REPUBLIC OF IRAQ

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION & SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF KUFA

FACULTY OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

A Pragma-stylistic Study of Imagery in Alice Munro's

Selected Short Stories

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE COUNCIL OF THE FACULTY OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF

KUFA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER

OF ARTS

IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS

BY

HASSAN FALAH MOHSEN

SUPERVISED BY

PROF. DR. HUSSEIN D. MUZHIR AL-HASSNAWI (PH.D.)

2022 A. D. 1443 A. H.
 ِ ‫حيم‬ ِ ‫الر‬
ّ ‫ن‬ ِ ‫م‬ َ ‫ح‬ْ ‫الر‬ ّ ِ ّ ‫سم ِ الل‬
‫ه‬ ْ ِ‫ب‬
َ ْ ‫ات‬
‫ها‬َ ‫في‬ ِ ‫ة‬ ٍ ‫شكَا‬ ْ ‫م‬ ِ َ‫ه ك‬ ِ ‫ور‬ِ ُ‫ل ن‬ُ َ ‫مث‬ َ ۚ ‫ض‬ ِ ‫وال ْر‬ َ ِ ‫او‬ َ ‫م‬ َ ‫الس‬
ّ ‫ور‬
ُ ُ‫ه ن‬ ُ ّ ‫( الل‬
‫يي‬ ّ ‫كَبي ُد ّري‬ٌ ‫َكْييو‬ ‫الزي َجيا َجي ُة كَ َّأيني َيهاي‬ّ ۖ ‫ِم ْصي َبا ٌحي ۖ ا ْلي ِمي ْصي َبا ُحي ِفي ُزيَجيا َجي ٍة‬
ُ َ‫اركَ ٍة َز ْي ُتونَ ٍة ّل َش ْر ِق ّي ٍة َو َل َغ ْر ِب ّي ٍة َيك‬
‫اد‬ َ ‫د ِمن َش َج َر ٍة ّم َب‬ ُ ‫وق‬ َ ‫ُي‬
‫ه ِدي اللّ ُه‬ ْ ‫ىنُ و ٍر ۗ َي‬ َ ٌ ‫ار ۚ ّن‬ َ ‫يء َو َل ْو َل ْم َت ْم‬ ِ ‫ها ُي‬
ٰ ‫ور َعل‬ ٌ َ‫س ُهن‬
َ ْ ‫ب اللّه‬
ْ ‫س‬ ُ ‫ض‬ َ ‫َز ْي ُت‬
ّ ُ ‫ه بِك‬
‫ل‬ ُ ّ ‫والل‬ َ ۗ ‫اس‬ ِ َ َ ‫مث‬
ّ ‫اللِلن‬ ْ ‫ال‬ ُ ُ ‫ر‬ ِ ‫ض‬ ْ َ ‫وي‬ َ ۚ ُ‫شاء‬ َ َ ‫مني‬ َ ‫ه‬ ِ ‫ور‬ِ ُ ‫لِن‬
)ٌ ‫ي ٍء َع ِل‬
‫يم‬ َ
ْ ‫ش‬
‫صدق الله العلي العظيم‬
)35 ‫ الية‬:‫( سويرةي النويري‬

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most

Compassionate
"Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable
of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp:
the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant
star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor
of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce
touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will
to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah
doth know all things"
)Al Nur: 35(
Translated by: Yusuf Ali
)quran4all, 2019(
 The Supervisor’s Declaration

I certify that this thesis (A Pragma-stylistic Study of Imagery in Alice

Munro’s Selected Short Stories) written by Hassan Falah Mohsen has
been prepared under my supervision at the Faculty of Arts, University of
Kufa, as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master
of Arts in English Language and Linguistics.

Signature:

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hussein Dhahi Muzhir

Date / / 2022

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for

debate by the Examining Committee.

Signature:

Name: Assist. Prof. Khalid J. Oudah

Head of Department
Date / / 2022
 The Examining Committee’s Declaration

We certify that we have read this thesis (A Pragma-stylistic Study of Imagery in Alice
Munro’s Selected Short Stories) written by Hassan Falah Mohsen and, as Examining
Committee, examined the student in its contents, and in our opinion it is adequate as a thesis
for a Degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics.

Name: Assist. Prof. Dr. Raed Dakhil Kareem Name: Assist. Prof. Kamal Katia Nasser
Member Member
Signature: Signature:
Date: / / 2022 Date: / / 2022

Name: Prof. Dr. Hussein Dhahi Muzhir Name: Prof. Dr. Saleh Mahdi Adai
Member and Supervisor Chairman
Signature: Signature:
Date: / / 2022 Date: / / 2022

Approved by the Dean of Faculty of Arts:

Signature:
Name:
Date: / / 2022

IV
 DEDICATION

TO

IMAM HUSSEIN ) PEACE BE UPON HIM(,

.…THE SOURCE OF INSPIRATION

.TO MY FAMILY

I am very much thankful to my great

family and wife for their patience,
understanding, prayers and continuing support
to complete this thesis.

V
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, praises and thanks be to the Almighty God for His
showers of blessings throughout my research work to complete the
research successfully.

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my

supervisor, Prof Dr. Hussein Dhahi Muzhir Al-Hassnawi for providing
me invaluable guidance throughout the process of writing. His vision,
sincerity and motivation have deeply inspired me.

I would also like to thank all the teaching staff at Department of

English, Faculty of Arts, University of Kufa: Prof. Dr. Abbas Hassan
Jassim, Prof. Dr. Abdulhussein Reishan, Prof. Dr. Siham Al-Qawaz, Prof.
Dr. Musaab AlKhazaali, and Asst. Prof. Dr. Raed Dakhil Kareem.

VI
 List of Tables

Title Page

The Frequencies and Percentages of Types of Imagery 96

The Frequencies and Percentages of The Stylistic Devices 96

The Frequencies and Percentages of The Grice's Maxims 97

VII
 List of Figures

Title Page

The Eclectic Model of Analysis 60

VIII
 Abstract
The current study tackles imagery in Alice Munro's selected short
stories: "Friend of my Youth", Boys and Girls", "Dear Life" Pragma-
stylistically. Alice Munro is considered as one of the prominent
contemporary Canadian short story writers. Due to the fact that Munro is
the only short story writer and the first Canadian woman who has been
rewarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2013. The study attempts to
shed light on imagery in terms of pragma-stylistic perspectives.

Therefore, the study tries to answer the following questions: What

kinds of imagery are utilized in the data? What are the pragma-stylistic
functions of imagery in the data under investigation? What is the impact
of the context on the choice of imagery in the data under scrutiny? Why
does the writer employ specific types of imagery in the data at hand?

However, the study aims at: Pinpointing the types of imagery which
are more recurrent in the data at hand. Identifying and describing the
functions of imagery which is used in Munro's selected short stories in
terms of a pragma-stylistic perspective. Shedding light on the impact of
context on the choice of imagery in the data under the scrutiny.
Discovering the reasons of using specific types of imagery.

Thus, it is hypothesized that the imagery used in Munro's short stories

is utilized as a stylistic device represented by specific pragmatic strategies
such as Grice's maxims and presupposition. It is also hypothesized that
Munro utilizes imagery in her short stories to accomplish pragmatic
functions.

IX
 Moreover, it is hypothesized that the most frequently used stylistic
device, employed to create imagery in Munro's short stories is
''metaphor''. Additionally, Alice Munro employs specific types of imagery
to deliver her messages. Hence, drawing on an eclectic model, the study
endeavors to offer a coherent treatment of imagery from various aspects
which are the stylistic devices and pragmatic approaches.

Therefore, the study integrates both qualitative and quantitative

analyses. 44 samples of imagery are pragma-stylistically analyzed relying
on an adopted model of analysis. These samples are selected from thirty
extracts taken from three short stories.

Besides, the results of the analysis verify all the hypotheses presented
above. In the three selected short stories, the stylistic devices are
successfully utilized to create imagery and fulfill pragmatic functions.
Moreover, in the three selected short stories, there is a clear use of
imagery with its various types to accomplish aesthetic and pragmatic
functions.

Consequently, it is concluded that the third hypothesis is verified since

metaphor as one of the stylistic devices is frequently used in the three
short stories to create imagery. In this concern, it is used because of its
ability in stretching the ground for imagery to visualize the events in the
reader's mind. It also helps the writer in creating different types of
imagery. Finally, it is found that visual imagery as a type of imagery is
frequently used in the three selected short stories to deliver Munro's
messages.

X
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUBJECT PAGE

DEDICATION Ⅴ

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ⅵ

LIST OF TABLES Ⅶ

LIST OF FIGURES Ⅷ

ABSTRACT Ⅸ

Chapter One
Introduction

Problems of the Study .1.1 1

Aims of the Study .1.2 1

Hypotheses of the Study .1.3 2

Procedures of the Study .1.4 2

Limits of the Study .1.5 3

Value of the Study .1.6 3

Chapter Two
Literature Review

Imagery: Definitions .2.1 4

The Significance of Imagery in Linguistics .2.2 6

Types of Imagery .2.3 8

XI
Visual Imagery .2.3.1 9

Auditory Imagery .2.3.2 9

Olfactory Imagery .2.3.3 10

Gustatory Imagery .2.3.4 11

Tactile Imagery .2.3.5 11

Organic Imagery .2.3.6 12

Kinesthetic Imagery .2.3.7 12

Imagery and Figurative Language .2.4 13

Imagery and Metaphor .2.4.1 14

Types of Metaphor .2.4.1.1 15

The Concretive Metaphor .2.4.1.1.1 15
The Animistic Metaphor .2.4.1.1.2 16
The Humanizing (Anthropomorphic) Metaphor .2.4.1.1.3 16

The Synaesthetic Metaphor .2.4.1.1.4 16

Imagery and Simile .2.4.2 16

Imagery and Symbolism .2.4.3 17

Imagery and Other Linguistic Fields .2.5 18

Imagery and Rhetoric .2.5.1 18

Imagery and Semiotics .2.5.2 19
Imagery and Cognition .2.5.3 21
Pragmatics: Scope and Notions .2.6 22
The Scope of Pragmatics .2.6.1 25
Pragmatic Notions .2.6.2 27
Grice's Cooperative Principle .2.6.2.1 28
Breaching the Maxims .2.6.2.1.1 30
Presupposition .2.6.2.2 33
Stylistics .2.7 37

XII
Style .2.7.1 40
Pragma-Stylistics .2.8 41

Previous Studies .2.9 43

Chapter Three
Methodology

Data Description .3.1 45

3.1.1. Alice Munro as a Short Story Writer 45

"Brief Note on the Story "Friend of My Youth .3.1.2 46

"Brief Note on the Story "Boys and Girls .3.1.3 48

"Brief Note on the Story "Dear Life .3.1.4 49

Model of Analysis .3.2 50

Levels of Analysis .3.2.1 51

Stylistic Devices .3.2.1.1 51

Metaphor .3.2.1.1.1 51

Simile .3.2.1.1.2 52

Symbolism .3.2.1.1.3 52

Types of Imagery .3.3 53

Pragmatic Notions .3.4 54

Presupposition .3.4.1 54

Types of Presupposition .3.4.1.1 55

Grice's Theory of Cooperative Principle .3.4.2 57

XIII
Observance of the Maxims .3.4.2.1 57

Breaching of the Maxims .3.4.2.2 58

Flouting of the Maxims .3.4.2.2.1 59
Chapter Four
Data Analysis and Discussions

61
Introductory Note .4.1

Data Analysis .4.2 61

Qualitative Analysis .4.2.1 61
Quantitative Analysis .4.2.2 95
Findings and Discussions .4.3 98
Chapter Five
Conclusions, Recommendations, and Suggestions for
Further Research

Conclusions .5.1 101

Recommendations .5.2 103
Suggestions for Further Research .5.3 103
References 105

XIV
 Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. Problems of the Study

Imagery has not been extensively investigated in Alice Munro's short

stories from a pragma-stylistic perspective, though, it has been tackled in
terms of literature. Thus, the current study attempts to bridge the gap in
this area. In this respect, the study addresses: What and why Munro
employs specific types of imagery to convey her messages in selected
short stories. In this regard, the study endeavors to answer the following
questions:

1. What kinds of imagery are utilized in the data?

2. What are the pragma-stylistic functions of imagery in the data under

investigation?

3. What is the impact of the context on the choice of imagery in the data
under scrutiny?

4. Why does the writer employ specific types of imagery in the data at
hand?

1.2. Aims of the Study

The present study aims at:

1. Pinpointing the types of imagery which are more recurrent in the data
at hand.

2. Identifying and describing the functions of imagery which is used in

Munro's selected short stories in terms of a pragma-stylistics.
1
3. Shedding light on the impact of context on the choice of imagery in the
data under the scrutiny.

4. Discovering the reasons of using specific types of imagery.

1.3. Hypotheses of the Study

It is hypothesized that

1. The imagery used in Munro's short stories is utilized as a stylistic

device represented by specific pragmatic strategies such as Grice's
maxims and presupposition.

2. Alice Munro utilizes imagery in her short stories to accomplish

pragmatic functions.

3. Metaphor is the most frequently stylistic device employed in creating

imagery in Munro's short stories.

4. Alice Munro employs specific types of imagery to deliver her

messages.

1.4. Procedures of the Study

The present study adopts the following procedures:

1. Providing a subjective overview of literature which is relevant to

imagery, its definition, characteristics, forms, functions and imagery from
a linguistic perspective;

2. Identifying and describing the selected short stories as well as

presenting a brief note on Alice Munro's background.

2
3. Using an eclectic model depending mainly on pragma-stylistic aspects
such as (Grice's maxims, presupposition, metaphor, simile, and
symbolism).

4. Integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods in the analysis of

imagery in the short stories under scrutiny.

5. Drawing the main and relevant conclusions to demonstrate whether the

hypotheses are verified or rejected.

1.5. Limits of the Study

The study is limited to the pragma-stylistic analysis of the selected short

stories of Alice Munro: "Friend of My Youth", " Boys and Girls", and
"Dear Life". The study analyzes (44) samples selected from (30) extracts
taken from the three mentioned short stories. Furthermore, the extracts (1-
10) are taken from the story " Friends of My Youth", the extracts (11-20)
are taken from the story " Boys and Girls" , and the extracts (21-30) are
taken from the story "Dear Life".

1.6. Value of the Study

The present study is supposed to be beneficial to those who are interested

in pragmatics, stylistics, pragma-stylistics, literature and literary
criticism.

3
 Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1. Imagery: Definitions
It is proved that defining imagery is not an easy task, therefore, Morris
et al ( 2005: 14) assert that the emphasis of each definition may vary
depending on the purpose for which imagery is employed. Meanwhile,
Aristotle considers imagery as the means through which pictures of
objects, actions as well as feelings are impressed in the mind by the virtue
of language (Butcher, 1927: 125). Originally, the term imagery is derived
from the Latin word "imägö" which means image ( Scott, 1965: 139).
Bartlett (1927:8) points out that imagery is a reference to concrete
objects. In this sense, Merry (2004:189) regards imagery as a literary
device through which pictures of reality in any literary work are elicited.
However, Knickerbocker (1969) argues that imagery is the use of
concrete words to replace the abstract ones in order to enable the reader
of a literary work joining in everything experienced by the author.
Moreover, it is claimed that imagery is one of the prominent means
through which language is formed to mean more than it says (Coyle et al,
1981:171). Imagery indicates the use of language which contributes to
make readers/listeners create a mental picture or form an image in their
minds (Smith, 1985: 68). In this respect, Roberts (1989: 570) states that
imagery refers to "sensory experiences transmitted through the literary
form". Sensory experiences mean everything that is sensed and
experienced by one through five senses, and then it is transmitted and
transferred through words, therefore, readers will be able to experience
everything that is mentioned in a certain literary work by reading.
Furthermore, imagery indicates the ability to see with the mind’s eye
as well as other sensory experiences (e.g., smell, taste, sound, and
4
feeling) without having to experience the real thing (White & Hardy,
1998).
In his turn, Abrams (1999: 121) states that "imagery is used to signify
all the objects and qualities of sense perception referred to in a poem or
other work of literature, whether by literal description, by allusion, or in
the vehicles (the secondary references) of its similes and metaphors".
In the same vein, Dietrich and Sundell (1983: 224) argue that imagery
is the form of imitation in which words play a crucial role in creating
pictures in the reader's mind or in stimulating sensory responses.
Johnson (cited in Lynch, 2016: 617) defines imagery as a "corporeal
representation" i.e. it is "a picture drawn in the fancy". However, it
becomes an important terms in the new criticism as its meaning and
function are considered as markers of literary works (Cushman et al,
2012: 664).
Image and imagery, in this regard, have the power in the richness and
concreteness of texts, therefore, they enable readers to visualize the
literary works (Childs & Fowler, 2006:115). Imagery is defined as how
physical features of performance and verbal patterns in the text are linked
(Makaryk, 1993: 136). Moreover, imagery is often considered as the
most common manifestation of the "concrete" device of literary works.
Although an abstract theme is at the center of the poem, for instance, the
poet still uses concrete imagery to make it more accessible ( Klarer, 2004:
30). In this sense, Baldick ( 2001: 121 ) focuses on the significant role
played by figurative language in inspiring imagery when he (ibid) claims
that the use of language in a "literary work that evokes sense-impressions
by literal or figurative reference to perceptible or 'concrete' objects,
scenes, actions, or states, as distinct from the language of abstract
argument or exposition". Hence, imagery is the way that enables readers

5
to see the actions described by the virtue of using words (Cushman et al,
2012: 662).
Likewise, Cuddon ( 1998: 413 ) emphasizes the use of language in
enhancing imagery which he (ibid) describes as a term for which
language is used to represent " objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas,
states, of mind and any sensory or extra sensory experiences". However,
in any literary term, the image or picture is a representation of words or
something that the writer feels. An image will do more than just state that
we can see, hear, feel, smell, or taste something (Grover, 1994:25).
2.2. The Significance of Imagery in Linguistics
Spurgeon (1935:5) views that the use of the term imagery is important
because it is the only available word to cover every kind of simile, as well
as every kind of what is compressed simile-metaphor. In the same
manner, Aristotle states that "the soul, never thinks without a mental
picture" (Yates, 1966: 32).
Additionally, Roberts (1989: 65) claims that the author uses imagery
in his/her literary works to support him/her giving the reader an exact
experience in reading the literary works, thus, the author uses it to present
the experiences and make the readers "feel the right responses".
Moreover, imagery has a significant role in the internal coherence of
work as well as its rhetorical force (Makaryk, 1993:269). Similarly,
Wales ( 2011: 215) asserts that imagery plays a crucial role in reinforcing
theme, setting, as well as characterization.
Furthermore, imagery is important in any literary work for its
contribution to solve the dilemma and through which an answer is found
(Peck and Coyle, 1993: 30). Likewise, it is regarded as one of the
important components of any literary work. It is a part of the syntactical,
or stylistic stratum that works side by side with other strata. Hence it

6
contributes to the integrity of the literary work (Wellek and Warren,1956:
218). In renaissance poetry, it is viewed that the functions of imagery are
achieved by the rhetorical figures, therefore, it approaches the persuasive
style of writing ( Cushman et al, 2012: 663). Imagery contributes to the
complexity and vividness of the literary work. So the following lines by
Sidney illustrate the force and vividness of the literary work,
1) with how sad steps, O moon, thou climb's the skies!
How silently and with how man a face!"
The provided example makes the idea more vivid and successful in
creating a forceful sense of unhappiness by associating sad things in life
with the moon (Peck and Coyle, 1984: 37-38). The following lines by
Shakespeare enable the readers not only to read words but to see the sight
of winter, feel the cold, and hear the sounds of winter.
2) When icicles hang by the wall,
And Dick the shepherd blows his nail,
And Tom bears logs into the hall,
And milk comes frozen home in pail,
When blood is nipp'd, and ways be foul,
Then nightly sings the staring owl:
'Tu-who;
Tu-whit, Tu-who' - A merry note,
While greasy Joan doth keel the pot
(Scott, 1965: 139).
Moreover, imagery is important in achieving a pictorial effect and
plays a prominent role in the harmony of the artifact (Klarer,1999: 33). In
the area of cognition, imagery is a process in which images join between
experience and knowledge, therefore, images are reproduced in the mind
as an initial which is produced in the bodily perception. Hence, when the
eye perceives color, a person may register an image of that color in the

7
mind because the subjective sensation experienced will be a copy of the
objective phenomenon of color (Cushman et al, 2012: 663). As such,
imagery is important and useful in cognition as it aims at constituting a
representation capable of representing a skeletal manner as well as
aspects like "the shape of objects, spatial relations among them, and
object movements, changes, or interactions over time" (Clement,
2008:176- 177).
2.3. Types of Imagery

Arp & Perrine (1991: 24) point out that imagery is referred to as the
representation of sensory experience through the use of language.
Meanwhile, there are seven types of imagery which are visual imagery,
auditory imagery, olfactory imagery, gustatory imagery, tactile imagery,
organic imagery, and kinesthetic imagery. Cuddon (1998: 413) enlists
seven types of imagery such as, visual imagery which involves sight,
olfactory imagery involves smell, tactile imagery involves touch, auditory
imagery involves hearing, gustatory imagery involves taste, abstract
imagery involves intellectual events, and kinesthetic imagery involves the
sense of movement and bodily effort.
In this baseline, Johnson and Arp ( 2018: 759) add that an imagery is
not only involved with visual, it also represents a sound as auditory
imagery; a smell as olfactory imagery; an internal sensation such as
hunger, thirst, fatigue, or nausea as organic imagery; a taste as gustatory
imagery; touch such as wetness, hardness, softness, or heat and cold as
tactile imagery; or movement or tension in the muscles or joints as
kinesthetic imagery. The following extracts are taken from Lawrence's
(1993) "The Prussian Officer" appeals to one of the five senses:
3) " There was a farm, too, pale blue in shadow, and the timber
black". This example is concerned with visual imagery.

8
4)"Then came the faint clang of the closing of the pot-lid".
This example is concerned with auditory imagery.
5)" There was the perfume of clover, like pure honey and bees".
This example is concerned with olfactory imagery.
6)" that hard jaw already slightly rough with a beard".
This example is concerned with tactile imagery.
7)"struggling to his feet, he lurched away".
This example is concerned with kinesthetic imagery.
2.3.1. Visual Imagery

Altenbernd and Lewis (1967: 12) view that visual imagery gives an
effect in the mind of the reader by perceiving a visible object through the
eye, the optic nerve, and the appropriate regions of the brain. Visual
imagery indicates the ability to generate visual experience in the absence
of the associated sensory input (Kosslyn et al, 2001: 636).
Furthermore, Kennedy and Gioia (2002: 95), point out that visual
imagery is an experience of sight or something that can be seen by the
eyes of the mind. The following example from Robert Browning's poetry
arouses the feeling of sight in the reader's mind as the poet successfully
uses visual imagery in his poem,
8) The gray sea and the long black land
And the yellow half-moon large and low
And the started little waves that leap
In fiery ringlets from their sleep
(Arp and Perrine,1991: 24-6)
2.3.2. Auditory Imagery

Martin (1952: 416 ) regards auditory imagery as the process of hearing

sounds internally when they are not present including audience applause,
environmental sounds, and other musical and nonmusical sounds.

9
Knickerbocker (1969: 358) points out that auditory imagery is a kind of
imagery that is experienced by a person’s sense of hearing. Similarly,
Altenbernd and Lewis (1967: 12) assert that auditory imagery is a kind of
imagery that is sensed by a person's sense of hearing.
In the same vein, Intons-Peterson (1992: 46) points out that "auditory
imagery is the introspection persistence of an auditory experience,
including one constructed from components drawn from long-term
memory, in the absence of direct sensory instigation of that experience".
Edger Allan Poe, in the following example, succeeds in triggering the
auditory sense in the reader's mind as he uses the word "tinkle" which
conjures up the sound of the bell in the reader's mind,
9) Hear the sledges with the bells
Silver bells!
What a world of merriment their melody
Foretells!
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle
In the icy air of night
(Arp and Perrine, 1991:24-6).
2.3.3. Olfactory Imagery

Roberts (1989: 606-7) opines that olfactory imagery is a kind of

imagery that is concerned with the sense of smelling. It can stimulate
smell to the reader or anything that describes smell. The author usually
uses olfactory imagery to describe the smell of something or the quality
of things that appeal to smell sense. A poet, for instance, can appeal to the
smell through the use of olfactory imagery with poetic words to produce
the smell sense in the reader's mind (Arp and Perrine, 1991:24-6). For
instance, the following extract from H.W. Longfellow's poetry appeals to
the feeling of smell in the reader's mind. Hence, the poet successfully

10
uses the words "silently inhale", clover-scented gale", "from the well
wanted and smoking soil", to help him in conjuring up the feeling of
smell in the reader's mind,
10) They silently inhale
The clover-scented gale
And the favors that arise
From the well-watered and smoking soil
(ibid).
2.3.4. Gustatory Imagery

Gustatory imagery is a kind of imagery that involves taste, for

instance,
11) the sweet marinara sauce makes up for the bland sea-shell pasta
beneath.
Therefore, the tongue can taste the sweet marinara sauce (Roberts, 1989:
607). Gustatory imagery signifies something that arises a feeling of taste
in the reader's mind, i.e. we can say that it is something that evokes the
reader to taste or flavor of thing (Arp and 1991: 24-6). The following
example arises the feeling of taste sense in the reader's mind as it is
normal for the reader to imagine the sweet taste of an apple,
12) She is as sweet as a red apple (ibid).
2.3.5. Tactile Imagery

Roberts (1989: 607) mentions that tactile imagery is a kind of imagery

that refers to the sense of touching, for instance,
13) the spongy soufflé was a pleasure to squeeze.
Hence, skins can sense the softness of the sponge to be squeezed. Tactile
imagery refers to an image that represents hardness, softness, wetness,
heat, or cold. In other words, it is an image that arouses the sense of
touching in the reader's mind (Arp and Perrine, 1991: 24-26). In the same

11
framework, John Milton succeeds in using the tactile imagery in his
poem, however, the following example arises the feeling of touching
sense in the reader's mind,
14) A dungeon horrible, on all side round,
As one great furnace flamed (ibid).
2.3.6. Organic Imagery

Arp and Perrine (1991: 24-6), point out that organic imagery is a kind
of imagery that represents an internal organic feeling sensation such as
hunger, thirst, fatigue, or nausea as a biological feeling. It is also the
speaker's inner feelings. Consider the example below taken from Robert
Frost's poetry which stimulates the sense of fatigue in the reader's mind,
15) It's when I'm weary of considerations
And life is too much like a pathless wood (ibid).
2.3.7. Kinesthetic Imagery

Kinesthetic imagery is derived from "Kinesthesia: Greek kinein, ‘to

move,’ and aesthesis, ‘perception’. It indicates awareness of movement
through sense impressions caused by changes in the internal state of the
body" (Reid, 1983: 169). Similarly, Cuddon (2013:384) argues that
kinesthetic imagery signifies a sense of movement or muscular effort,
hence, it is a sense of movement and effort that is inherent in the rhythm,
momentum, and energy of words in such an image. Kinesthetic refers to a
type of imagery that includes images of forces and body motions
(Clement, 2008: 176). This type is used with the dynamic verbs, however,
verbs pertaining to body movements and actions play a crucial role in
generating such type of imagery (ibid:193).
Moreover, kinesthetic imagery indicates a kind of imagery that
represents the movements. It can be human, animal, or things that move
or appeal the sense of movement through the image of any literary work.
12
It also describes something moving (Arp and Perrine 1991: 24-6). W. B.
Yeats also uses imagery in his poems and succeeds in using kinesthetic
imagery. The following example invokes the feeling of something
moving as he describes a movement of a bird above a girl,
16) A sudden blow: the great wings beating still
Above the staggering girl (ibid).
2.4. Imagery and Figurative Language

Giroux and Williston (1974:10) consider figurative language as a

language that deviates from the straightforward use of words, producing a
unique impact, clarifying a concept, and making writing more colorful
and compelling. McArthur (1992: 402) argues that figures of speech are
rhetorical techniques that use words in unusual ways to accomplish a
certain impact. It is a sort of language that uses images and represents
things in an exaggerated way (Kennedy, 1983: 479). In this sense, Fadaee
(2011:19) points out that figures of speech as imaginative means in
ordinary communications are used for explaining speech beyond its usual
usage.
In this direction, Baldick (2001: 97) considers figurative language as
the most prominent resource of literary works. However, figurative
language relies heavily on the imagery (Scott, 1965: 108). Likewise,
Deignan et al. ( 2013: 1) observe that figurative language is used
differently depending on the topic, mode of communication, situational
context, and so forth.
Furthermore, figures of speech are referred to as ways of using words
or phrases that go beyond their actual meaning. Figures of speech turn the
literary work to be more pleasing or exciting. In other words, figures of
speech create a colorful and striking effect or make the meaning of a
sentence clear and easy to remember (Stefoff, 2018: 5). It should be

13
maintained that figurative language has certain characteristics which
contribute to its importance. Johnson and Arp ( 2018: 773-4) view that
there are four characteristics of figurative language: Firstly, figurative
language affords readers the imaginative pleasure of literary works.
Secondly, it is a way of bringing additional imagery into verse, making
the abstract concrete, making literary works more sensuous. Thirdly,
figurative is a way of adding emotional intensity to otherwise merely
informative statements and conveying attitudes along with information.
Finally, it is a way of saying much in a brief compass.
2.4.1. Imagery and Metaphor

Holman (1960:281) explains that metaphor is ‘an implied analogy

which immediately identifies one object with another and ascribes to the
first one or more of the qualities of the second or invests the first with the
emotional or imaginative qualities associated with the second. Aristotle
states that metaphor is "a shift carrying over a word from its normal use
to a new one" (Richards, 1965: 89).
Besides, metaphor is a type of figurative language that refers to words,
phrases, or expressions that have a different meaning than their literal
one. Thus, in the classic understanding, metaphor is essentially an
implicit comparison in which one thought is related to another (Saeed,
1997: 302). Metaphor is referred to as one of the figures of speech that is
used to describe one thing in the virtue of another (Peck and Coyle, 1984:
139). It is viewed as the substitution of one noun for another relying on
the genus (Glucksberg, 2001: 5). In the same vein, Pardede (2008: 23)
points out that metaphor is an comparison that identifies one object with
another and ascribes to the first objects more quality than the second. It
may be simple, that is, may occur in the single isolated comparison or a

14
large may function as the controlling image of the whole work, for
example,
17) "My love is the rose of my heart".
According to Simpson (2004: 41), metaphor is a stylistic device that
maps two different conceptual domains known as target and source. Thus,
the target domain is the topic that one intends to describe or talk about,
and the source domain stands for the concept that is utilized to create the
metaphorical construction.
Furthermore, Corbett (1971) explains that in metaphor, there is an
implicit comparison of "two entities or objects", therefore, such
comparison can be achieved by "identification" of one object with the
other, or by "substitution" of one for the other. For instance,
18) "love is a rose, and you’d better not pick it" ( Klages, 2012:17).
The example expresses how the author associates two different things
by equating the idea of love with the flower to create a connection
between the two (ibid: 53). Concerning the relation between imagery and
metaphor, Quinn ( 2006: 206) claims that every metaphor contributes to
the constitution of imagery.
2.4.1.1. Types of Metaphor
Leech (1969: 158) lists four types of metaphor according to the relation
of meaning between literal and figurative senses:
2.4.1.1.1. The Concretive Metaphor
The concretive metaphor indicates one of the types of metaphor that
attributes concreteness or physical existence to an abstraction: 'the pain of
separation', 'the light of learning', 'a vicious circle', 'room for negotiation',
etc. (Leech, 1969: 158).

15
2.4.1.1.2. The Animistic Metaphor
The animistic metaphor refers to one of the types of metaphor that
attributes animate characteristics to an inanimate: ‘an angry sky', 'graves
yawned', ‘killing half-an-hour', 'the shoulder of the hill,' etc. (Leech,
1969: 158).
2.4.1.1.3. The Humanizing )Anthropomorphic( Metaphor
The humanizing or anthromorphic metaphor refers to one of the types of
metaphor that attributes characteristics of humanity to what is not human:
'This friendly river', 'laughing valleys', 'his appearance and manner speak
eloquently for him' (Leech, 1969: 158).
2.4.1.1.4. The Synaesthetic Metaphor
The synaesthetic metaphor indicates one of the types of metaphor that
transfers meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another:
'warm color', 'dull sound', 'loud perfume', and my music shine' (Leech,
1969: 158).
2.4.2. Imagery and Simile
Pickering and Jeffry ( 1981: 143 ) point out that simile is a comparison
that aims at creating similarity between two things using words like " as
or like". "Simile is fundamentally a figure of speech requiring overt
reference to source and target entities, and an explicit construction
connecting them" (Gibbs, 1994: 40). Lucas (1992: 223) expresses that
simile indicates an explicit comparison between things that are essentially
different yet have something in common.
In his turn, Drabble ( 2000: 935 ) asserts that simile is a figure of
speech in which two things are compared with each other by using the
words " as or like". For instance,
19) "James, you are like a lion".

16
 In the example, the use of simile is obvious as the speaker is
comparing James with the lion using the word "like" which indicates the
use of simile (Pickering and Jeffry, 1981: 143 ).
Besides, Baldick (2001: 237) views that simile is an explicit
comparison between two different things, actions, or feelings, using the
terms 'as' or 'like' ", however, he (ibid) asserts that it is more tentative and
decorative than a metaphor. Therefore, simile is considered a means that
is used in creating imagery (Merry, 2004: 397). In this sense, imagery and
simile are interrelated as they depend on each other.
Furthermore, Richards (1974:105) characterizes simile and metaphor
as having features that may be utilized to assist in communicating a
certain message more effectively and to emphasize a specific topic. These
two are also employed to improve a description of something so that it
has a strong impact on the reader. By concentrating on a writer's use of
simile and metaphor, readers may observe how these crucial stylistic
aspects generate meaning in the reader's mind. In other words, comparing
two things has an effect on the reader because it helps the reader form a
mental image by contrasting known items with vaguer ones.
2.5.3. Imagery and Symbolism

Pardede (2008:24) points out that a symbol indicates a trope that

combines a literal and sensuous quality with an abstract or suggestive
aspect but it is not literal meaning, it uses that meaning to suggest
another. For example:
20) "Some dirty dogs stole my wallet at the bus".
According to Chadwick (2018:2-3), symbolism is the art of expressing
ideas and emotions indirectly by using unexplained symbols in the mind
of the reader. Parmar (2014:3) defines symbolism as "the use of symbols
to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meaning that is

17
different from their literal sense". Imagery and symbolism are considered
the soul of literary works (Tiwari, 2001:1).
Consequently, imagery and symbolism are interrelated as they rely on
each other. Symbolism is regarded as a combination of images in the
reader's mind. In this sense, imagery enhances the raw material for
producing symbolism and other tropes (Alvi, 2019:38).
2.5. Imagery and Other Linguistic Fields
2.5.1. Imagery and Rhetoric
Scott (1972: 81-96) states that "any definition of rhetoric that is taken
as once-and-for-all is apt to be gravely misleading," since any definition
will not be enough in covering its wide range of uses. He suggests that
any definition of ‘rhetoric’ will be itself, rhetorical use of language. At
the same time, such a claim appears to contain its contradiction: the claim
that any definition of ‘rhetoric’ is a product of its rhetorical circumstances
presupposes a basic definition of rhetoric. Nevertheless, Aristotle
considers rhetoric as a counterpart of language. He also considers it as an
art. Moreover, it is defined as the ability to explain the possible means of
persuasion in each particular case (Aristotle, 1926: xxxi-xxxii). In
addition, he asserts that rhetoric is a partner of philosophy that is used by
anyone for persuasive reasons (Crider, 2014: 2).
In this baseline, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca advise the rhetor to
use concrete, descriptive words and specific terms in their verbal
arguments, because doing so helps the audience members construct a
mental image of the object or event being depicted: "The more specific
the terms, the sharper the image they conjure up, and, conversely, the
more general the terms, the weaker the image they conjure up"(Hill and
Helmers, 2012:30-31). However, the use of concrete language which
helps the readers in constructing mental images is effective in enhancing

18
the presence of rhetorical elements. Furthermore, the use of the language
of imagery contributes to increasing the rhetorical effectiveness of the
massage as pictures are proved to be more persuasive (ibid).
Additionally, Almeida (2009: 187) explains that "from its beginnings
in antiquity, classical rhetoric was expanded from a discipline pertaining
solely to the art of speaking to include the art of writing once printing
became widespread during the Renaissance. Similarly, in the age of mass
media, the art of combining words and images into arguments represents
one further step in the evolution of human communications".
Moreover, concerning the relationship between imagery and rhetoric,
imagery plays an important role in persuasion for its rhetorical effect on
audience ( Kallendorf, 1999: 236). Kellogg (1880: 133) views that
imagery has a rhetorical value as imagery likens one thing to another
better known or contrasts it with things which it is unlike. Furthermore, it
substitutes famous related objects and words that denote them for those
which are not so famous, thus, doing so makes the thoughts more easily
apprehended and forcible when they are expressed (ibid).
2.5.2. Imagery and Semiotics
Simply, semiotics is defined as the study of signs. The term is coined
by the American philosopher Charles Peirce in 1867. Whereas, the term
semiology is coined by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. In this
sense, there are two traditions of literary semiotics, one is originated with
Saussure and culminated in structuralism and poststructuralism, and the
other is derived from Peirce. The latter group looks not simply at the
structure of signs, but also at their impact on their audience and their
implications within a given society. This so-called pragmatic approach
explores the relation of signs to social and political forces and their
importance in fields such as advertising and popular culture (Quinn,
2006:381).
19
 Moreover, Eco (1985:196) states that "signs are correlated with what
they stand for on the basis of a rule or a convention". In this regard, a sign
can be defined, basically, as any entity (words, images, objects, etc.) that
refers to something else. Semiotics studies how this referring results from
previously established social convention (Eco, 1976: 16).
Besides, Saussure’s theory of sign gives more emphasis to the internal
structure devoted to cognitive thought process or activity of human minds
in structuring the physical (material) or intangible (abstract) signs of their
environments or surroundings, and among them is the structure of
linguistic signs in the language system that allows them to function as
human beings and communicate with each other (Chandler, 2002: 28).
Saussure’s theory is considered as the proponent to the thought that
"language does not reflect reality but rather constructs it "because we do
not only use language or give meaning to anything that exists in the world
of reality, but also to anything that does not exist in it" (ibid).

Similarly, semiotics indicates the study of the sign and symbol system.
Hence, in the second part of the twentieth century, the term ‘semiotics’ is
applied to the analysis of patterned human communication in all its
sensory modes, i.e. hearing, sight, taste, touch, and smell (Crystal,
2008:431).
Correspondingly, Eco (cited in Chandler 2002: 2) views that semiotics
refers to everything which has meaning within a culture. In this regard,
the signaling system has various forms: words, sounds, gestures, images,
and objects.
In this regard, visual imagery indicates the ability to visualize, i.e. the
ability to form a mental picture or to see in the mind's eye ( Mark, n.d: 1).
Consequently, visual imagery 'visualization' is a prominent component
of our imaginative lives. It enables us to represent items and events in

20
their absence, allowing us to escape from the limitations of our current
perspective into a limitless range of virtual worlds (Fulford et al,
2018:27).
2.5.3. Imagery and Cognition
Pritchard (2007: 8) postulates that cognition is an umbrella term under
which all the mental activities that facilitate the acquisition, and these
activities of acquisition are storage, retrieval, and the use of knowledge.
Though cognitive linguistics is a new discipline of language study, it
grows very fast. It begins in the 1980s with the work of the linguists like
Ronald Langacker, Charles Fillmore, and Len Talmy, and this leads to a
series of progress in many linguistic branches as well as it contributes to
the study of cognition and communication. The most important part that
cognitive linguistics enhances is its assumption that meaning is an
inseparable part of linguistics (Dancygier, 2017:1).
However, in the area of cognition, imagery is a process in which
images link between experience and knowledge, therefore, images are
reproduced in the mind as an initial which is produced in the bodily
perception. Hence, when the eye perceives color, a person may register an
image of that color in the mind because the subjective sensation
experienced will be a copy of the objective phenomenon of color
(Cushman et al, 2012: 663). As such, imagery is important and useful in
cognition as it aims at constituting a representation capable of
representing a skeletal manner as well as aspects like "the shape of
objects, spatial relations among them, and object movements, changes, or
interactions over time" (Clement, 2008:176- 177).
Besides, imagery is a process in which multiple senses are used to
create a representation of action in the mind, typically in the absence of
overt physical movement (Jeannerod, 1994; Vealey & Greenleaf, 2001).
In this regard, Weinberg & Gould (1995) view that images are created by
21
recalling from memory pieces of information stored from all types of
experiences and shaping them into meaningful representations.
Moreover, Shepard (1978: 125-137) and Kosslyn et al (2006) consider
mental imagery as pictures in the mind rather than words. By conducting
several studies to explore the transformation process associated with the
mental rotation of visual stimuli in memory, Shepard (ibid) suggests that
an image in our mental imagery is similar to the perception of an object in
reality. Kosslyn et al (2006) extend Shepard’s track of the imagery
investigation in the way that people are different in the quality and kind
of imagery that they can employ; besides, they differ in the manner in
which they utilize their imaginal ability.
Furthermore, mental imagery takes place when perceptual information
is accessed from memory, giving rise to the experience of ‘seeing with
the mind’s eye', ‘hearing with the mind’s ear’, and so on. By contrast,
perception occurs when information is registered directly from the senses.
Mental images need not result simply from the recall of previously
perceived objects or events; they can also be created by combining and
modifying stored perceptual information in novel ways. Imagery plays a
central role in theories of mental function since at least the time of Plato
(Kosslyn et al, 2001:635).
2.6. Pragmatics: Scope and Notions
Pragmatics is "the study of how utterances have meaning in situations"
(Leech,1983:ix). In Yule's words ( 1996: 3 ), pragmatics indicates the
study of how speech is more communicated than is said. Similarly,
Crystal (2003: 271) views that pragmatics is "the study of principles
governing the communicative use of language, especially as encountered
in conversations". Leech and Short (1987: 290) say that the pragmatic
analysis of language can be broadly understood to be the investigation
into that aspect of meaning which is derived not from the formal
22
properties of words and constructions, but from how utterances are used
and how they relate to the context in which they are uttered. Wales (1989:
365) asserts Leech and Short (1987) in defining pragmatics stating that
"pragmatics is the study of language use which is concerned with the
meaning of utterances rather than a grammatical sentence or proposition".
Nonetheless, the roots of pragmatics can be observed from three
directions: Greek, the philosophy of language, and generativism. In the
Greek traditions, some aspects of pragmatics can be found. See, for
example, Aristotle's ways of expression in his On Rhetoric (350BC), he
identifies the persuasive ways of expression, the proper use of language,
and the proper construction of sentences (Allan, 2004:337-338). Hence,
pragmatics in the Greek tradition is the quite resemblance between two
points that correlate with Grice's maxims of quality and manner. Firstly,
both of them postulate the truthiness as a way to gain acceptance in one's
utterances is as far as quality is concerned. Secondly, both of them incline
to the clear and simple way of communication (ibid).
Historically, the term pragmatics is originated in the philosophy of
language in the 1930s by Charles Pierce, Charles Morris, and Rudolf
Carnap. Out of his influence by Pierce, the philosopher Morris (1938)
(cited in Levinson,1983: 3-4) classifies semiotics, i.e., the science of
signs, into three branches: Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. He refers
to pragmatics as "the study of the relation of signs to interpreters".
Accordingly, Carnap (1942) (cited in Levinson, 1983: 3-4) points out that
the direct reference to the user of pragmatics is an investigation in the
field of pragmatics.
Moreover, within the philosophical domain, two opposing schools
have been appeared: the school of the philosophy of ideal language and
the school of the philosophy of ordinary language. The former is
represented by Gottlob Frege, Alfred Tarski, Bertrand Russell. They

23
concentrate on the study of logical systems of an artificial language. The
application of their ideas to natural language in the 1950s and 1960s
initiates the area of formal semantics by Richard Montague, David
Donaldson, and Davis Lewis. The latter school is represented by
J.R.Austin, H.P.Grice, Peter Strawson, John Searle, and Ludwig
Wittgenstein. They are interested in the study of natural language rather
than the formal language studied by the logicians (Huang, 2007:2-3).
The establishment of a pragmatic approach within the linguistic
domain can be traced back to the late sixties and early seventies by some
of Chomsky's disaffected students. Their movement is known as
generative semantics that is represented by Katz, Fodor, Ross,
MaCawely, and Lakoff. They are dissatisfied with Chomsky's treatment
of language as "an abstract, mental device divorced from the uses and
functions of language" (Huang, 2007:3). Consequently, Lakoff and others
maintain that syntax cannot be disassociated from the study of language
use (Leech,1983:2). Their attachment to pragmatics can be illustrated
throughout their revival of the interest in meaning (ibid:4).
Recently, Huang (2007:4) observes that there are two schools of
thought in pragmatics. Firstly, the Anglo-American school which tackles
the component view of pragmatics as "the systematic study of meaning"
that incorporates a number of components: Phonetics, phonology,
grammar, and semantics. Their domain includes theories of implicature,
presupposition, speech acts, and deixis. Secondly, the European
continental school which tackles the perspective view of pragmatics as
" the general functional (i.e., cognitive, social, and cultural) perspective
on linguistic phenomena in relation to their usage in forms of behavior".
Their interest lies primarily in empirical pragmatics.
Although pragmatics has been equated and overlapped with different

24
disciplines, Levinson (1983:11) states that the purely pragmatic approach
is the one that is concerned with linguistic matters. It is about "how
people make sense of each other linguistically". His remarks are related
to the Anglo-American school that deals primarily with linguistics.
People have to understand what each one has in mind to achieve
successful communication ( Yule, 2000:4).
Imagery is related to pragmatics as it is used by the writer to achieve
certain intentions as well as attract the reader's attention to focus on the
context. Meanwhile, imagery contributes to break the maxims of
cooperative principle as many tropes are used in its creation.
2.6.1. The Scope of Pragmatics

Leech (1983:1) views that pragmatics deals with how language is used
in communication. Furthermore, it is considered as the cognitive, social,
and cultural science of communication, i.e. it does not only involve
language but language use and the relationships between language form
and language use. However, the use of language, in this regard,
encompasses cognitive processes which take place in the social world
with a variety of social limitations (Verschueren and Ostman, 2009:1).
Concerning the scope of pragmatics, there are two views: the narrow
view as well as the broad one (Culpeper and Haugh, 2014: 5):

A. Narrow View ) Anglo-American View (

This view focuses on the fields of syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

However, Morris (1938) suggests three ways of distinction through which
he points out the departure from the pragmatic field:

-Syntax: a mono relationship between linguistic signs.

-Semantics: a dyadic relationship between linguistic signs and the outside

world.
25
-Pragmatics: a triadic relationship between linguistic signs, the outside
world, and their users/interpreters.

Morris (ibid) takes into consideration a micro view of the context in

which he mentions only the users and interpreters regardless of the social
and situational perspectives. This micro context characterizes
foundational works in the field of pragmatics like the conversational
implicature of Grice (1975) and the relevance theory of Sperber and
Wilson (1986-1995) that focus on the intentions of users and the
inferences of interpreters (Culpeper and Haugh, 2014:6). Levinson
(1983:5) asserts that "pragmatics is the study of deixis, implicature,
presupposition, speech acts, and aspects of discourse structure".

Nonetheless, this view of pragmatics is usually known as the Anglo-

American view. It includes topics like reference, deixis, presupposition,
speech acts, implicature, and inferencing (Culpeper and Haugh, 2014: 6).

B. Broad View ) European View (

This view considers pragmatics as a superordinate field that is related

to other disciplines like linguistics, sociology, and psychology, which are
regarded as sub-fields of pragmatics (Culpeper and Haugh, 2014: 7).
Verschueren (1999: 7) affirms that pragmatics is not solely about adding
a contextual dimension to a theory of language, but a "general cognitive,
social, and cultural perspective on linguistic phenomena in relation to
their usage in forms of behavior".

In this sense, the broad view of pragmatics does not evade the
contextual factors, but often includes broad cognitive concepts like how
knowledge of situations, social institutions, cultures, and so forth
influence and are influenced by language. The broad view of pragmatics
counts for questions, for instance, how does the joke work? How is it
26
processed in the mind? Why is it being told here? What are its social
functions? Which distinguishes the characteristic of this view as a macro
approach to the context (Culpeper and Haugh, 2014: 7).

However, this view of pragmatics is usually known as the Continental

European view which does not exclude the kind of topic areas discussed
in the Anglo-American view, but it involves much beyond them and has a
rather different perspective ( ibid: 6-7).

Furthermore, some of the pragmatic theories like politeness seek to

explain both some aspects of linguistic structure and some aspects of
social function and context. In this way, one should not over-emphasize
differences between the Anglo-American and the Continental European
views (ibid: 7).

2.6.2. Pragmatic Notions

Throughout history, pragmatics achieves a lot in terms of investigating

and tackling literary works and products. In this context, different
scholars assert that pragmatics produce various models to analyze and
investigate literature. However, they differentiate between linguistic
pragmatics; the study of language in use, and literary pragmatics; the
contextualized study of literature (Verdonk, 2002:45 ).

Additionally, Al-Hindawi and Al-Khazaali (2017:107) claim that

literary pragmatics treats literary texts in their use of communication. It
stresses the part played by the context in dealing with literature since all
exploitations of language occur in a rather situational context. Moreover,
much of the contemporary literary pragmatics tends to recognize
literature as having a special functional and communicative status. It does
not only emphasize the communicative aspects of contexts, but also it
borrows certain concepts from linguistic pragmatics to study literature
27
such as the application of the concept of speech acts in literature and the
concept of politeness which is practised by Sell's (1991) as well as
Black's (2006) employment of pragmatic theories (deixis, speech acts,
politeness and conversational implicatures) in their treatment of literary
works.

2.6.2.1. Grice's Cooperative Principle

The Cooperative Principle (CP) is a notion that comes into existence

in 1975. The term CP was first coined by Paul Grice, an American
philosopher who is regarded to be the father of pragmatics. In his lectures
at Harvard University (1967), Grice declared the notions of cooperative
principle and implicature. Moreover, he processed different levels of
meaning on a semantic level showing the existence of implicature where
no one had expected them previously (Kotthoff, 2006: 272).

Grice's Cooperative Principle (CP) is used to describe how individuals

interact with one another. It is as follows: "provide your contribution as
necessary by the agreed purpose or direction of the verbal exchange in
which you are engaged, at the stage at which it happens." This implies
that the CP explains how to communicate effectively in everyday social
situations (Yule, 2000: 37)

Moreover, Grice's work of CP establishes that in any conversation,

interlocutors must cooperate to some extent achieving their purpose,
whatever that purpose might be (Martinich, 1980: 215). This is true for
any conversation; each participant needs to understand the other no
matter whether it is fierce argument and hard bargaining or it is a friendly
conversation between co-workers (ibid).

To sum up, communication is a process in which interlocutors have to

cooperate with each other to convey standard and right information.
28
Accordingly, Grice presents four conversational maxims in addition to
CP to illustrate how we communicate effectively in the light of certain
regularities (Thomas, 1995: 63). The CP principle is supported by four
maxims called Gricean maxims. These maxims, as presented by Yule
(2000: 37) are the following:

1. Quantity maxim

a. Make your contribution as informative as is required.

b. Don't make your contribution more informative than is required.

2. Quality maxim

a. Don't say what you believe to be false.

b. Don't say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

3. Relation maxim

- Be relevant

4. Manner maxim

a. Avoid obscurity of expression.

b. Avoid ambiguity.

c. Be brief.

d. Be orderly.

Therefore, the CP and the Gricean maxims are not specific to a

conversation but verbal interactions in general. Some interactions such as
quarrels are inherently uncooperative. We all lie, from time to time, for
good or bad reasons. We all say irrelevant things, but are irritated when
others do so.

29
2.6.2.1.1. Breaching the Maxims

The idea of applying Gricean Maxims to the analysis of literary texts

is developed most fully in Van Dijk's "Pragmatics and Poetics" (1977)
and Pratt's "Toward a Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse" (1977).
Van Dijk (1977: 46), for instance, has stated that all Gricean Maxims are
violated in literary communication that the CP does not hold.

Despite Grice's claims of ideal exchange, once the regularities

(maxims) he prescribes for conversants are followed and abided by, he
suggests that there are cases in which these rules may be violated. Grice
is aware that participants may not necessarily act in keeping his maxims,
but, at the same time, argues that any exchange will operate even if these
maxims are being violated emphasizing that the maxims enrich coherence
and relevance rather than refuting them (Levinson, 1983: 106). Clearly
enough, violating any maxim does not indicate a breakdown of
interaction (ibid: 109). To put it differently, interlocutors try to
understand contributions to violate maxims as informative, truthful,
relevant, and clear. Once these contributions are broken, interlocutors try
to interpret, induce, or search for inferences or conversational
implicatures (Leech, 1980: 12).

Consequently, the failure of observing a maxim leads to a

phenomenon known as "breaking a maxim". To break a maxim "is the
prototypical way of conveying implicit meaning" (Grundy, 1995: 41).
However, according to Grice, there are five ways of failing to break the
maxims. The various types are shown as follows:

A. Flouting the Maxims

Flouting is a term that was introduced by Grice describing the process

in which conversational implicature is created by exploiting the maxims.
30
A flout takes place when a speaker overtly chooses not to observe one or
more maxims with the intention of generating an implicature, i.e. the
speaker is not trying to mislead, deceive, or unco-operate but encouraging
the listener to look for deeper meaning beyond the semantic level
(Thomas, 1995: 64). Flouting the maxims is one of the most crucial
aspects of Grice's theory for the interpretation of literary texts since flouts
generate implicatures. On the character-to-character level, characters may
violate the maxim of quality by lying, exaggerating, or concealing. The
manner maxim is flouted when the characters use irony or metaphor (Van
Dijk, 1977: 27).

Thus, the flouting of maxims takes place when individuals deliberately

cease to apply the maxims to persuade their listeners to infer the hidden
meaning behind the utterances; that is, the speakers employ implicature
(Levinson, 1983 cited in Khosravizadeh1and Sadehvandi, 2011:123).
Flouting is a prominent way of getting an addressee to draw inferences
and hence recover an implicature from implicit meaning (Grundy,
2000:78). It is expected that the interlocutor can disclose the hidden
meaning behind the utterances (ibid:123).

B. Violating the Maxims

Grice ( cited in Thomas, 1995: 65) defines the term violation as the
unostentatious non-observance of a maxim, i.e. a speaker who is violating
a maxim is liable to mislead. Violating differs from flouting, in violating
a maxim the speaker intends to mislead the hearer. The speaker speaks
the truth implies something false. Furthermore, Grice (cited in Cutting,
2002: 40) points out that violation occurs when the speaker does not
fulfill or obey the maxims to achieve a certain goal.

31
 Likewise, the simplest cases of violation take place in puzzles, riddles,
crosswords detective stories, and thrillers. Obviously, the major goal here
is not to inform but to entertain readers, making them work out the
answer. Another example of violation can be found in coded texts,
passwords, or ciphers; the addresser is totally uninformative and means to
hide information, being motivated by various extra-linguistic reasons
(Karpenko, 1993:6 ).

C. Opting-out of the Maxims

Opting out of a maxim means showing an "unwillingness to cooperate

in the way that the maxim requires", i.e. the speaker is unwilling to
cooperate and reveal more that s/he already has (Grice cited in Thomas,
1995: 72).

D. Infringing the Maxims

The next type of non-observance of a maxim is called infringing

which occurs when speakers have failed to observe a maxim without the
intention to generate an implicature or mislead the listener. Such non-
observance occurs from the speaker's imperfect linguistic performance in
the language like foreign speakers or children who do not have full
mastery of the language (Grice cited in Thomas, 1995: 74).

E. Suspending the Maxims

Another sort of non-observance is called suspending. In contrast to

other kinds of non-observance of maxims, suspending a maxim is based
on cultural and social norms. In addition to that, when a speaker suspends
a maxim, it is understood that what is said is not completely true or there
are things that a speaker ought not to say such as taboo words. The

32
speaker may suspend a maxim due to cultural differences or to the nature
of certain events or situations (Grice cited in Thomas, 1995: 76).

2.6.2.2. Presupposition

Hudson (2000: 321) points out that presupposition is something that

includes true information in a sentence. Presupposition must be mutually
known or assumed by the speaker and the hearer so that the context of the
utterance can be understood.
Originally, the concept "presupposition" is raised by German logician
Frege in 1892. By which he refers to the implicit information of
proposition embedded in a sentence or utterance. Scholars in both
philosophical and linguistic domains show peculiar interest in
presupposition owing to its role in the construction of meanings.
Particularly linguistics, semantics and pragmatics attach mutual
importance to their research (Finch, 2000:87).
Furthermore, Yule (1996: 6) claims that presupposition tackles the
relationship between two proportions, which gives precondition to be true
statement although the statement is negated. Presupposition must be
mutually known or assumed by the speaker and address for the utterances
to be considered in context. A presupposition of a sentence must normally
be part of the common ground of the utterance context in order for the
sentence to be felicitous. Sometimes, however, sentences may carry
presuppositions that are not part of the common ground and nevertheless
be felicitous. For instance, upon being introduced to someone that
21) John’s wife is a dentist,
this without the addressee having ever heard, or having any reason to
believe that John has a wife. To be able to interpret utterance, the
addressee must assume that John has a wife (ibid).

33
 In this sense, Finch (2000: 173) agrees with Yule that "presupposition
deals with the necessary preconditions for statements to be true". i.e. it is
an assumption made by speakers and listeners which are necessary for the
correct interpretation of utterances. For example,
22)"My cat was run over yesterday,"
is assumed for the true condition of "I have a cat." However, Levinson
(1983:226) considers presupposition an essential part of pragmatics.
Moreover, Stalnaker ( cited in Mey, 1993:202) introduces the term
'pragmatic presupposition' in an influential early article (Stalnaker 1974)
where he establishes the fact that to correctly interpret an utterance,
concerning its truth and falsity, a context is needed, for example,

23) "The cat is on the mat".

This utterance, regardless of whether it is true or false (whether or not

there is a certain cat on a certain mat), presupposes that there is some cat
and some mat, the addresser is referring to. The context in which the
utterance is uttered may be the pragmatic presupposition that the
addresser is complaining about the cat is dirtying that mat (ibid).

In the same vein, Keenan (cited in Fillmore and Langendoen, 1971:49)

points out that pragmatic presupposition is "a relation between the
utterance of a sentence and the context in which it is uttered". By an
utterance of a sentence, he (ibid) refers to an actual act of speaking and
by the context of an utterance, he refers to the interlocutors involved in
the speech act, as well as the physical and cultural setting of a speech act.
More specifically, he defines the context of an utterance as consisting, at
least of the addresser, the addressee if any, the audience if any, the
physical environment of the utterance, and the cultural environment of
the utterance.

34
 During the 1970s, the presupposition was a widely discussed
phenomenon within linguistics, semantics, and pragmatics. The term
pragmatics is usually reserved for presupposition relating to the
immediate context and immediate social relations. Hence, the command
"shut the window" presupposes that the speaker is in social relation to the
hearer such that he can order him to do things (Mey, 1993:79).

Levinson (1983:217) asserts that the difficulty of pragmatic

presupposition arises from the fact that it is quite varied. Since pragmatic
presupposition varies according to the context and the beliefs of the
interlocutors, they cannot be defined by reference to the utterance alone.
Thus, the notion of background or shared knowledge constitutes part of
that difficulty. He (ibid) defines pragmatic presupposition as "something
the speakers assume to be the case prior to making an utterance"

In this context, Yule (2000: 27) lists six types of presupposition which
are the following: the existential, the factive, the non-factive, the lexical,
the structural, and the counter-factual.
A- The Existential Presupposition
The existential presupposition is a kind of presupposition that occurs
when the speaker assumes and invites the hearer to assume the existence
of the entity to which they refer (Culpeper and Haugh, 2014: 56).
Moreover, it occurs with the possessive constructions in English.
Furthermore, the existential presupposition is not only assumed to be
present in possessive constructions but also more generally in any name
or definite noun phrase.
24) "Mary's dog is cute".
The sentence presupposes that there exists someone called Mary and
she has a dog. This means that all definite names presuppose the

35
existence of their referents. However, non-definite names do not trigger a
presupposition since they lack reference (Geurts,1999:85).
B- The Factive Presupposition
The factive presupposition is another kind of presupposition that refers
to facts and some words imply that such as know, realize, regret, glad,
odd, and aware (Yule, 2000: 27). For example,
25) "Martha regrets drinking John home brew". The example clarifies
that the presupposed information following the verb regret is treated as a
fact and is described as factive presupposition (Geurts,1999:86).
C- The Non-Factive Presupposition
The non-factive presupposition is a kind of presupposition that is
assumed not to be true. It occurs with verbs like dream, imagine and
pretend, however, what follows these verbs is not true. For instance,
26) "John dreamed that he was rich".
However, the example presupposes that John was not rich (Yule,
2000:27).
D- The Lexical Presupposition
There are words that are considered "the source of lexical
presupposition, such as manage, stop, and start. In this type, the asserted
meaning reflects in a presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning
is understood. So, managed is conventionally interpreted as asserting
'succeeded' and presupposing 'tried'' (ibid).
E- The Structural Presupposition
In the structural presupposition, certain sentence structures have been
analyzed as conventionally and regularly presupposing that part of the
structure is assumed to be true (Yule, 2000: 29). For example, the wh-
forms such as what, where, etc. Acadian et al. (1997: 384) state that "the
pragmatic presupposition of a sentence is the set of conditions that have

36
to be satisfied for the intended speech act to be appropriate in the
circumstances or to be felicitous".
F- The Counter-Factual Presupposition
The counter-factual presupposition is a kind of presupposition in
which what is presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is
true, or contrary to facts. For example, the sentence:
27) "If you were his friend you would have helped him".
presupposes that you are not his friend. A conditional structure of this
sentence presupposes that the information in the if-clause is not true of
the time of utterance (Yule, 2000: 29).
2.7. Stylistics
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics. It is usually referred to as the study
of style. The concept of style is an old one that traces back to the very
beginning of classical rhetorics and poetics. However, it is derived from
the Latin word (stilus) which means a short stick made of reed used for
writing on boards made of wax (Hough, 1969: 1). Leech (1969) defines
style as "the way in which an act is spoken, written, or performed".
Moreover, "A writer’s style may be regarded as an individual and
creative utilization of the resources of language which his period, his
chosen dialect, his genre and his purpose within it offer him" (Spencer,
1971: xii).

Additionally, stylistics is defined by (Crystal, 2008:460) as "a branch

of linguistics which studies the features of situationally distinctive uses
(varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of
accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social
groups in their use of language". Besides, Leech and Short (2007: 9) view
that style is how language is used in a given context to portray a
particular idea. Therefore, style is the basic thing that gives uniqueness to

37
every writer. Style is involved in both spoken and written, literary and
non-literary types of language but it is particularly associated with a
written form of the literary texts.

Traditionally, stylistics involves the study of style in the language

(Verdonk, 2002:4). Verdonk ( ibid) asserts that stylistics as the study of
style also focuses on the analysis of distinctive expression in language as
well as the description of its purpose and effect. In the twentieth century,
however, stylistics is considered as a new and independent discipline
(Bradford,1997:3). Concerning the discussion of texts, stylistics is
considered as objective because it is not affected by the opinions or
personality of the assessor (Kuolie, 2010:163).
Moreover, stylistic analysis adopts a structuralistic approach aimed at
exploring the meaning of a literary text; however, it gradually goes
beyond that moving towards a more pragmatic orientation linking choices
in the text to the social and cultural context. Thus, stylisticians begin to
be more interested in exploring how features of a text are viewed in
relation to the context in which it is produced and received. They tend to
study how the choices made by the author create the effect that he/she
desires to convey to the reader (Khan et al, 2015: 10).
However, Thornborrow and Wareing (1998:2) point out that stylistics
is one of the branches of linguistics. It is involved with the study of the
characteristics of the prominent uses of language, more particularly
literary language.
According to Leo Spitzer (1948) ( cited in Leech and Short, 2007: 12),
who is interested in studying style in both linguistics and stylistics. He
perceives that style represents an area where language and literature meet.
In addition, he illustrates that stylistics is close to philosophy. He (cited in
ibid) introduces the notion of the Philological Circle in which he states

38
that there is a movement from the linguistic details to the literary ones. As
a result, linguistic observations stimulate literary insights and vice versa.
Leech and Short (1981:75), classify four types of heading in analyzing
features of stylistic: lexical categories, grammatical categories, figurative
language, and context and cohesion. Lexical categories deal with the style
of words choice. The analysis of grammatical stylistics can be determined
by looking for the composition of the sentence. The analysis of figurative
language stylistics may cover the choice of figurative language, the
meaning of figurative language, and the specific meaning or purpose of
using the figurative language as employed by the author. Cohesion is
achieved by the way one part of the text is linked to another. Meanwhile,
context deals with the relation of the text with the social discourse in the
real world (ibid:75-9).
Likewise, contemporary studies of stylistics are affected by the late
twentieth-century development of linguistic studies in discourse analysis,
pragmatics, and sociolinguistics. However, the stylistic analysis aims at
exploring the linguistic choices made by the writer of a literary text in the
selection of words or sentence structure and how the style functions in
projecting certain meanings. Since a text does not have a single, invariant
meaning for readers, literary stylisticians start to make use of the insights
offered by the field of pragmatics (Khan et al, 2015: 10).

Accordingly, stylistics involves a range of concepts and models from

such fields. These concepts help stylistics to investigate the interpretive
impact of linguistic peculiarities used within literature (Fabb, 2002: 6).
However, Widdowson (1975:294) points out that stylistic analysis is used
for critical purposes to examine how the resources of a language code are
used in the production of actual messages. Therefore, it focuses on
discovering what linguistic units count in communication and how the

39
effects of different conventions reveal themselves in the way messages
are organized in texts (ibid: 298).
Consequently, imagery and stylistics are interwound as imagery
supplies the raw material for making these stylistic devices. In this sense,
imagery provides the raw material and stylistic devices cook it. It is also
the stage for other stylistic devices.
2.7.1. Style

Peck and Coyel ( 1984: 125) define style as the writer's characteristic
manner of expression, however, it is the means that distinguishes one
writer from the other. In this regard, Enkvist et al (1967:23) view that
style indicates personal idiosyncrasy of expression by which writers are
identified. Additionally, Haynes (1989:98) points out that the study of
style is the study of distinctions. Hence, style can also be referred to as
variety.

Moreover, Leech and Short (2007:9) state that style is "the way in
which language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given
purpose, and so on". Besides, Lawal (1997) signifies style as a feature of
language that involves choices of diction, phrases, sentences, and
linguistic materials that are consistent and harmonious with the subject
matter. He (ibid) adds that it encompasses the narrative technique of a
writer in terms of choice and distribution of words and character.

Furthermore, it is viewed that style is one of the prominent means

which gives uniqueness to every writer as it is different from one writer
to another depending on the ideas he/she has in mind that enable him/her
in selecting certain words, phrases, and sentences ( Leech and Short,
2007:9).

40
2.8. Pragma-stylistics

Stylistics concerns itself with treating the ways in which meaning is

created in terms of exploiting linguistic means to actualize literary and
other textual ends. That is why, stylisticians make use of linguistic
models, techniques, and theories to show how and why a text works the
way it does, and how textual meanings are encoded and then decoded
(Busse et al, 2010:1).
Pragma-stylistic approaches try to combine pragmatic approaches and
stylistic ones to explain how literary language is used in context, how it
contributes to create the power of structures (ibid: 39). Babajide (2000:
123-136) defines stylistics in its simplest form as ‘the study of style’. He
(ibid) goes further to assert the definition of Davy and Crystal (1983) that
‘style is the effectiveness of a mode of expression’. Hence, it is viewed
that while pragmatics is the theory of appropriateness, stylistics is the
theory of effectiveness. Basically, then, pragmatics, as Hickey (1993:
578) points out, coincides with stylistics in that both are directly
interested in the speaker's choices from among a range of grammatically
acceptable linguistic forms. Yet, pragmatics looks at choices as the means
chosen to perform actions (request, inform, etc.), whereas stylistics
studies choices within a particular interest in the consequences on the
linguistic level and the effects produced on the hearer (aesthetic,
affective, etc.) (ibid).
Besides, pragma-stylistics is stylistics but with a pragmatic component
added to it (ibid). Ogunsiji (2012) defines pragmatic stylistics as a part of
the manifestation of linguistic stylistics. He (ibid) points out that
pragmatic stylistics shows the meeting point between pragmatics and
stylistics, that is how pragmatic resources, such as performative and
speech acts are being used to achieve stylistic effect.

41
 Likewise, Davies (2007:106) claims that it is concerned with
presenting the extent to which pragmatics contributes to the study of
literature; it looks at the usefulness of pragmatic theories to the
interpretation of literary texts. To elaborate, pragma-stylistics offers more
complete explanations for many unexplained phenomena than stylistics or
pragmatics can do alone (ibid). However, it is a branch of stylistics that
applies ideas and concepts from linguistic pragmatics to the analysis of
literary texts and their interpretation (ibid). Moreover, Pragma-stylistics
involves the study of all conditions which allow the rules and potential of
a language to combine with the specific elements of the context to
produce a text capable of causing specific internal changes in the hearer's
state of mind or knowledge (ibid). Huang (2007:19) describes pragma-
stylistics or pragmatic stylistics as the application of the theories and
methodologies of pragmatics to the study of the concept of style in
language.
In this vein, Black (2006:2), in her thorough treatment of pragmatic
stylistics, views that stylistics deals with the way of understanding the
meaning of a literary text by different readers or individuals. This can be
affected by the language style the reader uses since pragmatics is defined
as the study of language in use including the situation around the user. It
is, then, better for stylistics to take into consideration the use of the tools
that are proposed by pragmatics. i.e. pragmatic theories, such as speech
acts (SAs) that can be used to achieve stylistic purposes. However,
pragma-stylistics is involved in showing the extent to which pragmatics
contributes to the study of literature; it looks at the usefulness of
pragmatic theories to the interpretation of literary texts.
Accordingly, Allan ( 2016: 217) claims that pragma-stylistics is an
approach that aims at applying the findings and methodologies that are
related to pragmatics and the concept of style in language, i.e., the

42
different forms of usage in written and spoken language, for instance,
analyzing the language of literary texts among writers, genres and
periods.
Furthermore, the purpose behind studying pragma-stylistics is to relate
the writing and reading of literary texts which take place in the linguistic
and sociocultural contexts. i.e. "it is literary on one hand and linguistic on
the other with a great emphasis on contextualization" (Sell, 1991: 99). In
this regard, pragmatics aids stylistics since it widens its scope and equips
it with new devices to discover those meanings or effects (Busse et. al.,
2010:37). Thus, pragma-stylistics indicates the application of ideas from
pragmatics to the stylistic analysis of literary and non-literary texts
(Clark, 2009:5).
Consequently, imagery and pragma-stylistics are integrated as many
stylistic tropes or devices like metaphor, simile, symbolism, and so forth
contribute to the creation of imagery. So imagery is used in this concern
to achieve certain intentions in the context in which it is used.
2.9. Previous Studies
Nursyal (2009) focuses on a qualitative method in his thesis "Imagery
and Figurative Language Analysis in Two Poems By Robert Pinsky".
However, he analyzes the poems by reading, explicating, and
paraphrasing them intensively to find the imagery and figurative language
of Pinsky's poems. The writer analyzes two poems which are entitled In
Berkeley and The Unseen. The writer finds certain types of imagery as
visual imagery, olfactory imagery. He also finds figurative language as
simile, personification, symbol, metaphor, hyperbole, irony, and paradox.
In this context, Harliani (2014) (cited in Hidayatullah, 2019:8)
employes a qualitative method in his thesis "The Power of Imagery in
Suzanne Collin's Novel “Catching Fire". Therefore, he explores five
types of imagery in the novel which are visual imagery, auditory imagery,
43
olfactory imagery, gustatory imagery, and kinesthetic imagery. He also
reveals the power of imagery used in the novel.
Likewise, Hidayat (2015) (cited in ibid: 9) uses a descriptive
qualitative method in her thesis "Imagery Found in Taylor Swift's
Selected Songs". She has found three types of imagery in the song lyrics
which are auditory imagery, visual imagery, and organic imagery.
Moreover, she makes a reference to the expression and experience used
by the poet.
In the same vein, (Hidayatullah, 2019) uses a qualitative descriptive
method in his thesis "Imagery Found in Khalil Gibran's Selected Poems".
In analyzing poems entitled "Love", Eating and Drinking", and
"Marriage", he reveals various types of imagery which are visual
imagery, auditory imagery, olfactory imagery, tactile imagery, gustatory
imagery, organic imagery, and kinesthetic imagery.
However, this study tackles imagery used in Alice Munro's short
stories from a pragma-stylistic perspective as well as the writer's intention
of using imagery in her short stories. It also highlights the effective use of
figurative language as metaphor, simile, symbolism, and so forth and how
they contribute to elaborate on the use of imagery from a linguistic point
of view. Furthermore, it deals with the various types of imagery used in
Munro's short stories and the writer's intention. Consequently, this study
is different from the previous studies in the way in which imagery is
tackled as it focuses on the use of imagery from the pragma-stylistic
perspective to show how imagery is created by certain stylistic devices to
achieve certain intentions.

44
 Chapter Three
Methodology
3.1. Data Description
The data includes thirty extracts taken from three short stories written
by Alice Munro, a Canandian contemporary writer. They are: Friend of
My Youth, Boys and Girls, Dear Life. The criterion behind choosing the
data is chronological, namely, the researcher has taken three stages of the
writer: the early stage of her writing, the middle stage of her writing, and
the contemporary stage. Moreover, the chosen short stories have the same
theme. Furthermore, they reflect Munro's life.

3.1.1. Alice Munro as a Short Story Writer

Alice Munro is considered as one of the prominent Canadian short
story writers. She is born in Ontario in 1931. Munro is regarded as one of
the greatest writers of fiction. Pertaining to her remarkable contribution to
Canadian literature, Munro is the only short story writer and the first
Canadian woman who is rewarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2013
(Murphy, 2009: 41). Moreover, Alice Munro is widely regarded as
Canada's most notable feminist short story writer. She is usually referred
to as the regional writer since her literature frequently focuses on the
culture of rural Ontario, Canada. (Myszor, 2001: 1).

Munro's stories, on the other hand, approach the intricacy of a novel in

just a few pages. The majority of them are situated in her home Canada,
in little villages similar to the one where Munro grew up. As a result,
Munro is sometimes referred to as a territorial writer, as her fictions are
always set in Ontario. ( Ramya and Bhuvaneswari, 2017: 275). Most of
Munro's short stories take the form of a split between ordinary life and
the secret life of imagination ( Ross, 1992: 17).
45
 Moreover, Sheldrick (1997: 283) considers Munro’s stories as the
episodic recollections that chronicle the emotional development of girls
and women. However, she adds that Munro presents her stories in
“ordinary experiences so that they appear extraordinary, invested with a
kind of magic”.
Therefore, Munro's short stories are frequently introduced as gossip
and they circulate as gossip. They are complicated interwoven fragments,
full of glimpses of parallel lives and silent female knowledge- of women's
bodies and the many casualties of female life, of love stories and failed
romantic fantasies, also of adolescent girls aspirations for more
glamorous narratives than their everyday lives contain ( Ann, 1998: 4 ).

Conversely, Munro charges common and familiar incidents with

surprising meanings and dimensions. In other words, like Coleridge, she
makes the strange familiar, and like Wordsworth, she makes the familiar
wonderful, though in practice it is often difficult to distinguish the one
process from the other. As such, one may say that she makes the "
mysterious touchable", and the " touchable mysterious"( Martin, 1987: 1).

Furthermore, Munro employs various devices to create the sense of

life extended through time. However, the most frequently employed of
these devices is her refutation of linear chronology in favor of time-shifts,
often jumping backwards to fill in the past or leaping forward, shocking
us with the changes wrought by time (Boyd, 2014: 12).

3.1.2. Brief Note on the Story "Friend of My Youth"

"Friend of My Youth" by Alice Munro was originally published in

1968. The narrator of Friend of My Youth is unidentified, but we know
she is Flora Grieves' friend's daughter, a schoolteacher who came to live

46
on her farm. Throughout the novel, the narrator refers to his mother just
as "my mother." ( Super Summary, n.d.(.

This insight has come too late for the narrator, and she regrets that she
could not have sought to get to know her mother better instead of
presuming she had her figured out. She looks back on her youth's
confidence with the insight of middle age and recognizes how foolish she
was in her self-assurance. She thought she was being radical and unusual
in her ideals and views, but she was only following the trends of the day.
She now recognizes that trends shift and that today's radical youngsters
will be tomorrow's conservative parents. She realizes she may look back
at her mother with a less critical view and attempt to understand her.
However, as she tries to comprehend her, she realizes that she never
really can (ibid.(

However, the key themes of the narrative Friend of My Youth, on the

other hand, are remorse, humiliation, and loneliness. Furthermore,
suppression and guilt are themes that run across all of the pieces in this
book. However, each narrative has a disturbing or unsettling
undercurrent, some more visible than others, as the author reveals the
darker aspect of human nature to the reader. Many of the stories depict
characters who are in a bad mood. Some are despondent, some are
paranoid, and the majority strive to suppress feelings of guilt,
humiliation, and desperation. (ibid).

Moreover, Many of Munro's works take place in little rural villages

surrounding Lake Huron in Eastern Ontario. This is a country that may
experience exceptionally cold weather and terrible circumstances, which
symbolizes the agony and pain of the many people' lives. ( ibid).

47
 In the same vein, An unidentified narrator tells the narrative "Friend of
My Youth" in the first person. The narrator tells a story about a woman
named Flora that her mother used to tell her. The narrator is separated
from the events she is recounting, which creates narrative confusion.
(ibid).

3.1.3. Brief Note on the Story "Boys and Girls"

Alice Munro’s "Boys and Girls" was first published as an individual

story in 1968 and was also included in Munro’s 1968 collection, Dance of
the Happy Shades. The story takes place at one home in rural Canada,
and the narrator, a soon-to-be 11-year-old girl, carefully describes her
father’s work as a fox farmer (Munro, 2013:140).

In Alice Munro's short tale "Boys and Girls," the heroine is a young
woman growing up in Canada in the mid-twentieth century. She lives on
her family's farm with her mother, father, and younger brother Laird, and
her existence is marked by a variety of gender roles. Munro does not give
the girl a name, and by doing so, the heroine is portrayed as someone who
lacks identification and strength. The fact that the girl's younger sibling
has a name suggests that he is more significant and powerful merely
because he is a boy. (ibid).

The protagonist of the novel is divided between the "female" life she
is with her mother in the kitchen and the "boy" life he is with his father
outside the home helping out on the farm. The story's principal issues are
the disparities in expectations between a girl and a male, as well as the
protagonist's sentiments toward, and battle to identify, her own identity.
(ibid).

Moreover, "Boys and Girls" is first and foremost a coming-of-age

narrative, told from the feminine perspective by Munro. The world is full
48
of stories about guys and their accomplishments in hunting and killing an
animal, winning a race, or a number of other things, but stories about girls
are a little less prevalent. As a result, the plot is set on a rural fox farm.
On the farm, the narrator's father grows silver foxes in pens before
killing, skinning, and selling their pelts. (Korb, 1999).

Besides, The loss of innocence is one of Munro's central themes in

"Boys and Girls." Laird and the narrator experience loss of innocence in
various ways due to their gender differences. (ibid).

Furthermore, "Boys and Girls" covers the issue of developing self-

awareness as a female. For the girl, such realization is accompanied by
feelings of guilt and humiliation—her aspirations of heroism are of a type
not normally associated with girls, and her one deed of grandeur is
misread, leaving her labeled as "just" a girl. (ibid).

3.1.4. Brief Note on the Story "Dear Life"

"Dear Life" by Alice Munro was originally published in 2012. The

narrator, a Canadian lady, begins the story by reliving her childhood
home. She grew up in a home in rural southwestern Ontario, Canada,
with her parents and brother. The mansion was near the Maitland River,
which was crossed by an established settlement. The narrator was born in
1931 and spent two years at a local school. She despised that school since
she was frequently tormented there. Her father subsequently purchased a
shack in the town across the river and began paying municipal taxes in
order for the narrator to attend the town's school. ( Book Rags: 2021).

Coincidentally, the narrator's old school closed the same year because
of the outbreak of World War Two; most of the male pupils either joined
the war or sought work. The narrator appreciated the school's
contemporary restrooms, among other things. (ibid).
49
 Similarly, When the narrator was a child, her mother would tell her
stories about an eccentric local named Mrs. Netterfield. She was claimed
to have pursued a delivery person with a hatchet once because her
shopping delivery was incorrect. This narrative seems unbelievable to the
narrator. Mrs. Netterfield once came up to her house and glanced through
the windows before departing, according to her mother. As an adult, the
narrator lives in Vancouver with her husband, but she still has a
subscription to her hometown’s newspaper. One day, she sees a poem in
the newspaper that was written by Mrs. Netterfield's daughter. The
narrator looks through old records and discovers that the Netterfield's
family had once lived in the house where the narrator grew up (ibid).

Furthermore, the location is Canadian, as is the case with the majority

of Munro's works. The town and country life add to the setting's
uniqueness. The narrator spent her childhood in the countryside, and
recollections of that time lingered in her mind. Similarly, the narrative is
told in the first person past tense by an unidentified narrator who shares
basic biographical information with the author. (ibid).

3.2. Model of Analysis

As presented in chapter two, see sections: (2.3), (2.4), and ( 2.8.2 ) above,
the current study is primarily based upon Leech (1969), Stalnaker (1974),
Grice (1975), Arp and Pernnie (1991), Thomas ( 1995), Dennis (1996),
Yule (1996), Simpson (2004), Quinn (2006), and Hamilton (2007) as an
eclectic model for the analysis of imagery in the data under investigation.

3.2.1. Levels of Analysis

The data selected is analyzed in terms of pragma-stylistic components.
Thus, the researcher examines the stylistic devices employed in the
stories to elicit the effectiveness of that use pragmatically. In other words,

50
how the stylistic devices are utilized in the data to explore the intentions
and the implicature behind that use through the data. Below is a brief
account of the elements of the model of analysis:

3.2.1.1. Stylistic Devices

3.2.1.1.1. Metaphor
Metaphor is one of the most prominent stylistic devices of imagery in
which two different conceptual domains known as target and source are
mapped. Thus, the target domain is the topic that one intends to describe
or talk about, and the source domain stands for the concept that is utilized
to create the metaphorical construction (Simpson, 2004: 41).

Furthermore, Leech (1969: 158) lists four types of metaphor according to

the relation of meaning between literal and figurative senses:

A( The Concretive Metaphor

The concretive metaphor indicates one of the types of metaphor that

attributes concreteness or physical existence to an abstraction: 'the pain of
separation', 'the light of learning', 'a vicious circle', 'room for negotiation',
etc.

B( The Animistic Metaphor

The animistic metaphor refers to one of the types of metaphor that

attributes animate characteristics to the inanimate: ‘an angry sky', 'graves
yawned', ‘killing half-an-hour', 'the shoulder of the hill,' etc.

C( The Humanizing )'Anthropomorphic'( Metaphor

The humanizing ('anthropomorphic') metaphor refers to one of the types

of metaphor that attributes characteristics of humanity to what is not

51
human: 'This friendly river', 'laughing valleys', 'his appearance and
manner speak eloquently for him'.

D( The Synaesthetic Metaphor

The synaesthetic metaphor indicates one of the types of metaphor that

transfers meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another:
'warm color', 'dull sound', 'loud perfume', and my music shine'.

3.2.1.1.2. Simile
Simile is one of the important stylistic devices of imagery. It indicates
an explicit comparison of one thing with another due to the use of words
" like or as", however, it has a significant role in producing imagery in
any literary work ( Dennis: 1996: 62-63 ).

Furthermore, a simile is a figure of thought in which one kind of thing

is pared to a markedly different object, concept, or experience, however,
the comparison is made explicitly by the word "like" or "as":
28)"Jen’s room is like a pigsty".
(This definition is suggested by the Latin root of simile, which means
"similar" or "like"). The simile can be carried further and specify some
features of the comparison: "Jen’s room is as dirty as a pigsty." Thus, the
effect is that the subject and the analogy are pictured in a quick sequence,
side by side (Hamilton, 2007:32).
3.2.1.1.3. Symbolism
Symbolism is one of the stylistic devices of imagery that is a
prominent contribution to imagery in creating effective images in any
literary work. However, Quinn (2006:408) views that symbolism
indicates the process by which a person, place, object, or event comes to
represent some abstract idea or condition. In other words, symbols are

52
small elements whose interconnection transcends the meaning from the
literary to the figurative and spiritual one.
3.3. Types of Imagery

Arp & Perrine (1991: 24-6) list seven types of imagery: visual
imagery, auditory imagery, olfactory imagery, gustatory imagery, tactile
imagery, organic imagery, and kinesthetic imagery. Here is a brief note of
the types of imagery:

A. Visual Imagery

Visual imagery is a kind of imagery that is involved with sight. It often

appears in the poems because almost all words represented in the poems
are visible. Without visual imagery, a poem may be hard to be produced.

B. Auditory Imagery

Auditory imagery indicates a kind of imagery that is concerned with

hearing and audible events. It appears with words that represent sounds.

C. Olfactory Imagery

Olfactory imagery is involved in the sense of smell. It appears with words

that represent the smells like a fragrant, unpleasant smell, and other
related aromas.

D. Gustatory Imagery

Gustatory imagery is a kind of imagery that is involved with events that

related to the sense of taste. It appears with words that represent the taste
and others related to the flavor. An example of a line in the poem
containing gustatory imagery is "She is as sweet as a red apple." Through
reading the word "sweet", readers will imagine the taste of the red apple.

53
E. Tactile Imagery

Tactile imagery indicates a kind of imagery that is concerned with the

events that raise the sense of touching in the reader's mind. It has a
relationship with the temperature or our touch sense.

F. Organic Imagery

Organic imagery indicates a kind of imagery involves in the events that

raise the feeling of hunger, thirst, and so forth. It is related to the inner
feelings. Thus, it appears with words that are allied to inner feelings such
as hunger, thirst, boredom, or weary.

G. Kinesthetic Imagery

Kinesthetic imagery indicates a kind of imagery that concerns with the

events responsible for rousing the sense of movement in the reader's
mind. It appears with words that represent something static as a moving
thing or it is truly the description of something moving.

3.4. Pragmatic Notions

3.4.1. Presupposition
Stalnaker (1974) ( cited in Mey,1993:202) regards presupposition as one
of the pragmatic notions of processing imagery. He (cited in ibid)
introduces the term 'pragmatic presupposition' in an influential early
article (Stalnaker 1974) where he establishes the fact that to correctly
interpret an utterance, concerning its truth and falsity, a context is needed,
for example,

29) "The cat is on the mat".

This utterance, regardless of whether it is true or false (whether or not

there is a certain cat on a certain mat), presupposes that there is some cat

54
and some mat, the addresser is referring to. The context in which the
sentence is uttered may be the pragmatic presupposition that the addresser
is complaining about the cat's dirtying that mat (ibid).

3.4.1.1. Types of Presupposition

According to Yule (1996: 27-9), there are six types of presupposition

which can be listed as follow:

A. Existential Presupposition

Existential presupposition can be identified by the possessive forms or

any definite phrases that attach to the sentence. It functions to lead the
speaker to acknowledge that something does exist. For instance,

30) The President of the USA

B. Factive Presupposition

Factive presupposition usually appears with the "classification of verbs"

that can be regarded as a fact. The examples of the verbs are: know,
realize, regret, agree, see, amuse, and make sense and it is added the
adjective and noun constructions, such as be and aware. For example,

31) Paul knows that she is sick.

The girl is sick.

C. Non-Factive Presupposition

Non-factive presupposition can be considered as the falsity of something.

The expressions that describe non-factive presupposition are: dream,
imagine, and pretend.

32) She dreamt she was the queen of Essos.

55
She was not the queen.

D. Lexical Presupposition

Lexical presupposition is a term that defines the implicit meaning of a

form that is not inserted but needs to be conceived. The addressee will
interpret ordinarily what the speaker says. For example, when the speaker
says ‘I stop running’, the word stop here can be meant that the speaker
used to run, but now he does not. In this case, the expression is used by
the speaker to assume another un-applied meaning. Other expressions of
the type are as again, before, and when.

33) He starts learning English.

He does not learn English before.

E. Structural Presupposition

In structural presupposition, the sentence structures are always the prior

case to be elaborated. After the sentence structure is analyzed, the speaker
delivers the information and also his/her presupposition ordinarily and
lets the addressee convince the case to be the truth. The structures of this
case can be found in the –wh questions, passive sentences, and active
sentences.

34) Who has eaten the apple?

Someone has eaten the apple.

F. Counterfactual Presupposition

Counterfactual presupposition is a term that describes something false

and contrast to the fact. Thus, it is identified as the expression that
reflects a counterfactual presupposition.

56
35) If I were Courtney Love, I would not let Kurt Cobain died.

I am not Courtney Love.

3.4.2. Grice's Theory of Cooperative Principle

Grice's theory of the Cooperative Principle is one of the theories that is
used in processing imagery. Thus, Grice (1975:45) points out that our
oral exchanges do not consist of a series of disorganized remarks. There
is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. These
maxims are raised from basic rational considerations and may be
formulated as guidelines for the efficient and effective use of language in
conversation.

3.4.2.1. Observance of the Maxims

Grice (1975:45) identifies four basic maxims of conversation

underlying the efficient cooperative use of language, which together form
the Co-operative Principle (CP):

A. Quantity Maxim

This maxim aims at making the contribution of the speaker as informative

as required for the current purposes exchange and not to make it more
informative than required.

B. Quality Maxim

The quality maxim is to make the contribution more truthful. That is, not
to say what you believe to be false or for which you have inadequate
evidence.

57
C. Relation Maxim

The relation maxim assumes that the speaker must have a relevant
contribution. That is, when he/she tries to be relevant, he/she says things
that are pertinent to the discussion.

D. Manner Maxim

The manner maxim supposes that the speaker has to be perspicuous to

avoid expression obscurity, to avoid ambiguity, to be brief, and to be
orderly.

Furthermore, Levinson (1983:102) sums up the CP as the specification

of "what participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally
efficient, rational, co-operative way: they should speak sincerely,
relevantly and clearly, while providing sufficient information."

3.4.2.2. Breaching of the Maxims

In everyday language, however, people fail to observe or fulfill the

maxims on many occasions, maybe because, for example, they are
incapable of speaking clearly ( they are: nervous, frightened, have a
stammer, etc. ) or because they deliberately choose to lie (Levinson,
1983: 106).

Additionally, Grice's claims of ideal exchange, once the rules

(maxims) he prescribes for conversants are followed and abided by,
however, he suggests that there are cases when these rules may be
violated. Grice is aware that participants may not necessarily act in
keeping his maxims, but, at the same time, argues that any exchange will
operate even if these maxims are being violated emphasizing that the
maxims enrich coherence and relevance rather than refuting them (ibid).

58
 It is worth mentioning that imagery to be analyzed and processed
through the maxims of the cooperative principle may not be observed as
it adopts stylistic devices. However, these devices violate or flout the
maxims of the cooperative principle. In this concern, Black (2006: 25)
claims that the assumption of flouting the cooperative maxims does not
mean that it is breaking down of the communication, but the speaker
indirectly, uses hidden ways to achieve it.

As such, Grice ( 1975: 49 ) distinguishes three ways of failing to

observe a maxim: flouting a maxim, violating a maxim, and opting out a
maxim. Later on, he (ibid) adds a fourth category of non-observance:
infringing a maxim. Several writers since Grice have argued the need for
a fifth kind of non-full observance - suspending a maxim, as Thomas
(1995: 72) points out.

3.4.2.2.1. Flouting of the Maxims

Thomas ( 1995: 88 ) shows that a flout is so blatant that the

interlocutor is supposed to know for certain that an implicature has been
generated, even if we are not sure what that implicature is. A flout occurs
when a speaker blatantly fails to observe a maxim, not with any intention
of deceiving or misleading, but because s/he wants the hearer to look for
a meaning which is different from or in addition to the expressed
meaning. There is a deliberate intention of generating an implicature.
However, the eclectic model can be scheduled in Figure (1) below:

59
 Imagery

Visual Auditory Olfactory Gustatory Tactile Organic Kinesthetic

Stylistic Devices Pragmatic Notions

Cooperative Presupposition
Metaphor Simile Symbolism
Principle

Existential

Factive

Non-factive

Lexical

Concretive Animistic Humanizing Synesthetic Structural

counterfactual

Breaching of the
Observance of the Maxims
Maxims

Quantity Quality Manner Relation

Flouting of the Maxims
Maxim Maxim Maxim Maxim

Figure (1): The Eclectic Model of Analysis

60
 Chapter Four
Data Analysis and Discussions
4.1. Introductory Note
This chapter is dedicated for the description of data under scrutiny,
stating the criteria behind data selection in the light of applying the model
introduced in chapter three. Regarding the method of analysis, it is both
the qualitative, and the quantitative. Finally, a section is allocated for the
discussion of results.

4.2. Data Analysis

4.2.1. Qualitative Analysis

Extract 1

"The dream stopped, I suppose because it was too transparent in its

hopefulness, too easy in its forgiveness "( Munro, 1991:1).

The narrator in the provided extract tells the readers about some
dreams she used to have where her dead mother forgives her. Therefore,
in this dream, there is a sense of recovery in which she tries to initialize
the readers about the events of the story.

However, in this extract, the use of humanizing or anthropomorphic

metaphor is obvious in this utterance " The dream stopped, I suppose
because it was too transparent in its hopefulness, too easy in its
forgiveness", as Munro implicitly compares the dream with a wise
person who has hope and kindness.

61
 Moreover, through the use of concretive metaphor, organic imagery is
created in the reader's mind. However, the inner feeling of the dream is
drawn in his/her mind.

Therefore, the use of imagery, in this concern, contributes to flout the

maxim of quality as she gives the dream features that are different from
its own.

Furthermore, through the provided imagery, the writer assumes that

the reader raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind as he/she
infers that the described imagery is opposite to the fact relying on the
shared knowledge as well as the context. Additionally, the reader also
infers that Munro makes recovery to the past in this imagery.

Extract 2

"When my mother was a young woman with a soft, mischievous face

and shiny, opaque silk stockings on her plump legs (I have seen a
photograph of her, with her pupils), she went to teach at a one-room
school, called Grieves School, in the Ottawa Valley. The school was on
a corner of the farm that belonged to the Grieves family—a very good
farm for that country" ( Munro, 1991:8).

In the illustrative extract, Munro recovers her mother and starts

describing her characteristics as well as the school where she teaches at.
In this sense, the reader realizes that the story is a recovery of past events
as Munro keeps recovering.

However, in the utterance " she went to teach at a one-room school,

called Grieves School, in the Ottawa Valley", Munro uses symbolism in
which the Grieves school is used to indicate the sorrow and poverty that
those people live. However, through the use of symbolism, organic

62
imagery is formed in the reader's brain as s/he will feel sorrow as well as
sadness by such imagery.

Besides, there is an obvious flouting of the maxim of quantity as

Munro does not give more information about the nature of this school.
Furthermore, in the mentioned imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, as he/she presumes
the existence of a school in the city. Additionally, he/she infers that the
people of that city suffer from sorrow, sadness, as well as poverty.

Extract 3

"Well-drained fields with none of the Precambrian rock shouldering

through the soil, a little willow-edged river running alongside, a sugar
bush, log barns, and a large, unornamented house whose wooden walls
had never been painted but had been left weather" ( Munro, 1991:9).

In the declared extract, Munro describes the nature of the city where
she lives. Thus, she focuses on all the details of the city in her description
to explore her love for city.

However, in this extract, the use of symbolism is obvious in the word

Precambrian rock as the rock indicates the strength of that period. In this
sense, Munro, in the use of symbolism, makes a reference to the
Precambrian era. However, she uses such symbolism to create a visual
imagery in the reader's mind.

Moreover, flouting of maxim of quantity as she adds extra information

in her description of the fields which are not needed in such description.

Furthermore, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the

reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she postulates the existence of the well-drained fields depending on

63
the shared knowledge and the context. Additionally, he/she infers that
Munro glorifies nature and the general situation of her city. In this sense,
the mentioned assumption enhances the fact that Munro is a regionalist
writer.

Extract 4

"And when wood weathers in the Ottawa Valley, my mother said, I do

not know why this is, but it never turns gray, it turns black " ( Munro,
1991:9).

In this extract, Munro also keeps describing her city and its nature.
Therefore, it enhances the idea that Munro is a regionalist.

Hence, in this extract, Munro employs symbolism when she mentions

the word black as a reference to the color of the wood in the Ottawa
Valley. However, the word black symbolizes darkness, despair, evil, and
so forth.

Moreover, through the use of symbolism, Munro creates visual

imagery in the reader's mind as he/she will see the image of the wood
drawn in his/her mind.

Furthermore, the representative imagery leads to the flouting of

maxim of quality as Munro gives the wood features that are not its own.
However, the readers realize that there is a flouting of the maxim of
quality.

In the same vein, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the
reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she supposes the existence of the wood. Additionally, the reader infers
that the city has a depressed nature that is reflected on the wood
depending on the context.

64
Extract 5

"Houses turn black, maple syrup has a taste no maple syrup produced
elsewhere can equal, bears amble within sight of farmhouses. Of
course, I was disappointed when I finally got to see this place"
( Munro, 1991:9).

In the utterance "Houses turn black", Munro describes how the

houses turn black in her city, however, she uses an animistic metaphor in
which the houses have animate features.

Moreover, the use of animistic metaphor in this concern contributes to

create visual imagery as it becomes easy for readers to see through words
the sight of the house. In the same vein, the mentioned imagery is related
to the main theme of the story which is the theme of sadness.

Additionally, the representative imagery leads to the flouting of

maxim of quality as Munro gives the houses a black nature which is not
true in reality.

Furthermore, through the provided imagery, the writer assumes that

the reader raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind as he/she
deduces that the imagery is opposite to reality. Additionally, he/she
surmises that the city and its people live in a sad and miserable situation.

Extract 6

"It was not a valley at all, if by that you mean a cleft between hills; it
was a mixture of flat fields and low rocks and heavy bush and little
lakes—a scrambled, disarranged sort of country with no easy harmony
about it, not yielding readily to any description" ( Munro, 1991:9).

65
 In the utterance "It was not a valley at all, if by that you mean a cleft
between hills", Munro uses, a synaesthetic metaphor in describing the
valley as the features of the valley are transferred into other features,
however, she considers it as a cleft between two hills.

Moreover, the representative metaphor contributes to create visual

imagery as the sight of the country is drawn in the reader's mind. Thus,
he/she sees the view of the valley through the eyes of his/her mind.

Furthermore, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim

of quality as the device used to create imagery changes the normal feature
of the valley. However, the reader realizes the flouting of the maxim of
quality in this concern.

In the same vein, through the used imagery, the writer assumes that
the reader raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind as he/she
deduces that the provided imagery visualizes a valley, not a cleft,
therefore, he/she presumes that the normal feature of the valley is
changed in this concern. Additionally, he/she infers that there is an
isolated as well as messy nature.

Extract 7

"The house was divided in an unexpected way. The married couple

didn't live with Flora. At the time of their marriage, she had given them
the parlor and the dining room, the front bedrooms and staircase, the
winter kitchen. There was no need to decide about the bathroom
because there wasn’t one. Flora had the summer kitchen, with its open
rafters and uncovered brick walls, the old pantry made into a narrow
dining room and sitting room, and the two back bedrooms, one of
which was my mother’s" ( Munro, 1991:10).

66
 In the utterance "The house was divided in an unexpected way",
Munro uses symbolism in which the division of the house symbolizes the
separation. However, the use of symbolism in this phrase contributes to
create visual imagery as the reader will draw in his/her mind the sight of
the nature of the house.

Moreover, the representative imagery leads to the flouting of quantity

as Munro adds information that is not needed in this concern.

Furthermore, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the

reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she thinks the existence of the house. Additionally, he/she surmises
the separated and isolated nature of the family as well as the loss of
harmony among the members of the family depending on the shared
knowledge and the context.

In the utterance "Flora had the summer kitchen, with its open rafters
and uncovered brick walls, the old pantry made into a narrow dining
room and sitting room, and the two back bedrooms, one of which was
my mother’s", Munro uses symbolism in describing Flora's part of the
house, however, her part of the house symbolizes her personality, her
loneliness, as well as her isolation.

Therefore, the use of symbolism in this phrase leads to the creation of

visual imagery in the reader's mind as the sight of the house is conjured
up in his/her mind.

Additionally, the representative imagery flouts the maxim of manner

as Munro, through describing Flora's part of the house, implies a
reference to Flora's personality, loneliness, and isolation. Thus, such
reference flouts the maxim of manner as Munro does not present a brief
description of Flora's part of house. She also arouses the obscurity in such
67
description. In the same vein, through the provided imagery, the writer
assumes that the reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her
mind. However, he/she supposes that the existence of such imagery
indicates the existence of Flora's part of her house. Additionally, he/she
infers that Flora's need for warmth as well as her need for the supporter
relying on the context.

Extract 8

"My mother would wake up to the sound of stovepipes being taken

down, or the broom, draped in a dish towel, whacking at the smoky
cobwebs. Through the washed uncurtained windows came a torrent of
unmerciful light. The cleanliness was devastating. My mother slept now
on sheets that had been bleached and starched and that gave her a
rash. Sick Ellie complained daily of the smell of varnish and cleansing
powders" ( Munro, 1991:12).

In the utterance "My mother would wake up to the sound of

stovepipes being taken down, or the broom, draped in a dish towel,
whacking at the smoky cobwebs", Munro uses symbolism in which the
stovepipes or the broom are used to symbolize an alarm in Flora's house.
They also symbolize the primitive pieces of equipment used by Flora's
family.

However, the representative symbolism contributes to the creation of

auditory imagery in the reader's mind as he/she feels the sense of hearing
in his/her mind.

Besides, the representative imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim

of quality as Munro gives the stovepipes features which are not their own,
however, the reader realizes that it is not true.

68
 Furthermore, through the provided imagery, the writer assumes that
the reader raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she infers that the used imagery changes the normal function of the
stovepipes described.

In the utterance "My mother would wake up to the sound of

stovepipes being taken down, or the broom, draped in a dish towel,
whacking at the smoky cobwebs", Munro also uses symbolism in which
the smoky cobwebs are used to symbolize the isolated nature of Flora's
family.

However, the use of symbolism in this concern contributes to the

creation of olfactory imagery in the reader's mind as the phrase stimulates
the sense of smell in the reader's mind.

Therefore, the representative imagery leads to the flouting of the

maxim of quality as Munro, in such use of symbolism, changes the
normal function of the smoky cobwebs.

In the same direction, through the used imagery, the writer assumes
that the reader raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind as
he/she presumes that such description is opposite the fact. Additionally,
he/she infers that there is an isolated nature in Flora's family depending
on the shared knowledge and the context.

In the utterance "Through the washed uncurtained windows came a

torrent of unmerciful light", Munro uses symbolism in which the phrase
"uncurtained windows" is used to symbolize Flora's innocent and
helpful character.

However, the representative symbolism contributes to create visual

imagery in the reader's mind as the sight is drawn in the reader's mind.

69
Therefore, the mentioned imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim of
quantity as Munro adds more information which is not needed in
describing Flora's house.

Moreover, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. Thus, he/she
supposes the existence of the window in Flora's house. Additionally,
he/she infers that Flora has an open mind, helpful, and innocent nature
relying on the shared knowledge and the context.

In the utterance "Through the washed uncurtained windows came a

torrent of unmerciful light", Munro uses a concretive metaphor in which
the phrase "a torrent of unmerciful light" is compared to the inference
of foreigners in Flora's life or the difficulties as well as the risks of life
that Flora faces.

However, the used imagery contributes to create kinesthetic imagery

as it conjures up the sense of movement in the reader's mind.

Therefore, the mentioned imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim

of quality as Munro gives the light concretive features which are different
from its own. However, the reader realizes that it is not true.

Moreover, in the representative imagery, the writer assumes that the

reader raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind. Thus, he/she
supposes that the imagery used in such a description is not fact.
Additionally, he/she surmises that the torrent of unmerciful light indicates
the risks of life as well as the struggles Flora faces. Thus, the reader in
such inferences, relies on the shared knowledge and the context.

70
Extract 9

"My mother called her a whirling dervish 'You are a regular whirling
dervish, Flora,' she said"( Munro, 1991:12).

In the utterance "My mother called her a whirling dervish" , Munro

uses a synaesthetic metaphor in which Flora's behavior, regularity as well
as energy are compared to the dervish's behaviors .in this sense, Munro
gives Flora characteristics that are different from her own.

However, the used metaphor contributes to create kinesthetic imagery

in the reader's mind. In this sense, the reader, in reading such a phrase,
the sense of movement is conjured up to his/her mind. Furthermore, the
used imagery flouts the maxim of quality as the writer gives Flora
features that are not her own. Hence, she is surprised by such a
description because she does not know the meaning of dervish.

Moreover, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind. However, he/she
presumes that Flora's characteristics are transferred in such a description.
Additionally, he/she surmises that Flora has a regular, strong, as well as
religious character depending on the shared knowledge and the context.

Extract 10

"Ellie, with her long skinny body, her long pale face, was like a copy of
Flora—the kind of copy you often see in families, in which because of
some carelessness or exaggeration of features or coloring, the
handsomeness of one person passes into the plainness or almost
plainness of the other. But Ellie had no jealousy about this. She loved
to comb out Flora's hair and pin it up. They had great times, washing

71
each other's hair. Ellie would press her face into Flora's throat, like a
colt nuzzling its mother"( Munro, 1991:14).

To consider the utterance "Ellie, with her long skinny body, her long
pale face was like a copy of Flora", it appears that Munro uses a simile
in which Ellie is compared to her sister Flora, however, Ellie's extent
features are similar to her sister's features.

Therefore, the representative simile creates visual imagery in the

reader's mind as it draws the sense of sight in his/her mind.

Moreover, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim of

quality as Ellie's character as well as her features are different from her
sister Flora, however, the reader realizes the flouting of the maxim of
quality in this concern.

Furthermore, in the used imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises a non-factive presupposition in his/her mind, thus he/she presumes
that there is no exact similarity between the two sisters as both have
different behaviors. Additionally, he/she infers that Ellie is a dependent
character and influenced by her sister Flora.

In the utterance, "Ellie would press her face into Flora's throat, like
a colt nuzzling its mother", Munro also uses simile in which Ellie's
behavior resembles the behavior of the colt with its mother and how it
flatters.

However, the use of simile in this concern creates tactile imagery in

the reader's mind. Hence, it conjures up the feeling of touching to his/her
mind.

72
 Therefore, the representative imagery leads to the flouting of the
maxim of quality as Munro, in such description, adds more information
which is not needed in this concern.

Finally, in the used imagery, the writer assumes that the reader raises
non-factive presupposition in his/her mind as he/she supposes that such
resemblance is opposite to the fact. Additionally, he/she infers that Ellie
looks for her mother's tenderness and warmth relying on the shared
knowledge and the context.

Extract 11

"There was the smell. After the pelt had been stretched inside-out on a
longboard my father scraped away delicately, removing the little clotted
webs of blood vessels, the bubbles of fat; the smell of blood and animal
fat, with the strong primitive odor of the fox itself, penetrated all parts
of the house. I found it reassuringly seasonal, like the smell of oranges
and pine needles" (Munro, 1983: 1).

Munro, in the utterance "There was the smell. After the pelt had been
stretched inside-out on a longboard my father scraped away delicately,
removing the little clotted webs of blood vessels, the bubbles of fat; the
smell of blood and animal fat, with the strong primitive odor of the fox
itself, penetrated all parts of the house", describes the smell of fox and
how to her family enjoys smelling such odor. However, she uses a
concretive metaphor to compare the smell of the fox to something
concrete that is welcomed by the members of the family.

Thus, the use of concretive metaphor in the representative extract

contributes to create olfactory imagery in the reader's mind. In other
words, this metaphor draws the sense of smell in the reader's mind. It also
draws smell of the nature into the reader's mind.
73
 Therefore, the representative imagery flouts the maxim of quality as
Munro gives the odor of the fox concretive features.

Moreover, through the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the
reader raises an existential presupposition, however, the assumption of
the beautiful nature where Munro lives is drawn in the reader's mind. In
this sense, and the odor is comfortable for her at night.

The utterance "I found it reassuringly seasonal, like the smell of

oranges and pine needles" comprises a simile in which the smell of the
fox resembles the smell of oranges and pine needles. However, Munro
through the use of simile creates olfactory imagery and draws the sense of
smell in the reader's mind. In other words, the reader, in reading such a
phrase, smells an odor of the fox and an odor of orange and pine.

Furthermore, the representative imagery flouts the maxim of quality

because the features given to the smell of the fox are not its own,
however, they are not true. Moreover, concerning to presupposition, the
imagery of the representative phrase makes the reader infers that the
smell of the fox indicates the smell of nature, the smell of comfort
depending on the context.

Consequently, Munro, in this extract, uses two devises metaphor and

simile to draw the olfactory imagery in the reader's mind.

Extract 12

"We admired his for this performance and for his ability to make his
stomach growl at will, and for his laughter, which was full of high
whistling and me gurgling's and involved the whole faulty machinery
of his chest"(Munro, 1983: 1).

74
 The utterance "and for his laughter, which was full of high whistling
and me gurgling's and involved the whole faulty machinery of his
chest" includes an animating metaphor in which Munro implicitly
compares Henry's voice with the voices of the nature. However, the
children admire his voice although he has a problem with his chest. In
this sense, Munro's use of metaphor creates auditory imagery. Thus, in
reading this extract, the reader feels the sound. In other words, the reader
hears the sound of Henry's whistling and gurgling.

Moreover, the representative use of metaphor flouts the maxim of

quality as Munro adds features to Henry's voice that is not true.

Furthermore, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the

reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. However,
he/she surmises that Henry's voice indicates the voice of nature.

Extract 13

"Alive, the foxes inhabited a world my father made for them. It was
surrounded by a high guard fence, like a medieval town, with a gate
that was padlocked at night"(Munro, 1983: 2).

In this extract, Munro uses simile in which she resembles the world
inhabited for the foxes to the medieval town. However, in describing the
world of the foxes, she resembles the high guard fence, to the medieval
town. In this sense, there is a reference to the Palisade in the medieval
town which is a fence built of stake wall for defensive reasons. Therefore,
the gates in both worlds are padlocked at night.

The representative use of simile contributes to form visual imagery as

Munro tries to draw the sight of the world built for foxes in the reader's

75
mind. Thus, she uses the medieval town in her direct comparison to
enhance her imagery.

Besides, the representative imagery flouts the maxim of quantity as

Munro adds more information which is not needed in describing the
world of foxes. Thus, the reference to the medieval town is not needed in
describing the world of foxes.

Furthermore, through the used imagery, the writer assumes that the
reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she infers that the father takes care of his foxes more than his family as
he provides them with many staffs and a suitable environment.

Extract 14

"Along the streets of this town were ranged large, sturdy pens. Each of
them had a real door that a man could go through, a wooden ramp
along the wire, for the foxes to run up and down on, and a kennel —
sometimes like a clothes chest with air holes - where they slept and
stayed in winter and had their young" (Munro, 1983: 2-3).

In the representative extract, Munro uses another simile to describe the

world prepared for the foxes, however, in this simile the Kennel prepared
for foxes resembles a clothes chest with air holes. In this sense, such
resemblance describes how the father treats and takes care of his foxes in
such a good way.

Thus, the used simile contributes to generate visual imagery as Munro,

in such imagery tries to draw the sight of Kennel in the reader's mind. In
other words, in reading this phrase, the reader sees the sight of the kennel
by the eyes of his/her mind.

76
 Moreover, the used imagery flouts the maxim of quality because the
Kennel is compared with something impossible to be prepared for foxes.
However, it is not true.

Furthermore, in the provided imagery, the writer assumes that the

reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she infers that the father takes care of his foxes, neglecting the issues
of his family.

Extract 15

"The word girl had formerly seemed to me innocent and unburdened

like the word child; now it appeared that it was no such thing. A girl
was not, as I had supposed, simply what I was; it was what I had to
become. It was a definition, always touched with emphasis, with
reproach and disappointment" (Munro, 1983: 6).

In the representative extract, Munro uses simile in which the word girl
resembles the word child. In other words, she, in such use of simile, tries
to make a direct resemblance between the girl's behavior and the child's
behavior.

However, Munro in the representative simile generates organic

imagery because she tries to conjure up the reader's inner feeling towards
the girl who tries to get rid of the situation in which she lives.

Likewise, the use of imagery flouts the maxim of quality because

Munro makes a similarity between two different terms. Each of the terms
compared has its habits and features that are different from the other.

Furthermore, through the provided imagery, the writer assumes that

the reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind, however,
he/she deduces that Munro tries to be free from her prison and start a new

77
beginning protesting the idea that prioritizes males on females. However,
she remembers how the society insults her and considers her as a child.

Extract 16

"When spring came, the horses were let out in the barnyard. Mack
stood against the barn wall trying to scratch his neck and haunches,
but Flora trotted up and down and reared at the fences, clattering her
hooves against the rails" (Munro, 1983: 6).

The utterance "When spring came, the horses were let out in the
barnyard" comprises symbolism in which Munro uses spring to
symbolize a new life as well as a new beginning. It also symbolizes the
release of prison. However, Munro in the use of such symbolism tries to
draw organic imagery in the reader's mind, therefore, the sense of inner
feeling will be drawn in his/her mind. Thus, he/ she feels the relaxation,
the beauty, the freedom, and so forth.

Furthermore, the representative imagery contributes to flout the

maxim of manner as Munro in such use stimulates the ambiguity and is
not brief in her description. Moreover, regarding to presupposition, in the
mentioned imagery, the writer assumes that the reader raises the
assumption of looking for freedom and breaking the constraints in his/her
mind. It also makes the reader infers that there is a ray of hope for the
daughter.

Extract 17

"Snow drifts dwindled quickly, revealing the hard grey and brown
earth, the familiar rise and fall of the ground, plain and bare after the
fantastic landscape of winter. There was a great feeling of opening-out,
of release" (Munro, 1983: 6).

78
 In the utterance "Snow drifts dwindled quickly, revealing the hard
grey and brown earth", Munro uses humanizing or anthropomorphic
metaphor in which she compares the earth to a person who releases and
gets his/her freedom, however, the use of metaphor in this concern
contributes to the creation of visual imagery in which the reader sees the
sight of the earth by the eyes of his/her mind as the sight is drawn in
his/her mind by reading such phrase.

Furthermore, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality as

Munro compares the earth to a person who gets freedom from his/her
prison. However, she gives it animate features. Moreover, the used
imagery raises an existential presupposition in the reader's mind

However, through the used imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind as he/she assumes the
existence of the earth. Additionally, he/she infers that Munro tries to
explain the ray of hope in Flora's life depending on the context.

Extract 18

"In the loft, it was cold and dark. Thin crisscrossed beams of sunlight
fell through the cracks. The hay was low. It was rolling country, hills,
and hollows, slipping under our feet" (Munro, 1983: 7).

In the utterance "Thin Crisscrossed beams of sunlight fell through

the cracks", Munro uses a concretive metaphor in which she companies
the beams of the sunlight to something thin and crisscrossed which falls
through the cracks to fulfill them. Therefore, the use of metaphor
contributes to the creation of visual imagery. However, the reader of such
phrase, the sense of sight is conjured up to the reader's mind. Thus, he/she
sees the sight through the eyes of his/her mind.

79
 Likewise, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim of
quality as Munro in this comparison describes the bears of the sunlight in
a way that makes the reader realizes the flouting of the maxim of quality.

Furthermore, through the used imagery, the writer assumes that the
reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. However,
he/she deduces the existence of cracks. Additionally, he/she infers that
Munro illustrates the ray of hope and the light of freedom relying on the
shared knowledge and the context.

Extract 19

"About four feet up was a beam going around the walls, We piled hay
up in one corned and I boosted Laird up and hoisted myself. The beam
was not very wide; we crept along it with our hands flat on the barn
walls. There were plenty of knotholes, and I found one that gave me the
view I wanted - a corner of the barnyard, the gate, part of the field.
Laird did not have a knothole and began to complain"(Munro, 1983:7).

In the utterance "About four feet up was a beam going around the
walls", Munro uses a humanizing or anthropomorphic metaphor in which
she compares the beam to someone who goes around the walls.

Therefore, the use of imagery contributes to the creation of visual

imagery as Munro, in such phrase succeeds in visualizing the sight in a
way that enables the readers to see the sight by the eyes of his/her mind.

It seems that the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim
of quality as Munro gives the beam animate features that are not its own.

Furthermore, through the representative imagery, the writer assumes

that the reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. Thus,
he/she assumes the existence of walls. Additionally, he/she presumes that

80
Munro tries to illustrate the hope around the house depending on the
context.

Extract 20

"The stable door was open. Henry had just brought Flora out, and she
had broken away from him. She was running free in the barnyard,
from one end to the other. We climbed on the fence. It was exciting to
see her running, whinnying, going up on her hind legs, prancing and
threatening like a horse in a Western movie, an unbroken ranch horse,
though she was just an old driver, an old sorrel mare"(Munro, 1983:9).

In this extract, Munro describes the situation when the horse Flora gets
out of the stable to the barnyard. However, she runs freely in the
barnyard. In this concern, Munro uses simile in which Flora resembles a
horse in a western movie.

Therefore, the use of simile contributes to the creation of kinesthetic

imagery. However, the sense of movement is drawn in the reader's mind,
thus, he/she feels the running of the horse in reading the phrase. Besides,
the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quantity as Munro adds more
information in describing Flora and the situation.

Furthermore, in the used imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. However, he/she
infers that Munro expresses the delight and happiness of freedom.

Extract 21

"Dear Life" ( Munro, 2012:299).

The title "Dear Life" is used metaphorically to create an imagery in

the reader's mind. However, the writer uses a humanizing or

81
anthropomorphic metaphor in which she adds human features to life and
speaks to it as if it were her dear friend. Furthermore, the use of such a
metaphor contributes to generate organic imagery in the reader's mind.

Therefore, in reading such an imagery, the reader's inner feeling will

be conjured up and drawn in his/ her mind.

In the same vein, this provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality as
the writer gives life human features and announces it as if it is a person.
In the same baseline, this mentioned in imagery flouts the maxim of
quality as the writer gives the life inanimate features and announces it as
if it is a person.

Additionally, in the used imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises existential presupposition in his/her mind. However, he/she
presumes that the author has a specific and good relation with her
environment and city. She talks to it as a close and dear friend or relative.
At the same time, the author's writings about her city enhance this
assumption.

Extract 22

"I lived when I was young at the end of a long road, or a road that
seems long to me " ( Munro, 2012:299).

In this utterance, the author uses symbolism in which she uses the road
to symbolize the journey of her life and how it has various directions.
Furthermore, in using such symbolism, Munro tries to sum up and
describe her journey of life as well as her achievements. In the same vein,
such use of symbolism leads to the creation of visual imagery as in the
sight of the road will be drawn in the reader's mind.

82
 Moreover, the provided imagery contributes to the flouting of manner
as the writer doesn't give more details about the road she talks about to
avoid ambiguity. However, the reader will face difficulties, in
understanding the idea the writer talks about.

Similarly, the use of such imagery raises the existential

presupposition. However, it leads to the reader's assumption that the long
road indicates the journey of the author's life and her achievements.

Extract 23

"Then there was a slight hollow, a couple of rickety houses that got
flooded every spring, but that people—different people—always came
and lived in anyway. And then another bridge, over the mill race, which
was narrow but deep enough to drown you" ( Munro, 2012:299).

In the utterance "Then there was a slight hollow, a couple of rickety

houses that got flooded every spring, but that people—different people
—always came and lived in anyway", the author uses a synaesthetic
metaphor in which the function of houses are transferred from one
domain to another, however, they are compared to the ricket.

Therefore, such use of metaphor creates visual imagery. In this sense,

then this metaphor draws the sense of sight in the reader's mind, however,
the reader, in reading such phrase, will see the sight of the houses located
in the city as described by the author.

Moreover, the use of such imagery leads to the flouting of maxim of

quality as the author gives the houses features that are not true.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery generates an

existential presupposition in which the reader infers that the rickety
houses indicate the simple life in which people live in this city described.

83
 In the utterance " And then another bridge, over the mill race, which
was narrow but deep enough to drown you ", Munro uses symbolism in
which bridge" symbolizes the joint or the connector between the parts of
the city. However, such symbolism contributes to the creation of visual
imagery. In this sense, such imagery conjures up the sense of sight in the
reader's mind. Hence, he/she, through reading the phrase, will see the
described details by the eyes of his/her mind.

Moreover, such imagery leads to the flouting of quantity as the writer

gives more details, which are not needed in the description of the city.
Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery leads to an existential
presupposition in which the reader deduces that the bridge indicates the
connection between Munro and her city. Hence, the reader's inference
relys on the shared knowledge and the context.

Extract 24

"After that, the road divided, one part of it going south up a hill and
over the river again to become a genuine highway, and the other
jogging around the old fairgrounds to turn west"( Munro, 2012:300).

In the utterance " After that, the road divided, one part of it going
south up a hill and over the river again to become a genuine highway ",
Munro uses a humanizing or anthropomorphic metaphor in which she
adds human features for the road and compares it to a genuine high way,
however, she gives it all details of the high way. Furthermore, such use of
metaphor contributes to the creation of visual imagery the phrase draws
the sense of sight in the reader's mind. However, the reader through
reading this phrase will see the image in his/her eyes of the mind.

84
 In the same vein, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality as
the writer gives the road features that are not its own. However, the
reader realizes that thing is not true.

Moreover, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she infers the existence
of the genuine highway. In addition to the existence of the highway,
he/she deduces the regularity of the road as well as the city relying on the
context and the shared knowledge.

In the utterance " and the other jogging around the old fairgrounds
to turn west ", Munro uses a humanizing or anthropomorphic metaphor in
which she compares the other part of the road to a person who is joggling
around. Therefore, the use of metaphor creates kinesthetic imagery.
However, the reader, in reading this phrase, feels a sense of movement.

Moreover, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality as the

writer, in describing the road, gives details that are not its own, hence,
they are not true.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery leads to raise an

existential presupposition in the reader's mind, however, he/she surmises
that the other jogging indicates the gaurd of the city as it turns around the
city in the way of protection.

Extract 25

"There was quite a lot of killing going on, now that I think of it. The
old horses had to be turned into meat and the fur-bearing animals
culled every fall to leave just the breeders. But I was used to this and
could easily ignore it all, constructing for myself a scene that was
purified to resemble something out of the books I liked, such as Anne

85
of Green Gables or Pat of Silver Bush. I had the help of the elm trees,
which hung over the pasture, and the shining river, and the surprise of
a spring that came out of the bank above the pasture, providing water
for the doomed horses and the cow and also for me, out of a tin mug I
brought there. Fresh manure was always around, but I ignored it, as
Anne must have done at Green Gables"( Munro, 2012:305).

In the utterance "The old horses had to be turned into meat and the
fur-bearing animals culled every fall to leave just the breeders ", Munro
uses symbolism in which the word "fall" symbolizes death of nature.

Therefore, Munro in this utterance makes a reference to the story

"boys and girls", however, this reference gives the sense that Munro, in
using these memories, tries to sum up her life. Furthermore, the use of
such symbolism contributes to the creation of visual imagery. In this
sense, the reader, in reading this phrase, sees the image through the eyes
of his/her mind.

Moreover, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of manner because

the writer does not give more details about the sight to avoid ambiguity.
Similarly, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential
presupposition in which the reader infers that Munro tries to rememorize
her life and her love for the environment where she grows up and lives.

In the utterance "But I was used to this and could easily ignore it all,
constructing for myself a scene that was purified to resemble something
out of the books I liked, such as Anne of Green Gables or Pat of Silver
Bush", Munro uses simile in which she resembles herself and her life to
Anne's life of Green Gables. In this sense, Munro makes reference to the
story Green Gables and tries to compare her lifestyle to Anne's lifestyle.
Moreover, the use of simile contributes to the creation of visual imagery.

86
However, the reader, in reading such a phrase, sees the sense of sight as
the picture is drawn in his/her mind.

Furthermore, the use of such imagery leads to the flouting of manner

as Munro does not give more information about whom she resembles
herself to. However, the idea becomes ambiguous for the reader to
understand. Similarly, in the mentioned imagery, the writer assumes that
the reader raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. Therefore,
he/she presumes that Munro, in each phrase or speech, tries to express her
love for her environment and nature. Additionally, Munro's writings
about her city and her love for her city enhance the mentioned
assumption.

In the utterance "I had the help of the elm trees, which hung over the
pasture, and the shining river", Munro synaesthetic metaphor in which
she compares the river to something shinning as the star. In this sense,
she gives it an extra feature and transfers its domain.

Therefore, Munro, uses metaphor in order to create visual imagery.

However, the reader, in reading this phrase, conjures up the sense of sight
to his/her mind. Thus, he/she sees the river through the eyes of his mind.

Besides, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim of

quality, as Munro gives the river features which are not its own.
However, the reader realizes that the feature does not belong to the river.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that this imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind, however, he/she infers the existence
of the river. Additionally, he/she surmises that the shining river represents
the beautiful nature of Munro's city as she always describes for the
readers.

87
 In the utterance " and the surprise of a spring that came out of the
bank above the pasture, providing water for the doomed horses and the
cow and also for me, out of a tin mug I brought there.", Munro uses
symbolism in which spring symbolizes the new life or the rebirth of new
life and so forth.

Therefore, Munro, in using such symbolism, tries to create visual

imagery in the reader's mind. However, through such a phrase, the sense
of sight will be drawn in the reader's mind.

Moreover, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality as Munro

gives the spring animate features which are not belonging to the spring.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she supposes that
Munro, in this description, tries to glorify her vivid nature.

In the utterance, "Fresh manure was always around, but I ignored it,
as Anne must have done at Green Gables", Munro uses simile in which
she resembles her behavior and what she does for her environment and
the manure to Anne's behavior. Munro also makes reference to Anne's
character in the story Green Gables. Therefore, Munro, in using simile,
contributes to create visual imagery in the reader's mind as the image will
be conjured up in the reader's mind. However, he/she sees the sight by the
eyes of his her mind.

Furthermore, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quantity as

Munro, in using such resemblance, does not give more details about Anne
as well as the story Green Gables.

88
 Similarly, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential
presupposition in the reader's mind. Therefore, he/she infers that Munro,
in using such resemblance, tries to enhance and glorify her city.

Extract 26

"Our house would not have been one of the very first houses in that
early settlement, because it was covered with brick, and they were all
just wood, but it had probably gone up not long afterwards. It turned its
back on the village; it faced west across slightly downsloping fields to
the hidden curve where the river made what was called the Big Bend.
Beyond the river was a patch of dark evergreen trees, probably cedar
but too far away to tell. And even farther away, on another hillside, was
another house, quite small at that distance, facing ours, that we would
never visit or know and that was to me like a dwarf’s house in a story"
( Munro, 2012:308).

In the utterance "Our house would not have been one of the very
first houses in that early settlement, because it was covered with brick,
and they were all just wood, but it had probably gone up not long
afterwards. It turned its back on the village; it faced west across slightly
downsloping fields to the hidden curve where the river made what was
called the Big Bend ", Munro describes the location where her house is
located, however, she uses humanizing or anthropomorphic metaphor in
which the river is compared to someone who can make the Big Bend. In
this sense, Munro makes a reference to the Big Bend.

Therefore, in using such a metaphor, Munro creates visual imagery.

However, the sense of sight will be conjured up to the reader's mind.
Thus, he/she sees the sight through the eyes of his/her mind.

89
 Moreover, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim of
quality as Munro gives the river animate features that are not its own.

Similarly, the writer assumes that this imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she deduces that
Munro, in using such reference, tries to express and describe her city in a
beautiful way.

In the utterance " And even farther away, on another hillside, was
another house, quite small at that distance, facing ours, that we would
never visit or know and that was to me like a dwarf’s house in a story",
Munro describes another house in her city which faces her own house.
However, she uses simile in which the other house resembles the dwarf's
house in the way in which it is designed as both have the same shape.

Therefore, Munro, in using simile, contributes to the creation of visual

imagery. However, Munro, in such imagery, draws the sense of sight in
the reader's mind. So he/she, in reading the phrase, sees the sight by the
eyes of his/her mind.

Moreover, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality as

Munro, in describing the house, gives it features which are different from
its own.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she presumes that the
dwarf's house in Munro's description refers to the existence of a small
house that has the form of a dwarf's house.

Extract 27

"After I was married and had moved to Vancouver, I still got the
weekly paper that was published in the town where I grew up. I think

90
somebody, maybe my father and his second wife, made sure that I had
a subscription. Often I barely looked at it, but one time, when I did, I
saw the name Netterfield. It was not the name of someone who was
living in the town at present but had apparently been the maiden name
of a woman in Portland, Oregon, who had written a letter to the paper.
This woman, like me, still had a subscription to her hometown paper,
and she had written a poem about her childhood there"( Munro,
2012:316).

In the utterance "I saw the name Netterfield. It was not the name of
someone who was living in the town at present but had apparently been
the maiden name of a woman in Portland, Oregon, who had written a
letter to the paper. This woman, like me, still had a subscription to her
hometown paper, and she had written a poem about her childhood
there", Munro rememorizes the situation of her marriage. However, she
uses simile in which she resembles herself to a woman named Netterfield.
Both of them glorify their cities.

Therefore Munro, in using simile, contributes to the creation of visual

imagery. However, the reader in reading such a phrase, feels the sense of
sight. Thus, he/she sees the situation through the eyes of his/her mind.

Moreover, Munro, in the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality

because she compares herself to a woman who may have different
features and live different situations although they are similar in certain
characteristics. Thus, such resemblance flouts the maxim of the quality as
it is the opposite of the truth.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she infers that Munro,

91
in such comparisons, tries to improve her love for her city as well as her
memories in the city.

Extract 28

"I know a grassy hillside

Above a river clear

A place of peace and pleasure

A memory very dear"

( Munro, 2012:316).

In the representative extract, Munro rememorizes a poem written by

Netterfield in which she describes the nature of her city. However, in the
phrase "A place of peace and pleasure", she uses synaesthetic metaphor
in which she compares her city to a paradise or a heavenly place where
peace and pleasure spread everywhere.

Therefore, the use of metaphor in the representative phrase contributes

to the creation of organic imagery. However, in reading such a phrase, the
sense of inner feeling conjures up in the reader's mind and feels the
pleasure of the place.

Furthermore, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of the maxim

of quality as the writer in such comparison gives her city features that are
not its own.

Similarly, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she infers that the writer
glorifies her city. He/she also deduces that the writer, in such a
comparison, tries to give her city a religious nature.

92
Extract 29

"The sun upon the river

With ceaseless sparkles play

And over on the other bank

Are blossoms wild and gay"

( Munro, 2012:317).

In the representative utterance "The sun upon the river With

ceaseless sparkles play", the writer contributes to describe the nature of
her city. However, in this expression, she visualizes how the sun rises in
her city and spreads its beams upon the river. Therefore, the writer, in
such a description, uses a humanizing or anthropomorphic metaphor in
which the sun with its sparkles is compared to someone who plays on the
river with ceaseless delight.

Besides, the use of metaphor in this concern contributes to the creation

of visual imagery. Hence, in reading such a phrase, the sense of sight is
conjured up to the reader's mind. However, he/she grasps the sight of the
sun through the eyes of his/her mind.

Furthermore, the provided imagery leads to the flouting of quality as

the writer gives the sun animate features which are not its own.

Similarly, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she surmises that the
writer tries to explain that her city is the city of delight and pleasure.

93
 In the utterance "And over on the other bank Are blossoms wild and
gay" of the representative extract, the writer describes the nature of her
city in the poem. However, she uses a humanizing or anthropomorphic
metaphor in which the blossoms, on the other bank of the river, are
compared with people who stand on the bank enjoying the scene of the
river with happiness and peace.

Therefore, the use of metaphor contributes to the creation of visual

imagery. However, the sense of sight is conjured up to the reader's mind.
Therefore, the reader sees the sight through the eyes of his/her mind.

Moreover, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quality the writer
in her comparison, gives the blossoms features which are not its own.
However, the reader realizes that there is a clear flouting of the maxim of
quality.

Furthermore, in the used imagery, the writer assumes that the reader
raises an existential presupposition in his/her mind. However, he/she
deduces that the writer's city is an attractive place as she illustrates it
beautifully.

Extract 30

"Across the Iris-bordered stream

The shade of maples spread

And, on the river’s watery field,

White geese, in flocks are fed" ( Munro, 2012:317).

In the utterance "Across the Iris-bordered stream the shade of maples

spread", the writer also illustrates the nature of her city. However, she
uses symbolism in which are the word maples is used to symbolize

94
balance, longevity, as well as generosity. It also has the ability to adapt
different climates. Furthermore, it symbolizes the Canadian national flag
as its leaf is associated with Canada.

Therefore, the use of symbolism in this phrase contributes to draw

visual imagery in the reader's mind. However, the sense of sight is
conjured up to the reader's mind through reading such phrase. Thus,
he/she sees the sight of maples through the eyes of his/her mind.

Likewise, the provided imagery flouts the maxim of quantity as

Munro uses more information which is not needed in her description.

Furthermore, the writer assumes that such imagery raises an existential

presupposition in the reader's mind. However, he/she infers that the writer
has a special connection to her life and city as she illustrates her city in a
way that makes the readers eager to know more about it. Therefore,
Munro resembles herself to this woman as both have the same connection
and love to their cities.

4.2.2. Quantitative Analysis

To consider Table (1) below, it is demonstrated that the most frequent

type of imagery used in the short stories under study is visual imagery. It
is used (28 times) and the rate of its use amounts to (63.63%). In this
sense, the frequent use of visual imagery verifies the fourth hypothesis. In
the same vein, visual imagery is frequently used as it is one of the
prominent types of imagery that helps the writer to draw the reader's
attention through reading the story. Auditory imagery is used (2 times)
and the rate of its use is (4.54%). Olfactory imagery is used (3 times) in
the short stories under the study and the rate of its use is (6.81%).
Gustatory imagery is not used in the short stories under the study. Tactile
imagery is used (1 time) in the stories under the study and the rate its use
95
 amounts to (2.27%). Organic imagery is used (6 times) in the stories
under the study and the rate of its use amounts to (13.63%). Finally,
kinesthetic imagery is used (4 times) in the stories under the study and the
rate of its use amounts to (9.09%).

Table (1) The Frequencies and Percentages of types of imagery used in

the three stories:

Types of Visual Auditory Olfactor Gustator Tactil Organic Kinestheti Total

Imagery y y e c
28 2 3 0 1 6 4 44
Frequencies
63.63% 4.54% 6.81% 0% 2.27% 13.63% 9.09% 100%
Percentages

Table (2) below reveals that the most frequent stylistic device used in
creating imagery is metaphor as it is the most frequently used. Therefore,
it is scored (19 times) and the rate of its use amounts to (43.18%). In this
sense, metaphor plays a prominent role in creating imagery in Munro's
short stories that are used under the study. Additionally, the frequent use
of metaphor verifies the third hypothesis. The frequent use of simile in
the stories under the study is (11 times) and the rate of its use amounts to
(25%). Finally, symbolism is frequently used in the stories under the
study. Hence, it is used (14 times) and the rate of its use amounts to
(31.81%).

Table (2) The Frequencies and Percentages of the stylistic devices:

Stylistic Devices Metaphor Simile Symbolism Total

Frequencies 19 11 14 44
Percentages 43.18% 25% 31.81% 100%

96
Table (3) below shows that the frequencies of flouting the maxim of
quantity in the stories under the study is (9 times) and the rate of its use
amounts to (20.45%). The maxim of quality is flouted (30 times) in the
stories under the study and the rate of its flouting amounts to (68.18%).
The maxim of relation is not flouted in the stories under the study.
Finally, the maxim of manner is flouted (5 times) in the stories under the
study and the rate of its use amounts to (11.36%). Consequently, the
maxim of quality is the most prominent maxim that is flouted among
other maxims in the stories under the study. Therefore, it illustrates that
stylistic devices, used in the stories, do not provide truths in the
description for which they are used. In the same vein, Munro, in using
such stylistic devices, flouts the maxim of quality to draw imagery in the
reader's mind and helps the reader in visualizing the stories he/she reads.

Table (3) The Frequencies and Percentages of the Grice's maxims:

Grice's Maxims Quantity Quality Relation Manner Total

9 30 0 5 44
Frequencies
20.45% 68.18% 0% 11.36% 100%
Percentages

97
4.3. Findings and Discussions

To examine the figures of the quantitative pragma-stylistic analysis of

the data at hand, it is shown that the results presented in Table ( 1 ) above
reveals the different types of imagery which are used in Munro's selected
short stories.

The study of visual imagery has advanced significantly and has come
to represent a major thrust area in experimental psychology (Kosslyn,
1994). Although images can belong to any one of the five sensory
modalities, visual imagery is the most experienced type of imagery and
happens to be the most investigated area of inquiry (Horowitz, 1970;
Kosslyn, 1988). Many studies have been conducted to describe the
characteristics of the visual images.

Therefore, the table (1) shows that the most frequent type of imagery
is visual imagery. It is repeatedly used in the analysis since it is
confirmed by the high frequency and percentage ( 28; 63.63% ).
Gustatory imagery which is another type of imagery is not used in
Munro's selected short stories. Thus, the reason behind the frequent use of
visual imagery is that visual imagery is one of the prominent types of
imagery that plays a crucial role in visualizing the events in the reader's
mind.

According to Black (cited in Ortony, 1993: 420), "metaphors are

generally used to describe something new by reference to something
familiar". He ( cited in ibid) argues that "metaphors are not just nice, they
are necessary". It is pervasive in language and it is important because of
its functions, i.e. explaining, clarifying, describing, expressing,
evaluating, entertaining. Where we have a choice, we choose metaphors
98
in order to communicate what we think or how we feel about something;
to explain what a particular thing is like; to convey a meaning in a more
interesting or creative way; or to do all of these (Knowles and Moon,
2006). Metaphor which is considered to be one of the powerful means,
endows language with evaluative overtones, thus giving birth to new
emotions and impressive images in the reader’s mind. Hence, metaphor is
one of the major elements in creating imagery which not only makes
language more vivid and enforces its imaginative features but also reveals
certain human characteristics or different circumstances and situations
(ibid).

In the same baseline, the stylistic devices which are used in Munro's
selected short stories as presented in table ( 2 ) revealed that the most
frequently used stylistic device in the analysis is metaphor. It is
prominently used throughout the whole analysis as it is confirmed by the
high frequency and percentage ( 19; 43.18% ). The least used stylistic
device is simile as it is shown in the mentioned table ( 11; 25% ).

Furthermore, in conversation, people may sometimes fail to observe

those maxims. It probably occurs because some reasons, such as they are
incapable of speaking clearly, or they do it deliberately (Thomas, 1995:
64). When a speaker blatantly fails to observe a maxim at the level of
what is said, with the deliberate intention of generating an implicature
called as flouting the maxim. Flouting of four maxims might happen
anytime, in conversation.

However, despite Grice's claims of ideal exchange, once the rules

(maxims) he suggests for conversants are followed and abided by, he
suggests that there are cases when these regularities may be violated.
Grice is aware that participants may not necessarily act in keeping his

99
maxims, but, at the same time, argues that any exchange will operate
even if these maxims are being violated emphasizing that the maxims
enrich coherence and relevance rather than refuting them (Levinson,1983:
106). The results presented in table (3) concerning the flouting of Grice's
maxims prove that the most frequently flouted maxim is the maxim of
quality. It is repeatedly used in the whole analysis as it is confirmed by
the high frequency and percentage ( 30; 68.18%). The maxim of relation
is not flouted in the data under the scrutiny. This indicates that the
repeated flouting of Grice's maxims in general and the maxim of quality
in particular depends on the existence of the stylistic devices.

100
 Chapter Five

Conclusions, Recommendations, and Suggestions for

Further Research

Relying on the conducted analyses and the obtained results in this

study, this chapter shows the main conclusions, recommendations, and
suggestions for further research.

5.1. Conclusions

The present study comes up with the following conclusions:

1- The first hypothesis is verified. In the three selected short stories,

Munro employs different stylistic devices to create different types of
imagery. Thus, the numbers and percentages mentioned in the previous
chapter ( see Table (2) promote the verification of the hypothesis.
Moreover, through her use of imagery, she accomplishes many intentions.
However, she flouts the Gricean maxims. She also raises certain
assumptions in the reader's mind by using different to types of imagery
consequently Munro in her selected short stories in using stylistic devices
to create various types imagery as well as accomplish pragmatic
functions.

2- The second hypothesis is verified in all of the selected short stories.

There is a clear use of imagery with its various types to accomplish
pragmatic functions. Therefore, the numbers and percentages mentioned
in the previous chapter ( see Table (1) enhance the verification of the
hypothesis. However, in the three selected short stories: "Fried of my
Youth, Boys and Girls, and Dear Life", Munro uses imagery aesthetically

101
to draw the reader's attention through the use of various types of imagery.
She uses imagery in her short stories to change the abstract things into
concrete. Furthermore, in the selected short stories, she flouts Grice's
maxims through the use of imagery. She also uses imagery to raise
certain assumptions in the reader's mind.

3- The third hypothesis is verified. In the three selected short stories,

Munro uses different stylistic devices to create imagery. However, the
qualitative as well as the quantitative analysis prove that metaphor is used
frequently in the three short stories under study. Hence, the number and
percentage mentioned in the previous chapter ( see Table (2) stimulate
the verification of the hypothesis. Moreover, in the three selected short
stories, metaphor is used frequently as it has crucial role in creating
different types of imagery.

4- The fourth hypothesis is verified. Munro employs different types of

imagery in her short stories which are selected as a data under study she
uses such types of imagery to fulfill her intentions and attract the reader's
attention for her region as she was known writings are about her city and
nature. However, in the three selected short stories, visual imagery is used
frequently to fulfill Munro's messages. Thus, the number and percentage
mentioned in the previous chapter ( see Table (1) enhance the verification
of the hypothesis. Visual imagery plays a prominent role conjuring up the
sight to the reader's mind. Moreover, it enables the readers to feel the
sense of sight through reaching words. Therefore, Munro succeeds in
using visual imagery frequently to visualize the events and make the
reader sees them through the eyes of his/her mind.

102
5.2. Recommendations

Based on the conclusions which are drawn from the findings of the
current study, some recommendations can be presented as follows:

1- Cognitive researchers are supposed to take into account the use of

imagery and its importance in the field of cognition.

2- Teachers of EFL/ESL learners should take into consideration the use

of imagery with its various types in their lectures as it enables them in
attracting their students' attention.

3- Researchers should recognize the multiple functions of imagery as they

are used in various contexts.

4- Pragmaticians should pay attention to the significance of using

imagery in different genres.

5- Researchers should be familiar with the interrelated relationship

between imagery and stylistic devices.

5.3. Suggestions for Further Research

Regarding the theoretical and practical parts of the study, the following
topics are suggested for further studies:

1- A pragma-stylistic study of imagery in TV shows.

2- A pragma-cognitive study of imagery in political debates.

3- A contrastive study of imagery in selected Arabic and English short

stories.

4- A pragma-cognitive study of visual imagery in selected short stories.

103
5- A pragma-rhetorical study of imagery in Alice Munro's selected short
stories.

104
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 ‫المستلخص‬

‫تعنىي الدراسةي الحاليةي فيي التحليلي التداوليي السلوبيي للتصوري فييقصص‬

‫قصيرةي مختارةي للكاتبةي الكنديةي اليسيمونرو‪ ) :‬صديقيشبابي‪ ,‬فتيةيوفتيات‪,‬‬
‫حياةيعزيزة(‪ .‬تعدي أليسي مونروي واحدةي مني ابرزي كتابي القصصي القصيرةيفي‬
‫كندا‪ .‬وي انهاي اولي امرأةي كنديةي تحصلي علىي جائزةي نوبلي للدبي فييالقصة‬
‫القصيرةي لعامي‪ .2013‬تأخذي معظمي قصصي مونروي القصيرةي شكلي النقساميبين‬
‫الحياة العتيادية و الحياة الغامضة للخيال‪.‬‬

‫وي تهدفي الدراسةي الىي الجابةي علىي السئلةي التالية‪ :‬ماهيي انواعي التصور‬
‫المستخدمةي فيي العيناتي الخاضعةي للدراسة؟ي ماهيي الوظائفي التداولية‬
‫السلوبيةي للتصوري فيي العيناتي المستخدمةي فيي الدراسة؟ي ماهوي تأثيريالسياق‬
‫علىي اختياري التصوري فيي العيناتي المستخدمةي فيي الدراسة؟ي لماذاي استخدمتي‬
‫الكاتبة انواع معينة للتصور في العينات الخاضعة للدراسة؟‬

‫علوةي علىيذلك‪ ,‬تهدفي الدراسةيالى‪ :‬تحديدي انواعي التصوري الذيي تكرريفي‬

‫العيناتي تبييني ووصفي وظائفي التصوري المستخدمةي فيي القصصيالقصيرة‬
‫الثلثةي لمونروي مني وجهةي نظري تداوليةياسلوبية‪ ..‬تسليطي الضوءي علىيتأثير‬
‫السياقي فيي اختياري التصوري المستخدمي فيي العيناتي المستخدمةي فييالدراسة‪.‬‬
‫تفسير اهداف استخدام انواع معينة من التصور‪.‬‬

‫وي افترضتي الدراسةي اني التصوري المستخدمي فيي قصصي مونروي القصيرةيهو‬
‫عبارةي عني وسائلي اسلوبيةي انعكستي بواسطةي ستراتيجياتي تداوليةيمحددة‬
‫مثلي مبادئي كرايسي ويالفتراض‪ .‬وي اني مونروي وضفتي التصوري فييقصصها‬
‫القصيرة لنجاز وظائف جمالية وتداولية‪,‬‬

‫اضافةي الىيذلك‪ ,‬فإني الدراسةي تفترضي بأني المجازي هوي الوسيلةيالسلوبية‬

‫الكثري توضيفاي لخلقي التصوري فيي قصصي مونرويالقصيرة‪ .‬وفيي السياقيذاته‬
‫فإني الدراسةي تفترضي بأني أليسي مونروي قدي وضفتي انواعي معينةي منيالتصور‬
‫ليصاليرسائلها‪ .‬ومنيهنا‪ ,‬تعتمدي الدراسةي انموذجاي انتقائيايللتحليل‪ ,‬وتسعى‬
‫الىي التعاملي معي التصوري بطريقةي متكاملةي مني جوانبي متنوعةي مثليالوسائل‬

‫‪120‬‬
‫السلوبيةي وي المناهجي التداوليةي معي تفسيري العلقةي المترابطةي بيني هذهيالجوانب‬
‫في ضوء التصور‪.‬‬

‫لهذا‪ ,‬تتبنىي الدراسةي طرقاي نوعيةي وي كميةيللتحليل‪ .‬حللتي‪ 44‬عينةيللتصور‬

‫بصورةي تداوليةي اسلوبيةي اعتماداي علىي النموذجي المتبعي فييالتحليل‪ .‬اختيرت‬
‫العينات من ثلثين مقطع اخذت من ثلث قصص قصيرة‪.‬‬

‫الىي جانبيذلك‪ ,‬اثبتتي النتائجي جميعي فرضياتيالدراسة‪ .‬تمي استخداميالتصور‬

‫بتعددي انواعهي لنجازي وظائفي جماليةي وي تداوليةي فيي القصصي الثلثةيالمختارة‪.‬‬
‫فيي ذاتيالسياق‪ ,‬استخدامي الوسائلي السلوبيةي كاني ناجحاي فيي خلقيالتصور‬
‫وانجاز الوظائف التداولية في القصص الثلثة المختارة‪.‬‬

‫علوةي علىيذلك‪ ,‬استنتجتي الدراسةي بأني المجازي كأحدي الوسائليالسلوبية‬

‫الكثري استخداماي لخلقي التصوري فيي القصصي الثلثةيالقصيرة‪ .‬فيي هذايالسياق‪,‬‬
‫يعزىي استخدامهي الىي امكانيتهي فيي بسطي الرضيةي للتصويري مني اجليتصور‬
‫الحداثي فيي عقليالنسان‪ .‬يساعدي المجازي ايضاي الكاتبي فيي خلقيانواع‬
‫مختلفةي منيالتصور‪ .‬اخيرا‪ ,‬وجدتي الدراسةي اني التصوري المرئيي كنوعيمن‬
‫انواعي التصوري هوي النوعي الكثري استخداماي ليصالي رسائلي مونروي فييالقصص‬
‫الثلثة القصيرة المختارة‪.‬‬

‫‪121‬‬
 ‫جمهورية العراق‬
‫وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي‬
‫جامعة الكوفة‬
‫كلية الداب‬
‫قسم اللغة النكليزية‬

‫دراسة تداولية اسلوبية للتصور في قصص‬

‫قصيرة مختارة للكاتبة‬
‫( اليس مونرو )‬

‫رسالة تقدم بها‬

‫الى مجلس كلية الداب‪ -‬جامعة الكوفة‬
‫جزءا من متطلبات نيل درجة الماجستير في اللغة‬
‫النكليزية و علم اللغة‬

‫‪122‬‬
 ‫الطالب‬
‫حسن فلح محسن‬

‫بإشراف‬
‫الستاذ الدكتور حسين ضاحي مزهر الحسناوي‬

‫‪2022 A. D.‬‬ ‫‪1443 A. H.‬‬

‫‪123‬‬