, again bringing it up to the leading edge in the new millen-
nium. This has led to a considerable extension of the material and thus of the size
of the book. As previously, the focus has been on the physical understanding of
the processes and phenomena, and on providing a broad overview of the possibil-
ities of atomic and molecular spectroscopy. Thus, the mathematical description is
frequently superficial – for the benefit of students and scientists in other natural
sciences without a rigourous physics background. My belief is that the physical (and
intuitive) understanding, when possible, is also the most important aspect for the
hard-core physicist. The reader will find ample references to textbooks, review arti-
cles and research papers providing all the details on almost any topic in the field, and
the reference list was, with considerable effort, updated till mid-2000 and in some
cases till early 2001. This could still mean that important references are lacking, and
I apologize to the authors for unfortunate omissions.
The reader who already knows the previous editions will notice that new mate-
rial is added, particularly in the following fields: clusters, satellite remote sensing,
astrophysical applications, the generation of ultrafast and ultraintense laser radia-
tion, diode laser spectroscopy, ultrafast spectroscopy, femtochemistry, high-power
laser–matter interaction, laser cooling and trapping, Bose–Einstein condensation, and
lasers in environmental and medical research. Thus, it is felt that the book provides
a rather extensive overview of the major spectroscopy fields.
In order to improve the usefulness of the book as a text for a course on the topic at
the pre- or postgraduate level, a section of questions and exercises has been added.
The material is presented following the chapters, and, in addition, material connecting
wider areas is supplied. A detailed subject index is also provided, helping the reader
xi
xii Preface to the Third Edition
to easily find an entry to the introduction of a subfield and references to the relevant
literature.
The author benefited a lot from the interaction with students and colleagues when
developing this book. He is very grateful for comments and corrections.
Finally, I would like to thank Gertrud Dimler, Adelheid Duhm and Claus
Ascheron at Springer-Verlag for their professional work, and Helmut Lotsch for
his encouragement throughout this book project.
Atomic and molecular spectroscopy has provided basic information leading to the
development of quantum mechanics and to the understanding of the building blocks
of matter. It continues to provide further insight into the statics and dynamics of the
microcosmos, and provides the means for testing new concepts and computational
methods. The results of atomic and molecular spectroscopy are of great importance
in astrophysics, plasma and laser physics. The rapidly growing field of spectroscopic
applications has made considerable impact on many disciplines, including medicine,
environmental protection, chemical processing and energy research. In particular, the
techniques of electron and laser spectroscopy, the subjects of the 1981 Nobel prize
in physics, have contributed much to the analytical potential of spectroscopy.
This textbook on Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy has been prepared to
provide an overview of modern spectroscopic methods. It is intended to serve as
a text for a course on the subject for final-year undergraduate physics students or
graduate students. It should also be useful for students of astrophysics and chemistry.
The text has evolved from courses on atomic and molecular spectroscopy given by the
author since 1975 at Chalmers University of Technology and at the Lund Institute of
Technology. References are given to important books and review articles which allow
more detailed studies of different aspects of atomic and molecular spectroscopy. No
attempt has been made to cover all important references, nor have priority aspects
been systematically considered.
It is assumed that the reader has a basic knowledge of quantum mechanics and
atomic physics. However, the completion of a specialized course on atomic and
molecular physics is not required. The present treatise (disregarding Chap. 4) is
not particularly mathematical, but emphasizes the physical understanding of the
different techniques of spectroscopy. In the course given by the author, the time for
solving calculational problems has been reduced to allow a more complete overview
of the field in the time available. Particular emphasis has been given to technical
applications. However, by increasing the allotted problem-solving time or by omitting
certain areas of spectroscopy, a more problem-oriented course can easily be taught
based on this book. In his courses, the author has combined lectures with a number
xiii
xiv Preface to the First Edition
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Spectroscopy and Multi-spectral Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Some Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 One-Electron Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Alkali Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Magnetic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Precessional Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Spin–Orbit Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 General Many-Electron Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 The Influence of External Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.1 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.2 Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6 Hyperfine Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.1 Magnetic Hyperfine Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.2 Electric Hyperfine Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7 The Influence of External Fields (hfs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8 Isotopic Shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3 Molecular Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Electronic Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Rotational Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Vibrational Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Polyatomic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5 Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6 Other Molecular Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
xv
xvi Contents
Tunable lasers have also enabled the strongly expanding field of quantum informa-
tion, where the concept of entanglement, an integral part of quantum mechanics, has
obtained a fundamental role in quantum computing, storage, and even teleportation.
In principle, a setup for spectral studies consists of three components: a radiation
source, an analyser, and a detection system. The system under investigation is in
many modern techniques subjected to different types of static or oscillatory fields,
and the influence of these fields on the system is studied in order to obtain a more
complete picture of the system. Resonance methods in the radio-frequency domain
have historically been of special importance, since they provide high accuracy in the
determination of small energy splittings. The basic arrangement of a spectroscopic
set-up is shown in Fig. 1.2.
The choice of spectroscopic method is primarily determined by the energy range
of the phenomenon to be studied. The spectral ranges that are of interest in atomic
and molecular spectroscopy are shown in Fig. 1.3. The energy ranges for different
types of structures and transitions are also indicated. Using the simple relations
The choice of the unit depends, to a great extent, on the energy region and
traditional factors:
Fig. 1.4 Acquisition of multi-spectral information for extraction of meaningful information from
images. The cases of physiological data recording followed by brain processing, as well as the
technological approach with image recording in multiple spectral bands, followed by computer
image analysis are illustrated ([6]; reproduced with permission from AIP Publishing)
Transitions between inner electron orbitals normally occur in the keV range
(X-rays), while the energies for transitions between outer orbitals are in the eV
region (visible or near-UV and IR regions). The fine structure of atoms is of the
order of 10−3 eV (∼10 cm−1 ) and hyperfine structures are typically about 10−6 eV
(∼300 MHz). Molecular vibrational energy splittings are of the order of 10−1 eV,
while rotational splittings are typically 10−3 eV. Of course, these energies vary widely,
and the above values are given only to provide the first estimate of typical orders of
magnitude.
If spectroscopy is performed in many spatially related points, simultaneously or
sequentially, thus collecting the optical “fingerprints” characterizing an object, we
obtain a multi-spectral image, where after image processing objects can be identified
and discerned based on their spectroscopic properties. This extension of spectroscopy
to multi-spectral imaging (sometimes called hyperspectral imaging) is illustrated in
Fig. 1.4, where the technological approach is illustrated in the lower row, while the
physiological counterpart (human apprehension) is illustrated in the upper row. The
number of spectral bands utilized varies from 3 for humans up to a dozen for certain
animals, while in man-made devices up to thousands of spectral bands may be used.
The spectral information is then digitally processed into meaningful information, e.g.
by using multi-variate statistical and other methods [7–9], while a “trained” brain
in an unprecedented way can perform the same task, but clearly, with much less
endurance.
1.1 Spectroscopy and Multi-spectral Imaging 5
Fig. 1.5 Spectra recorded by a fibre-coupled, compact digital spectrometer. a Green and red laser
pointer, and violet LED, b fluorescent discharge lamp tube, c Planck radiator, d reflection of Planck
radiator lamp from a green leaf, e blue sky, f skylight reflection from a distant green tree, g skylight
reflection from a close-by green leaf and h chlorophyll fluorescence induced by a violet LED
6 1 Introduction
function, F, is designed in an optimum way to take all the spectral differences into
account. The idea is that the region of interest would attain higher F-values than the
surrounding pixels. Then a threshold T can be appropriately chosen, and all pixels
with F > T are displayed, identifying the area looked for. Such an area could, for
example, be the localization of a cancer tumour as surrounded by normal tissue,
now producing useful information from an advanced instrument to a user, who is
unfamiliar with spectroscopy.
Designing the function F so that it does not have a unit (such as [m] or [W/cm2 ])
has many advantages, since it becomes independent of many factors, which are hard
to control (Sect. 10.5.3). The simplest example of a dimensionless quantity is a ratio,
A/B. More complex ratios are (A − kB)/C, where k is a constant, (A − B)/(C − D) or
AB/CD. Here, A, B, C, and D are spectral intensities measured in the same spectrum.
Since a dimensionless quantity does not contain any unit (it is only sensitive to the
shape of the spectral signature, not to its intensity), it becomes immune to
• variations in the angle of incidence of the radiation (surface topography);
• variations in distance from the object pixels to the detector;
• variations in intensity of illumination over the image;
• intensity fluctuations in the illumination source;
• variations in wavelength-independent absorption factors, etc.
The procedure of extracting useful information from large amounts of spectro-
scopic data in order to achieve, e.g. object identification, is further illustrated in
Fig. 1.7.
Here, we want to distinguish objects/pixels Y from objects/pixels X (e.g. damaged
trees from normal trees in satellite imagery, or cancer from normal tissue in close-
range investigation) using different types of spectral information. For example,
the fluorescence spectra, induced by a UV laser, can be used. Alternatively, the
reflectance spectra (the “colour”) can be recorded using sunlight illumination. The
objects Y and X can also be characterized by the rate at which excited molecules
decay, i.e. the temporal fall-off of the fluorescence intensity can be studied and
expressed in one or more lifetime values τ i . Contrast functions F (or f ) can then
be constructed, incorporating in principle all types of spectral information. A plant
physiologist or a pathologist would then identify the Y:s and X:s with their standard
methods, and the mean value M of the selected contrast functions and the standard
deviations σ Y and σ X for the two classes can be calculated. We have
{n
xi
M X = i=1 , (1.2)
n
/M X − MY /
Q= / . (1.4)
(σ 2X + σY2
A contrast function F is better than another one f (it has a better Quality) if it has a
higher (quality) Q value. That means that the mean values M have a large separation
in terms of the typical error bars for the two groups. Thus, in principle it would be
possible to let a computer try a lot of (dimensionless) contrast functions on recorded
data and decide which one is the best to separate the two groups.
1.2 Some Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics 9
phenomena. Classical mechanics, a field which has been well understood for a long
time, describes large-scale phenomena such as the path of a stone which is thrown,
or the launching of a satellite into an orbit around the earth. The negatively charged
electron, moving around a positively charged proton (the nucleus) representing the
most simple atom, hydrogen, can in a simple-minded picture be seen as a small
orbiting satellite. The attractive forces follow very similar laws in both cases—so
what is the difference? We will start our discussion with some very simple arguments.
The energy of the satellite is the sum of the potential (position) energy and the
kinetic (motion) energy, which relates to its velocity. Depending on the launching
velocity, a continuous range of energies, corresponding to increasing orbit radii can
be obtained (Fig. 1.8a). In the hydrogen atom, the orbiting electron can be seen as a
matter wave with a de Broglie wavelength λdB , which depends on the velocity v and
the particle mass m [12]:
h
λd B = . (1.5)
mv
Here, h is the Planck constant. Since the mass is very small (e.g. in comparison to
that of the satellite), the wavelength becomes appreciable. A possible velocity and
thus energy state must correspond to a standing wave, i.e. the “orbit” must correspond
to an integer number of matter wavelengths. Thus, only specific energies are possible
for the electron, as indicated in Fig. 1.8b. We obtain a quantized system.
The origin of quantization taking the behaviour of waves into account can be
further illustrated by the oscillation of a guitar string (Fig. 1.8c). If the string, of
specific thickness/mass and tension, is brought to the side and then is released, a
large number of oscillation frequencies could potentially have resulted. The string
Fig. 1.8 Interacting systems: a a satellite orbiting the earth in the “large world” under the influence
of gravitational attraction, depending on the launching velocity (above a minimum speed of about
8 km/s); the energy of the orbiting satellite can attain a continuous range of energies as indicated. b
An electron orbiting a nucleus in the “small world” under the influence of electrostatic attraction.
The electron, because of its wave nature and being subject to interference, can only be in “orbits”
with discrete velocities, and thus discrete energies. c Guitar string oscillation only at fixed frequency
1.2 Some Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics 11
may “try” them all, but will very quickly “realize” that only the frequency corre-
sponding to a standing wave (constructive interference) can be supported—even
this large-scale system becomes quantized! Here, we deal with mechanical standing
waves. An organ pipe can also only support specific standing acoustic waves. The
quantum–mechanical de-Broglie waves are clearly of different origin, and the picture
in Fig. 1.8b is extremely simplified, but can serve the purpose of illuminating the
origin of quantization. The wave nature of systems as large as the C60 molecule [13]
and certain very large complexes such as C284 H190 F320 N4 S12 , containing up to 810
atoms [14], has been experimentally demonstrated.
We illustrated in Fig. 1.8b that only energies corresponding to a standing wave
can be supported—the wave returns onto itself in phase—constructive interference.
This observation immediately leads to a further fundamental conclusion, which is
sometimes expressed as the Heisenberg uncertainty relation: For the lowest state,
which basically has an infinite lifetime, the energy, and thus the matter wavelength,
must be extremely well defined, because of the many possible revolutions, leading to
that even the slightest phase mismatch would ultimately work itself up to complete
destructive interference. In contrast, a higher, excited state, which would exist for
only a few nanoseconds before the electron returns to its lower state, could be less
well-defined in energy and thus have slight phase mismatches, which would not be
a problem for the existence of the state, since it would anyway persist only for a
few non-perfect classical orbits. Thus, excited states are broadened in energy and the
shorter the lifetime, the larger the broadening.
The particle–wave dualism, present for small particles, such as electrons, is also
present in the same way for photons. Depending on the type of experiment performed,
one or the other aspect is manifested as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. A light wave with a
well-defined wavefront is shown in Fig. 1.9a falling in towards two slits, and the wave
is propagating, according to Huygen’s principle, in circular patterns, and interference,
Fig. 1.9 The particle–wave dualism for photons. a Young’s double-slit experiment clearly illus-
trates the wave nature of light—well-defined interference fringes are formed. Source https://com
mons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TwoSlit_Experiment_Light.svg&oldid=491041868 b
A photomultiplier tube (PMT) records the arrival of individual light quanta by producing distinct
electrical pulses
12 1 Introduction
causing bright and dark fringes, occurs on a recording plate. This is the famous Young
double-slit experiment.
In another experiment, shown in Fig. 1.9b, extremely weak light is impinging on
a sensitive light detector, such as a photomultiplier tube (Sect. 6.3), and each photon
gives rise to a discrete pulse, due to the released electrical charge. Interestingly, if the
light intensity in the Young double-slit experiment is reduced to the single-photon
detection case, the same interference pattern will occur in the statistical average [15].
Mathematically, energy structures in the micro-world are governed by the
Schrödinger equation, which in a quantum–mechanical way basically describes the
well-known truth that the total energy of a simple system, such as the ones shown in
Fig. 1.8b, is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy:
1 2
p + V (r ) = E. (1.6)
2m
Here, V(r) in a simple system, such as the hydrogen atom, is the Coulomb potential,
which varies only with the distance r, and not with the polar angles φ and ϕ:
e2
V (r ) = − . (1.7)
4π ε0 r
p = mv is the linear momentum and m and v are the particle mass, and velocity,
respectively. The quantum–mechanical expression is written as
[ ]
h2
− Δ + V (r ) Ψ = EΨ. (1.8)
2m
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Δ= + + (Laplace operator ). (1.10)
∂x2 ∂ y2 ∂z 2
It can be shown that when the potential energy only depends on r, i.e. V(r),
the solution of the Schrödinger equation can be separated into a radial part (only
dependent on r) and an angular part (only dependent on the polar angles θ and ϕ).
where n, l, and m specify the function and are called quantum numbers.
The wavefunction has a very special and deep interpretation in terms of the prob-
ability to find the particle, i.e. the electron, somewhere around the nucleus, as shown
in Fig. 1.10a.
The probability P to find the electron in the volume element dV is given by
P = |Ψ |2 d V . (1.12)
Thus, the higher the absolute value of the wave function is in a particular region,
the larger the probability is to find the electron there. Clearly, the electron must be
somewhere, so the integral over the whole space is equal to 1:
(
|Ψ |2 d V = 1. (1.13)
The situation is similar to the case depicted in Fig. 1.10b, where a blindfolded
person tries to catch with his hand a single mosquito circulating around his head. It
must be somewhere, but with a higher probability closer to the head.
It can be shown that for a given value of the principal quantum number n, the
corresponding angular wave functions for the limited number of matching l and m
values fulfil the relation
{ I I
IYl,m (θ, ϕ)I2 = Const. (1.14)
l,m
meaning that a spherically symmetric angular distribution results for the sum of
the electrons having the same value on n. A simple illustration for the case of two
distributions is shown in Fig. 1.11. The probability is the same in different directions
14 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.11 Illustration in two dimensions of how two different angular probability distributions
can add up to a distribution, which is symmetric. The extension is the occurrence of spherically
symmetric closed shells, explaining the periodic system of the atoms
around the centre. As we will see in Chap. 2, this leads to the formation of closed,
spherically symmetric electron subshells for a certain number of electrons, and a
great simplification in understanding atoms is obtained, including the explanation of
the existence of a periodic system of the atoms.
Chapter 2
Atomic Structure
In hydrogen and hydrogen-like systems, a single electron moves around the nucleus
of charge Ze at a distance r in a central field, and its potential energy is given by
Z e2
V (r ) = − . (2.1)
4π ∊0 r
The simplest case of hydrogen, with Z = 1, was already treated in the introduction
to quantum mechanics in Sect. 1.2. The Hamiltonian, describing the total energy of
the single-electron system is
1 2
H0 = p + V (r) (2.2)
2m
(p is the momentum operator, m is the electron mass) and the energy eigenvalues are
obtained by solving the Schrödinger equation, as already discussed above
[ ]
h2
− Δ + V (r ) ψ = Eψ (2.3)
2m
(Δ is the Laplace operator, and h = h/2π ). The eigenvalues depend only on the
principal quantum number n and are independent of the azimuthal quantum number
l and its projection m
Z2
E n = −hcRy (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), (2.4)
n2
me4
Ry = . (2.5)
4π (4π ∊0 )2 ch3
However, the l and m values specify the wavefunctions, and thus the probability
distributions for finding the electron, and the states are labelled according to
l=01 2 3 4 5
s p d f g h.
If relativistic and quantum electrodynamic (QED) effects are considered, the far-
reaching degeneracy for hydrogen-like systems is lifted. The simple energy-level
diagram of hydrogen is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Besides hydrogen, hydrogen-like ions [47] and positronium (positron + electron)
and muonium (proton + muon) [48–50] have been much studied since they constitute
good testing grounds for advanced theories.
Alkali atoms have a single electron outside a spherically symmetric inner electron
cloud (core, as described by Eq. 1.14). The field in which the outer electron moves
is not Coulombic, but is still essentially central. The energy for such a system can be
written as
hcRy
E =− , (2.6)
n 2eff
where neff = n − d is called the effective quantum number and d the quantum
defect. The s electrons may penetrate into the core (they can even be found at the
surface, or even inside the nucleus), thus experiencing an increased force from the less
shielded nucleus, which results in a stronger binding. This behaviour is reflected in the
quantum defect, which for s electrons is about 2. For high-l orbits (non-penetrating
electrons), the quantum defect approaches zero, and the situation is hydrogen-like.
2.2 Alkali Atoms 17
These effects are illustrated in the case of sodium in Fig. 2.2. The 5g, 5f, and 5d levels
are basically at the hydrogen position, while the 5p electron partially dives into the
core electron cloud and is less shielded; binding stronger to the central charge. The
5s electron is even more strongly pulled down in the central potential.
18 2 Atomic Structure
that is
But
µ L = −gμB L, (2.9)
dL
= M = −gμB L × B. (2.10)
dt
Thus
showing that the tip of L moves perpendicularly to both L and B, i.e. L precesses
around B with an angular frequency ω = gμB B.
The magnetic precession has many similarities with the mechanical precession of a
small toy gyro, which has been spun up to high speed and placed on a support. Instead
of just falling down due to the gravitational force, it precesses around the direction
of the gravitational force. Likewise, instead of aligning itself with the magnetic field
(which a compass needle would do), the atom, seen as a small magnet, importantly
associated with angular momentum, precesses around the field direction.
20 2 Atomic Structure
The electron has a spin angular momentum s and an associated magnetic moment
µs , i.e.
µs = −gs μB S. (2.12)
Again, the minus sign is due to the electron having a negative charge. As the electron
moves in the electric field of the nucleus, it is subject to a magnetic field Bl , which
is proportional to the angular momentum l of the electron (Fig. 2.4). The electron
magnet then has an orientational energy E so in the field equal to the force qB times
the distance (1/2)d cos θ , that each magnetic “pole” q has been displaced in the
field; i.e. 2qb(1/2)d cos θ ,which can be written as a scalar product
E so = −µs · B l = ζ l · s, . (2.13)
where ζ is a constant of proportionality, and the energy zero point is defined for µs
and Bl being perpendicular. l and s couple and precess about their mutual resultant
j with a frequency proportional to the strength of the field. We have
j = l + s. (2.14)
For the corresponding quantum numbers describing the length of the vector (e.g. |j|
= [j(j + 1)]1/2 , dimensionless angular momentum; the normally occurring h/2π in
the length expression of an angular momentum vector is included in ζ !), we have
s = 1/2,
l = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
j = l ± 1/2.
j 2 = (l + s)2 = l 2 + s2 + 2l · s
we obtain
Here we have inserted the “quantum-mechanical squares” or, to use a more modern
term, used first-order perturbation theory. The so-called fine-structure splitting
between the two possible j levels is given by
The structure of the general many-electron system with i electrons is obviously much
more difficult to calculate. As a starting point, the following approximate Hamiltonian
is used:
22 2 Atomic Structure
Σ( 1 Z e2
) Σ
e2 Σ
H= pi2 − + + ζi (ri )l i · si (2.17)
i
2m 4π ∊0 ri i< j
4π ∊0 ri j i
1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s.
The ground configurations of the atoms are listed in Table 2.2. Obviously, the field in
atoms is only approximately central. Besides a central part, the electrostatic repul-
sion between electrons causes a non-central contribution, which can be treated as
a perturbation. The spin–orbit interaction must also be taken into account. If the
non-central electrostatic part strongly dominates over the spin–orbit interaction, the
latter is neglected as a first approximation. A coupling between the individual angular
momenta is then obtained
Σ Σ
L= li , S = si . (2.18)
i i
Depending on which values are possible for the corresponding quantum numbers
L and S for a certain configuration, a number of electrostatically split terms are
obtained. Such terms are designated
2.4 General Many-Electron Systems 23
(continued)
24 2 Atomic Structure
2S+1
X.
L = 01 2 3 4
X = S P D F G.
Fig. 2.6 Energy level diagram for the helium atom [21]. Transition wavelengths are given in
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm)
The resulting energy levels for the case of two equivalent p electrons in LS coupling
are shown in the left-hand part of Fig. 2.9.
If, contrary to what was assumed above, the spin–orbit interaction dominates over
the non-central electrostatic interaction, we obtain primarily a coupling between the
orbital and spin angular momenta of the individual electrons
j i = l i + si (2.22)
We talk about jj coupling in this case. If the weaker electrostatic interaction is then
applied, the individual j i momenta couple to form a resultant J. The resulting energy-
level diagram is quite different compared to the case of LS coupling (i.e. there is no
interval rule). In the right-hand part of Fig. 2.9, the jj structure for two equiva-
lent p electrons is shown. There is generally LS coupling in the outer shells of light
elements, whereas jj coupling is typically exhibited by the inner shells of heavy atoms.
In general, the situation is an inter-mediate one of the two cases described and inter-
mediate coupling arises. By experimentally determining the relative positions of the
2.4 General Many-Electron Systems 27
Fig. 2.7 Energy level diagram for the calcium atom [21]. Transition wavelengths are given in
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm)
energy levels of a given configuration using spectroscopy, the coupling conditions can
be investigated. The energy-level diagrams and level designations of atoms and singly
and multiply ionized atoms have been determined in a process that is still continuing.
A lot of this material is collected in [51–58]. Theoretical calculations, employing
self-consistent field methods, and other advanced techniques for describing the basic
atomic energy-level structure, have been described in [22, 59–65]. The energy-level
structure for atoms with two outer electrons is frequently parametrized using the
so-called multichannel quantum defect theory (MQDT) [66–71].
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II