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Algebraic
Geometry
Associative
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Associative
Algebraic
Geometry
Arvid Siqveland
University of South-Eastern Norway
World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
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Head office: 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Siqveland, Arvid, 1964– author.
Title: Associative algebraic geometry / Arvid Siqveland, University of South-Eastern Norway.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022041396 | ISBN 9781800613546 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781800613553 (ebook) | ISBN 9781800613560 (ebook other)
Subjects: LCSH: Geometry, Algebraic. | Associative algebras. | Moduli theory. |
Mathematical physics.
Classification: LCC QA564 .S57 2023 | DDC 516.3/5--dc23/eng20221121
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022041396
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Preface
This book is aimed at graduate students in algebra and algebraic

geometry. The study of commutative rings can be interpreted in the

geometric language by algebraic geometry, and so geometric proper-
ties depend on properties of rings and vice versa. Defining an explicit
associative algebraic geometry, the study of noncommutative rings
can be interpreted in the geometric language, and our hope is that
this will blow new life and more fire into the study of noncommuta-
tive rings. It even seems as though noncommutative algebraic geom-
etry gives some answers in physics, which follow from properties of
noncommutative rings. The book is based on explicit, algorithmic
computations of multi-local rings replacing local rings, saying that
finite sets of closed points are associated. In the final parts of the text,
this applies to quantum mechanics by saying that an observable has
adjoined not only a Hermitian operator, but also the observer. The
different parts of the text are in need of a lot of exercises, papers and
theses for clarifying the concepts.
Olav Arnfinn Laudal supervised me in my Master’s (Cand.
Scient.) thesis on deformation theory for modules and my PhD
(Dr. Scient.) thesis on deformation theory of sheaves of modules on
the E6 singularity. After that, since about 1996, he concentrated his
work on quantum field theory, with the intention of understanding
physics, and to get new ideas in deformation theory. Laudal’s inter-
pretation and motivation for deformation theory has mostly (as I see
it) been the classification of mathematical objects, or the theory of
moduli, and so he always asked us students to keep our eyes and ears
open and consider the case where the ground-algebra, the algebra
v
vi Preface
over which the modules are defined, is noncommutative. Then, in

about 1997, Laudal himself found the resolving idea, inspired by
Quantum Field Theories, QFT. There is always an observer adjoint
to the observable. Thus, one shouldn’t consider the deformations in
one closed point, one should actually consider the deformation the-
ory for pairs of closed points. This makes perfect sense translated
to the case in deformation theory where the ground ring is a non-
commutative algebra over an algebraically closed field and the closed
points are the simple right modules. Then, contrary to the commuta-
tive situation, there is in general a tangent space Ext1A (M1 , M2 ) = 0
from the simple module M1 to the nonisomorphic module M2 . In
2017, the deformation theory of a finite set M = {M1 , . . . , Mr } of
right modules over a noncommutative k-algebra A was developed,
investigated and published in the book Noncommutative Deforma-
tion Theory. This book was written by Laudal and another student
of his, Eivind Eriksen. In fact, Eriksen is the moderator of Laudal
and my compilator, and he is the main editor of that text. Among
other things, he found (correctly, of course) the definition of non-
commutative schemes too premature to be included in the book, and
that this part should be postponed.
In the fall of 2019, Laudal asked me to join him in the writings of
a book called Mathematical Models in Science, I would be responsible
for a chapter on noncommutative algebraic geometry and the actual
editing of the rest of the book. Once again, the chapter on noncom-
mutative algebraic geometry turned out to be rather big, and maybe
too heuristic (maybe not correct, but good enough), to be included in
the present book. So Laudal and I agreed that I would edit his book,
and he would help me in writing a monograph on noncommutative
algebraic geometry. My editing of Mathematical Models in Science
finished in January 2021, and World Scientific gave me till July 1,
2022 to finish a manuscript on noncommutative algebraic geometry,
which as you see is not the name of this book.
In 2017, I was invited to FU Berlin to give a series of lectures
on noncommutative invariant theory, and I started a cooperation
with Severin Barmeier, who was a PhD-student at the time, and is
a Postdoctoral in Cologne now. Barmeier and I have been working
on a project to publish a consistent definition of noncommutative
algebraic geometry fitting with the existing theories, and Barmeier
pointed out to me that Noncommutative Algebraic Geometry was a
Preface vii
name used by many authors, and that it would be too big a job to
prove that all these theories are equivalent. As we use noncommuta-
tive deformation theory as a tool for our geometry, and because their
ground-rings are associative k-algebras, the final title of my book is
Associative Algebraic Geometry. This makes good sense because it
makes us remember that to an observable there is always associated
an observer. You will also see that a commutative scheme is covered
by commutative rings, and that an associative scheme is covered by
associative rings.
With this said, the writing of Associative Algebraic Geometry
started in January 2021, but a lot of the concepts had already
been considered. Its main idea is that commutative schemes X can
be constructed by using algebraizations of the prorepresenting hull
OˆX,x of Def k(x) , k(x) = OX,x /mx , which is also called the local
formal moduli, as the local rings. Then noncommutative schemes

can be constructed by using algebraizations of the local formal
moduli ÔM , M = {M1 , . . . , Mr }, in finite sets of simple modules
as multi-local rings. The core goal of the book is to make this clear.
In addition to the core goal of the book, the definition of associa-
tive varieties and schemes, the book is written as a heuristic intro-
duction to Laudal’s Mathematical Models in Science. In Laudal’s
computations, he restricts to the situation that everything is affine.
Then a point is identified with a morphism to a simple module, and
every computation can be done in the affine ring itself. The first
chapter of the present book tries to tell what this means, and the
justification of the assumption that everything is affine is proved in
the later chapters. We do our best to justify the deformation theory,
and hopefully this will give new life to the study of noncommutative
rings.
I admit that the book could be of greater quality if I had more
time to write. However, as I know myself, I would just have made
more mistakes and messed it up more.

About the Author
Arvid Siqveland, born 10 November 1964,

received his Cand. Scient. in Pure Mathemat-

ics, Algebraic Geometry, from University of
Oslo (UIO) in 1990 with the thesis “Formal
Moduli of Torsion-Free Modules. Modules over
E6 and Endomorphisms”. He received his Dr.
Scient. in Pure Mathematics, Algebraic Geom-
etry, from UIO in 1996 with the thesis “Matric
Massey Products and Formal Moduli, Local
and Global”. Both degrees were supervised by
Olav Arnfinn Laudal who has been a lifelong friend and colleague.
Siqveland started as a lecturer at Buskerud University College in 1993
and is still employed as professor at the institution, now merged with
other colleges and enhanced to University of South-Eastern Norway
(USN). As a mathematician, Siqveland has produced several books
and research articles. As a person, Arvid is an informal average mem-
ber of society, he is a rural guy, content with his wife Anne Mette,
his children Jonathan, Kristoffer and Anine, and his up to now only
grandson Bror.
ix

Acknowledgments
This book could not have been written without the help of my closest
friends and cooperators Olav Arnfinn Laudal and Eivind Eriksen.

Also, much of the concepts have been improved and corrected with
the aid of Severin Barmeier. Gunnar Fløystad motivated and helped
me by showing interest and competence. As this book gives the
framework of everything I have been working on, I would like to
thank all those particular people who have truly helped me with the
different parts in the book. First of all, Bernd Martin who is a close
friend and who invited me to Berlin on several occasions. Eugen Paal,
who included me in the Nordic Baltic Cooperation. I thank Alexander
Stolin, Abdenacer Maklouf, Olav Gravir Imenes and Bjørn Solheim.
xi

Contents
Preface v
About the Author ix

Acknowledgments xi
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Associative Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Deformation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Affine Varieties as Moduli of Modules . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Affine Associative Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 Associative Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Associative Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2. Basic Introduction to Associative Moduli 25

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Generalized Moduli Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Associative Moduli and Adjoint Functors . . . . . . 37
2.5 Categorification of Deformation Theory . . . . . . 39
2.6 Geometry in Moduli Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 A Naive Framework for Change . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.8 Concluding a Naive Framework for Change . . . . 50
xiii
xiv Contents
3. Associative Algebra 53
3.1 Noncommutative Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Artin–Wedderburn Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Simple Modules and the Jacobson Radical . . . . . 59
3.4 The Classical Theorems of Burnside, Wedderburn
and Malcev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5 Finite-Dimensional Simple Modules . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Matrix Spaces over kr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7 Matric kr -Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.8 Quiver Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.9 GMMP Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.10 The Category of r-Pointed Artinian
k-Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.11 Constructing kr -Algebras from Products . . . . . . 75
3.12 The Algebra of an n-Directed GMMP-Algebra . . . 78

3.13 A Direct Example of a GMMP-Algebra . . . . . . . 86
3.14 Dynamical Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4. Associative Varieties I 91
4.1 Associative Representations of Modules . . . . . . . 93
4.3 Affinity of Associative Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.4 Associative Gluing of Affine Commutative
Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5 The Structure Sheaf of an Associative Variety . . . 110
4.6 The Functor Simp(−) : AlgM M
k → aVark . . . . . . 113
5. Noncommutative Deformation Theory 117

5.1 Prorepresentable Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2 The Noncommutative Deformation Functor . . . . 124
5.3 The Tangent and the Yoneda Complex . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Obstruction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.5 Computation of Prorepresenting Hulls with
a Guiding Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.6 Generalized Matric Massey Products . . . . . . . . 152
5.7 The Algebra of Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.8 Local Representability of the Deformation
Functor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Contents xv
5.9 The Generalized Burnside Theorem . . . . . . . . . 158

5.10 Generalized Obstruction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.11 Deformation of Sheaves of OX -Modules . . . . . . . 158
5.12 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6. Associative Varieties II 165

6.1 Representable Functors, Universal Properties
and Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2 Ordinary Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.4 Commutative Affine Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.5 Associative Affine Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.6 Associative Affine Varieties of Geometric
Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.7 A First Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.8 Defining Associative Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.9 Deformations Due to Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.10 The Definition of Noncommutative Schemes . . . . 191
6.11 Tangent Spaces of Matric Algebras . . . . . . . . . 192
6.12 A Comment on Multi-Localization . . . . . . . . . 194
6.13 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.14 Generalized Matric Massey Products . . . . . . . . 199
6.15 Reconstructing Algebras from Associative
Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.16 The Embedding Vark → aVark . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.17 The Embedding of Ordinary (Commutative)
Varieties in the Category of Associative
Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7. Computational Examples of Associative

Varieties 215
7.1 Set-Up for Noncommutative Projective Spaces . . . 215
7.2 Associative Varieties of Point-Modules . . . . . . . 216
7.3 Some Results from the Commutative Case . . . . . 218
7.4 The Associative Affine Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.5 The Associative Noncommutative Variety Pnass . . . 228
7.6 Noncommutative Projective Varieties . . . . . . . . 232
xvi Contents
7.7 The Quantum Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

7.8 The Jordan Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.9 The Quantum Polynomial Ring . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.10 A Sklyanin Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.11 To the Classification of AS Regular Algebras . . . . 238
7.12 Associative Projective Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.13 Noncommutative Projective Varieties . . . . . . . . 246
7.14 Example: The Associative Quantum Plane . . . . . 248
7.15 The Generalized Burnside Theorem and Some
Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
7.16 Sheaves of OX -Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.17 Classifying 1-Critical Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.18 Associative Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8. Algebraic Invariant Theory 273

8.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
8.2 Fine Moduli for Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.3 Constructive Method for
Noncommutative GIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.4 Applications of Noncommutative GIT . . . . . . . 279
8.5 GL(n)-Quotients of Endk (kn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.6 The Setup for M3 (k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.7 The Fine Moduli M2 (k)/GL2 (k) . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.8 Toric Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.9 A Toric Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.10 n-Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.11 The Structure of 3 − Lie4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.12 Moduli of Rank 2 Endomorphisms . . . . . . . . . 295
9. Pre-Dynamic GIT 307

9.1 Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.2 Blowing Up and Desingularization . . . . . . . . . 319
9.3 Chern Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9.4 The Iterated Phase Space Functor Ph∗
and the Dirac Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9.5 The Generalized de Rham Complex . . . . . . . . . 330
9.6 Excursion into the Jacobian Conjecture . . . . . . . 335
Contents xvii
10. Dynamical Algebraic Structures 339

10.1 Noncommutative Algebraic Geometry . . . . . . . . 339
10.2 Moduli of Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
10.3 Blowing Down Subschemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
10.4 Moduli of Simple Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
10.5 Evolution in the Moduli of Simple Modules . . . . 342
10.6 Dynamical Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
10.7 Gauge Groups and Invariant Theory . . . . . . . . 349
10.8 The Generic Dynamical Structures Associated
to a Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
10.9 The Classical Gauge Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.10 A Generalized Yang–Mills Theory . . . . . . . . . . 375
10.11 Reuniting GR, YM and General Quantum
Field Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
10.12 Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

10.13 Family of Representations versus Family
of Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
10.14 Relations to Clifford Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Bibliography 395
Index 399

Chapter 1
Introduction
This book is written to make the audience competent to read the

book Mathematical Models in Science by O.A. Laudal (Laudal, 2021).

That book is based on noncommutative algebraic geometry intro-
duced by noncommutative deformation theory, and the present book
tries to answer what kind of algebraic geometry that is. A lot of
authors have introduced noncommutative algebraic geometry, and
the intention with this book is not to prove any of them wrong.
Rather, we will see that our theory is consistent with most of the
other noncommutative theories, but this is not the main subject here.
Let k be an algebraically closed field of characteristic zero. We
want to define the spectrum of an associative ring A, starting with a
finitely generated, unital k-algebra A defined by a finitely generated
ideal. From deformation theory we know that for a commutative A,
Spec A is a fine moduli for its simple modules, and that determines
Spec A completely. Furthermore, we can give Spec A a topology in
this case, then we can glue, and we have defined schemes in the com-
mutative case. One central point is that the local rings of the fine
moduli Spec A can be computed as algebraizations of the prorepre-
senting hulls of the deformation functor Def M : Artk → Sets for
each simple module M k. The local rings determine the affine
scheme Spec A itself. In the noncommutative case, this simple setup
just doesn’t work. It turns out that we have to look at finite sets
M = {M1 , . . . , Mr } of simple, finite-dimensional (right) modules over
A, and from there it works. We will define Simp A as a fine moduli of
finite sets of simple finite-dimensional right modules, and they will
be completely determined by their multi-local rings, which can be
1
2 Associative Algebraic Geometry
defined as algebraizations of the noncommutative deformation func-

tor Def M : Artrk → Sets from the r-pointed Artinial k-algebras into
sets. Introducing a topology on Simp A, we can glue, and we get our
noncommutative varieties.
To our (at least mine) surprise, presented with the definition of a
noncommutative variety, we note that it is a fine moduli for its simple
objects. These objects correspond to their skyscraper sheaves, and
so, as there is a deformation theory for sheaves of right modules,
Simp(OX (X)) X
is an affine noncommutative variety. Thus, Laudal is entitled to call
a single algebra and its homomorphisms a scientific model.
1.1 Associative Algebra
Definition 1.1. In this text, a k-algebra is a vector space A over

the field k with a k-bilinear product A × A → A or just a k-linear
homomorphism
A ⊗k A → A.
Also, we assume that k is algebraically closed of characteristic zero.
Note that if A has a unit, then this is equivalent to stating that
A is a ring with a ring homomorphism k → A.
Any vector space (over a field) has a basis, and if we assume that
the algebra A is unital and generated by a countable set of generators,
the algebra k∞ = kx1 , x2 , x3 , ... maps onto A. It is reasonable to
call quotients of such algebras
k∞/a = kx1 , x2 , x3 , .../a,
a model for k-algebras. We will consider finitely generated unital
k-algebras A. This means that
kn := Tk (kn ) = kx1 , . . . , xn ,
the tensor algebra of the n-dimensional k-algebra maps onto the
k-algebra A. Finally, we assume that
A kn/(f1 , . . . , fl ),
Introduction 3
for a finite number l of polynomials. This would follow from the

noetherian property in the commutative setting, but not in general
when A is noncommutative. We will say that A is finitely presented.
For r ∈ N, assume given a family
V = {Vij }1≤i,j≤r
of k-vector spaces; one vector space for each pair i, j of natural

numbers less than or equal to r. We consider the set of matrices
M = (vij )r×r with vij ∈ Vij , and define component-wise addition,
and multiplication by scalars α = (α1 , . . . , αr ) ∈ kr by identifying α
with the diagonal r × r matrix with α on the diagonal and matrix
multiplication.
Definition 1.2. Let Vij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r be k-vector spaces. A kr -matrix
space is the set
V = (Vij )r×r = {(vij )r×r |vij ∈ Vij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r},
with matrix addition and kr -multiplication.

Note that letting V = (Vij ), W = (Wij ) be kr -matrix spaces, we
have that
V ⊗kr W = (⊕rk=1 Vik ⊗k Wkj ).
Definition 1.3. A kr -algebra is a matrix space A = (Aij )r×r with a

kr -bilinear product, or equivalently with a kr -linear homomorphism
A ⊗kr A → A.
We call A a matric algebra.

Let S be a unital ring with a given injective ring homomorphism
ι : kr → S. Composing with the diagonal homomorphism k → kr →
S, S is obviously a k-algebra with unit. Defining the k-vector spaces
of entries in S as Sij = ei Sej , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r, the homomorphism
f : S → (Sij ) given by f (s) = (ei sej ) is an isomorphism, and so S is
a matric algebra.
We need the models of kr -algebras corresponding to the
models F n/a in the situation with k-algebras. Assume that
A = (Aij )r×r has r idempotents and is generated by a countable
set of generators which we can assume to be decomposed into sets

αij = {αij (1), αij (2), . . . } ⊆ Aij . To ease the notation, assume that
A is finitely generated, so that the set
αij = {αij (1), . . . , αij (lij )} ⊆ Aij
contains lij elements for each 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r.

Then the kr -algebra
kr lij r×r
⎛ ⎞
kt11 (1), . . . , t11 (l11 ) t12 (1), . . . , t12 (l12 ) · · · t1r (1), . . . , t1r (l1r )
⎜ t21 (1), . . . , t21 (l21 ) kt22 (1), . . . , t22 (l22 ) · · · t2r (1), . . . , t2r (l2r ) ⎟
= ⎝ .. .. .. ⎠
. . .
tr1 (1), . . . , tr1 (l21 ) tr2 (1), . . . , tr2 (lr2 ) · · · ktrr (1), . . . , trr (lrr )
= Tkr ((klij )r×r )
maps onto A, and this says that
A = kr lij /(f1 , . . . , fl )
for a finite number of polynomials, again by assumption by lack of

the noetherian property for noncommutative algebras. We admit that
k(lij ) is not a free k-algebra, but it is a free kr -algebra. If this is
hard to read, recall that the matrix notation (Vij )r×r means r ×
r-matrices with Vij in entry i, j. If the size r is known, we also just
write (lij ) for (lij )r×r .
We observe that quiver algebras are natural examples of
kr -algebras. We consider a quiver Q as a small category with
objects ob Q = {q|q a node in Q}, and morphisms Mor(qi , qj ) =
{aij |aij is an arrow in Q from qi to qj }. We assume that the quiver
Q has r nodes, and that for each pair 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r there are lij
irreducible arrows aij (1), aij (2), . . . , aij (lij ). We call an arrow irre-
ducible if it is not reducible; the composition of two or more other
arrows aij ajk . We also treat the identity-morphism in each node as
a reducible morphism, that is as a unit, and do not count it above.
Then, as kr -algebra, kr Q is generated by the matrices
Vij = [aij (l)]r×r , 1 ≤ l ≤ lij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r,

Introduction 5
[aij (l)]r×r denoting the r × r matrix with aij (l) in entry i, j and zero
elsewhere. When Q is a quiver with r nodes and arrows tij (l), 1 ≤
l ≤ lij from node i to node j, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r
kr Q Tkr (V ) = kr lij .
Proposition 1.1. Any finitely generated kr -algebra S is a quotient

of a quiver algebra associated to a finite quiver with r nodes. That
is, there exists a quiver Q with r nodes and finitely many arrows
together with a surjective homomorphism of kr -algebras
φ : kQ S.
We will interpret kr -algebras as kr bilinear homomorphisms V ⊗kr

V → V for some r × r-matrix space V. This can be done on the level
of a monomial basis.
Definition 1.4. We let B(lij ) be the set of monomials in the matrix

algebra kr (lij ). We give all variables tij (l) weight 1, and decompose
the set of monomials by degree:

B(lij ) = B(lij )n .
n∈N
Note that if V, W are kr -matrix spaces, then V, W are left–right

kr bimodules, and by this k-modules. A kr -module homomorphism
is then also a k-linear morphism and vice versa.
Definition 1.5. Let k be a field. A GMMP kr -algebra is the data

(V, W, ∪, d) where V, W are kr -matrix spaces,
∪ : V ⊗ kr V → W
is a kr -linear product,
d = (dij ) : V → W
is a kr -linear homomorphism.
A GMMP kr -algebra homomorphism
φ = (Φ, Ψ) : (V, W, ∪, d) → (V , W , ∪ , d )
is a pair of kr -linear morphisms Φ : V → V , Ψ : W → W commuting

with ∪, ∪ and d, d :
∪ /W d /W
V ⊗ kr V V
Φ⊗Φ ◦ Ψ Φ ◦ Ψ

V ⊗ kr V ∪ / W V / W
d
We denote the category of GMMP kr -algebras L = (VL , WL , ∪, d)

by L.
Consider a finitely presented kr -algebra S = kL/Q where Q is
a two-sided ideal generated by a finite number of polynomials. Then,
S = (Sij ) is a kr -matrix space. Let
V = W = (Sij ), ∪ : V ⊗ V → W, d = id : V → W,
where ∪ is ordinary matrix multiplication, the multiplication in S.
We see that any kr -algebra S is a GMMP kr -algebra
S = ((Sij ), (Sij ), ∪, id) = (V, W, ∪, d).
Definition 1.6. Consider a GMMP algebra L = (V, W, ∪, d). A
linearly independent subset α = {α1 , . . . , αn } ⊆ V, spanning the
subvector space α ⊆ V, is called a Jet-set. A GMMP algebra with
an n-dimensional Jet-set is called an n-directed GMMP-algebra
L(α) = (α ⊆ V, W, ∪, d).
A morphism L(α) → L(β) in the category of n-directed GMMP-
algebras L(n) is a GMMP-morphism sending α to β.
Let S be a kr -algebra generated by n linearly independent ele-
ments α. Then S is an n-directed GMMP-algebra S = (α ⊆ (Sij ),
(Sij ), ∪, id).
Definition 1.7. An r-pointed algebra over k is an algebra fitting in
a diagram
kr A
ι /S
AA
AA
A
id AA
ρ

kr
Introduction 7
A morphism between two r-pointed algebras is a homomorphism of

kr -algebras commuting with the embedding ι and the augmentation
ρ. An r-pointed algebra over k is Artinian if kern ρ = 0 for some
n ≥ 1. We denote the category of r-pointed k-algebras by Algrk ,
and its full subcategory of Artinian k-algebras by Artrk . Also, the
full subcategories of algebras minimally generated by n elements are
denoted Algrk (n) and Artrk (n).
By the natural inclusion ι : kr → Tkr (V ) and the canon-

ical adjunction morphism ρ : Tkr (V ) kr , the k-algebras
Tkr (V )/ In (Tkr (V )) are objects in Artrk for all n ≥ 1. The augmen-
tation (arrow) ideal is denoted I = ker ρ.
We extensively use the following result from Eriksen and Siqve-
land (2020).
r
Proposition 1.2. Every k-algebra A ∈ Artk can be written in the
form
A∼
= klij /Q,
for some matrix (lij )r×r with entries from Z+ and some ideal Q.
We have defined kr -algebras and we gave an example by quiver

algebras. We proved in particular that any kr -algebra is a quotient of
a quiver algebra. We will give yet another way of characterizing kr -
algebras by telling which n-directed GMMP-algebras are constructed
from kr -algebras.
We observe that a finite-dimensional kr -algebra is a product struc-
ture on a family of finite-dimensional vector spaces V = (Vij )r×r of
dimension
dimk (Vij ) = (lij )r×r .
The vector spaces (Vij )r×r defines a quiver algebra with relations
Tkr (V ) = kQ/I, and in this section we will explain how these
concepts are connected. That is, all kr -algebras are defined by such
a structure, but the vector spaces are no longer necessarily finite-
dimensional. This leads to an equivalent definition of kr -algebras.
Let A be a finitely generated kr -algebra, r ≥ 1. Then A = (Aij )r×r
where each Aij is a k-vector space, and the algebra structure on A
is determined by the kr -bilinear product

∪
A ⊗kr A → A.
We assumed that A is finitely generated. Among any finite generating

subset, we can choose a finite linearly independent set, and by taking
its components, we might assume that A = (Aij ) is generated by a
linearly independent set B̄ 1 = (B̄ij1 ), equal to a disjoint union of
linearly independent sets of the form

ijl
1
{αij (l)}l=1 , i = j,
B̄ij =
{ei } ∪ {αii (l)}ll=1
ii
, i = j.
It is important to note that when we write αij (l) ∈ A, we mean that

αij (l) is the element in A = (Aij ) corresponding to the matrix with

αij (l) in entry i, j and zero elsewhere. Also the idempotent ei ∈ A
corresponds to the matrix with 1 in entry (i, i) and zero elsewhere.
We write B 0 = {ei }ri=1 , B 1 = B̄ 1 \ B 0 so that B̄ 1 = B 0 ∪ B 1 , and the
last is a disjoint union as B 0 ∩ B 1 = ∅.
The linear subspace of A spanned by the set B̄ 1 is denoted by V 1
and B̄ 1 is a basis for the vector space V 1 . For n ≥ 2, the set
B 1 B̄ n−1 ∪ B̄ n−1 B 1 ∪ B̄ n−1
spans a linear subspace of A, and we let
B̄ n ⊆ B 1 B̄ n−1 ∪ B̄ n−1 B 1 ∪ B̄ n−1
be a basis for the linear subspace V n spanned by
B 1 B̄ n−1 ∪ B̄ n−1 B 1 ∪ B̄ n−1 .
In this way, we get an inductively defined k-basis B̄ = ∪∞ i

i=1 B̄ for
the k -algebra
r
A = V = ∪∞
n=1 V
n
such that for each n ≥ 1, B n = B̄ n \ B̄ n−1 consists of a finite number

(possibly none) length n products
αi1 j1 (l1 )αi2 j2 (l2 ) · · · αin jn (ln ) ∈ B n .

Introduction 9
Put V 1 = (Vij1 )r×r , dimk Vij1 = lij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r, equal to the span

of B1 , and let
F = klij = Tkr V 1 → kr
π
be the augmented quiver algebra with augmentation ideal I = ker π

where π is defined as usual by sending all the generators tij (k) to
zero. We have a natural kr -algebra homomorphism
ρ : F → V = A,
given by ρ(tij (l)) = αtij (l), and we also have a k-linear section σ :
V → F of ρ given by sending each basis-element to its corresponding
generator.
Lemma 1.1. To give a finitely generated kr -algebra A is equivalent
to giving the data

(α = B 1 ⊂ V, F, ∪, d),
where d : V → F is the linear map defined on an inductively defined
basis B̄ for V constructed from α, and ∪ : V ⊗kr V → F is the natural
kr bilinear map defined by the composition
d
V ⊗kr V → V → F.
If β ⊆ V is another choice of basis B 1 , and/or another monomial
basis B̄ for V is constructed, there is an isomorphism φ : V → V
giving a commutative diagram
V ⊗ kr V /F
φ⊗φ f

V ⊗ kr V /F
where φ ⊗ φ and f are isomorphisms of vector spaces. Note in par-

ticular that f is not necessarily an isomorphism of kr -algebras.
We have proved the following:
Proposition 1.3. There is a fully faithful functor
r
L : Artk → L(n).
Remark 1.1. The preceding construction also works word by word

for the rad(S)-adic completion of a finitely generated unital associa-
tive kr -algebra.
Now, we consider the opposite direction:
Proposition 1.4. There exists a covariant full functor
r
H : L(n) → Artk
from the category of n-directed GMMP-algebras to the category of

formal r-pointed k-algebras.
Proof. This is an algorithm that takes as input the data of an object

in L(n), reads of the coefficients and returns the relations in a min-
imal form, i.e., an associative Groebner basis. The proof is given

explicitly in Section 3.12.
Definition 1.8. Let L(α) = (α ⊂ V, W, ∪, d) be a GMMP algebra

with α ⊂ V a linearly independent subset. Then, we call the algebra
H(L(α)) the kr -algebra of the GMMP-structure L(α).
Lemma 1.2. Let φ : L(α) → P (β) be a morphism in L sending α to

β, i.e., φ(α) ⊆ Span(β). Then, the homomorphism f : H(L(α)) →
H(P (β)) sending tα to tβ is well-defined.
Proof. This is a result of the algorithm in the proof of Proposi-

tion 1.4.
We say that a k-algebra A is formal if its elements are formal

power series in a finite number of generators. A formal algebra is
algebraic if it is the completion of a finitely generated k-algebra.
This says that the relations constructed in our definition of H(L(α))
are polynomials rather than power series. Then, the above result
immediately proves the following.
Corollary 1.1. Assume that
L(α) ∼
= P (β).
Then, if one of H(L(α)), H(P (β)) are algebraic, then so is the other.
Introduction 11
Lemma 1.3. Given an n-directed GMMP-algebra L = (α ⊆

V, W, ∪, d), there exists an n-directed GMMP algebra L = (α ⊆
V , F, ∪, d) such that
H(L) H(L ),
where F = kr lij , given by α = (αij ), αij = (αij (1), . . . , αij (lij )).
Proof. Let H(L) be the GMMP algebra of L, given by Definition
1.8. Then, Proposition 1.3 says that L(H(L)) is a GMMP-algebra
with the wanted properties.
Proposition 1.5. Given an n-directed GMMP-algebra
L = (α ⊆ V, W, ∪, d).
Then there exists an n-directed GMMP subalgebra
L = (α ⊆ V , W , ∪, d),
such that
H(L) H(L ).
Proof. The proposition follows from the lemma by mapping the

image W of α ∪ α in F element-wise to W.
Definition 1.9. We define the category of minimally n-directed
GMMP algebras over kr as the full subcategory of n-directed GMMP-
algebras (isomorphic to) on the form
(α ⊆ V, F, ∪, d),
where V has an inductively defined basis by α, and d is the inclusion

of vector-spaces as in Lemma 1.1.
We end the algebraic construction with the following theorem,
which is Theorem 3.6.
Theorem 1.1. The functor
H : Lmin (n) → Art(n) : L
is an equivalence of categories.
As an application of GMMP-algebras, we consider a special class

of algebras which we define as dynamical. The mission of an asso-
ciative algebra is to act as an algebraic model for a geometry on
a category of modules over the algebra. We define a dynamic in a
mathematical model by adding a change-morphism, and in the alge-
braic case, this change morphism is assumed to be a k-derivation. A
Dynamical Algebra takes care of both the geometrical structure and
the dynamics.
Let A be a k-algebra and let M = {M1 , . . . , Mr } be a set of
A-modules. Recall that the vector spaces Homk (Mi , Mj ) over k are
A–A bimodules with A-action given by
(a · φ)(mi ) = φ(ami ), (φ · a)(m) = φ(m)a.
In any algebra, there are the ad-derivations adφ for φ ∈

Homk (Mi , Mj ). These are given by adφ (x) = xφ − φx. These exist
trivially, and only give the rigid dynamics. The dynamics we would
like to add to our algebra is thus something more, that is a set of
derivations in
Derk (A, Homk (Mi , Mj ))/ Triv.
In the further development in this section, we assume that A

is a quiver algebra with relations, i.e., a matrix algebra, a finitely
presented algebra
A = kM /Q,
with M ∈ Matr (N) and Q = (fij (1), . . . , fij (lij )).

Consider a linear subspace of ⊕i,j Derk (A, Homk (Mi , Mj ))/ Triv
for each 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r with basis
δij (1), . . . , δij (lij )
corresponding to the matrix M in the definition of A. Because a

derivation is determined by its action on the generators, we have a
correspondence in A sending tij (l) to δij (l) which we can interpret
as the directional derivative.
Referring to Section 3.9, we have a GMMP-algebra structure with
tij ⊆ V, W = (Derk (A, Homk (Mi , Mj ))/ Triv),

Introduction 13
and where d : V → W is the k-linear map sending tij to δ ij as

described above. We interpret the d(tij ) = δij = ∂tij as operators,
and we denote the k-algebra of the given GMMP structure
Ph(A, H, ∂) = kM, ∂M /(f ij , ∂(f ij )).
The input variable H is short for the k-algebra H = (Homk (Mi , Mj ))

and ∂ is the chosen derivations ∂ = (δ ij ).
Definition 1.10. Let α ⊆ V = (Vij ) and W be matrix spaces as
in Definition 1.8. Assume that there is a correspondence d : α → W
that assigns a derivation dtij (l) for each basis element in α. Then, we
call the algebra constructed above the Phase Space of d, and denote
it Ph(A, δ).
In general, let A be a finitely presented associative k-algebra
augmented over kr . Consider the r simple one-dimensional mod-

ules Mi over the origins of Aii = ei Aei , 1 ≤ i ≤ r. Choose bases
δtij (l), 1 ≤ l ≤ lij for Derk (Mi , Mj ) and use the correspondence
tij (l) → δtij (l). In this special situation, we give the following
definition.
Definition 1.11. For A a finitely generated k-algebra, we define
Ph(A) = kA, ∂/∂(A),
as the above-constructed algebra and call it the Phase Space of A.
Lemma 1.4. Let A be a finitely presented k-algebra augmented over
kr . Let (δ ij ) be a set of assigned derivations to each generator of A.
Then, Ph(A, δ) is an A-algebra over k and there exists a k-derivation
∂ : A −→ Ph(A, δ).
1.2 Deformation Theory
In this section, we use ar as short for the category Artrk of r-pointed

Artinian k-algebras. A surjection
φ:RS
in ar is called small if (ker φ) I(R) = 0. Any surjection in ar can be
decomposed into small morphisms.
Lemma 1.5 (Yoneda). Let F : C → Sets be a covariant functor.

Then there is a bijection for every C ∈ ob(C),
∼
F (C) → Mor(Mor(C, −), F ),
where the right-hand set is the set of natural transformations of

functors.
Our main concern are functors on pro-categories
F : aˆr → Sets.
Definition 1.12. A morphism of functors from aˆr to Sets,
φ : Mor(H, −) → F,
is said to be an isomorphism at tangent level if φ(E) is an isomor-

phism when E is the ring of dual numbers. We will call it smooth if
it is essentially surjective, that is, if for all small morphisms S R,
if φR ∈ Mor(H, R) maps to MR ∈ F (R), if MR lifts to MS ∈ F (S),
then there exists a
φS ∈ Mor(H, S)
mapping to φR and MS simultaneously:
& ,
∃φ ∈ Mor(H, S) / F (S) M_S
_S

φR ∈ Mor(H, R) / F (R) 2 MR
In this case, we say that φR (and MR ) can be lifted to S.

Definition 1.13. Consider a couple (H, M̃ ), with H ∈ ob(aˆr ), M̃ ∈
F (H), and let φM̃ : Mor(H, −) → F be the induced morphism. Then
(H, M̃ ) is called:
(i) Prorepresenting if φM̃ is an isomorphism of functors on aˆr .
(ii) A prorepresenting hull, or local formal moduli, if φM̃ is smooth
and an isomorphism at tangent level.
Introduction 15
Lemma 1.6. Prorepresenting objects are unique up to unique iso-

morphism when they exist. Hulls are unique upto nonunique isomor-
phism when they exist.
Definition 1.14. Let A be an associative k-algebra, and let M =

{M1 , . . . , Mr } be a set of r right A-modules. Let M = ⊕ri=1 Mi . We
define the noncommutative deformation functor
Def M : ar → Sets,
by
Def M (S) = {S ⊗k A-modules MS , flat over S|kr ⊗S MS M }/∼.
The equivalence is given by MS ∼ MS when they are isomorphic as

flat deformations of M , that is, the following diagram commutes:
MS B / M
S
BB |
BB ||
BB
B! ||
}||
M
Note that kr ⊗S MS is a kr ⊗S (S ⊗k A) kr ⊗k A Ar -module,

and that it is proved in the book (Eriksen et al., 2017) that MS is
flat over S if and only if MS S ⊗kr M as S-module.
In the above situation, chose bases α = (αij ) ∈ (Vij ) for (Vij ) =
Ext1A (Mi , Mj )). Then, we have the cup-product
(Vij ) ⊗kr (Vij ) → (Wij ),
where (Wij ) = (Ext2A (Mi , Mj )).

With the notation from the previous section, we obtain the fol-
lowing result.
Theorem 1.2. H = H(α) is a prorepresenting hull of Def M .
1.3 Affine Varieties as Moduli of Modules
First of all, we are very aware that the main interest of affine varieties
is that they are locally ringed spaces so that they can be glued to
general varieties. Thus, locally, nothing more can be done in the

category of affine varieties than can be done in the category of finitely
generated domains over algebraically closed k. However, in the next
section we will generalize Spec A to associative varieties, and so the
sheaf of rings will be of equal importance in the noncommutative
situation.
In Shlessinger’s classical paper from 1968, there is a section on the
relation to global functors (Schlessinger, 1968, (2.1) p. 210). This is
more or less the basis of our construction. Let k be an algebraically
closed field, let A be a finitely generated k-domain defined by a finite
set of relations. We will call such a k-algebra finitely presented over k,
and the intension is that for a finitely presented k-algebra, we have
that Spec A = Specm A, that is, we work only with the maximal
ideals. To give a closed point in Spec A is equivalent to giving a
morphism of affine schemes Spec k → Spec A, that is, the set of

closed points of Spec A is in bijective correspondence with the set
Hom(A, k). We have the functor
Mor(−, Spec A) : Vark → Sets,
from the category of varieties to the category of sets, and this says
by definition that Spec A is a fine moduli for its closed points.
We denote the category of local k-algebras by Alg∗k . Any functor
F : Vark → Sets
together with a fixed element M ∈ F (Spec k) defines a functor
FM : Alg∗k → Sets
by
FM (B) = {E ∈ F (Spec B)|F (Spec B/mB → Spec A)(E) = M }.
In our case, choosing the point mA ⊂ A, this results in the functor
Mor∗ (A, B) = {φ ∈ Hom(A, B)|φ−1 (mB ) = mA } = Homk (AmA , B).
This directly, by definition, says that Mor∗ (A, −) is represented

by AmA .
Introduction 17
It is well known that we can use all the localizations Am of a

finitely generated domain A over k to define the scheme Spec A =
Specm A. This is done by defining the locally ringed sheaf of rings
on Spec A by OSpec A (U ) = lim Am .
←
m∈U
Now, we apply the commutative deformation theory of modules:
Let m ⊂ A be a maximal ideal, and let M = A/m. From the above, we
have that the m-adic completion Âm prorepresents the deformation
functor Def M : Artk → Sets. Thus, Âm is also a prorepresenting
hull, and A embeds into this hull, η : A → Âm . The application of
ordinary (commutative) deformation theory is then to study moduli-
spaces by different techniques for computing prorepresentable hulls,
and this explains the alternative name Local Formal Moduli.
We want to generalize this to the noncommutative situation, and
we start by considering an alternative, but equivalent, categorical

definition of an affine commutative variety.
Following Mumford and Suominen (1972), in the early days of
moduli theory, for a finitely presented commutative domain A over
an algebraically closed field k, an affine fine moduli variety M(A) for
the simple A-modules, called points in A, consists of an affine variety
M(A) such that M(A) parametrizes the set of simple A-modules,
and if M(B) parametrizes a subset of the simple A-modules, the
inclusion of sets should be determined by a morphism of varieties
M(B) → M(A). This is equivalent with the identity
Mor(−, M(A)) ∼
= F,
where F is the functor Vark → Sets given by F (X)
Mor(X, Spec A).
Let C be any category with a contravariant functor M :
Algk → C with the property that Mor(M(k), M(A)) {M |M
is a simple A-module}. Then, M(A) ∈ ob C and it has the prop-
erty that M(A) is a fine moduli object for the simple A-modules. It
is more or less obvious that any such category C is equivalent to the
category of affine varieties, and so any object M(A) ∈ ob C should
be called an affine variety.
We make the parametrization of points explicit. Let A and B be
k-algebras. A family of A-modules parametrized by Spec B is then
a B ⊗k A-module MB . For each point mx in Spec B we get an A
module B/mx ⊗B MB which is a B/mx ⊗B (B ⊗k A) A-module.
When it comes to fine affine moduli spaces, it is obvious that Spec A

parametrizes a family of A-modules by an A ⊗k A-module, and if
Spec B parametrizes a subset of this family, this should be induced
by a morphism Spec A → Spec B which is equivalent to a homomor-
phism B → A.
So let {A/mx } be the set of simple A-modules. This set is
parametrized over A by the A ⊗k A-module A ⊗k k = A = MA
and the parametrization is given by
A/mx ⊗A A A/mx .
Then, we come to our main point: A set of closed points in Spec A

parametrized by Spec B is a homomorphism A → B such that we
have the commutative diagram
A ⊗k A / A/mx

B ⊗k A / A/mx
Let us highlight the sentence “if M(B) parametrizes a subset of

the simple A-modules parametrized by M(A), the inclusion of sets
should be determined by a morphism of varieties M(B) → M(A)”.
We then note that every finite subset of simple A-modules M =
{A/m1 , . . . , A/mr } is parametrized by the spectrum of the k-algebra
AM = ⊕ri=1 Ami which is included in Mor(Spec k, Spec A) by the obvi-
ous morphism A → AM .
1.4 Affine Associative Varieties
We continue directly from the highlighted text in the previous sec-

tion, but with A an associative k-algebra, not necessarily commuta-
tive. Let aC be a k-linear category with a functor M : Algk → Sets
such that
MoraC (M(k), M(A))

= {M |M is a finite-dimensional simple right A-module}.
Introduction 19
If M(B) parametrizes a subset of the simple A-modules

parametrized by M(A), the inclusion of sets should be deter-
mined by a morphism of varieties M(B) → M(A). Let M =
{M1 , . . . , Mr } be any finite subset of simple A-modules. Assuming
that M is parametrized by M(AM ), the inclusion M ⊆ Simp A =
Mor(M(k), M(A)) should be induced by a morphism M(AM ) →
M(A) in aC, that is, by a k-algebra homomorphism A → AM . Recall
that Algrk denotes the category where the objects are kr -algebras
augmented over kr such that the composition is the following
identity:
kr A /A
AA
AA
A
id AA
kr
Morphisms in this category are kr -algebra homomorphisms commut-

ing with the augmentation,
kr A / B φ '/ A
AA }
AA
AA }}}
A ~}}}
kr
Note that by such a morphism, any set {M1A , . . . , MrA } of r right A-

modules is parametrized by A with A ⊗kr MA where MA = ⊕ri=1 MiA
and this says that φ respects the fixed set of A-modules.
With this we obtain two fundamental facts: First, the algebra AM
represents the functor Def MA : Artrk → Sets. Secondly, defining
OA = lim AM ,
←
M ⊆Simp A
we have that
M(O A )
is a fine moduli for the simple A-modules.

The only thing left for proving that the category aC with the
functor M : Algk → aC exists, is to define the localization in a finite
set of points, that is AM .
Definition 1.15. We define the localization in a finite set of simple
modules M as
AM = ηM (A) ⊆ O A (M ) = (Hij (M ) ⊗k Homk (Mi , Mj )),
where (Hij (M )) is the prorepresenting hull of the noncommutative
deformation functor Def M : Artrk → Sets.
Summing up, we have the following:
Definition 1.16. The category of associative affine varieties aAff k
has objects
Simp A ∈ aAff k ,
for each finitely presented k-algebra A. A morphism Simp A →
Simp B is a k-algebra homomorphism φ : B → A.
Definition 1.17. A point in Simp A is a morphism A → k. Thus,
Simp A = {M |M is a simple A-module, finite-dimensional over k}.
Lemma 1.7. The category of affine (commutative) varieties Aff k is
a full subcategory of aAff k .
Proof. This follows because for a commutative, finitely presented
domain A over algebraically closed k, Simp A = Specm A.
Note that this lemma says that anything we do to an associative
affine variety will happen also to an ordinary commutative variety.
The set of simple, finite-dimensional, right A-modules, has a richer
structure than just being a set. This is because it happens in gen-
eral that there are tangent directions between nonisomorphic sim-
ple modules M1 , M2 , i.e., in general, Ext1A (M1 , M2 ) = 0. Without
going too far in the generalization, the tangent directions should be
included in categorical morphisms in the category of simple modules.
This said, we should consider the fine moduli as parametrizing the
category of simple modules, and if an affine variety parametrizes a
subcategory, the natural embedding of categories should be induced
by a morphism of affine varieties.
Introduction 21
1.5 Associative Varieties
We will follow the definition of a variety as a ringed space that is

covered by affine varieties. As soon as we define associative vari-
eties, because of Lemma 1.7, a variety is then an associative vari-
ety covered by affine varieties. In the following, all algebras will be
finitely presented domains over algebraically closed k. We also con-
sider right modules M over A defined by their structure morphism,
i.e., a k-algebra homomorphism ηM A : A → End (M ).
k
Maybe we should remark that the following is the direct reason
for considering only finite-dimensional simple modules, and that a
k-linear transformation M : V → V is invertible if and only if the
determinant is nonvanishing, i.e., det M = 0.
Definition 1.18. For an associative k-algebra A over k and f ∈ A,
we define the set
D(f ) = {M ∈ Simp A| det(ηM

A
(f )) = 0}.
Lemma 1.8. The sets D(f ), f ∈ A is a base for a topology on

Simp A.
Proof. For f, g ∈ A we have that ηM
A (f g) = η A (f )η A (g) and this
M M
gives
A
det(ηM (f )) = 0 and A
det(ηM (g)) = 0 ⇔ det(ηM
A
(f g))
A
= det(ηM (gf )) = 0.
This says
D(f ) ∩ D(g) = D(f g) = D(gf ).

Now, recall Definition 1.15.
Definition 1.19. We define a sheaf of k-algebras on the topological
space X = Simp A by
OX (U ) = lim AM ,
←
M ∈U
the projective limit taken over all finite subsets M ⊆ U.

Definition 1.20. An associative variety is a ringed space locally

isomorphic to, that is covered by, open subsets U with
(U, OU ) (X, OX ),
where X is an associative affine variety.
Theorem 1.3. Any associative variety (X, OX ) is affine, that is,

there exists a k-algebra C(X) such that
(X, OX ) ∼
= (Simp C(X), OSimp C(X) ),
for some associative k-algebra C(X).
Proof (Sketch). Let (X, OX ) be an associative variety. We can

define a sheaf of right OX -modules the ordinary way. Then Eivind

Eriksen proves in Eriksen (2005) that there is an obstruction theory
for sheaves of right OX -modules. To each point x ∈ X we associate
its skyscraper sheaf Fx in that point. Then, we put
C(X) = OX (X) = lim FM ,

←
M ⊆X
where the limit is taken over all finite subsets M = {x1 , . . . , xn } ⊆ X

and FM = {Fx1 , . . . , Fxn }. It then follows that
(X, OX ) (Simp C(X), OSimp C(X) ).
1.6 Associative Schemes
We have considered only associative varieties, which are generaliza-

tions of ordinary (commutative) varieties. This says that we have
considered the embedding of the category Vark of varieties over an
algebraically closed field k into the category aVark of associative
varieties over k.
To the definition of general associative schemes, we will extend
the category aVark with objects corresponding to schemes, which
we call associative schemes, aSch. Recall that an associative vari-
ety is covered by associative affine varieties Simp A where the A’s
Introduction 23
are geometric, and our task is to do the same when A is a general

associative unital ring, i.e., covered by general rings A.
Definition 1.21. A module homomorphism φ : M1 → M2 is called
small if ker φ · Ann(M1 ) = Ann(M1 ) · ker φ = 0. A sequence
· · · Mn → Mn−1 → · · · → M1
is called a primary series if the homomorphisms in the series are

small.
Definition 1.22. Let A be an associative ring with unit and let
M1 , M2 be two cyclic indecomposable right A-modules. We say that
M1 and M2 are primary equivalent, written M1 M2 , if they occur
in a primary series of cyclic indecomposable right A-modules.
Definition 1.23.
(i) We let Indc(A) denote the set of cyclic indecomposable right
A-modules M1 = A/ Ann(m), 0 = m ∈ M, with a surjective
homomorphism to a simple right module M.
(ii) For an associative ring A, we define the set
aSpec A = Indc(A)/.
Obviously, Simp A ⊆ aSpec(A). We will define a topology on

aSpec A. Note that any simple right module is M A/ Ann(m)
for any 0 = m ∈ M, but it might happen that M A/ Ann(M )
EndA (M ). There are even examples of nonisomorphic right ideals
a1 , a2 such that M = A/a1 A/a2 is simple. This is the reason that
it is safer to work with representations rather than defining ideals.
Lemma 1.9. Let M be a simple right module. Then Ann(M ) is a
maximal (two-sided) ideal, and A/Ann(M ) is a division ring.
Proof. Shur’s lemma says that when M is right simple, then
EndA (M ) is a division ring. This follows because each homomor-
phism is either zero or an isomorphism. The structure morphism
A
ηM : A → EndA (M )
A ) = Ann(M ) and the kernel of a ring homomorphism is a
has ker(ηM
two-sided ideal. Hence, A/ Ann(M ) M is a division ring.
Definition 1.24. For f ∈ A, we define D(f ) ⊆ Indc(A) by
D(f ) = {P ∈ Indc(A)|ηPA (f ) : P → P is injective}.
Lemma 1.10. Given an associative ring A, the family {D(f )}f ∈A

is a base for a topology on a Spec A.
Proof. First of all, a simple module is a vector space over the divi-
sion algebra EndA (M ) by Shur’s lemma. Then, Dm (f ) ∩ Dm (g) =
Dm (f g) because the composition of invertible morphisms of finite-
dimensional vector spaces is invertible by the product rule of determi-
nants. Taking the limit, the result also holds for infinite-dimensional
vector spaces. Every (equivalence class of) nonsimple cyclic indecom-
posable modules P has a quotient isomorphic to M, that is P/Q M
and thus det η(f g) = 0 ⇔ det η(f ) det η(g) = 0.
Next, we construct the multi-localized structure sheaf in the gen-

eral situation of an associative ring A. We replace Simp A with
aSpec A. Then we use the O-construction word by word and con-
struct O(c) for each finite subset c ⊆ aSpec A. This is not possible if
the Ext1A (Mi , Mj )-dimensions are not finite, i.e., if c is not a swarm.
In this case, we let
O(c) = lim O t (c),

←
t⊆T (c)
where t runs through all finite bases in T (c) = (Ext1A (Mi , Mj ))

and O t is constructed using these bases. When the finite subsets
c ⊆ aSpec A are not swarms, we lack one of the conditions in the
generalized Burnside theorem. Then there is no reason the closure
theorem should hold. Thus, we look at the direct limit sequence
A (c)
A → OA (c) → O O (c) → · · · → O(c),
and so O(c) has the correct property, i.e., the operation is closed
by the property of being the inductive limit of the system. After
these considerations, we can define the structure sheaf in the general
situation by the techniques given in the geometric situation.
Chapter 2
Basic Introduction to
Associative Moduli
2.1 Introduction
In mathematics, a category C is a class of objects ob C together

with, for each pair of objects o1 , o2 ∈ ob C, a class of morphisms
Mor(o1 , o2 ) which obeys the composition laws. A category C is small
if ob C and Mor(o1 , o2 ) are sets. It is called locally small if Mor(o1 , o2 )
is a set for each pair of objects o1 , o2 ∈ ob C.
Let C be a small category. In this section, we prove that we can
define a general mathematical structure on the set of objects C. To
be precise, we give the definition of a moduli object U for a small
category C in a category U, and we prove its existence in general.
A moduli object is a moduli for a small category, contrary to the
classical fine moduli space that is a moduli for a set of objects.
We give algebraic constructions of categories and moduli objects,
resulting in a definition of associative varieties in the following chap-
ters that generalizes ordinary varieties.
2.2 Preliminaries
We use upper-case bold letters for categories, e.g., the categories

Schk , Sets and the general category C. When we write C ∈ C,
we actually mean C ∈ ob C. We let MorC (C, D) denote the mor-
phisms from C to D in the category C. For two categories C, D, we
25
let Fun(C, D) denote the category with ob(Fun(C, D)) the class of
functors F : C → D, and where MorFun(C,D) (F, G) is the class of
natural transformations φ : F → G. Recall that a category C is small
if ob C and MorC (C, D), for any C, D ∈ C, are objects in Sets.
The following definition of limits in categories is essential.
Definition 2.1. Let C be a category. Then an object P ∈ ob C is

called the projective (inverse) limit over C if:
(i) There exists a morphism ρC ∈ MorC (P, C) from P to C for each
object C ∈ ob C commuting with all other morphisms, that is,
for each pair of objects C1 , C2 and each φ1,2 ∈ MorC (C1 , C2 ),
the following diagram commutes:
ρC1
P@ / C1
@@
@@
@
ρC2 @@
φ1,2

C2
(ii) If P ∈ ob C is another object fulfilling the conditions in (i), then

there exists a unique morphism ξ ∈ MorC (P , P ) commuting in
the following diagram for each pair of objects with morphisms:
ρC1
PO A / C1
AA }}>
A
A}
ξ }}AA φ1,2
}} A
P / C2
ρC
2
(iii) As a projective limit is unique, we write
P = lim C,
←
C∈C
if the limit exists.

(iv) Changing the directions of all arrows and replacing P with I
results in the inductive (direct) limit, written
I = lim C.
→
C∈C
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Full Ebook of Associative Algebraic Geometry 1St Edition Arvid Siqveland Online PDF All Chapter

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Associative Algebraic Geometry 1st

Edition Arvid Siqveland

Affine Algebraic Geometry: Geometry of Polynomial Rings

Algebraic Geometry and Commutative Algebra 2nd Edition

Using Algebraic Geometry Second Edition David A Cox

Free Resolutions in Commutative Algebra and Algebraic

Algebra and Applications 1: Non-associative Algebras

Algebraic Topology 1st Edition Clark Bray

Engineering Fundamentals and Problem Solving, 8th

The Gene's-Eye View of Evolution 1st Edition J. Arvid

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022041396

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Copyright © 2023 by World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.

For any available supplementary material, please visit

Desk Editors: Sanjay Varadharajan/Adam Binnie/Shi Ying Koe

Typeset by Stallion Press

This book is aimed at graduate students in algebra and algebraic

geometry. The study of commutative rings can be interpreted in the

over which the modules are deﬁned, is noncommutative. Then, in

formal moduli, as the local rings. Then noncommutative schemes

This page intentionally left blank

Arvid Siqveland, born 10 November 1964,

received his Cand. Scient. in Pure Mathemat-

This page intentionally left blank

friends and cooperators Olav Arnﬁnn Laudal and Eivind Eriksen.

This page intentionally left blank

About the Author ix

2. Basic Introduction to Associative Moduli 25

3.12 The Algebra of an n-Directed GMMP-Algebra . . . 78

5. Noncommutative Deformation Theory 117

5.9 The Generalized Burnside Theorem . . . . . . . . . 158

6. Associative Varieties II 165

7. Computational Examples of Associative

7.7 The Quantum Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

8. Algebraic Invariant Theory 273

9. Pre-Dynamic GIT 307

10. Dynamical Algebraic Structures 339

10.12 Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

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This book is written to make the audience competent to read the

book Mathematical Models in Science by O.A. Laudal (Laudal, 2021).

deﬁned as algebraizations of the noncommutative deformation func-

1.1 Associative Algebra

Deﬁnition 1.1. In this text, a k-algebra is a vector space A over

for a ﬁnite number l of polynomials. This would follow from the

of k-vector spaces; one vector space for each pair i, j of natural

space is the set

V = (Vij )r×r = {(vij )r×r |vij ∈ Vij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r},

with matrix addition and kr -multiplication.

V ⊗kr W = (⊕rk=1 Vik ⊗k Wkj ).

Deﬁnition 1.3. A kr -algebra is a matrix space A = (Aij )r×r with a

We call A a matric algebra.

set of generators which we can assume to be decomposed into sets

αij = {αij (1), . . . , αij (lij )} ⊆ Aij

contains lij elements for each 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r.

= Tkr ((klij )r×r )

maps onto A, and this says that

for a ﬁnite number of polynomials, again by assumption by lack of

Vij = [aij (l)]r×r , 1 ≤ l ≤ lij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r,

kr Q Tkr (V ) = kr lij .

Proposition 1.1. Any ﬁnitely generated kr -algebra S is a quotient

kr Q Tkr (V ) = kr lij .

By the natural inclusion ι : kr → Tkr (V ) and the canon-

tij ⊆ V, W = (Derk (A, Homk (Mi , Mj ))/ Triv),