رباح العبيدي

Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education &

Scientific Research
University of Tikrit
College of Education for Humanities
Department of English
Investigating the Perception of Multimodal

Metaphors by Iraqi EFL Learners
A Thesis
Submitted to the Council of the College of Education for
Humanities / University of Tikrit in Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English
Language and Linguistics
By
Rabah Noori Hadi Al-Obeidi
Supervised by
Asst. Prof. Israa Burhanuddin Abdurrahman (Ph.D)
2022 A.D. 1444 A. H.

ِ‫الرحيم‬ َّ ِ‫بسمِ اللَّه‬
َّ ِ‫الر ْحمن‬ ْ
َٰ
ِ‫ِاْل ْلواحِوفيِنُ ْسختها‬
ْ ‫بِأخذ‬ُ ‫(ولمَّاِسكتِعنِمُّوسىِا ْلغض‬
ِ
ُ ‫ُهدًىِور ْحمةٌِلِّلَّذين‬
ِ )451ِ‫ِه ْمِل ِربِّه ْمِي ْرهبُون‬
ِ )45ِ1ِ ‫(اْلعرا‬
In The Name Of Allah, The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful
(And when the anger of Musa (Moses) was calmed down, he

took up the tablets; and in their inscription was guidance and
mercy for those who fear their Lord)
(Al-Hilali and Khan, 2002: 222 ) ( Al-A'raaf: 154)

Supervisor's Certificate
I certify that this thesis (Investigating the Perception of Multimodal
Metaphors by Iraqi EFL Learners) written by (Rabah Noori Hadi Al-
Obeidi ) has been prepared under my supervision at the University of
Tikrit, College of Education for Humanities, as a partial requirement for the
degree of Master of Arts in English language and Linguistics.
Signature:
Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Israa Burhanuddin Abdurrahman (Ph. D.)
Date: / / 2022
In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for debate

by the Examining Committee.
Signature:
Name: Asst. Prof. Muhammed Barjes Salman (Ph.D.)
Head of the Department of English
College of Education for Humanities, University of Tikrit
Date: / /2022
To ….
The Memory of My Late Father…
Who would have been proud to see this work
My soft-hearted mother…
My life consolation
My supporters…
My brothers and sisters
My life partner…
My wife
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All the praises and thanks be to Allah, the most merciful, the creator of the
source of life and knowledge, without His help and blessings I would have
accomplished nothing.
First and foremost I would like to express my deepest gratitude and thanks
to my supervisor Asst. Prof. Israa Burhanuddin Abdurrahman (Ph.D.) for
her valuable knowledge, support, guidance, patience and motivation she
has given me. May Allah bless her and grant her all the best both here and
in the hereafter. I am truly grateful for all you have taught me and I am
honoured to have been your student.
My sincere thanks are due to the staff of the M.A. program of English
Language and Linguistics at the English Department – College of
Education - University of Tikrit for the useful knowledge, comments and
remarks that provided new perspectives. A special word of thanks and
appreciation should go to my teacher Prof. Dr. Mohammed Badea Ahmed
for his generous support, help and time he gave me. Also, I am immensely
grateful to Professor Dr. Hasan Shaban. for his great help in doing the
statistical analysis and counting the final findings.
My deepest gratitude and appreciation go to the seminar committee for

their valuable notes, guidance and instructions through which I have
overcome all the obstacles that I have faced.
I seize the chance to gratefully thank the jury members who have provided
me with the useful notes, instructions and suggestions for a better
questionnaire formula. My sincere thanks are also extended to all the
M.A. students who have responded to my questionnaire.
Great thanks go to all my colleagues at the department of English who have
generously help one another endlessly, especially my close friends Omar
Aziz and Mustafa Flaih, Abudulsalam Khalaf and Ali Abdulsala for their
special help.
Finally, I must express my gratitude and affection to my family; my

mother, brothers, sisters and my wife for their support and patience.
ABSTRACT
Contrastively to traditional view of metaphor, a characteristic of
language alone rather than of thought, Lakoff and Jonson, in their seminal
book Metaphor We Live By (1980), have found that metaphor is more than
just a stylistic aspect of language; it is inherently a matter of thought and
action. It is property of human mind rather than of language. As a means of
cognition, metaphor is rendered by more than verbal channel alone, and
multimodal information in which image/text content is integrated can play
an important role in expressing and understanding metaphor. This study
tackles the modern field of study in metaphor "multimodal metaphors".
This study aims at: (i) explore the ability of Iraqi M.A. learners in
perceiving multimodal metaphors. (ii) Identifying the importance of text
mode in multimodal metaphors. (iii) Detecting whether the different
species of multimodal metaphors show any differences/similarities in terms
of their interpretability.
To achieve its aims, this study hypothesizes that: (i) High rate of the
Iraqi M.A EFL students can't understand multimodal metaphors. (ii) In
multimodal metaphors, text mode has an effective role in manifesting their
meanings. (iii) Multimodal metaphor species are different from one another
in terms of their easiness or hardness of their understanding.
Twenty samples of four kinds: Advertisement, Caricature, Social
media and Social issues are collected from different internet resources, and
then analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. With respect to qualitative
analysis, Fauconnier and Turner's Conceptual Blending Theory (2002) is
used for analysis. In regard with the quantitative the analysis, the study
conducts a questionnaire and shows the twenty samples to investigate
statistically the ability of the Iraqi M.A. learners' perception of multimodal
metaphors.
The study has concluded that: (i) a great deal of Iraqi M.A. learners
couldn't understand multimodal metaphors. (ii) Text medium is of
considerable importance in understanding multimodal metaphors. (iii) The
kinds of multimodal metaphors are not equal in the degree of easiness for
Iraqi learners to perceive. Advertisement is the hardest one while social
issue is the easiest one. (iv)All the target domains in the selected data have
been rendered verbally, while all the source domains have been manifested
visually.
Table of Contents
Titles Page No.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
ABSTRACT vii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
List of Charts xvi
List of Abbreviations xvii
Section CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
No.
1.1 Problem of the Study 1
1.2 Objectives of the Study 3
1.3 Research Questions 3
1.4 Hypotheses of the Study 3
1.5 Procedures of the Study 4
1.6 The Model Adopted 5
1.7 Limits of the Study 5
1.8 Value of the Study 5
CHAPTER TWO:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Cognitive Linguistics (CL) 6
2.2 The Notion of Metaphor 10
2.3 Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) 12
2.3.1 The Meaning of Concept 12
2.3.2 Traditional and Modern Views of Metaphor 12
2.3.3 Metaphorical Conceptualisation 14
2.3.4 The Establishment of Metaphorical Conceptualisation 17
2.4 Source Domain and Target Domain (SD/TD) 20
2.5 Metaphorical Mapping 22
2.5.1 The Systematicity of Metaphorical Mapping 23
2.5.2 The Properties of Metaphorical Mapping 25
2.5.3 The Asymmetry and Unidirectionality of Metaphorical 26
Mapping
2.6 Conceptual Metaphor versus Linguistic 27
Metaphor
2.7 Metaphor and Metonymy 29
2.8 Cognitive Theories 31
2.8.1 Image Schema 31
2.8.2 Mental Space Theory (MST) 35
2.8.3 Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT) 38
2.8.4 Conceptual Integration Network 42
2.9 Understanding Metaphor 47
2.10 Interpreting Metaphor 51
2.11 Non-Linguistic/Non-verbal Realization of 54
Conceptual Metaphor
2.12 Monomodal and Multimodal Metaphors 58
2.13 Multimodal Metaphors and Genre 62
2.14 Previous Related Studies 64
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Data Selection 70
3.2 Research Design 71
3.3 The Adopted Model of Analysis 71
3.4 Research Procedures 73
3.4.1 Data Analysis Level 73
3.4.2 Conducting a Recognition Test 77
3.4.3 Face Validity 80
CHAPTER FOURE:
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
Part A. Qualitative Data Analysis 81
Part B. Quantitative Data Analysis 141
4.1 The Statistical Analysis 141
4.1.1 Findings of the Impact of Text on EFL Learners' 141
M.Ms Perception
4.1.1.1 Findings of the Impact of Branch of Study on 141
EFL Learners' M.Ms Perception
4.1.1.2 Findings of the Impact Gender on EFL 151
Learners' M.Ms Perception
4.1.2 Findings of the Impact of Kinds of M.Ms on 156
EFL Learners' M.Ms Perception
Part C. Discussion of the Findings of the Study 164
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE
RESEARCH
5.1 Conclusions 169
5.2 Recommendations 171
5.3 Suggestions for Further Research 172
Bibliography 173
Appendices 181
‫ال ُمستخلص‬ 199
List of Tables
Table Title Page

No. No.
4.1 Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for Linguistics 142
Branch OT and WT
4.2 Students' Answers of the M.Ms Perception for Literature 143
Branch OT and WT
4.3 Students' Answers of the M.Ms Perception for 145
Methodology of Branch OT and WT
4.4 Students' Answers of the M.Ms Perception for Translation 146
Branch OT and WT
4.5 Total Scores and Percentages of Students' Answers for all 146
Branches of Both M.Ms WT and OT
4.6 Total Detailed Students' Answers of Perceiving M.Ms OT 150
and WT
4.7 Total Females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT 152
4.8 Total Males' answers of M.Ms OT and WT 154
4.9 Total Females' and Males Answers of M.Ms OT and WT 155
4.10 Females' Answers of all M.M. Kinds WT and OT 157
4.11 Males' Answers of all M.M. Kinds WT and OT 158
4.12 Total Scores and Percentages of correct Females' and 159
Males' Answers of M.Ms Perception OT and WT
4.13 Scores of all Students' Answers of Perception for all M.M. 161
species OT and WT
4.14 Total scores and Percentages of all Students' Answers for 162
all M.M. Species OT and WT
List of Figures
Figure Title Page

No. No.
2.1 Mental Image Schema 32
2.2 Mappings of Elements Across Inputs 43
2.3 Addition of a Generic Space 44
2.4 The Basic Diagram of Integration Network 45
2.5 Conceptual Integration Network: Surgeon as butcher 46
3.1 Elements of the Adopted Model 72
3.2 A Sample of M.M. Figures of Data Analysis in Chapter 74
Four
3.3 A Sample Figure of Data Analysis of Metaphor and 75
Modality Information in Chapter Four
3.4 A Sample Figure of Data Analysis of the Conceptual 76
Blending Network in Chapter Four
3.5 A Sample of the Questionnaire Formula without Text 78
3.6 A Sample of the Questionnaire Formula with Text 79
4.1a Commercial Advertisement No.1 81
4.1b The Metaphorical Description of Cognitive Analysis and 82
Modality
4.1c Conceptual Blending Network of Commercial 83
Advertisement No.1
Modality
Advertisement No.2
Modality
Advertisement No.3
Modality
Advertisement No.4
Modality
Advertisement No.5
4.6a Caricature No. 1 96
Modality
4.6c Conceptual Blending Network of Caricature No.1 98
Modality
Modality
Modality
Modality
4.11a Social Media Poster No.1 111
Modality
4.11c Conceptual Blending Network Social Media Poster No.1 113
Modality
Modality
Modality
Modality
4.16a Social Issue Poster No.1 126
Modality
4.16c Conceptual Blending Network of Social Issue Poster No.1 128
Modality
Modality
Modality
Modality
List of Charts
Chart Title Page

No. No.
4.1 Total Students' Answers of M.M. Perception for Linguistics 143
Branch
4.2 Total Students' Answers of Multimodal Metaphors 144
Perception for Literature Branch
4.3 Total Students' Answers of M.M. Perception for 146
Methodology Branch
4.4 Total Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for 147
Translation Branch
4.5 The Percentages of Correct Answers in all Branches OT 148
and WT
4.6 The Percentages of Cr. and Inc. Answers OT and WT for 151
all students.
4.7 The Percentages of females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT 153
4.8 The Percentages of Females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT 154

4.9 The Percentages of Males and Females Scores OT and WT 156
4.10 Total Percentages of Females' and Males' Cr. Answers OT 160
for all M.Ms Species
4.11 Total Percentages of females' and males' Cr. Answers WT 160
for all M.Ms Species
4.12 Total Percentages of Cr. And Inc. Scores of all Students OT 163
and WT
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviated Form Full Form
Ads. Advertisement
Car. Caricature
CBT Conceptual Blending Theory
CL Cognitive Linguistics
CMT Conceptual Metaphor Theory
Cr. Correct
df Degree of Freedom
F Difference
F. Female
Fig. Figure
Inc. Incorrect
M. Male
M.M. Multimodal Metaphor
MST Mental Space Theory
No. Number
OT Without Text
SD Source Domain
S.I. Social Issues
Sig Significance
S.M. Social Media
TD Target Domain
WT With Text
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem of the Study
Metaphor is a complex phenomenon that makes it hard to draw

straightforward conclusions about it, its origins and how people use it in a
naturalistic context. It has, for a long time, been an attractive subject for
linguistic researchers. Metaphor has a far long history that goes back to
ancient Greek philosophy. Since then, piles of literary works about
metaphor have been published. Such works have long been the exclusive
purview of literary scholars who represent the classical view of metaphor.
Traditional theories of metaphor differ fundamentally from modern
ones. Traditionally, metaphor was regarded as a poetic or rhetorical device
that is peripheral to language and thought, an extraordinary use of language
rather than an ordinary use. The contemporary view of metaphor, on the
other hand, fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), suggests that metaphor
is a matter of thought and action, i.e., it is a property of a concept rather
than words, not only of linguistic expressions. It occupies a central role in
language. Consequently, metaphor has started to be called "conceptual
metaphor".
Human beings can more easily understand and categorize

phenomena they can see, hear, feel, taste and/or smell than the phenomena
they cannot. It is perceptibility that makes the former phenomena concrete
and the lack of it abstract phenomena. Humans, in order to fully understand
them, systematically comprehend abstract concepts in terms of concrete
ones. Thus, LIFE, for example, is comprehended in terms of a JOURNEY
(He is without direction in his life; I am at a crossroad in my life). TIME is
understood as SPATIAL MOTION (The time for action has arrived, time
is flying by) (Forceville, 2006: 2).
If the contemporary claim of metaphor is correct, then the conceptual

metaphor is not restricted to language, but other modes than language can
manifest it. So, as it is a matter of conceptualisation, it is possible for
people to metaphorically express and understand phenomena that they see,
hear, feel, taste and smell separately or two or more modes working jointly;
the concept of multimodal metaphor is emerged based on this tenet. It is a
multimodal metaphor if, as Forceville (2006: 6) states, "its target and
source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different
modes." Other modes than traditional ones, such as spoken or written
language, are utilized in nonverbal metaphors such as: visual, music,
sound, gesture, smell, taste and touch. Mostly, nonverbal/ non-linguistic
metaphors, unlike traditional verbal/linguistic metaphors often their target
and/or source are rendered in more than one mode. The most frequent
combinations of modes in multimodal metaphors can be: (1) visual in
combination with (written or spoken) language; (2) music in combination
with sound; (3) spoken language in combination with gestures; (4)
language in combination with music.
Most of researches deals with metaphor have centered on linguistic

metaphors and no study according to the best of the researcher’s knowledge
has investigated the perception of multimodal metaphors by Iraqi M.A.
EFL learners or tackles the extent to which Iraqi M.A. EFL learners are
familiar with and can correctly understand multimodal metaphors.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The current study aims at:
1. Investigating the overall Iraqi EFL learner's accuracy scores in the

perception of multimodal metaphors.
2. Detecting the impact of text on EFL learner's perception of
multimodal metaphors.
3. Identifying the influence of the branch of study on Iraqi EFL learners
in the perception of multimodal metaphors.
4. Exploring the impact of gender on Iraqi EFL learners in perceiving
multimodal metaphors.
5. Finding out which is the hardest/ easiest kind of the multimodal
metaphor for Iraqi EFL learners to perceive.
1.3 Research Questions
1. Can Iraqi EFL learners show high scores in perceiving multimodal
metaphors?
2. To what extent does text impact on the Iraqi EFL learners'
multimodal metaphors perception?
3. Is the branch of study an influential element in the Iraqi EFL
learners' multimodal metaphor interpretation?
4. Is gender an influential element in the Iraqi EFL learners' multimodal
metaphor perception?
5. What is the hardest/ easiest kind of the selected multimodal
metaphors for Iraqi EFL learners to perceive?
1.4 Hypotheses of the Study
This study hypothesizes that:
1. Iraqi EFL learners are poor in their performance of the perception
of multimodal metaphors.
2. Text has a great impact on Iraqi EFL learners' multimodal
metaphor perception.
3. The branch of study does not play a crucial role in perceiving
multimodal metaphor by Iraqi EFL learners.
4. Gender has a low impact in the perception of multimodal
metaphors.
5. The advertisement is the hardest and the social issues is the
easiest for Iraqi EFL learners to understand.
1.5 Procedures of the Study
The procedures followed in this study are:
1. Presenting a reliable theoretical background of conceptual metaphor
theories and their developments towards metaphor from being
linguistically manifested to multimodally. A special emphasis in this
part is given the topic of Conceptual Blending Theory in which a
detailed explanation of is provided as it is the cornerstone for data
analysis in this study.
2. Surfing different Internet sites and gathering the appropriate data for
the study.
3. Classifying the selected data into four kinds.
4. Analyzing data by the adopted model to be the scale for the
correctness or incorrectness of the respondents' answers in the
recognition test.
5. Conducting a recognition test in which multimodal metaphor figures
are exposed to Tikrit University M.A. EFL learners without a text
once and with a text later. The learners are asked to explain their
understanding of those figures in both times.
6. Using the appropriate statistical analysis to check if there are
significant differences related to the learners’ answers of the
recognition test and come up with the findings.
7. Stating the main conclusions and presenting some recommendations
and suggestions for further studies.
1.6 The Adopted Model
This study adopts Fauconnier and Turner's Conceptual Blending
Theory (2002) as a model to analyse the multimodal metaphor data selected
to fulfil this study. The Blending Theory is adopted in this study because it
is developed enough and equipped with the mechanisms that can efficiently
construe and analyse M.Ms. It has a unique characteristic that other
theories seen as CMT lack, that is its ability to account for what is, in this
theory, called "emergent meaning.
1.7 Limits of the Study

The present study is limited to investigate the perception of
multimodal metaphors by Iraqi EFL learners, namely verbo-pictorial
metaphors. Twenty samples of multimodal metaphors were selected. These
twenty samples are of four types: advertisement, caricature, social media
and social issues. These data are analysed in terms of the Conceptual
Blending Theory as a model. A recognition test is designed and delivered
to Iraqi M.A. EFL learners from Tikrit University. The learners are of four
EFL specializations, namely, Linguistics, Methodology, Literature, and
Translation.
1.8 Value of the Study

This study is supposed to be valuable for researchers and students
who are in the realm of cognitive linguistics in general, and for those who
are interested in multimodal metaphor, in particular. It can also be
beneficial for those who are interested in metaphor modality and metaphor
genre as a whole.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents the theoretical survey of the relevant study. It
discusses in its first part the theoretical background of conceptual
metaphors from the view that it is a matter of language, and goes through
the view that it is a matter of thought, not language, ending with the
modern view of nonlinguistic realization of metaphors; monomodally or
multimodally. The second part ends with some previous related studies.
2.1 Cognitive Linguistics (CL)
Cognitive linguistics (also cognitive linguistics enterprise)

(abbreviated CL) is a modern school of linguistics and cognitive science
that was originated in the early 1970s and late 1980s. It emphasises the role
of meaning, conceptual processes, and embodied experiences in the study
of language and the mind, and how they intersect. Rather than a single
articulated theoretical framework, CL is an enterprise or an approach to the
study of language and the mind. While CL as a large intellectual movement
started to emerge in the 1980s, its origins may be traced back to works,
made in the 1970s, particularly in the United States, that were reacting to
formal linguistics. Such research was conducted by the early leading
figures in this modern branch in the 1970s who were pioneering figures in
the development of this new school, including Gill Fauconnier, Charles
Fillmore, George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker and Leonard Talmy (Evans,
2007: 22).
Like other linguists, cognitive linguists study language for its own
sake. They try to describe and account for its systematicity, structure and
the functions it performs and how these functions are recognized by the
language system. The hypothesis that language reflects patterns of thought
is one main cause that invites cognitive linguists to study language.
Consequently, studying language from this perspective requires studying
patterns of conceptualization through language which is ''Language offers a
window into cognitive function, providing insights into the nature, structure
and organisation of thoughts and ideas.'' The most significant difference
between cognitive linguistics and other approaches to language research is
that language is thought to reflect certain basic characteristics and design
features of the human mind (Evans & Green, 2006: 5).
CL is the study of language in its cognition function, in that; the term
'cognition' refers to the critical role of intermediate informational structures
in human's interaction with the external world. CL is cognitive in the same
manner that cognitive psychology is, in that, it assumes that humans'
interactions with the world are mediated by mental information structures.
However, it differs from cognitive psychology in that it focuses on natural
language as a tool for organizing, processing, and communicating
information. Consequently, language is viewed as a repository of
world knowledge; an organized collection of meaningful categories that
assist people in dealing with new experiences and storing information
about previous ones (Geeraerts & Cuyckens, 2007: 5).
CL is referred to as a ‘movement’ or an ‘enterprise’ since it is not

merely a specific theory. Conversely, it is an approach based on a set of
guiding principles, assumptions, and perspectives that have resulted in a
wide range of complementary, overlapping (and occasionally competing)
theories(Evans & Green, 2006: 3).
On a terminological level, a differentiation ought to be made

between Cognitive Linguistics (to which this study belongs) and
(uncapitalized) cognitive linguistics that covers all approaches in which
natural language is studied as a mental phenomenon. Cognitive Linguistics
represents one form of cognitive linguistics, to be differentiated, for
example, from Generative Grammar and many other types of linguistic
research in the realm of Artificial Intelligence (Geeraerts & Cuyckens,
2007: 4).
CL, according to Croft and Cruse (2004: 1-4), is based on three

major hypotheses:
1. Language is not an autonomous cognitive faculty.
2. Grammar is conceptualization.
3. Knowledge of language emerges from language use.
The first hypothesis holds that language is not an
autonomous cognitive faculty. It indicates that the representation of
linguistic knowledge is primarily the same as the representation of other
conceptual structures and that the processes in which knowledge is used are
not substantially different from the cognitive abilities used by humans
outside the domain of language. On the basis of this hypothesis, two
implications can be stated. The first implication states that linguistic
knowledge—meaning and form knowledge—is ultimately conceptual
structure. However, cognitive linguists contend that syntactic,
morphological, and phonological representations are all fundamentally
conceptual as well. This may seem contradictory at first: sounds, like
utterances and their formal structure, are physical entities. Sounds and
utterances, on the other hand, must be comprehended and generated, and
both of these processes need the use of the mind. They are the input and
output of cognitive processes that control speaking and comprehending.
The second implication is that the cognitive processes that

control language use, namely, the construction and communication of
meaning through language, are, in theory, not different from other
cognitive abilities. That is, how linguistic knowledge in the mind is
organized and retrieved does not basically differ from the way other kinds
of knowledge are organized and retrieved; the cognitive abilities a speaker
uses to speak and understand language do not sharply differ from those that
are used to perform other cognitive tasks like visual perception, reasoning,
or motor activity.
The second hypothesis denotes that an important issue of human

cognitive ability is the conceptualization of the experiences to be expressed
and also the conceptualization of the linguistic repository people own. All
aspects of mental structure are governed by construal, notably the structure
of categories and the organization of knowledge. It is, specifically, claimed
that grammatical inflections and grammatical constructions play a
significant role in constructing the experience to be expressed in certain
ways.
The third major hypothesis postulates that knowledge of language

arises from language use. That is, categories and structures in semantics,
syntax, morphology and phonology are made up of human cognition for
certain utterances at specific occasions of use. This inductive process of
abstraction and schematization maintains the conventionalized subtleties
and differences found among even very particular grammatical
constructions and word meanings (Croft & Cruse, 2004:1-4; Cruse, 2006)
:26).
Cognitive linguists believe that the systematic structure inside the

human conceptual system is reflected in the systematic structure found in
language. They hold the hypothesis that particular types of linguistic
expressions give evidence that linguistic patterns are a reflection of the
conceptual system. Furthermore, the structure and organization of the mind
can reflect, in part, the structure and organization of the world including, of
course, sociocultural experiences (Evans & Green, 2006: 14).
2.2 The Notion of Metaphor
Etymologically, metaphor was originated from the Greek word
''metapherein'', in that ''meta'' means ''exceeding'' and ''pherein'' means
''carrying'' (Duan,2013: 560). Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is ''a word
or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its
natural meaning.'' In a metaphor, no function words are used; something is
described by stating another thing with which it can be compared. It not
only creates special effect nor describes two things by comparison, but
importantly, metaphor is a tool by which cultural and semantic meanings of
a specific language can be carried by words, and of course, each language
has its own metaphors that have piled up over a time. (Richards &
Schmidt, 2002: 201)
The fact of metaphor, as seen by Aristotle, is giving the name of one

thing which belongs to something else. The transference is either from
genus to species; from species to genus; from species to species; or on
grounds of analogy.
Aristotelian theory of metaphor is the root of the traditional

approaches that rigorously classify each written or verbal language into
literal or metaphorical. Unlike literal language, which is associated with
'proper' meaning, metaphors are considered to be merely ornamental and
substitutive entities. They can decorate a literal expression, yet never
change their meanings(Newman, 2002:1-2).
In classical theories of language, the word 'metaphor' was defined as

a novel or poetic linguistic expression where a concept is expressed or
referred to by one or more words that are used outside their typical
meaning to denote 'similar' concept. Metaphor, at that time, was considered
as a matter of language rather than of thought. Due to the fact was
supposed; that metaphor utilizes mechanism outside the scope of everyday
normal language, it was considered that everyday normal language has no
metaphor(Lakoff, 1993:1).
The traditional view of metaphor is merely a phenomenon of

linguistic expression not of thought that is why most people think they can
get along perfectly without metaphor. The contemporary view, by contrast,
has found that metaphor is prevalent in everyday life, not in linguistic
expressions, but in action and thought as well, (ibid).
Metaphor, for Lakeoff and Johnson (1980: 1) is ''understanding and

experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another'. Lakeoff (1993: 1) adds
that the locus of metaphor is in one's conceptualization; in the way s/he
conceptualizes one mental domain in terms of another, rather than in
language. The general theory of metaphor is represented by such cross-
mapping domains. In this way, everyday abstract concepts such as time,
states, changes, causation and purpose, turn out to be metaphorical as well.
According to Gibbs (1999: 202), metaphor is a mental mapping in

which one structures his understanding on two domains of experience. One
is the 'target' domain, in terms of more concrete one 'source'. Usually the
two domains are not of the same type. Example (1) below will highlight
that:
1. Our relationship has hit a dead-end-street.

Mapping one abstract domain (the target) 'love' in terms of a more
concrete one (the source) 'journey'. Here, love (the target) is being
conceptualized (mapped) as a journey (the source) with the denotation that
the relationship is that the lovers cannot keep going the way they have been
going, and they must turn back, or abandon the relationship altogether
(Lakoff, 1993: 4).
2.3 Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)
2.3.1 The Meaning of Concept
Before getting started with the explanation of what is meant by

conceptual metaphor, it is necessary to define the term concept. Matthews
(2007: 71) defines "concept" as "a mental construct seen as mediating
between a word and whatever it denotes or is used to refer to. Thus, a
concept 'dog' would be seen as mediating between dog and the set of
animals denoted by it."
Another definition, which is more understandable and
comprehensive, is presented by Richards and Schmidt, (2010: 112):
the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a

person's mind. Concepts are the abstract meanings which words and other
linguistic items represent. Linguists believe all languages may have the same
concepts, although some languages may have fewer names for some concepts
than are found in other languages, or may distinguish between concepts
differently. The forming of concepts is closely related to language acquisition,
and the use of concepts to form propositions is basic to human thought and
communication.
2.3.2 Traditional and Modern Views of Metaphor
The origins of conceptual metaphor theory (Henceforth CMT) are

placed in the realm of theoretical linguistics, and in particular in the
''modern school of linguistic thought'', which is termed by Evans and Green
(2006: 3) as cognitive linguistics. Research into metaphor, which
eventually developed into what is nowadays called conceptual metaphor
theory, has been a basic topic of study in cognitive linguistics since the
emergence of that linguistic school in the 1970s. The special importance of
conceptual metaphor theory in the field of cognitive linguistics can be
attributed to the fact that metaphor was and continues to be the basic
research focus for many of the pioneering cognitive figures at the time, and
also stem from another fact which is the theory of metaphor rightly
embodies the spirit of cognitive linguistics. (Grandy, 2007: 188)
As a reaction to what traditionally was taken as granted assumptions
that were challenged by the contemporary view of metaphor and proved to
be false. The contemporary view of metaphor was developed and reformed
to be in its conceptual modern view. Those assumptions can be listed as:
1. All everyday conventional language is literal, and none is

metaphorical.
2. All subject matter can be comprehended literally, without
metaphor.
3. Only literal language can be contingently true or false.
4. All definitions given in the lexicon of a language are literal, not
metaphorical.
5. The concepts used in the grammar of a language are all literal,
none are metaphorical (Lakoff, 1993:3).
Traditionally, metaphor was taken to be a poetic device of
imagination and rhetorical flourish; that is to say, a matter of extraordinary
instead of ordinary language. It is, also, usually seen as a property of
language only; a matter of language rather than of action or thought. That is
why, most people, then, believe that they can go on perfectly without using
metaphor. Lakoff and Johnson, contrastively, in their work 'Metaphor We
Live by' which is the breakthrough about the contemporary view of
metaphor, found that metaphor is prevalent in people's everyday life, in
thought and action not only in language. Human beings' ordinary system of
conceptualization by which they act and think is basically metaphorical in
nature. They precede saying:
The concepts that govern our thought are not just matters of the intellect.
They also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most mundane
details. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the
world, and how we relate to other people. Our conceptual system thus plays
a central role in defining our everyday realities. If we are right in suggesting
that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we think,
what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of
metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 1).
Two millstone works; Andrew Ortony's edited volume Metaphor

and Thought (Ortony,1979) and Lakoff and Johnson's monograph
Metaphor We Live By (Lakoff & Johnson 1980), redirected the
metaphorical research as a basically verbal to primarily conceptual
phenomenon (Forceville, 2006: 379).
The method pioneered in Lakoff and Johnson's groundbreaking
Metaphors We Live By (1980) and expanded by cognitive linguists since
then, must be the starting point for any discussion of metaphor in the
discipline of CL. As CL represents the study of how language features
reflect other aspects of the human mind, metaphors, then, are considered
the most obvious examples of this link. Metaphors represent a clear
illustration and vivid evidence of how some aspects of one's life
experiences are associated with one another and reflect the essential aspects
of perception, thought and probably neurological organization(Grandy,
2007: 188).
2.3.3 Metaphorical Conceptualisation
To understand what ''metaphorical concept'' could mean and how

such a concept structures people's daily life activities, the concept
ARGUMENT is considered and the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT
IS WAR. This conceptual metaphor is widespread in everyday language
by means of different expressions:
ARGUMENT IS WAR
-I demolished his argument.
-You disagree? Okey, shoot.
-Your claims are indefensible.
-He shot down all of my arguments.
-His criticisms were right on target.
-I have never won an argument with him.
-If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.
-He attacks every weak point in my argument.
The concept of war partially structures many things people do when

arguing. they win or lose arguments. The person whom people are
arguing with; the partner, is seen as an opponent, so they attack his
positions and defend theirs. They gain or lose ground. They plan and use
strategies. They verbally manoeuvre; They leave and take a new line of
attack when they find some of theirs are indefensible(Lakoff & Johnson,
1980: 4).
It is, in fact, not a physical, but a verbal battle and the concept of
ARGUMENT is experienced and understood in terms of the concept
WAR and what vividly reflects that is the expressions originally used to
refer to war, but metaphorically used for verbal battle, attack, defend,
counterattack, etc(ibid).
If it is, hypothetically, considered a culture where an argument is
not seen as an argument, where no one wins or loses, attacts the other
poistions of denfences his, gains or loses ground. This culture views
argument as a dance. People of this culture would view, experience,
carry and talk about argument differently. They would possibly not even
consider it as an argument and, for them, it would be strange to call that
discourse form an argument. How argument is viewed by our culture
and theirs is disparate. The main difference between two extreme polar
cultures lays in the way argument is conceptualised. Our culture
structures a discourse act in terms of battle while the other polar
conceptualizes arguing in terms of dance(ibid: 5).
This is an example of what is meant for a metaphorical concept,
ARGUMENT IS WAR, what one does and how he understands what he
is doing in arguing is structured metaphorically. Arguments and wars
are not similar to one another, yet they are two different kinds of
things‫ـــ‬armed conflict and discoursal form, '' ARGUMENT is partially
understood, performed and talkd about in terms of war'' (Lakoff &
Johnson, 1980: 4-5).
Here is another example of the explanation of what is meant by
metaphorical conceptualization, this one is from Lakoff (1993:4):
Imagine a love relationship described as:
2. Our relationship has hit a dead-end street.
Love, here, is being conceptualized as a journey, implying that
the relationship is stalled, in the sense that lovers cannot keep going
the way they have been going, that they must turn back or abandon
their relationship completely. This is not an odd or exceptional
situation, but on the contrary, English has many everyday linguistic
expressions in which life is conceptualized as a journey. Such daily
life expressions as (2) are used not merely for talking about love, but
for reasoning about it as well. However, not all those expressions are
on the same level of directness; some are necessary about love and
some can be understood that way:
- We are at a crossroads.
- We can not turn back now.
- Look how far we have come.
- We are spinning our wheels.
- The marriage is on the rocks.
- It is been a long, bumpy road.
- Our relationship is off the track.
- The relationship is not going anywhere.
- We may have to go our separate ways.
- We may have to bail out of this relationship.
These are neither poetic nor rhetorical; they were not used to give
a special effect. They are ordinary, everyday English expressions. Some
like ''Look how far we have come'' are not necessarily about love, yet
can easily be understood that way.
Cognitive linguists, in reaction to the rational approach of Noam
Chomsky and his collaborators, who have argued that language is better
studied as a formal or computational system without any reference to the
nature of human bodies or human experience, have emphasized the
importance of human experience and the centrality of the human body;
and accordingly, language and the human mind can not be investigated
separately (Evans & Green, 2006: 44; Grandy, 2007: 188). Grandy
(2007: 188) pointed out that because Cognitive Linguistics is the study
of the methods in which properties of language reflect other modes of
human cognition, metaphor, then is considered a divisive clarification of
this relationship. Because of its success, according to him, in
demonstrating the dependence of language on human experiences, CMT
is regarded as the essence of cognition linguistic theory.
2.3.4The Establishment of Metaphorical Conceptualisation
Here is an example to illustrate this claim. According to CMT, the

meaning of specific terms that are typically used to talk about temperature
variations, like the temperature {rose, fell, went up/down}, is thought to be
inspired by a conceptual metaphor in which such variations are represented
by height changes. The conceptual association between changes in
temperature and changes in height, according to proponents of conceptual
metaphor theory like Lakoff and Johnson (2003 /1980), is not random or
arbitrary, but rather rooted in human experience of how substances
(typically liquids) behave inside containers. This generalization is based on
the following rationale:
Based on their ordinary sensory experience—the way human beings
observe and interact with the real world around them ‫ ــــ‬humans, regarded
as agents of conceptualization, or conceptualizers. They begin to
observe the amount of a substance in a container is systematically
associated with the proportion of the substance inside the container, or how
visually they perceive the height: '' the more substance there is inside a
container, the higher the substance’s level, and, conversely, the less
substance there is inside a container, the lower the substance’s level ''. As a
result of this dependent experiential association, they come to conceive of
variations in the amount of a substance inside a container as changes in
height. When this association is grounded in their minds, they employ it to
talk about variations in temperature, which are significantly less grasped
and more elusive than the changes in the proportion of substances in side
containers being not experienced visually. Generally, because changes in
temperature are more elusive and for a better understanding of them,
conceptualisers come to think of and talk about them as though they were
changes in the amount of a substance inside a container, which the
conceptualizers in advance learnt to conceive of in spatial terms. This is
why they use metaphors to expand the spatial meanings of words and
phrases such as rise, fall, and go up/down which when non-
metaphorically used, they indicate changes in the level of a substance in a
container (as in, for instance, The water in the {lake, sea, ocean, river, etc.}
{rose, fell, went up/down}), and these expressions come to be used to refer
metaphorically to variations in temperature(Szawerna, 2017: 68-69).
The term metaphor, in the field of Cognitive Linguistics, is used to
refer to a pattern of conceptual association, rather than to a mere
metaphorical usage or a linguistic convention. Lakoff and Johnson (1980:
5) define metaphor as follows: ‘‘the essence of metaphor is understanding
and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.’’
If the phrase is considered ‘‘road less travelled’’. The words road and
travelled are used metaphorically, in conventional usage. This exemplified
phrase is ''the metaphor'', but it is not the most important thing from a
cognitive linguists' point of view, but the object of study which is the
mental underlying pattern is, that invites the phrase here to get the meaning
it reflects. Such a pattern on the conceptual level can be expressed by
means of many varied lexical items. Words can be metaphorically used,
like path, fork in the road, direction and many other terms that can convey
the same essential set of associations. (Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 5)
Principally, metaphoric conceptualization is a result of mapping two
conceptual domains; the source domain (the domain expressing the literal
meaning of the linguistic expression) and the target domain (the domain of
the whole non-literal meaning of a sentence). The latter is expressed in
terms of the former(Croft & Cruse, 2004: 195). On the same topic,
Kövecses (2010: 4) declares that the two mental domains that are involved
in CMT have their own names. They are the source domain and the target
domain. The former is one from which metaphorical expression is drawn in
order to comprehend another conceptual domain, while the latter is the
mental domain that is comprehended in that manner. Thus, LIFE,
ARGUMENTS, LOVE, THEORY, IDEAS, SOCIAL ORGINATIONS,
and others are target domains, while JOURNEYS, WAR, BUILDINGS,
FOOD, PLANTS, and others are source domains. The source domain is the
domain through which the target domain is understood.
CMT views the links between concept regions in terms of
correspondences or mappings between elements involved in the concept of
source and target domains. In the previous example, ARGUMENT IS
WAR, viewed traditionally, the concept region or source domain WAR has
a frequent feature; that is, a defensive rampart or line of soldiers.
ARGUMENT, the target domain corresponds or maps onto the date, facts,
or beliefs that are used by someone who has and uses to establish their
position. In war, ramparts and defensive lines tend to have weak points that
enemies search for and attack so as to win. Conceptualizing
metaphorically, weak points in wars can correspond to incomplete data,
incorrect information, or false beliefs or ideas. Hence, lines of defence and
outflanking, or outmanoeuvring adversaries can be used
(un)metaphorically to talk about both warfare and argument. Metaphorical
correspondences or mappings can be understood in sense of similarities
between elements in domains. However, Lakoff and Johnson have another
view, that, what forms the base of conceptual metaphor is the correlative
elements shared between source and target domains not similarities.
Similarities may appear to be found, but in essence, those similarities are
drawn from correlation, not the opposite direction. Connections between
aspects, features, or roles in the source and target domains, when analyzing
conceptual metaphor, are at a conceptual level and using the terms
correspondences or mappings demonstrate that (Knowles & Moon, 2006:
26).
2.4 Source Domain and Target Domain (SD/TD)
Metaphor, from the viewpoint of cognitive linguistics, is defined as
''understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual
domain''. Such understanding can be exemplified when people talk and
think about (mapping): life in terms of journeys, about arguments in terms
of war, about love in terms of journeys, about theories in terms of
buildings, about ideas in terms of food, and lots more(Kövecses, 2010: 4;
Stockwell, 2002: 106; Szawerna, 2017: 72 )
As the domains are the two hemispheres that are unified by mapping,
it is needed here to provide something about what is domain. Domain is , as
stated by Langacker (1987: 488)" a coherent area of conceptualization
relative to which semantic units may be characterized." Kövecses (2010: 4)
also dealt with conceptual domain, and provided a definition: ''is any
coherent organization of experience''. Thus, for example, people have
coherently organized knowledge about journeys that they rely on in
understanding life. Those conceptual domains have special names, which
have not stay consistent from ancient times till the emergence of modern
theories.
Traditionally, the two concepts that compose metaphor have been
referred to in literary works by many terms. Only the two most well-known
will be mentioned. The first element is tenor (the familiar element) and
the second is vehicle (the new element which is described in terms of the
old familiar element). Stylistically, new elements often occur first, as in
‘Juliet (vehicle) is the sun (tenor)’. The shared properties between the two
elements here (warmth, beauty, life-affirming) constitute the ground of the
metaphor. These elements in cognitive linguistics are referred to as source
and target, respectively: the expression denotes the conceptual metaphor
JULIET (target) IS THE SUN (source) ( Knowles & Moon, 2006: 26;
Saeed, 2016: 370;Stockwell, 2005: 106)
According to Kövecses (2010: 4) source domain is the conceptual
domain from which one draws metaphorical expressions in order to
understand another conceptual domain, whereas the target domain is one
that is understood by means of the source domain. Thus, LIFE,
ARGUMENTS, LOVE, THEORY, IDEAS, and others are target domains,
while JOURNEYS, WAR, BUILDINGS, FOOD, and others are source
domains. The target domain is the one one is trying to figure out with the
help of the source domain.
It has been demonstrated doubtlessly that CMs are unidirectional;
they move from tangible to abstract domains‫ ـــ‬the most frequent SDs tend
to be more tangible, on the other hand, the most frequent TDs are abstract
concepts. In this manner, conceptual metaphors can help people understand
topics that are intangible and so difficult to grasp by conceptualizing them
in terms of tangible ones (Kövecses, 2010: 27-29). Likewise, (Evans &
Green, 2006: 298) put it as '' target concepts tended to be more abstract,
lacking physical characteristics and therefore more difficult to understand
and talk about in their own terms. In contrast, source domains tended to be
more concrete and therefore more readily graspable''.
2.5 Metaphorical Mapping
The quintessence of metaphor is not in language, but in people's

mental conceptualization of one domain in terms of another. The general
theory of metaphor can be represented by such cross-domain mappings. In
this manner, one metaphorically conceptualises abstract concepts like
journey, money, building, and others. Everyday metaphor is represented by
an enormous system of many cross-domain mappings (Lakoff, 1993: 1)
Because of these empirical consequences of everyday use of CM, the
word ''metaphor'' has begun in the contemporary conceptual theory to mean
cross-mappings (Ibid: 2)
The notion of metaphorical mapping can be expressed by a
conventional contracted formula: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN A IS
CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN B which stands for conceptual metaphor. A
conceptual metaphor is made up of two conceptual domains, whereby one
domain is understood in terms of another(Kövecses, 2010: 4). Originally,
the term ''mapping'' is adopted from mathematics and indicates
metaphorical correspondences between tightly related ideas that are
organised in a systematic way(Grandy, 2007: 190).
Stockwell (2005: 106-107) implied that what was traditionally called
''ground'' is the shared area between tenor and vehicle; in modern cognitive
linguistics it is termed ''mapping'' which is the outcome (CM) that resulted
from matching the properties between the source and target domains.
Moreover, he even used other terms for the same contemporary concepts;
the base space and focus space have common attributes, which can be
summarised as the ''generic space,'' which is the blended space that
represents the new emergent understanding.
The central premise of CMT is that metaphor is more than just a

stylistic aspect of language; it is inherently metaphorical in nature.
According to this view, the mental structure is formed based on cross-
domain mappings or correspondences between conceptual domains. These
mappings are either resulted from pre-conceptual experiences or built on
these experiences in order to make more complex mental structures. For
example, it is thought and talked about QUANTITY in terms of
VERTICAL ELEVATION, as in She got a really high mark in the test,
where high does not indicate its literal meaning; physical height, but refers
to a good mark in studying evaluation. This is, according to CMT, due to
the fact that the mental domain QUANTITY is conventionally formed and
hence comprehended in terms of the mental domain VERTICAL
ELEVATION. Such conceptual operations containing mapping, like CM,
are known as conceptual projection (Evans & Green, 2006: 286).
2.5.1 The systematicity of Metaphorical Mapping
In technical terms, Kövecses (2010: 7) argued that mapping is a set of

systematic correspondences shared by the source and the target, in the
sense that constituent mental elements of B correspond to constituent
elements of A. Let's look at the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A
JOURNEY and comprehend clearly how SD is mapped into TD. When
conceptualising love as a journey, there have been three component
elements of journeys: the traveller, the travel or journey, and the
destination. When hearing a sentence like We are not going anywhere or
Look how far we have come, in the suitable context, it can be understood to
be about love, not a real physical journey, and the speaker bears in mind
not real travellers but lovers, not a physical journey but an imaginative love
relationship, and not a physical destination at the end of the journey but the
goals of the imaginative love relationship. The sentence The relationship is
foundering denotes that the relationships are mentally equivalent to the
vehicles usually used in real journeys. The sentence It is been a bumpy
road does not refer to real concrete obstacles on the way, but
metaphorically, the difficulties the two lovers face and experience in their
relationship. Moreover, speaking about love, a sentence like: We have
made a lot of headway will imply that the two lovers have made a huge
portion of progress in their relationship, and does not indicate the real
physical meaning that the travellers have reached a far distance. And the
sentence We’re at a crossroads will mean that the lovers they have to select
from the choices have in their relationship, and not that a traveler has to
select a way that takes them to their destination (Kövecses, 2010: 7-8).
Based on these interpretations, a list can be laid down of correspondences
or mappings between component elements of the source and those of the
target.
Source: JOURNEY Target: LOVE

the travelers the lovers
the vehicle the love relationship itself
the journey events in the relationship
the distance covered the progress made
the obstacles encountered the difficulties experienced
the destination of the journey the goal(s) of the relationship
decisions about which way to go choices about what to do
This is the systematic collection of correspondences, or mappings, that

define LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor. Because of the
availability of preexisting similarities between the elements shared in SD
and TD it might appear, though it is not the case, the elements in the TD
have always existed. The domain of love lacks these elements before 'it is
structured' by the journey domain. The domain of love is given this
structure or collection of elements by applying the journey domain to the
love domain. In some ways, the concept of journey is the one which
''creates'' the concept of love (Kövecses (2010: 7) 8-9).
2.5.2 The Properties of Metaphorical Mapping
Mapping is not an arbitrary process; that is not any element of B can be

mapped onto any element of A. The linguistic expressions used
metaphorically should correspond with pre-determined mappings, or
correspondences, between the source and the target(Kövecses, 2010: 10).
The properties of mapping are comprehensively summarized by Lakoff
(1993: 42):
1. Metaphors are mappings across conceptual domains.
2. Those mappings are systematic and partial.
3. Each mapping is a consistent collection of ontological
correspondences between entities in an SD and entities in a TD.
4. When such consistent collections are activated, mapping can project
SD inferences patterns onto TD inferences patterns.
5. Metaphorical mappings comply with the Invariance Principle: the
SD's image-schema structure is projected onto the TD in a way that
is compatible with TD's intrinsic structure.
6. Mappings are not haphazardly made, but built in the body, everyday
experience, and knowledge.
7. A conceptual system includes thousands of conventional
metaphorical mappings that compose a heavily structured
subsystem of the conceptual system.
8. Mapping can be divided into two types that both comply with the
Invariance Principle; conceptual mappings and image-mappings.
Mapping is described by most cognitive linguists as ''the set of
systematic correspondences between SD and TD'' or '' the transformation of
the correlations shared between SD and TD''. However, such a process of
matching or transformation is not boundless or open-ended, but on the
contrary, is said to have a limited scope. Ungerer and Chemid (2006: 119)
call this scope ''mapping scope'' and define it as below:
A set of constraints regulating which correspondences are eligible for mapping

from a source concept onto a chosen target concept. These constraints not only
help to avoid just any kind of feature that is transferred from the source to the
target concept but also motivate the range of possible correspondences.
Essentially, the mapping scopes of metaphors reflect our conceptual
experiences in dealing with the world around us.
2.5.3 The Asymmetry and Unidirectionality of Metaphorical

Mapping
A prominent feature of metaphorical mapping is that it is inherently

asymmetrical and unidirectional. This means that metaphorical mapping
operation moves in one direction; that is, the target is construed in terms of
the source, and can not occur the other way round. As a result, concepts
functioning as the source and target of a conceptual metaphor cannot be
reversed (Evans & Green, 2006; Grandy, 2007: 191;Szawerna, 2017: 73 ).
Although a word like 'weather' can be used metaphorically to indicate a
collection of economic and political circumstances, the reverse metaphor is
impossible, neither linguistically nor conceptually (e.g., the nonsensical
idea of referring to an actual storm as a recession). Similarly, it is
meaningful to describe a person as warm but nonsensical to describe a cup
of tea as affectionate, and it is meaningful to refer to a foundation of a
theory, but nonsensical to refer to postulate of a building (Grandy, 2007:
191).
2.6 Conceptual Metaphor versus Linguistic Metaphor

It is stated by Lakoff and Johnson that one is normally unaware of
his conceptual system. In most of the small things he does in his normal
life, one thinks and acts along particular lines more or less automatically.
Looking at language can be one way to find out that people are not
conscious of their conceptual system. Language is an essential piece of
evidence about what people's conceptual system is like because
communication is dependent on the same conceptual structure that they use
in thinking and behaving (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 1)
If metaphor was only a linguistic expression, it would be expected

that various linguistic terms to be separate metaphors. Therefore, "we have
reached a dead-end street." would form one metaphor. ''We can not turn
back now'' would form another, totally different metaphor. '' Their marriage
is on the rocks'' also would result in a different metaphor. And so on and
so forth for dozens of examples. However, people would not possibly get
dozens of different metaphors. There would be one metaphor by which
people conceptualize love as a journey. Mapping shows precisely how
love is being conceptualized as a journey. And this united manner of
conceptualizing love metaphorically is realized in several various linguistic
terms. The term ''metaphorical expression'' denotes a linguistic expression
(a word, a phrase, or a sentence); the surface-level representation of such a
cross-domain mapping Lakoff ( 1993: 7).
Distinguishing between conceptual metaphor and linguistic metaphor
is something useful. Conceptual metaphors are mental structures that are
embedded firmly in our unconscious minds while linguistic metaphors are
the superficial-level linguistic phenomena. However, it is important to
mention that the exact linguistic terms used to define the two domains of a
conceptual metaphor (such as TIME and MONEY) are not significant or
event crucial since conceptual metaphors deal with the concepts that are
kept in the mind, not with their real linguistic realization in speech. On the
contrary, linguistic metaphors are surface-level language expressions where
it is the precise linguistic terms that constitute metaphor (Littlemore, 2009:
97).
The two aspects of metaphor; conceptual and linguistic can be
graphically represented differently. Metaphoric concepts are expressed by
capital letters, for example, IDEAS ARE FOOD, as apposite to the
linguistic realizations that are referred to by italics, for instance, What he
said left a bad taste in my mouth. Metaphoric expressions noted in real
texts are only varied representations of productive underlying metaphors.
Consequently, the above concept (IDEAS ARE FOOD) can come up with
such expressions:
-That argument smells fishy.
-Let that idea jell for a while.
-I just can not swallow that claim.
-Let me stew over that for a while.
-Now there is a theory you can really sink your teeth into.
Hence, the conceptual underlying structure (IDEAS ARE FOOD)
can be realized in all the above surface-level linguistic aspects(Koller,
2004: 9).
2.7 Metaphor and Metonymy
Metaphor is not the only figure of speech that takes the main part in
human cognitive activities (Kövecses, 2010: 171). There is a similar
conceptual mechanism which is also essential to human thought and
language: conceptual metonymy. Metaphor, likes metonymy, has
traditionally been classified as a trope (Evans & Green, 2006: 310-311).
Metonymy, according to Littlemore (2009: 107), is the conceptual

and linguistic process whereby one entity is used to refer to another entity
that is related to, or, more often, to an entity which it composes only a part
of it. It is believed by cognitive linguists that, like metaphor, metonymy is
an essential constituent of human cognition, as it enables people to utilize
what they know to conclude that which they do not know. Also, both
metaphor and metonymy are cognitive processes as well as linguistic ones.
Metaphor and metonymy are different kinds of processes. Metaphor

is principally a way of conceiving of one thing in terms of another, and its
primary function is understanding. Metonymy, on the other hand, has
primarily a referential function, that is, it allows one to use one entity to
stand for another (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 36).
Hudson ( 2000: 317 ) states that there are six different kinds of
creative language which are termed as 'figures of speech'. Metaphor and
metonymy come at the beginning and then synecdoche, personification,
hyperbole, and irony. On the one hand, he defined metaphors as the
substitution of words for others with which they share characteristics of
meaning as in the example below:
3. The ship plows the sea.

The way the ship moves through water is metaphorically compared to a
plow through the soil.
Metonymy, on the other hand, refers to the substitution of words for

others with which they share associations of meaning in time and /or place
like the example below:
4. Can you lend me some bread?

Bread, in the above example above, stands for money and can
substitute for it because of the natural association of bread and money
(money buys bread), or because of the practical necessity for life which is
shared by the meaning of both money and bread.
For clearer a picture of the difference between metaphor and

metonymy, two instances are referred to which at first glance may seem
similar or at least not so different, but actually, they are dramatically
different:
5. Inflation robbed me of my savings.
6. The ham sandwich is waiting for his check.
In (5) human qualities are ascribed to things that are not human
beings such as inflation, disease, theories, etc. In such cases, there are no
real human beings to refer to. So, the term 'inflation' here does not point to
a person, while in (6) the expression 'the ham sandwich' is used to refer to
an actual person, the one who made the order of the ham sandwich. Such
cases are not of (personification) metaphor, because the 'the ham sandwich'
is not understood as ascribing human qualities to it. Rather, one entity is
being used to refer to another that is related to it; metonymy (Lakoff &
Johnson, 1980: 35).
The major difference between metaphor and metonymy is that; while

the former typically rests on comparison between seemingly unrelated
entities; the latter utilizes one entity to refer to another that is previously
related, or refers to an entity which already constitutes part of. Therefore, it
is typically said that metaphor achieves an evaluative function whereas
metonymy normally performs a referential function(Littlemore, 2009: 110).
Differently, the main difference between metaphor and metonymy is that,
according to Goossens (1990: 325), in metaphor two distinct domains are
mapped whereas in metonymy a single domain is mapped.
2.8 Cognitive Theories
2.8.1 Image Schema
The notion of embodiment denotes that people's everyday

experiences are embodied by interaction with their world, which means that
their conceptual structures download all their bio-psychological data as
well as other socio-cultural information. All of this is due to the fact that
human beings' neurological system absorbs external information and stores
it in their cognitive system. How the world is viewed and what it is in
reality, are not identical because peoples' mental structures reflect the world
on the basis of what they have saved (Evans & Green, 2006: 27-54 as cited
in Nouman, 2021: 18).
The term ''image schema'' was used firstly in 1987 simultaneously by

Johnson in his book The Body in the Mind (1987) and by Lakoff in his book
Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things (1987). Though this terminology
''image schema'' itself was new, the underlying idea was known long before
that (Hampe, 2005:1; Johnson, 2005: 15).
Sensory experience is another term for image schema because it

results from sensory-perceptual mechanisms that encompass the visual
system, but are not limited to it. It is, therefore, noteworthy to clarify that,
though the term 'image' is commonly used in everyday language to refer to
visual perception, it, however, has a wider application in psychology and
cognitive linguistics, where it includes all sorts of sensory-perceptual
experience. On the other hand, the term 'schema' in 'image schema'
signifies that image schemas are abstract concepts comprised patterns
generated from repeated cases of embodied experience, rather than rich or
specific conceptions (Evans & Green, 2006: 178-179).
An image schema is defined by Johnson (1987) as ''a recurring,

dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that
gives coherence and structure to our experience. …" Experience," then, is
to be understood in a very rich, broad sense as including basic perceptual,
motor-program, emotional, historical, social, and linguistic dimensions.''
Image schema, also, was referred to as by Evans (2007: 106) Evans &
Green (2006: 176) as '' A relatively abstract conceptual representation that
arises directly from people's everyday interaction with and observation of
the world around them. Image schemas derive from sensory and perceptual
experience.'' See figure (2.1) which illustrates that.
Figure (2.1) Mental Image Schema (https://www.youtube.com)
Johnson (1987) in his book the Body in the mind proposes that
image schemas are given rise to by embodied experience within the
conceptual system. Sensory and conceptual knowledge are those that are
gained by interaction with and moving through physical world.
Because there is a strong link between the kinds of conceptions
humans are capable of formulating and the nature of physical bodies, one's
embodiment is directly accountable for constructing concepts (Evans &
Green, 2006: 176-178).
Johnson (1987: xiv) states that VERTICALITY schema is an example

of image schema. Such schema is formulated from people's natural state of
vertical posture human being live with; the UP-DOWN orientation man
employs. This structure of verticality is grasped from countless perceptions
and activities one repeatedly experiences in his everyday life, such as
experiencing the sense of standing upright noting a tree, shaping a
conceptual image of a flagpole, feeling the level of water rising in a water
tank, measuring the height of one's children, ascenting stairs and alike. The
VERTICALITY schema is an abstract structure of VERTICALITY
perceptions, images and experiences schema. In other words, Evans (2007:
107) states that one's physiology tells that his vertical axis gives birth to
meaning depending on the way he interacts with his physical world. UP-
DOWN image schema, according to Johnson, in the above example is a
leading proponent of image schema depending on people's experience with
verticality that causes those meanings. That is since image schemas are
functions of bodies and that of one's contact with outside world, image
schemas emerge in combination with one's psychological and physical
development in early childhood via a process known as perceptual meaning
(Evans, 2007: 106).
Metaphor is another type of embodied imaginative structure

conceived as a widespread form of comprehending in which people project
patterns from one experiential domain into a second different kind of
domains. Conceived that way, metaphor is more than a linguistic style of
representation; it is instead, one of the major cognitive structures by means
of which people are able to have ordered, coherent experiences that they
can figure out and reason about (Johnson, 1987: xiv-xv). In their work on
metaphor, Lakoff and Johnson suggests that image schemas establish the
foundation for abstract thought by means of functioning as the source
domain in the metaphoric mappings. Image schemas are significant
because they are thought of to provide the concrete foundation for
metaphoric mappings. Take the image schema PHYSICAL OBJECT as an
example. This image schema relies on people's daily interactions with
concrete entities like desks, chairs, tables, cars and so on. The image
schema is a schematic representation that arises from embodied experience
and generalizes over what is shared to objects: for instance, that they have
physical properties like colour, weight, shape and so on. Such image
schema can be 'mapped onto' an abstract entity such as 'inflation' that lacks
such physical attributes. As a result of this metaphorical mapping an
abstract entity as 'inflation' is understood in terms of a concrete object. This
can be illustrated by an example like the:
7. Inflation is giving the government a headache; Inflation makes me

sick.
Image schema has an essential role in metaphor. Image schematic

structure is saved in the metaphorical mapping from a source domain to a
target domain. It is consistent with the already existing image schematic
structure in the TD (Clausner & Croft, 1999: 25). Image-schema metaphors
map to a certain context little from source to target. This is since metaphors
of this type have SDs that have skeletal image schemas, like the one
associated with out. On the contrary, structural metaphors are rich in
knowledge and supply a comparatively rich set of mappings between SD
and TD. The essential physical experiences, which are taken from
interactions with the world, bring about what is known image-schemas
which structure lots of the abstract concepts metaphorically, such as:
- up-down I'm feeling low.
- contact Hold on, please.
- In-out I'm out of money.
- motion He just went crazy.
- force You're driving me insane.
- front-back He is an up-front kind of guy.
(Kövecses, 2002: 37).
Image schema transformation is one of the most common semantic
phenomena. Image schema transformations refer to the process of mapping
one image schema onto another. Many examples of an image schema
transformation are given by Lakoff in which the path image schema is
transformed to the location corresponding to the end of the path, for
instance:
8. Sam walked over the hill (path) vs. Sam lives over the hill (end of
path) (Clausner & Croft, 1999: 23).
2.8.2 Mental Space Theory (MST)
Mental Space Theory (Henceforth MST) is a considerably effective

cognitive theory in meaning construction. Gilles Fauconnier; the leading
figure of this theory has developed it in his two pioneering books Mental
Spaces ([1985] 1994) and Mappings in Thought and Language (1997).
Fauconnier and Turner have recently further developed this approach,
giving rise to a new framework known as Conceptual Blending Theory
(Evans & Green, 2006: 368).
Mental spaces are ''small conceptual pockets constructed as we think
and talk for purposes of local understanding and action'' (Fauconnier &
Turner 2002: 40). Mental spaces are conceptual ''pockets'' that are created
''on-line'' i.e., in the time of understanding. They are always much smaller
and much more detailed than conceptual domains. Mental spaces are
typically formed by more than one conceptual domain (Kövecses, 2010:
268).
Fauconnier's approach is based on a specific understanding of
meaning; when linguistic meaning is studied, it is studied to examine how
language produces patchy and incomplete triggers for a set of complicated
cognitive procedures. Meaning is not "in" language, according to this
perspective; rather, language is a recipe for constructing meaning, the
recipe depends on a lot of independent cognitive activities. Furthermore,
because this is a discourse-based process for constructing meaning, a single
sentence is often simply a phase in the process, and it cannot be fully
understood without first realizing its relation to and dependence on
preceding sentences (Saeed, 2016: 377-378). Meaning construction,
according to Fauconnier (1997: 11) (as cited in Evans & Green, 2006: 368),
presupposes two steps: (1) the creation of mental spaces, and (2) the
formation of mappings between those mental spaces. The mapping relations
are influenced by the local discourse context, implying that meaning
construction is always situation-dependent or contextualised.
The central claim of this theory is that mental spaces divide meaning
into discrete conceptual areas or 'packets'. Mental spaces are areas of
conceptual space where certain types of knowledge are stored. They are
built on a foundation of generalised linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural
procedures for collecting information. However, because mental spaces are
created 'on-line,' they produce special and temporary 'packets' of
conceptual structure, built for the needs of the ongoing conversation. Here
is an example to illustrate that the meaning is context-dependent:
7. If I were your father I would smack you.

This statement prompts a counterfactual interpretation. That is, it
creates a scenario that contradicts an assumed reality. Intuitively, mental
space can be imagined as a 'thought bubble' and MSP, crucially, asserts that
many 'thought bubbles' can operate at the same time. The utterance in (7)
might lead to a variety of counterfactual outcomes depending on the
context. This is because the context directs mapping operations between the
actual state of affairs and the states of affairs brought up in various
counterfactual scenarios. Assume Mary, a childminder, says (7) after a
particularly misbehaving child under her care, James. Three different
interpretations could be considered of example (7) and to observe how
MSP accounts for that (Evans & Green, 2006: 369).
7a. The lenient father interpretation (‘your father should be stricter’)
Here, the childminder Mary believes that the father should be more
rigid and punish his naughty child by smacking him. With respect to
mapping operations between reality and counterfactual, Mary with her
harsh attitude 'replacing' the father who is more indulgent with his child. As
a result of this interpretation is that in the reallity scenario, which is
presupposed by the counterfactual scenario, the father is being critically
compared to the speaker Mary.
7b. The stern father interpretation (‘you’re lucky I’m not as strict as your
father’)
In this interpretation the childminder and the father have reversed
roles; it is the father who is more rigid and Mary the merciful; the father
replacing the childminder. Mary tells the child that he is lucky, she is not
his father who is taking care of him; if so, the child would have been
smacked. In this interpretation, it is the father with his rigid nature who
assumes Mary’s place with her merciful nature in the counterfactual
scenario.
7c. The role interpretation (‘the only reason I’m not smacking you
is because I’m not allowed to’)
In the above example, Mary is implying that, if she could undertake

the role of the child's father, then she would smack him. The counterfactual
scenario replaces the father's role with Mary, suggesting nothing about the
child's father who may or may not smack the child in the real world.
The illustration of example (7) yields several significant points . To

begin with; the same utterance might provoke a variety of interpretations,
each of which is based on different mappings between reality and the
imagined counterfactual situation. Secondly, each of these mappings has
different implications for how the participants in the real world are viewed
(For instance, criticism versus a positive assessment etc.). The final and
most important point is that the example demonstrates that meaning does
not lie in the words, but rather in the mental processes that connect the real
and assumed situations. These processes produce implications that are
compatible with the prompts in the linguistic utterance, but only partially
determined by them. Of course, the exact interpretation created will be
dependent on the precise details of the context in which it is stated,
upon the speaker's intentions, and upon how the hearer interprets these
intentions (Evans & Green, 2006:370).
2.8.3 Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT)
Conceptual Blending Theory (Henceforth CBT) also called

Conceptual Integration Theory is a theory of cognitive semantics
represented by the pioneering Gills Fauconnier and Mark Turner in 1994.
The publication of the book entitled Mapping in Thought and Language
(Fauconnier, 1997) is considered the formal establishment of CBT. This
theory is based on two semantic theories; Conceptual Metaphor Theory and
Mental Spaces Theory. From its architecture and central concerns respects,
CBT is very close to MST and some cognitive semanticists deemed CBT to
be an extension of MST( Evans, 2007: 12;Evans & Green, 2006: 400; Li
& Dai, 2020: 34) This rapprochement is attributed to the central concern
with dynamic aspects of meaning construction and the dependence of CBT
on MST as a basic component of its architecture(Evans & Green, 2006).
CBT is a development of MST that tries to account for the speaker's
capacity to establish and develop extended analogy by including
components of the idea of conceptual metaphor. This capacity entails, in
cognitive semantic terms, that the speakers draw knowledge from different
fields of experience, considered as mental spaces, and combining them to
find a new analogy(Saeed, 2016: 385). It is an analytic framework that
deals with metaphor as an outcome of a more general process of human
cognition. This process entails integrating selected mental content from two
or more independent sources, which is frequently but not always
metaphorical. Blending, like metaphor in CMT, is seen as a widespread
phenomenon in the human mind that manifests itself in everyday language
(Geeraerts & Cuyckens 2007: 198). CBT tries to explain, Knowles and
Moon (2006: 56-57) add, what happens when one processes metaphors
involving other cognitive processes he makes like inferences, by means of
a complex dynamic model. 'Mental space' is an integral part of blending
theory. A space is created in the mind as one speaks or thinks. This on-line
space contains all the pieces of information and conceptual knowledge
which are required for a speaker to process an idea in a language or think
mentally. This activated information or knowledge, of course, will not be
the entire repository he has, but he only puts into ready what is relevant to a
particular context.
Despite the close relation between MST and CMT, Blending Theory
is a distinct theory that has developed to account for phenomena which the
other two theories are unable to efficiently account for. Blending Theory's
central finding is that meaning construction usually entails the integration
of structures that result in something more than the sum of their parts.
Conceptual integration or blending, according to blending theorists, is a
general and fundamental cognitive operation that is crucial to the way
humans think. For instance, PET FISH is more than just a combination of
the categories PET and FISH, PET FISH, on the other hand, selectively
integrates parts of each of the source categories to create a new category
with its own internal structure. It is conceptual blending that is used to get
such an outcome (Evans & Green, 2006: 400-401).
It has been observed by Fauconnier and Turner that in many cases
blended spaces are not necessarily the accumulative outcome meaning of
source and target projection. Blended space may contain new elements that
are not equal to the combination of the source and target elements together
that comes from an elaboration of the conceptual blend on the basis of
encyclopedic knowledge ( Croft & Cruse, 2004: 208; Evans & Green,
2006: 401;Kovecse, 2010: 270). Blending Theory emerged from their
attempts to account for this observation. For CMT to lack the mechanism
by which to account for the phenomena like the case of the metaphorical
example below is regarded to be a motivation for the CBT development, to
take this example:
8. That surgeon is a butcher
At a glance, the CMT model seems to be workable with this

metaphor. A direct mapping from the SD of butchery into the TD of
surgery, led by a set of fixated counterparts projections: "butcher" onto
"surgeon"; "animal" (cow) maps onto "human being"; "commodity" onto
"patient"; "cleaver" onto "scalpel"; and so on. This metaphorical analysis of
cross-mapping projections cannot by itself account for the negative
assessment of the statement's implication: the surgeon is incompetent.
Though a surgeon is more prestigious than him, a butcher is often
competent with what he does and he may be well respected. This causes a
problem for CMT because the property of competence cannot come from
the SD BUTCHER. A butcher working on dead animals needs to involve a
great experience and skill, among those, specific knowledge of the anatomy
of certain animals, skills of the ways and kinds of meat's cut and so on.
Postulating that a butcher is a skilled profession and incompetent posits a
question regarding the resource of the negative assessment in example (8)
metaphor. Because metaphor is based on the mapping of pre-existing
knowledge structures, CMT cannot account for the formation of new
meaning as a result of this mapping process.
This example highlights some of the most important features of human

cognition. Language and thought are not strictly compositional in the sense
that they are additive. Meaning construction, in other words, does not rely
exclusively on 'simple' conceptual mapping procedures such as
constructing one conceptual region in terms of another, as in conceptual
metaphors, or building connections between counterparts in mental regions.
In example (8) the negative evaluation is the underlying motivation for
describing a surgeon as a butcher, however, this negative assessment seems
to be inherited from neither of the input domains associated with the
metaphor. It is the privilege of CBT over CMT to account for the emergent
meaning by its assumption that meaning construction involves emergent
structure: meaning that is more than the sum of its components(Evans &
Green, 2006: 401-403; Grady, Oakley & Coulson, 1999: 103-104).
2.8.4 Conceptual Integration Network
Conceptual blending is well presented in conceptual integration

networks. A conceptual integration network, in its most basic formula,
consists of four linked conceptual spaces: two partially projected input
spaces; a generic space that involves the abstract shared elements in the
inputs, and a new blended space which contains the emergent structure
(Wang, 2014: 110).
In order to account for examples like the SURGEON AS BUTCHER
metaphor, Fauconnier and Turner developed and produced an important
component of CBT which is "integration networks". An integration
network is a mechanism for modelling how emergent meaning might come
about. Blending theorists assume a crucial constituent of the integration
network is input spaces. These inputs contain elements connected by
mapping. In this way, CBT depends on CMT. Blending theorists point out
that an integration network should be made up of Mental Spaces rather than
domains of Knowledge. The difference between them is that ''domains of
knowledge are relatively stable pre-existing knowledge structures, while
mental spaces are temporary structures created during the on-line process
of meaning construction''. Integration network is not simply organized of
two inputs, but multiple- space elements since these networks try to
account for dynamic aspects of meaning construction(Evans & Green,
2006: 403). Figure (2.2) shows the inputs and their elements in the adopted
example (8).
Input 1 Input 2
Figure (2.2) Mappings of Elements Across Inputs (adopted from Evans &
Green, 2006: 403)
The solid lines in figure (2.2) represent the cross-space mapping of

counterpart connections. They are the selected counterparts that connect
elements from the two spaces. These counterpart projections are of various
mapping: metaphoric connections, connections between frames,
connections of identity or transformational or representation, or else. Not
all elements of the two input spaces are mapped. These selective
projections of elements between spaces are called selective projections.
Examples of cross-space mapping and selective projections from the
adopted example (8) like surgeon, butcher; patient, animal; scalpel, cleaver;
operation room, abattoir and others (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998: 142-134).
To observe exemplified mapping of cross-space and selective projection
see figure (2.5) about example (8).
One of the techniques this approach generates is complex networks
by projecting two (or more) input spaces by means of generic space; the
abstract information that is shared by the two (or all) the input spaces. The
elements of the generic space are mapped to their equivalents in each of the
input spaces. This is shown in figure (2.3) below, also see figure (2.5) for
more detailed generic about example (8).
Generic space
Input 1 Input 2
Figure (2.3) Addition of a Generic Space (adopted from Evans & Green, 2006:
403)
A further characteristic feature of the integration network is that, it is

composed of a fourth blended space or blend. It is the space which
involves the emergent structure; the extra information that is not inherited
from either of the input spaces. This is illustrated in figure (2.4). The blend
takes elements from both inputs, but goes further creating the extra
meaning that characterizes the blend from its inputs. Put it another way,
the blend provides a meaning inherited from neither of the spaces. Blend
can be more obvious in figure (2.5) of the adopted example (8).
Figure (2.4) shows the basic features of mental integration. The
circles represent mental spaces, the solid lines indicate matching and cross-
mapping between the inputs, the dotted lines indicate links between inputs
and both generic and blended space and the solid square refers to the
emergent structure (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 46).
Generic space
Input 1 Input 2
Blended space/Blend
Figure (2.4) the Basic Diagram of Integration Network (adopted from

Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 46)
Emergent structure is the main theme of BT by which it takes a

higher rank and more developed vision. How could BT account for this
unique meaning of the example A SURGEON IS A BUTCHER? The
blended space, in addition to the partial structure drawn from input spaces,
develops an ''emergent'' structure of its own. This unique content is drawn
from the neighboring elements from the inputs. The BUTCHERY space
maps a means-end relationship jointly with the means-end relationship in
the SURGERY space. In the surgery, the goal of the procedure is to heal
the patient whereas the default goal of the procedure in the butchery is to
kill the animal and dismembers its parts taking the flesh away from its
bones.
Agent
Undergoer
Sharp instrument
Work space
Procedure
(Goal/Mans)
Generic space
Role: Surgeon Role: Butcher

Identity of surgeon
Role: Patient (person)

Role: Commodity (Animal)
Identity of patient
Cleaver
Scalpel
Abattoir
Operation room
Goal: Severing flesh
Goal: healing
Means: butchery
Means: surgery
Input 1 Input2
Identity of surgeon ‫ ــــــــ‬Role: Butcher
Identity of patient ‫ـــــــ‬Role: patient (person)
Cleaver? Scalpel? (Unspecified)
Operation room
Goal: healing Means: butchery
Incompetence
Figure (2.5) Conceptual Integration Network: Surgeon as Butcher (adopted from Grady,
Oakley & Coulson, 1999: 105)
In the blend, the means of BUTCHERY have been integrated with
the ends, the individuals, and the surgical context of the SURGERY space.
The inconsistency of the butcher's means and the surgeon's ends lead to the
basic inference that the butcher is incompetent. In other words, the
consequence of this contrast is that in the blended space, a surgeon who is
evaluated as a butcher brings inappropriate skills and, indeed, goals to the
work at hand, and is thus incompetent.
This emergent meaning of incompetence represents the additional
structure provided by the blend. This emergent structure of the CBT is not
reached clearly by the CMT-style analysis emphasizing the mappings and
correspondences from source to target ( Evans & Green, 2006: 405; Grady,
Todd & Coulson, 1999: 106). The emergent meaning in the blended space
is the outcome of combining the input spaces with the emergent structure
which, in example (8), is a surgeon who conducts an operation using
butchery skills and thus is incompetent. This person is not encompassed in
either of the inputs.
The structure in the blend is referred to as 'emergent' since it is
created by 'adding together' structure from the inputs to create a distinct
entity to the blend (Evans & Green, 2006: 405).
Fauconnier and Turner’s approach consists of four ‘‘spaces,’’ rather
than the two conceptual domains (source and target) which are involved in
a CMT mapping. Each of these spaces is a mental space in the sense of
Blending theorists' explanations, that is, a coherent package of knowledge
activated in the mind at a certain time, expressing a comprehension of a
real or imagined scenario(Grandy, 2007: 199).
2.9 Understanding Metaphor
According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 2), ''the essence of
metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of
another'' and Lakoff and Turner (1989: ix) defined metaphor as the primary
tool for understanding the world by an engagement with the powerful
metaphor.
Gibbs (1994: 247) pointed out that, CMT as it is based on conceptual

structure asserts that human beings' understanding is intrinsically
constrained by their conceptualization of experience. Actions, events, and
objects are understood in terms of ''experiential gestalts'' (i.e., structurally
meaningful wholes within experience). Meaning arises at the level of
experiential gestalts, which provide their experience with coherence and
structure. In metaphor understanding, one type of thing or experience is
explained in terms of another type of thing or experience. He (Ibid: 251)
adds that the majority of metaphorical expressions are explicit linguistic
manifestations of preexisting mental mapping between conceptual
domains, and may therefore be grasped quickly during the early stages of
processing. Generally, understanding metaphor is not a trouble maker or
different from literal language comprehension, because metaphorical
mapping is what structures one's conceptual system.
Cognitive linguists are mainly concerned with how people

understand their experiences. They argue that essential data are provided by
language, which can lead to general principles of understanding. These
general principles form complete systems of concepts rather than individual
words or individual concepts. Such principles are generally found to be
metaphoric in nature and involve understanding one kind of experience in
terms of another kind of experience.(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 116)
A sentence like Current directions is a gold mine may not be
approved of or agreed upon by language speakers though it is possibly
understandable. How can language speakers arrive at understanding of a
sentence like this? The intended meaning of words and sentences do not
coincide in figurative and that of literal language. Because of this
incongruity figurative language has traditionally been regarded as
derivative from and more complicated than apparently simple literal
language(Glucksberg, 1998:39).
Generally, two kinds of operations are used in understanding

language. The first one is the linguistic operation that includes lexical
access and syntactic analysis. The second kind is the pragmatic operation,
which is no less important than the linguistic one. For example, if
somebody says the sentence, dogs are animals; a listener will need to go
beyond the literal meaning in order to understand the speaker's intended
meaning‫ ــ‬the speaker knows the addressee very well (Ibid: 39).
People always process the literal meaning of all utterances no matter

whatever the context is and whatever the speaker's intended meaning might
be. If the literal meaning could not be processed or failed to make sense of
in context, then and only then could figurative interpretations be processed.
This step by step process is assumed to account for all non-literal
interpretations (Glucksberg, 2011: 7; Knowles & Moon, 2006:54). Hearing
a sentence like:
9. If the Premier had any backbone he would stand up and say 'I
would not have this'
The word 'backbone' will immediately be interpreted in its literal
meaning as ''spinal column''. This interpretation, however, is inappropriate
since not only 'the Premier' has a spinal column, but everybody does.
Reaching this stage, the literal interpretation is ruled out and replaced with
metaphorical reading; 'courage and determination' which fits is
convincingly, considering the points of correspondence between backbone
and courage or determination. This process of trial and error occurs
instantaneously and subconsciously, yet it would remain to be a two-stage
process and accordingly, has to take longer time than the process of literal,
simple interpretation. However, psycholinguistic studies have demonstrated
the opposite of was traditionally believed. Their studies have shown that
the mental processing of metaphors and other non-literal usages do not in
fact need longer time than that for literal ones, nor are they any more
difficult or troublesome. One scholar who is interested in and has
conducted many psycholinguistic experiments in the topic of non-literal
language is Raymond Gibbs. Jointly with other scholars, Gibbs has made
experiments into the subject of metaphorical idiomatic processing: for
instance, recording the reaction times of the informants hearing expressions
like let the cat out of the bag and spill the beans. The findings showed that
the standard interpretations were actually the idiomatic meanings, not the
literal ones. However, informants took more time to process and
understand its literal meaning than when used with its idiomatic
interpretations. A listener encountering a context like:
10.They were getting dinner ready when Jack spilled the beans
would first suppose that spilled the beans indicates 'revealed a secret', but
the context may reject that implication and if a contextual word like
'vegetables' is used, it then ensures that the expression is used in its literal
usage and Jack had really dropped the beans. At this point, the listener
needs to take a step back and re-interpret accordingly. That indicates, from
a psycholinguistic perspective, that idioms are kept in the mental lexicon as
ready linguistic items that go along with their meanings, rather than being
interpreted word by word.
Psycholinguistic experiments show that conventional idiomatic and
metaphorical meanings are processed immediately. Moreover, there is
evidence that, when asking different individuals for the metaphorical
content of any mental image, they are not only able to define these images,
but there is a prominent consistency between them (Knowles & Moon,
2006: 54-55).
2.10 Interpreting Metaphor
What happens in a metaphor is that at least one characteristic often

associated with the source (and therefore coming from the source domain)
is projected/mapped onto the target. It is important to remember that for a
metaphor to work, in the first place, the source and target must have some
sort of similarity shared between them; it is the common resemblance that
provides the framework in which the differences between the two can be
productive. In the example Love is a War, the only minimal similarity
between the two realms is that they both have two people involved in some
sort of relationship (Forceville, 2006: 3).A metaphor, then, consists of two
"things": a "literal" primary subject and a "figurative" secondary subject.
Metaphor occurs first of all on the level of cognition and can be realised
non-linguistically; pictorially, sonically, or multimodally. Both the primary
and secondary subjects of the metaphor may be thought of as domains of
meaning elements, which might include anything from verifiable facts to
connotations, as well as attitudes and beliefs towards that subject. The
metaphorical mapping process, in which one or more features of the
secondary subject (the source domain) is/are mapped onto the primary
subject (the target domain), involves the foregrounding, adoption, or
modification of certain features in the primary subject (Forceville, 2002:
108). In the metaphors The world is a stage and Football is war, the
metaphors' sources are "world" and "football" while their targets are
"stage" and "war". Both the source and the target arouse a set of features
and connotations. These features and connotations are thought to be part of
a "semantic domain," as well as pragmatic considerations that are both
fundamental in metaphorical interpretation. It is often necessary to deduce
the metaphor's meaning from its surface realisation because the underlying
identity link between the target and source ("A IS B") is not always
linguistically conveyed in this manner. A phrase like If your heart
surrenders, you'll need me to hold could, without expressly having the form
"A is B", cue the metaphor LOVE IS A BATTALEFIELD
Two points are noteworthy here:
a. Metaphors typically need to be constructed, but not every
viewer/reader/analyst can achieve that.
b. If the A and B are not verbally presented in the surface
manifestation (as is the case with visual or multimodal
metaphors), the analyst is the one who identifies A and B, and
this identification may slightly "change" the metaphor. LOVE IS
A BATTLEFIELD and LOVE IS WAR and LOVE IS A
STRUGGLE are not exactly the same.
As its target and source have been construed, the metaphor is

interpretable then. Metaphorical interpretation comes down to mapping, at
least one characteristic (connotation, value, attitude, emotion) related to the
source onto the target. A group of structurally related properties from the
source domain are frequently mapped all at once (or as far as appear
relevant) onto the target domain (Forceville, 2016: 4).
Interpreting something as metaphor demands deciding: (1) which its
two parts are; (2) which is of the two domains is its target and which is its
source; (3) which characteristic(s) is/are to be mapped from source to target
(Forceville, 1996: 108(.
The answers to these questions are relatively simple and possible in
verbal discourse, but applying this approach to non-verbal and multimodal
metaphors causes many difficulties. Above all, linguistic metaphors have
the copular "is" (A is B formula) as a sign to establish an identity relation
between target and source, or at worse, have grammar to identify them.
Visual and other non-verbal modalities or multimodal metaphors do not
have such cues that help in identifying the target and source. Non-verbal
and multimodal demand other procedures than verbal ones to help assume a
metaphorical identity-relation between two phenomena related to different
categories Forceville, 1996: 108). In visual metaphors, for instance, the
target-source identifications require other cues to be identified. The target
domain thus often represents the product (in advertising) itself (a car, a
drink, a coffee machine) or it can represent the brand more generally.
Above all, most of the time, such metaphors are not used to offer products
or services, but to advertise or show the products or services of a specific
brand. Thus, determining the target of a metaphor in commercial
advertising requires considering the type of product or service being
marketed and the advertiser's brand name and/or brand logo(Forceville,
2017:29).
Another challenge of identifying the target/source of non-verbal

realisation of a metaphor that does not exist in verbal ones is the issue of
a/symmetry. Verbal metaphors are known to be asymmetric; some features
of the source domain are mapped to the target domain, but not vice versa. It
is, in verbal discourse, the formula "X is Y" that makes things clear about
the target/source identification. Non-verbal metaphors are argued to be less
asymmetric and more reversible than verbal ones. This is because of the
lack of the copular "is" and other grammar keys in non-verbal
metaphors(Indurkhya & Ojha, 2017: 93-94).
2.11 Non-Linguistic/ Non-Verbal Realization of Conceptual
Metaphor
Since Lakoff and Johnson's seminal paper Metaphors We Live By
(1980), metaphors have generally been regarded as a basic aspect of the
human mind. Metaphor is not merely a matter of language, but essentially a
matter of thought. If metaphors were to be restricted to language alone,
then each linguistic metaphor would have to be unique. The phrase "Your
claims are indefensible" should be distinct clearly from statements like "I
demolished his argument" or "He attacked every weak point in my
argument" in a meaningful way. However, according to Lakoff and
Johnson (1980: 4-5), these expressions do not constitute distinct and
independent metaphors since they are part of the same conceptual
metaphor, namely: ARGUMENT IS WAR (Coëgnarts & Kravanja, 2012:
97). Such expressions are called ''metaphorical linguistic manifestations''. It
has been stated in section (2.3, The Conceptual Metaphor Theory) that, the
basic difference between traditional and contemporary views of metaphor
is that, traditionally metaphor is seen as merely a matter of language ‫ ـــ‬a
poetic or rhetorical device of language, while the contemporary cognitive
linguists emphasize that metaphor is a matter of thought and action ‫ ـــ‬of
conceptualization. On the basis of conceptual view, Grandy (2007:189)
expresses that, being conceptual is the dimension that received a great
emphasis within cognitive linguistics indicating that metaphor is not
inherently a merely linguistic phenomenon. As it is a property of thought
and conceptualisation, metaphor is not restricted to verbal manifestations; it
can be realized nonverbally as well, such as pictures and gestures.
If the CMT's belief is correct, which holds that metaphor is

fundamentally a matter of thought rather than language alone, it is, then,
reasonable to believe that there are other mediums of manifestation for
conceptual metaphors than the verbal one. It should manifest itself through
other (non-verbal) modes of communication, such as pictures, music,
symbols, sound and body language. The unity is kept for the conceptual
metaphor and not for the way in which it is presented (Coëgnarts &
Kravanja, 2012: 97).
There are many practical ways; conventional metaphors can be made

real. Metaphors can be realized in apparent imaginative products such as
cartoons, literary works, dreams, visions, drawings, ads, policies, literature
and myths. However, metaphors can manifest themselves in less apparent
ways such as physical symptoms, social institutions, social practices, laws
and even foreign policy and forms of discourse and of history(Lakoff,
1993: 38).
Here are some examples of cases where conceptual metaphors

manifest themselves or are realized—mainly in nonlinguistic ways. The
items below are taken from Kovecse (2010: 63-71), which are dependent
on Lakoff (1993).
1. Movies and Acting
Films may be organised totally in terms of conceptual metaphors.

LIFE IS A JOURNEY is one metaphor that is especially well depicted in
many movies telling someone's life story. Individual images in a movie
may also present one or several conceptual metaphors. For example, one
scene in a movie like a girl and boy cascading down a waterfall can provide
a realisation of the conceptual metaphor FALLING IN LOVE IS
PHYSICAL FALLING.
DIFFICULTIES ARE BURDENS is a fundamental conceptual
metaphor for difficulty. When individuals walk in a way that indicates they
are carrying a heavy weight on their shoulders, they are "acting out" this
metaphor. Physical symptoms, in such cases, might be considered as
"enactments" of conceptual metaphors. Mastering how to act out certain
conceptual metaphors is an important aspect of learning the profession of
acting.
2. Advertisements
Advertisements are important tools to attract customers buying

things. A critical issue in the selling power of advertisements is determined
by how well chosen the conceptual metaphor is in the shape of words or
pictures in the advertisements. A well-chosen metaphor may go a long way
toward encouraging the sale of a product. Washing powders, for example,
are frequently displayed as good friends; this is built on the metaphor
ITEMS TO SELL ARE PEOPLE, which is a form of personification. The
metaphor A WASHING POWDER IS A FRIEND provokes the same
attitudes and sensations in people as they do when they are with their good
friends.
3. Symbols
Symbols in general, and cultural symbols in specific, can be founded

on entrenched metaphors in a culture. Fire, for example, is a well-known
symbol of life. This symbol is a representation of the metaphor LIFE IS
FIRE which is also found in everyday linguistic expressions like to snuff
out someone's life. Understanding a symbol entails partly being able to
recognize the conceptual metaphors that the symbol can inspire or was
meant to provoke. The statue of Liberty in New York City, for example,
was built in the United States to evoke the idea that liberty (together with
its "accompaniments" of knowledge and justice) had been established. This
is expressed in the statue by means of many metaphors, including
metaphors for free action, history, and knowledge. Since ACTION IS
SELF-PROPELLED MOVEMENT, free action will be UNINHIBITED
SELF-PROPELLED MOVEMENT. These metaphors are realised from the
designation of the statue as it takes a step forward while shackles are
shattered at her feet.
4. Pictures
Pictorial metaphor is the non-verbal or non-linguistic metaphorical

realization form which has received a lot of attention over the last few
years. The early landscapes and later seascapes in a recent Turner
exhibition (Turner in Britain) give good examples. The viewer's perspective
in both is to keep their gaze fixed on the horizon. In later life, this is
surely symbolic of looking towards death. In this way, the LIFE IS A
JOURNEY metaphor is realized in a particular visual or non-verbal way.
Indeed, some advertisements bear little linguistic substance and rely
nearly entirely on the image. An advertising for a Nokia mobile phone
appeared in the Observer Magazine on (November 23, 2003). Although
there is a lot of text in this piece, the visual aspect takes centre stage. It is a
full-page glossy photograph of a highly confident young businessman. He
is foregrounded, with a determined look and seems to be walking ahead
purposefully. A picture of the Nokia 6600 is displayed next to him. The
verbal element (the 'sales pitch') is represented by 10 noun phrases placed
in a circle on the man's breast pocket, surrounding the sub-heading Vision.
The implication is that the phone, with all of its functions, can be
easily carried in that pocket. All this in such a tiny space! A multifaceted
tool for a multi-talented and upwardly mobile young businessman
(Knowles & Moon, 2006: 110).
Lakoff (1993: 41) pointed out that what makes all of these instances
realistions of metaphor is that in every instance there is something real
structured by conventional metaphors.
It can be concluded from these examples that conceptual metaphor is
rife in many aspects of people's social, artistic, psychological, intellectual,
and cultural lives. Metaphor may be found not just in human spoken
language but also in much of his nonlinguistic reality. This insight makes
the cognitive linguistic perspective on metaphor particularly valuable to
non-linguists (Kövecses, 2010: 73).
2.12 Monomodal and Multimodal Metaphors
Taking for granted that CM is a matter of thought and action, entails

that other channels than verbal/linguistic one can express metaphor
individually or jointly.
Declaring that metaphors may be realised non-verbally and
multimodally requires other procedures that allow proposing a
metaphorical identity-relationship between two phenomena pertaining to
distinct categories. However, before addressing this critical issue, the term
"multimodality" must be defined. It would appear that discussing
multimodal metaphor (Henceforth M.M.) would need agreement on what
counts as a mode or modality (Forceville, 2016: 245). This is not an easy
task, since what is labelled as a mode is a complex of different features. It
is assumed, as a first approximation, that a mode is a sign system
interpretable that can be decoded using a specific perception process.
Agreeing upon this would allow relating modes to the five senses one-by-
one, resulting in the following list: (1) the pictorial or visual mode; (2) the
aural or sonic mode; (3) the olfactory mode; (4) the gustatory mode; and
(5) the tactile mode. However, this is too crude a categorization. For
example, the sonic mode in this description includes spoken language,
music, and nonverbal sound. Likewise, both written language and gestures
would be classified as part of the visual, because neither can one hear,
smell, taste, or touch either written language or gestures (though a blind
person may feel Braille language and, through touch, perceive some
gestures, such as those of a statue). In order to fairly classify these
distinctions (between images and gestures, between spoken and written
language, between spoken language, sounds, and music), other elements
must be considered, such as the manner of production (e.g., written versus
Braille letters in relief on paper; signs made with body parts versus signs
guided by natural language syntax and vocabulary rules). There are other
difficulties that need to be addressed. For example, what is music and who
"mere" sound may differ from one culture or time to the next. Similarly,
determining objectively where music crosses the line into sound effects is
not possible. And is "typeface" to be classified as a component of writing,
visuals, or both? (Forceville, 2006: 383). Forceville (2009:26)pointes out
similarly that oral and written texts depend on extremely distinct
understanding conditions. Illiterate, blind, and deaf people are able to
simply understand one, but not the other; a medium such as radio highly
depends on spoken language – and sound and music – but does not make
use of pictures. Equally, in Western society, speech, music, and other sorts
of sound are distinguished. The conditions in which people listen to them,
as well as the purposes for which they listen to them, are dramatically
different. It is often expected that human beings are entertained and pleased
by music, informed by speech, whereas non-verbal sounds achieve other
purposes; for example, a sense of potential threat or irritation.
In brief, it is neither possible for this young field of metaphor
studying to provide a satisfactory definition of "mode" nor to construct an
entire list of modes. This is not a hindrance for theorising that there are
various modes, at least, the following: (1) pictorial signs; (2) written signs;
(3) spoken signs; (4) gestures; (5) sounds; (6) music (7) smells; (8) tastes;
(9) touch.
It is now possible to give a tentative definition to monomodal
metaphors as '' metaphors whose target and source are exclusively or
predominantly rendered in one mode''. By contrast to monomodal
metaphors, multimodal metaphors ''are metaphors whose target and source
are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes''. The
qualification ''exclusively'' or ''predominantly'' is essential since non-
linguistic metaphors typically have target and/or source cued in more than
one mode simultaneously. To shed more light, the following fictive
example is considered: imagine someone wants to cue the metaphor CAT
IS ELEPHANT pictorially in a film. This could be done by portraying the
cat with a trunk-like snout and large flapping ears; by displaying a canopy
on the back of the cat as in the case of a typical Indian elephant rider is
seated; by bringing the cat and the elephant juxtaposing to each other in
same prominent pose; or by having the cat behave (e.g., move) in an
elephant-like manner. These images are examples of monomodal
metaphors of the pictorial type, constituting hybrid, contextual, simile, and
integrated subtypes respectively. These subtypes not only work separately,
but they can be combined. Assume the producer wants to cue the same
metaphor multimodally. The cat, for example, can be shown as making a
trumpeting sound or letting another cat shout ''elephant'' to the first one.
Two modes are used in these cases to invoke the SD (sound and language
respectively) which are different from the target (visual). The metaphor, in
this way, would be really multimodal. The producer, as the case of the
visual mode alone, would not have to select between either of these modes:
she could represent the cat with a trunk-like snout and big ears and have it
trumpet, and another cat shouting "elephant!". In this scenario, the source is
cued in three modes at the same time, with just one of them (the visual)
expressing the same mode as the target. In such cases it is proposed to be
labeled as ''multimodal metaphors'' (Forceville, 2006: 385-386).
With the exception of their covers, most adult books are
representations of the verbal form of monomodality. Young children's
books, which are rarely devoid of illustrations, are multimodal, comprising
both written text and picture modes. A radio interview composed
completely of spoken language is monomodal, whereas a song-with-lyrics
played on the radio is multimodal. Mode is not something autonomous, but
related to other factors. Medium ‫ ـــ‬the material carrier of the message is
one factor that is, as the previous examples show, affective and relevant to
mode. Radio can not, by definition, use visuals, but television and film can
(and typically do); television cannot (yet) use smell or touch and neither
can films (Forceville, 2009:24-25).
In monomodal metaphors, the similarity between target and source is
cued by resemblance between them; this resemblance can take numerous
forms, while in M.Ms the similarity between target and source is cued by
co-referentiality. At least in theory, that is, monomodal metaphors can be
manifested as written-verbal, spoken-verbal, visual, musical, sonic, and
gestural subtypes, M.Ms, on the other hand, can draw on any permutation
of two or more of these modalities. When it is taken into account that there
is a need to distinguish between whether the target or the source cued by a
mode; and treat olfaction, taste, and touch as modal, then the possibilities
for assuming monomodal and multimodal metaphors of various types
become intimidatingly large. However, hypothetically the only possible
subtypes are the ones: (1) visuals in combination with (written or spoken)
language, music and sound; (2) spoken language in combination with
gestures; (3) and the combination of language and music (Forceville, 2016:
245).
Even if identifying the target and source alone might be
a monomodal process, understanding the complete meaning of a metaphor
requires mapping suitable (clusters of) features from source to target. These
can be triggered in a variety of modes. Even if identifying the target and
source remains the criterion for determining monomodal and multimodal
metaphors, recruiting the "right" characteristics may require recruiting
information cued in more than one mode. The general distinction between
monomodal and multimodal metaphor is clearly nuanced by such
complexities (and by extension between monomodal and multimodal
discourse) (Forceville, 2016: 255 ).
2.13 Multimodal Metaphors and Genre
Because of its influential and essential role as a factor co-

determining the construal of metaphors and how they are interpreted or
perceived in multimodal discourse, it is injustice to underrate the influence
of genre. In fact, genre-attribution is the very first choice that should be
made (though frequently unconsciously) as soon as one is exposed to a
certain discourse, display, or representation. Genre is the single most
important pragmatic element governing the interpretation of "texts." Once a
genre specie is determined (or just thought to be determined) to belong to a
particular discourse, a wide range of expectations are recruited and
summoned in one's cognition, directing and constraining his interpretation
of that genre specie (Forceville, 2016: 12).Text interpretation is not only
guided by text-internal context. However, the expectations existing in the
minds of the recipients of those texts are also utalised.
The genre to which a piece belongs is an essential component of

such expectations. For instance, when readers are aware that they are
reading a literary work, as it is typically the case, they deploy certain
reading strategies and knowledge of literary discourse that direct their
reception process. Of course, texts do not always have to be verbal or
linguistic in nature. Pictorial and semi-pictorial "texts" are widely used in
modern life in the form of newspaper photos, book illustrations, movies,
video games and clips, internet homepages, commercials, and many more.
Semi (pictorial) texts do not differ so much from verbal ones; there is not
much confusion in determining their genre type. In most cases, the text,
along with its text-immanent elements and situational context, will provide
its readers with significant cues to recognise the type of text genre they are
reading, leading them to automatically employ certain, genre-specific
interpretation strategies (Forceville, 1999: 279-280).
Applying the belief that human minds activate a certain set of

expectations for certain genre types that direct and limit their
interpretations to visual and M.Ms means that if, for example, a metaphor
in an advertisement or commercial is interpreted with the target being
(metonymically related to) the product, only positive connotations and
expectations are to be mapped from source to target domain. On the other
hand, political cartoons usually critically represent a state of affairs or a
famous person. In this genre, only negative connotations and expectations
are to be mapped. A metaphor that appears in a pedagogical textbook is
more likely to trigger an internally structured network of projections from
source to target instead of a single feature. In a feature film, a visual or
M.M. is not always constrained by the positive-negative spectrum found in
advertising and cartoons, respectively. A metaphor in a movie could, for
example, help define the protagonist or an event (Forceville, 2016: 12-13).
Likewise, metaphors in artistic manifestations might also differ in some
issues from those in commercial messages. For example, while it is seldom
questioned in ads what the target (often the product) and source of a
metaphor is, an artistic narrative may give birth to two distinct
interpretations of a metaphor: both A IS B and B IS A are suitable. As a
result, metaphors in the artistic genre have more interpretive freedom than
those in the commercial metaphor genre.
Another parameter that is worth taking into account is whether any

visual metaphor subtypes or M.M. varieties may be systematically linked to
limited text genres. It appears, for instance, that the hybrid type of pictorial
metaphor is rarely used in commercial advertising. This means that, if
metaphorical targets are employed to promote their products, advertisers
like their products to be presented perfectly, not in a way that may invite
any connotations of incompleteness or mutilation. Hybridizing it with a
metaphorical source domain would not serve the purpose while in
animation films or science fiction films, no such troubles are caused
(Forceville, 2006: 14).
Finally, it appears important to investigate if, in a multimodal

context, there are any systematic correlations between textual genres and
the mode in which the target and the source are realized. In advertising, the
visual mode is frequently used for manifesting the target and this could be
true for other different types of genres as well. However, various patterns
of mode selection for the source domain are noticed in different kinds of
texts, and this may also change within a genre by time passing (Ibid: 14–
15).
2.14 Previous Related Studies
A lot of research and studies have been conducted about metaphor in

the last few decades. However, a great percentage of such metaphorical
studies and research have been primarily concerned with linguistic
metaphor or at least emphasised the verbal manifestation of metaphor.
Developed by Lakoff and other cognitive researchers, CMT is the
cornerstone of metaphor investigation. Lakoff and Johnson's seminal book,
Metaphor we live by (1980), systematically presents the view that metaphor
is not primarily a matter of language, but rather of thought and action
structures. On that basis, conceptual metaphor, as opposed to linguistic
metaphor, can manifest itself in modes other than linguistic ones, such as
pictorial, written, spoken, gesture, sounds, music, smell, taste, and touch.
Forceville, who has developed research on metaphor into the new field,
termed it "multimodal metaphor". Cognitive linguists led by the pioneer
figure of M.M. hold a view that a wise theory of conceptual metaphor
should systematically study non-verbal and M.M., and that the undue
concentration on verbal manifestations of conceptual metaphor has blinded
researchers. M.M. is the modern term used in the field of CM which is used
to describe "metaphors whose target and source are rendered exclusively or
predominantly in two different modes/modalities" (Forceville, 2006:4).
Being a young field of research, no related studies have been found on
M.Ms in Iraq. In contrast to the availability of theses and dissertations,
articles and papers are the in-depth studies found on this topic.
1. Famelart, E. (2010)
This study is entitled Multimodal Metaphors and Advertising: A
Trilingual Comparison of the Use of Multimodal Metaphor in Bank
Advertisements. The aim of this study is to analyze the use of M.Ms of the
verbo-pictorial kind in English, Spanish, and French bank advertisements.
The researcher chose sixty-nine static bank advertisements of M.Ms. This
study adopted Lakoff and Johnson's (1980) and Forceville's (1996, 2009)
approaches for analysis. Following these models, the researcher examined
how a comparative study based on trilingual views can clarify the way
main banks and their products are conceptualised during a period of
economic instability resulting from the present financial crisis, and the
significant consequences thereof. The results of the study showed that,
whereas the three languages have a similar abundance of M.Ms, there are
considerable disparities in terms of target audience, conceptualization
emphasis, individual goals, and cross-cultural connotations. The findings
also suggest that systematic patterns and connections may be found in
regard to the modes in which the main source and target are cued, as well
as the variety of metaphors detected, demonstrating that the overall
implications are inextricably related to the genre of data studied.
2. Alousque, I. N. (2014)
This study is entitled Verbo-pictorial metaphor in French advertising.
The main purpose of the study is to examine the prevalence use of
metaphor in advertising, how important it is, how it is employed in
advertising and what commercial impact M.M. has on customers. A
cognitive approach has been used in order to analyse the various types of
metaphor and metonymy encoded and their interaction, the modality, and
the ad's intended meaning. Ten samples of data were chosen from a corpus
of French print advertisements taken from two popular magazines, Marie-
Claire and L’Express, published between January and May 2011, to be
analysed. The study has concluded that: 1) many metaphors have an image-
schematic frame. The space and attribute image schemas are the most often
used; 2) what provides the communicative effect is that of combing visual
and verbal modes; 3) Firstly, and foremost, it helps in the transmission of
the message. Secondly, metaphor is used to grab the audience's attention. It
is especially useful in this regard for holding the addressee's attention for
longer by including him in the ad's interpretation. Because the basic
function of metaphor is mainly rhetorical and its crucial role in achieving
persuasion by emphasis and evaluation, metaphor serves importantly the
essential role of advertising by prompting the product in different ways.
Thus, metaphorically examining products on sale positively evaluates them
by bringing into view their attributes, linking them with a desirable quality,
or presenting them as a need or a source of a pleasurable experience.
3. Bonilla, J. F. G. (2018(
This study is entitled Multimodal Metaphors and Advertising: A Cross-
Cultural Comparison of the Use of Behavioural Multimodal Metaphors.
The primary goal of this article is to examine to what extent culture is
embedded and influential in M.M. conceptualisation and interpretation, and
how differently the same M.M. is conceptualized and interpreted by
different language-background viewers. This study adopted Lakoff and
Johnson’s (1980) and Forceville’s (1996, 2009) approaches. With the help
of 240 volunteers from eight different linguistic backgrounds, the data were
collected and findings were found for this study. The researcher employed
a questionnaire as a tool for the subject of this study. The questionnaire
formula consisted of three M.Ms and eight questions. Depending on the
procedures and tools used, the studied reached that it is not merely cultural
background that is influential when conceptualising and interpreting M.Ms;
it is a personal one as well. Different factors besides the cultural
background were recognised in the reactions of the questionnaire's
responses that influenced the interpretation of the identical M.M.: religion,
personal and societal experiences, beliefs, etc.
4. Guiyu Dai, J. L. (2020)
This study is entitled Multimodal Metaphor Analysis of Print

Advertisements Based on the Conceptual Blending Theory. This study aims
at revealing the cognitive operation mechanism behind M.Ms with the help
of the theory of conceptual blending. It also examined the sign-
consumption ideology concealed in the M.Ms of print magazine
advertisements. The framework of this research follows Fairclough's three-
dimensional levels of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) model and
analyses M.Ms in print magazine advertisements from the perspective of
CBT. Depending on the model chosen, the analysis of M.M. takes three
stages of analysis; semiotic description, pragmatic interpretation, and
sociological explanation. The researchers chose three samples of data from
two famous international fashion magazines ---Vogue and Bazaar, covering
industries like garment, jewelry, and beauty. Two findings were come up
with by this study; 1) the selected samples of M.Ms turn out to be novel
ones in that the source is presented by the image while the target is always
by the advertised products; 2) Multimodal metaphor is a more practical
device than linguistic metaphor for expressing concepts in an unconscious
yet vivid manner.
5. Wang, W. (2021)
This study is entitled Pictorial and Multimodal Metaphors in
Informational Picture Books for Children—A Case Study. This study aims
at investigating how the use of pictorial and M.Ms in informational picture
books enhances the comprehension of children of the information or facts
and attracts their interest in the plot of the story at the same time. The
study took Forceville’s categorization of pictorial and M.Ms as its basis of
analysis. The sample text is examined from three aspects: the construction
of the narrative reality displayed in this picture book; the identity
construction of the main characters and the interaction of pictorial and
M.Ms in the book's successful representation of information to the young
reader in the book. The researcher selected nine figures of Inside the
Human Body, from The Magic School Bus series to be examined. The
findings of the study demonstrated that pictorial metaphors are utalised to
organise the narrative reality presented in the picture book in order to make
the tale plot attractive and plausible; M.M. designation is invested by the
picture book to establish the unique identity of its main characters both
linguistically and visually; and by using different combined kinds of
pictorial and M.M., the authors of both the text and the information picture
books contribute to representing the intended concepts and the information
in the book.
The current study differs from the previous related studies in many
aspects. Firstly, the current study primarily aims at investigating to what
extent Iraqi EFL learners are familiar with and can perceive M.Ms and to
what extent the genre of the metaphor affects that. Secondly, with respect
to the adopted model, the current study follows Fauconnier and Turner's
Conceptual Blending Theory (2002). Thirdly, the number and kind of
selected data samples are different. The current study chose twenty
samples, which is more than all of the related studies except one, that chose
sixty-nine samples. This study's data is neither limited to a specific genre of
M.Ms nor to a specific place (selected countries); in addition to
advertisements, this study includes three other rarely studied multimodal
species: caricature, social media and social issues. The majority (if not all)
of its data are universal.
CHAPTER THREE
METHOBOLOGY
This chapter covers the methodological issues. It presents the
selection of data, the research design and the model adopted. It also shows
the steps of analysis with their samples. Finally, it presents the way and
purpose of conducting a recognition test.
3.1 Data selection
Twenty samples of M.Ms have been chosen to be analysed and

exposed in a recognition test. All twenty samples were collected from the
Internet sites. Different sites and pages have been looked at to collect them.
The Pinterest site is at the first hand, and most of the data are taken from
there. The Global Times is number two in contributing to collecting the
data; it provides all caricature data. The rest of the samples are taken from
other sites. Each sample has its own link that guides to the resource; where
it is taken from.
These twenty samples are classified into four groups: advertisement,

caricature, social media and social issues. Five figures are chosen from
each group. These figures would hopefully form the appropriate number to
be representative of each kind to be analysed and exposed to Iraqi EFL
learners to find out their overall accuracy scores in the perception of M.Ms
and draw conclusions and find results about each kind. These four kinds are
the most used/available M.Ms that are worth to be studied.
Both chronological and logical orders are useless in organising these

data. Therefore, their frequency and importance in modern multimodal
studies, and their pervasiveness in social media are the basis on which these
data are ordered. Advertisement is the most important and widespread in
modern metaphorical studies that deal with the non-linguistic realisation of
metaphor. Caricature comes next in terms of its appearance and is
dependent on those studies. The two other types; social media and social
issues come after advertisements and caricatures. It is the pervasiveness of
social media that puts social media before social issues.
3.2 Research Design

To conduct and achieve the proposed aims of the current study
perfectly, both qualitative and quantitative methods of research are used.
The former deals with descriptive aspects; data analysis that has no
reference to statistical aspects of research. It is used here because the
descriptive analysis cannot be measured, but observed. The latter method
involves statistical tools that have been used to get the results of the
recognition test adopted.
3.3 The Adopted Model of Analysis
This study adopts Fauconnier and Turner's Conceptual Blending

Theory (2002) as a model to analyse the M.M. data selected in this study. A
heavy and extensive research has been made for a suitable model that can
analyse such multimodal data and how people mentally can mix different
modes and arrive at creative metaphorical meanings. The Blending Theory
is adopted in this study because it is developed enough and equipped with
the mechanisms that can efficiently construe and analyse M.Ms. It has a
unique characteristic that other theories seen as CMT lack, that is its ability
to account for what is, in this theory, called "emergent meaning". It can
also explain how people blend two different modes (mental spaces) and
arrive at the attended metaphorical meaning of the author (the blended
space). CBT was presented by Fauconnier and Turner in 1994. It is based
on MST introduced by Gill Fauconnier (1985). It is a dynamic cognitive
process, which is constructed according to the real-time context and
complexity of the knowledge patterns. It consists of four spaces. Two input
spaces, which are constructed from different individual domains of
knowledge as we talk or speak. The generic space is the third one that
covers what is common or shared between the two input spaces. The
emergent structure, which is composed of selected projections of the
information from the two input spaces, is the last part of CBT. As
illustrated in figure (3.1) below, the circles represent mental spaces, the
solid lines refer to matching and cross-space mapping, the dotted lines refer
to the connections between inputs and generic or bended space and the
solid square indicates the emergent structure.
3.4 Research Procedures
The research procedures of the current study are of two levels; one of
data analysis level procedures and the second is of conducting a recognition
test procedures. Each is divided into certain steps.
3.4.1 Data Analysis Level
Different sites and pages on the Internet have been visited and
browsed to get the appropriate data for the research, that are both suitable
to be analyzed within the proposed model and at the same time to be
applicable in the recognition test conducted. The data have been
categorized into five categories according to first, their importance and
appearances in modern cognitive studies and second, to their pervasiveness
on social media. The data analysis process can be ordered into the
following steps:
First step: The link to where the figure is directly taken from is
provided under the numbered title of the figure
Second step: a figure that shows a metaphorical description of cognitive

analysis and modality is provided. The cognitive analysis manifests the
concluded/supposed metaphor from the multimodal figure and: the source
and target. In terms of modality, it shows the modality (all are M.Ms) and
by which mode, visual or verbal, the target and source are manifested.
Third step: the figures are classified into a sub section called "On the
advertisement/caricature/ social media/ social issues". Each figure is
described in detail; the visual and verbal elements. The general supposed
metaphorical meaning of the M.M. is then explained.
Fourth step: a diagram is set to reflect what is contained in conceptual
spaces. The generic space leads to input1 and input2. These two inputs
flow into the blend.
Fifth step: it is the final step; it shows the final outcome metaphorical
meaning. It involves the explanation of the conceptual network; what is
included in input1, input2, generic space, and the blend. It displays which
input is presented linguistically or visually. Then, it explains the
metaphorical meaning of the blend and how people could blend different
modes mentally and reach the sought metaphorical meaning. Finally, it
presents whether each of the target or source is visually or verbally
presented. To visualise what has been explained, here is an example:
Example of first step:
Figure (4.5) Commercial advertisement

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/207869339034166427/
Figure (3.2) Sample of M.M. Figures of Data Analysis in Chapter Four

Example of second step:
Figure (3.3) Sample Figure of Data Analysis of Metaphor and Modality Information in
Chapter Four
Example of third step:
On the advertisement
It is taken from the Pinterest site. This advertisement features a can of Pepsi
light carried by an ant. The ant is walking on a very thin branch. It is an outdoor place
and seems to be in a forest or firm. This Pepsi can carries the brand slogan of Pepsi
Light production.
It is a commercial promotional advertisement. Pepsi light is also called Pepsi diet. The
metaphorical meaning the ad designer wants to deliver is the exaggeration of the
lightness of Pepsi's light production. The product has been described metaphorically
as being so light that even an ant can carry a whole can. He wants to attract customers
who are diabetic and those who are concerned about their weight. It has a very low
amount of sugar or it is an absolute sugar free.
Example of fourth step:
Figure (3.4) Sample figure of Data Analysis of the Conceptual Blending Network in
chapter four
Example of fifth step:

Analysis of the Blending Network
Understanding a multimodal metaphor does not require an individual, but a set

of mental processes. The first component of this network is the pair of inputs. Input1
encompasses pictorial elements. It contains: a can of Pepsi light is carried by an ant
which is walking on a thin branch and a brand slogan. Input2 represents linguistic
element. It includes: Pepsi light. The ground of the cross-mapping of the two inputs,
which is an important component of the mental processing, is generic space, which
here contains: commercial promotion, weight, low sugar and calories. The final
component of the network is the outcome of the process; the blend. It has the
metaphorical meaning of the advertisement that this product is safe and suitable
mainly for people who suffer from diabetes or those who are going on a diet because
this product has a low amount of sugar and number calories.
Both the target, which is linguistically cued, and the source, which is
pictorially cued, are metaphorically presented. The word "light" is not literally used,
that is, it does not denote weight or heaviness, but it is used to express metaphorical
meaning; to have a low number of calories or a low amount of sugar, or to be sugar
free. The visual mode also expresses a nonliteral use of an image; the ant does not and
cannot in reality carry this can walking on this thin branch in this way. So, it is a
metaphorical visual use.
3.4.2 Conducting a Recognition Test
The second level of the research procedure is that of conducting

cognition test. To investigate to what extent the Iraqi EFL learners are
familiar with and can identify M.Ms and to find out to what extent text is
important and M.Ms can/cannot be interpreted with/without it, the
recognition test has been done. The recognition test consists of twenty
samples that are presented to learners twice; first the multimodal figures are
stripped of texts and left with visual elements only and exposed them to
M.A. learners of different genders and study branches in Tikrit University.
Then, after four/five days, the original multimodal figures (verbo-pictorial)
are exposed again to the same learners and the results are compared (see
appendix III, P.184). The results of the recognition test will show if there
are/are not any differences in the responses of linguistics verse
methodology, literature, translation learners, males versus females, and if
there are differences in which directions? In addition, the results will show
the importance of linguistic elements in M.Ms and in which direction and
in what kinds they are more important and in which they are less important
or can be interpreted with/without them (for the way the program used in
analysing the statistical findings see appendix V, P.191). To enhance the
clarification of the recognition test procedures, an extract example is
presented below:
First step: Text is removed from the multimodal figure and presented to
M.A. learners with three questions:
1. Do you understand the metaphorical meaning of the figure?
Yes No
2. How long does it take you to understand the metaphorical meaning?
More than 5 seconds
Less than 5 seconds
3. Explain your understanding of the metaphorical meaning of the figure

________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
Figure (3.5) Sample of the Recognition Test Formula without Text
Second step: After four/five days the original M.Ms are presented with the
same questions to the same learners:
1. Do you understand the metaphorical meaning of the figure?
Yes No
2. How long does it take you to understand the metaphorical meaning?
More than 5 seconds
Less than 5 seconds
3. Explain your understanding of the metaphorical meaning of the figure

_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________.
Figure (3.6) Sample of the Recognition Test Formula with Text
3.4.3 Face Validity
Validity is, according to Gregory (1992: 117), the extent to which a test
measures what it is supposed to measure. A test is said to be valid if it
measures what is claimed to measure.
Face validity is defined as a test is said to have face validity if it is

viewed to measures what is is intended to measure. The test should look
right and dependable to test administrators, moderators and teachers
(Hughes, 1989:27).
Validity is a judgmental subject, not a statistical one. Experts are the
ones who must determine if the test represents an adequate coverage of a
certain subject (Anderson & Morgan, 2008:16)
Face validity is the most essential kind of validity. It implies the
extent to which the content of a test reflects the area of knowledge of skills
for which the test is built. The judgment is frequently made by experts who
determine, check and analyze the test and prove its content and purpose.
The specialists' decision is therefore considered as a sign of face validity.
In order to ensure the face validity of this study's recognition test, the
researcher has consulted jury members by submitting each member a copy
of the recognition test with a letter requesting them to give their opinions
about the recognition test's face validity (see appendix I, P.181 and
appendix II, P.182). With some notes, recommendations and modifications,
the jurors have attested the recognition test formula to measure what it is
intended to.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
This chapter is devoted to representing three subsections. Firstly, it
represents part A; a detailed analysis of twenty qualitative samples of
M.Ms according to Fauconnier and Turner's Conceptual Blending Theory
(2002). Secondly, it provides part B; the findings of quantitative analysis.
Finally, it presents part C; the discussion of the findings of both qualitative
and quantitative analyses.
Part A. Qualitative Data Analysis
4.1 Analysis of Advertisement No.1
Figure (4.1a) Commercial Advertisement No.1
https://www.adsoftheworld.com/campaigns/don-t-let-the-bill
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: CUT-PRICE IS A REASURING THING
A SHOPPING BILL IS A SCARY SNAKE
SD: a shopping bill is in a snake-like shape
TD: there are special offers/cutting down prices
Modality: Multimodal metaphor

SD: visually presented
TD: verbally/ visually presented
Figure (4.1b) the Metaphorical Description of Cognitive Analysis and Modality
4.1.1 On the Advertisement
The sample is taken from the Pinterest site. The advertisement

depicts a long white wavy receipt of a shopping bill with its front like the
posture of a snake when it tries to attack. The figure also contains an
anchor on the top of the picture; it says: "Don't let the bill scare you".
The advertisement creator wants creatively to convey that there are

cut-prices and things on sale, so he/she employs a M.M. by means of which
he can use multimode that each adds their own private meaning and
impression to deliver his/her message as well as possible. He portrays a
long shopping bill in the shape of a terrifying snake, implying that a long
shopping bill is usually as scary as a snake. However, he verbally disputes
that, saying frankly, "Don't let the bill scare you." It is not here, yet
elsewhere you have to be upset and scared of the long bill where things are
expensive. Here, you have to be at ease since you, in the end, only have to
pay a little no matter how long the bill is.
4.1.2 Analysis of the Blending Network
Bringing the two apparently unrelated modes; the visual and verbal,
together get a very far-reaching meaning in the blend space, which is based
on the two inputs; the visual and verbal. Input space1; the visual space
contains a long shopping receipt taking the shape of a cobra snake ready to
attack. Input space2; the verbal space contains a reassuring phrase "Don't
let the bill scare you''. The generic space includes the shared elements;
scare, worry, harm, safety and reassurance. Integrating the two input
spaces with additional elements, the emergent meaning comes up in the
blend. Though mostly long shopping bills indicate expensiveness, this time
where the advertisement is, is of special offers and cut- down prices, so
even long bills do not mean paying a lot. Both, pictorial mode that
manifests the SD and verbal mode that manifests the TD are metaphorical.
The bill is metaphorically not literally taking the shape of a snake and; it is
not a real cobra. Likewise, the word 'scare' is not literally used; it is just a
piece of paper not predatory animal. It is used to express 'worry' or
'concern'.
The two domains are not in the same direction. The visual one
promotes worry, scare, and harm, when seen a snake. The verbal domain
tells something different; putting at rest and calming down. Mixing the two
opposite-direction domains jointly comes up with a very creative
metaphorical message. Long bills commonly worry and frighten customers,
especially low-income customers, which is metaphorically manifested with
the shape of a terrifying cobra snake, is mixed with the verbal mode which
tells people to be at ease and put the customers' minds at rest because here
(the place of the advertisement) is an exception. There are cut-prices or
special offers, so customers need not to concern about what they are
buying.
Figure (4.2a) Commercial Advertisement No. 2
https://dzinewatch.com/2013/07/creative-advertising-posters
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: VOLKSWAGEN CAR IS SAFE ON ROADS
SD: a rushed unexpected things on roads; a sheep
TD: a new model of brand car are with electronic
brake system

TD: verbally presented
4.2.1 On the advertisement
This advertisement is taken from the DzineWatch site. The

advertisement contains an enlarged face of a sheep that is pushed into the
middle of the road by a spring. At the bottom of the ad image there are two
sentences: one is in bold and large font size, "You'll never be surprised on
road again'' and the other is smaller and non-bold, "the electronic brakes
assist system of CC''.
It is an advertisement for a Volkswagen brand car, which advertises

that this model of Volkswagen is provided with a very good brake system.
The designer intends to ensure that these models of cars are provided with
this electric brake system and drivers no longer have to worry or be anxious
on roads. With this system of brakes, a driver can stop and have control
over his car even when a sheep rushes with the power of a spring pushing
it. An advertisement is an effective marketing tool that induces people to
buy products by showing the properties of those targeted products. Having
control over their vehicle is one of the most crucial things for drivers
because safety is first. Because many accidents are caused by animals,
particularly on high roads when drivers are speeding on long distance trips,
and because braking is associated with life and death, the creator chooses to
emphasize this property.
Trying to attract the drivers' intention for this model of car, the
advertisement creator employed visual and linguistic modes together. Two
different inputs are being mapped to get the targeted metaphorical message;
input1 which is represented visually, contains: an animal with a very close
face, a spring pushing it into a high way. Input2 is presented linguistically:
ensuring drivers that they will never be surprised on roads again. The
promotion for this cross-mapping is the generic space, which involves:
marketing, a possible accident, surprise and control. The blend space is
the total sum of not only integrating the inputs by means of common
knowledge, however, the sum has some additive elements which use other
issues like social, cultural, and religious competence to produce the
relevant emergent meaning. It contains an advertisement for a brand car of
new model of Volkswagen that is provided with a new brake system that
lets drivers have a complete control and ability over stopping their vehicle
wherever and whenever needed.
Two different modes of communication are employed here; verbal and
visual, in order for the designer to metaphorically advertise a creative
advertisement. At a first glance, they seem to be unfit, but when looking
more carefully, blending the two spaces metaphorically, the outcome is
creative. The designer presented the SD visually, in which there is a sheep
with big eyes and a detailed face to denote to what extent it is close to the
driver. On its back, there is a spring pushing it fast into the middle of the
road, causing the driver to be in a confused state. The sheep here is only a
metonym of (part for whole) to be a representative of other animals that
cause problems for cars. The TD is cued verbally to tell that drivers are no
longer to be surprised by animals and they need not worry since their cars
are provided a with dependable brake system that enables drivers to stop
their vehicle promptly when needed.
Figure (4.3a) Commercial Advertisement No.3

https://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/outdoor/huawei_coffe
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: HUAWEI BRAND IS A COMPLETE
WATERPROOF PHONE
SD: Huawei phone is in coffee beans spilt like coffee
TD: Huawei is a magical waterproof brand phone

The advertisement is taken from the Ads of the World site. It is a

very creative one that was designed for the Huawei brand phone company.
The advertisement shows coffee beans scattered from a fallen cup. A
Huawei G9600 mobile phone is covered with coffee beans. There seems to
be a notebook beside the cup, and it is on a table. Up in the picture on the
right there is a linguistic expression which says: ' G9600 Water-proof
mobile phone' and the word 'Huawei' with the brand slogan of the
company.
It is a very creative advertisement. The metaphorical meaning the

creative director wants to deliver is that, the Huawei G9600 mobile phone
is an absolute water-proof mobile phone and resists a cup of coffee like a
cup of coffee beans. It does not matter if things are liquid or solid because
it feels like they are solid.
Without combining the two different modes of spaces together, the

metaphorical meaning of the advertisement is hard to be created in the
same degree and way of creativity, clarity and attention-grabbing. Input1
which is represented visually, contains: a fallen cup of coffee beans
scattered around and a Huawei mobile phone is covered in. Input2 which
is rendered verbally says G9600 Water-proof Mobile Phone and the
marketing, Huawei Water-resistance, spilling liquid, and brand mobile
phones are the elements of generic space here.
The blend space contains the emergent metaphorical meaning. The

advertisement shows customers the property of water-resistance and claims
to what extent it is safe with liquids. It is not dry coffee beans that have
been spilt over the Huawei phone, but rather a regular liquid coffee, and
what appears in the picture is what (claimed) the Huawei phone feels or to
be influenced by, as when dry coffee beans are placed on it. So, the coffee
beans are metaphorical, not real visual portrayed. Though smart and super
creative, the advertisement is hard to understand unless the verbal is
present. It is the trigger, or the key, that establishes metaphorical meaning.
The source is cued visually, and the target verbally. Both are necessary and
unavoidable if the current meaning is to be maintained to the same degree
of creativity and attention-grabbing.
https://www.hongkiat.com/blog/brilliant-creative- billboard-
advertisements
also available on hatalska.com
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: HOBBY RAZOR BLADE IS EXTREMELY

SHARP
SD: a billboard in shape of a razor blade with
scattered halves of pigeons below
TD: Hobby razor blade is incredibly sharp

This advertisement is available on the Hatalaska and also on the

Hongkiat sites. It is a billboard advertisement on the pavement. There is a
big razor on a high post in the middle of the pavement where pedestrians
pass. Down on the ground, on both sides of the razor, there are halves of
pigeons scattered around. People are walking there, go and back, some
buildings and some vehicles. Some linguistic expressions have been written
on the razor 'Hobby Razor Blade 35/0, 1mm', 'EXTREMELY SHARP', and
'Martor Slogingen Germany'.
Billboard advertisements are often positioned on the pavement of

roads, but drivers are not easily endanger their lives and be distracted by
looking at any billboard ad; it is essential for advertisement creators to
make ones that are intriguing, creative and attention-grabbing to force
drivers to have a look. Figure (4.4a) represents that type of advertisement.
It is really creative and fascinating. The billboard advertisement
metaphorically depicts the sharpness of the razor brand to cut incredibly
even a pigeon if lands on its edge. Scattered halves of pigeons can be seen
in front and behind the razor blade on the ground. It is an amazing and
really attractive idea, which even attracts the attention of others who are
event not in need of.
Analyzing mental blending network, it is necessary to know what

each space includes for certain mental processes. In regard to figure (4.4a)
input1 contains visual elements: a big razor billboard advertisement on the
pavement and halves of pigeons on the ground. Input2 includes verbal
expressions: hobby razor blade, extremely sharp and Martor Slogingen
Germany. Generic space contains: attracting customers and extreme
sharpness. The blend space is the overall metaphorical meaning of
combining visual-cum-verbal means. After all, this billboard advertisement
is metaphorically supposed to show the attribute of razor blade sharpness
that is liked and wanted by customers or users. Both visual and verbal
modes that represent the source and target domains respectively intensively
support one another in exposing the property of sharpness. It is the visual
mode that is metaphorical. The spilt pigeons are the metaphorical element
in this multimodal metaphor ad, in that they are neither real nor realist
events. It cannot be to cut them into halves whatever its sharpness is, they
are so light and cannot be spilt in this way unless something presses them
down to the razor blade.
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: PEPSI LIGHT IS HEALTHY AND SUGARE

FREE
SD: an ant carrying a Pepsi can on a thin branch
TD: it is healthy for diabetes and who are going
on a diet
Modality: Multi-modal metaphor

SD: visually/ verbally presented
It is taken from the Pinterest site. This advertisement features a can

of Pepsi light is carried by an ant. The ant is walking on a very thin branch.
It is an outdoor place and seems to be in a forest or firm. This Pepsi can
carries the brand slogan of Pepsi Light production.
It is a commercial promotional advertisement. Pepsi light is also
called Pepsi diet. The metaphorical meaning the advertisement designer
wants to deliver is the exaggeration of the lightness of Pepsi's light
production. The product has been described metaphorically as being so
light that even an ant can carry a whole can. He wants to attract customers
who are diabetic and those who are concerned about their weight. It has a
very low amount of sugar or it an absolute sugar free.
Understanding a multimodal metaphor does not require an

individual, but a set of mental processes. The first component of this
network is the pair of inputs. Input1 encompasses pictorial elements. It
contains: a can of Pepsi light is carried by an ant which is walking on a
thin branch and a brand slogan. Input2 represents linguistic element. It
includes: Pepsi light. The ground of the cross-mapping of the two inputs,
which is an important component of the mental processing, is generic
space, which here contains: commercial promotion, weight, low sugar and
calories. The final component of the network is the outcome of the process;
the blend. It has the metaphorical meaning of the advertisement that this
product is safe and suitable mainly for people who suffer from diabetes or
those who are going on a diet because this product has a low amount of
sugar and number calories.
Both the target, which is linguistically cued, and the source, which is
pictorially cued, are metaphorically presented. The word "light" is not
literally used, that is, it does not denote weight or heaviness, but it is used
to express metaphorical meaning; to have a low number of calories or a low
amount of sugar, or to be sugar free. The visual mode also expresses a
nonliteral use of an image; the ant does not and cannot in reality carry this
can walking on this thin branch in this way. So, it is a metaphorical visual
use.
4.6 Analysis of Caricature No.1
Figure (4.6 a) Caricature No. 1
https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202204/1260500.shtml
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: THE U.S. AND ITS ALLIES ARENOT

HELPER FORUKRAINE BUT TO
WEAKEN RUSSIA'S STRENGTH
SD: the U.S. adds fuel to the fire of Russian

Ukraine conflict
TD: the U.S.'s self-interest towards the
Ukraine crisis
Modality Multi-Modal metaphor
4.6.1 On the Caricature
It is adopted from the Global Times site. It depicts a large traditional

pot on fire with some are burning and others are not burnt. It is filled with
boiling liquid. In the middle of that, there is the map of Ukraine. On the
side of the pan "Ukraine crisis" is written. A hurry American man (Uncle
Sam) as symbolized by the colours of the US flag on his hat and pajamas.
The man is drawn in the picture of a wizard; wizard nose and chin. This
picture is common in films, cartoons, and stories. It connotes wickedness
and evil. He is pushing a wheelbarrow filled with firewood and mortar
shells or missiles, taking them to the boiling pan.
The Ukraine crisis has been exploited by other countries to settle

scores among them. The cartoonist has drawn this caricature 60 days after
the breakout of the Russia-Ukraine conflict. Up to that moment, the U.S.
had coordinated military aid to Ukraine from about 30 countries. The U.S.
Defense Secretary has invited 40 allies to a meeting to discuss military
assistance to help Ukraine upgrade its modern military. It goes without
saying that the U.S. hopes to consolidate Western military resources and
greatly weaken Russia through the conflict. U.S. wants to prolong the
Ukraine crisis and not end shortly in order to weaken Russia and drain on
its resources. U.S. and its allies will provide Ukraine with humanitarian,
military and economic assistance to Ukraine.
Expressing multimodal metaphors involves blending two different

mental spaces. Input1 space contains visual elements which include: a
traditional pot on fire in the middle the map of Ukraine, and an American
man with a wizard's nose and chin adding firewood and missiles to the fire.
Input2 contains a verbal element that says Ukraine crisis. The motivation
for the cross-mapping is the generic space, which includes the common
elements: longing war crisis, bad exploitation, supplying weaponry and
damage intention. The blend contains the meaning of merging the two
spaces invited by the generic spaces and additive elements to get the
metaphorical meaning. It has been metaphorically expressed that FIRE IS
WAR because most military tools use fire and all weapons to kill and
destroy what is in front. Both are destructive.
The map of Ukraine, which is in the middle of the boiling liquid,

symbolizes that Ukraine is deeply involved in the conflict and again hot or
boiling here metaphorically expresses war and conflict; Ukraine is
unsounded by attacks. It is visual mode that represents metaphoricity not
verbal one. Ukraine is metaphorically in a boiling liquid on slow fire and
an American man who brings firewood to keep fire on. The U.S. and many
of its allies are the helpers or providers of weaponry and other logistical
assistances for Ukraine. Their real aim is not to help Ukraine to protect
itself; instead, their ultimate goal is to support Ukraine in fighting a
protracted war with Russia, which can be completely weakened in this way.
Ukraine and NATO are, in essence, engaged in a proxy war with Russia by
supplying Kyiv with weaponry. Like cooking a meal on a slow fire, which
needs time and fuel, longing the conflict can weaken and destroy Russia's
forces in the long term drains which is left alone against over 40
countries. The SD is cued visually while the TD is verbally.
Figure (4.7a) Caricature No. 2
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: RUSSIA IS A RED LINE FOR NATO
SD: the NATO military boot is about to step on a red
line.
TD: Russia's attitude towards the NATO expansion

Figure (4.7b) the Metaphorical Description of Cognitive analysis and Modality
4.7.1On the caricature
This caricature is taken from the GlobalTimes site. The caricature

displays a desert sand-coloured military boot, which is worn by an
American figure symbolised by the U.S. flag colours on the leg. On the top
side, there is the logo symbol of NATO organisation with its abbreviated
name; NATO. This NATO foot is about to step on Russia's boundary
which is depicted as red line.
The U.S.-led NATO pushed for five major eastward expansions

toward Russia previously, leaving the Ukraine crisis ready to erupt at any
time. Rivalry is the fundamental factor underlining the worst geopolitical
crisis in the new century. For the U.S., NATO expansion is designed to
ensure its "absolute security", but for Russia, it is an issue of life or death.
Although Russia proposed unequivocally to the U.S. and NATO that there
should be no more expansion and deployment of aggressive weapons in its
neighbouring countries, the US turned a deaf ear to its serious security
concerns. The metaphorical meaning the cartoonist wants to convey is that
Russia is a forbidden area for NATO to come close to. It is not like the
other expansions NATO has made before.
The caricature's metaphorical meaning is composed of underlying

components of mental spaces to get or come up with this image in the
mind. To start with, a pair of mental input spaces. Input1 is represented
visually. It contains: an army boot with a logo of NATO on it, it is worn by
an American leg and it is about to step on a red line. On the other hand,
input2 is represented verbally here. It includes NATO and Russia. Those
two input mental spaces are cross-mapped under the supervision of the
shared ground between the two, the generic space. It contains: aggressive
expansion, forbidden area, crisis and war.
The blend space is the gist of mixing the other spaces and other
additive elements. Its emergent meaning here tells that Russia is a red line
for NATO approach. The red line metaphorically means that Russia's
boundary is forbidden to pass or even come close to the neighbouring
countries. The military boot is a metonymy for a soldier (part for whole), as
it is an essential part of any soldier and it is the first part of the body to
enter when invading a country or land. In the same vein, a soldier is a
representative of militaries for NATO organization, which is the cause of
the Ukraine crisis when trying to include Ukraine in NATO. Such
metaphorical meaning is established by means of complementary visual-
cum-verbal modes. Both are indispensable and only jointly can draw such a
clear descriptive image. Visual mode serves the source domain and
linguistic one the target.
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: U.S.A. IS A DECEPTIVE REGIME

SD: with two shots; in the first an American is promising
democracy to an Afghan kid, in the second an
American fighter is dropping bombs on the kid's town.
TD: fake U.S. democracy and freedom

TD: verbally/visually presented
This caricature is available on the Global Times site. The designer

has utilized a different designation in which two complementary
chronological shots are made. In the first one, we have an American man
(Uncle Sam), as shown by wearing the colours of U.S. flag and having stars
on his clothes and top hat. He is depicted as a wizard; wizard's nose and
chin. He is standing on one knee facing a kid and putting his right hand on
the kid's shoulder. He is telling or reassuring the small boy by telling him:
''Take it easy! Democracy is on the way''. On the left side there is a town,
and above, behind the American there is an American fighter. In the second
picture, two American fighters are dropping bombs on the town, and smoke
clouds are rising. The kid is crying, and the American man is running
away.
The caricature in general is aimed to tell metaphorically that under

the pretext of spreading 'democracy' and bringing freedom U.S. invaded,
destructed, and achieved its goals and plundering their resources. Iraq and
Afghanistan are the best examples of that. They were invaded under the
excuse of toppling dictators and bringing freedom and democracy to those
countries. Under these tricked excuse, many countries have been destroyed,
left in a mess and in a chaotic situation in all aspects.
The cross-mapped spaces of the conceptual network are input1 and

input2 which are not of the same kind; visual and verbal, respectively.
Input1 contains: two shots; In the first, the U.S. promises Afghanistan and
in second its fighters drop bombs. Input2, on the other hand, contains: Take
it easy! Democracy is on the way. Those two spaces are invited to be
mapped by a space called generic. It contains: deception, a deceitful
democracy and fake freedom. The blend space contains the metaphorical
final output. The two clips together show metaphorically how U.S.A. has
exploited the excuse of 'spreading democracy' and 'brining freedom' to
achieve its goals and how under the names of democracy and freedom, it
has exported death and destruction. Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq are the best
examples. These countries have been destroyed in all aspects and brought
death in which more than a thousand have either been killed or injured. The
U.S. always adopts an extremely utilitarian approach and acts in full
accordance with its own interests. It is pictorial media that represents
metaphorical meaning and verbal media conveys the targeted specific
metaphorical message.
The TD is verbally rendered, while the SD is manifested by both

visual and verbal. The visual mode is more essential than the verbal one.
The importance of visual mode lies in the representation of the word
'democracy'. Though the visual mode can metaphorically express an
interpretable meaning to certain extent, yet the verbal one plainly manifests
the targeted specific message.
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: THE U.S. GOVERNMENT IS IRRESPONSIBLE

AND UNRELIABLE
SD: a departing American military vehicle leaving
An Afghan amputee walks on a crutch with his kid,
in his back his damaged house
TD: the U.S.A. sudden hasty withdrawal and
Afghanistan situation after it
Modality: Multi-modal metaphor

It is taken from the Global Times site. It shows an American military

vehicle going away from an Afghan old man and his small boy. He is
wearing a white turban and is standing on a crutch because he has had a leg
amputated. It seems that the simple house behind is theirs. It is in a bad
situation. Linguistically, the American attitude says: ''good thing is you are
going to decide your future!" and the word "Afghanistan" is written on a
small wooden board.
The cartoonist has well employed metaphoricity in reflecting his

idea, otherwise it could not be that expressive, vivid, accurate. He wants to
describe the irresponsible, ill-considered, self-interested decision
of withdrawal from Afghanistan. Without a formal notification or even any
previous notice and in a hurry, the U.S. government withdrew its troops.
They did not pay any attention to what could happen to the Afghan
military, government, or people. They only care for their own interests and
do not bother to do anything for the sake of others. Regardless of the
others, their logo is "America is first." They left Afghanistan in a miserable
situation in all aspects.
Input1 and input2 are the first elements to be taken into account
when considering blending network. Input1 is manifested by visual
elements that are here: an American military vehicle going away of an old
amputee with his kid, and his poor-conditioned house. Input2 is manifested
by linguistic expressions: good thing is you are going to decide your future
and Afghanistan. The next consideration is generic space, which includes
abandonment, irresponsibility, and letting down. The final and most
important step in the network is the blend. It contains the metaphorical
emergent meaning that the U.S. hasty military withdrawal from
Afghanistan was an irresponsible, ill-considered, and self-centered
decision. The U.S. moral credibility is deformed by abandoning Afghan
forces and people to face alone the current security dilemma and chaotic
situation and to demonstrate to what extent America does not care for
others and its logo "America first."
The M.M. in figure (4.9a) is a two-sided metonymy. The U.S.

military departing vehicle stands for the whole American withdrawal
forces. The old Afghan man with his small boy and house symbolizes
Afghanistan. It can show the bad and weak condition the whole Afghan
forces and different classes of people have been left in. The U.S., as usual,
follows a utilitarian approach.
The target domain has been represented linguistically, whereas the

source domain has been pictorially. Both are essential here to convey the
metaphorical meaning.
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: AMERICA IS A VIOLATOR OF
INTERNATIONAL RULES
SD: an American hummer runs over traffic cones,
tape and stop signs
TD: America does not respect or follow
international rules when they intersect or conflict with its interests
Modality: Multi-Modal metaphor

TD: verbally-visually presented
This caricature is available on the GlobalTimes site. The cartoonist

has portrayed this caricature as an issue of traffic. It shows an American
big hummer driving fast, breaking the red line and running over many
traffic signs that say 'stop'; cones, tape. Traffic signs are scattered
everywhere. The American hummer is recklessly and dangerously taking
over the other two small cars. The hummer has the American flag on its
front part, and the driver also wears a hat in the colours of the American
flag.
The whole subject of figure (4.10a) has been organised in a

metaphorical vein. The cartoonist wants smartly to show the disrespect and
violation of U.S. for international rules by showing that they are only
exploited by great countries that direct them for their special interests.
America, when its interests require, runs over and throws away
international rules, nonetheless calls for the others non-great to strictly
follow them.
4.10.2 Analysis of the Blend Network
Understanding international rules in terms of transition rules is a

metaphorical process that needs a conceptual network of multi-stages, not a
single. Two conceptual input spaces are cross-mapped. These two mental
spaces involve different input modes; visual and verbal. Input1 includes a
visual element here: a giant American hummer is driving fast and running
over traffic signs. Input2 includes two verbal elements: international rules
and stop. The generic space contains violations, disrespect, and
exploitation. The metaphorical meaning lies in the blend space. The U.S. is
the dominant force in the world today that overrides, violates, and does not
follow international rules if they intersect with its interests. It is its special
interests that come first, not rules or laws, all can be changed or directed to
achieve American interests.
The whole figure (4.10a) is formed in the shape of metaphoricity. It

is neither transition signs nor cars that the figure is about. Traffic signs,
cars, roads, and transition rules are only metaphors to express the
international rules and their elements in terms of transition rules. The huge
car stands for a strong country that can, when it services its interests,
override or violate the
traffic rules that in reality symbolise international rules. The other small
cars are the simple countries that can do nothing or change the decisions of
great countries, even if it is the right of those small countries, but it is
strength that dominates. The traffic signs stand for other elements of
international rules or sub-rules. They are thrown in this way everywhere
and overridden by the U.S. when wanted. They are Scattered around
expresses the inference and disrespect of U.S. for international rules and
the way it deals with them. The SD is realised visually and the TD is
verbally.
4.11 Analysis of Social Media Poster No.1
Figure (4.11a) Social Media Poster No.1
/https://www.pinterest.com/pin/386605949262613504
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: SOCIAL MEDIA IS DECEPTIVE
SD: sad real face, happy on social media
TD: do not believe all what you see on social
media
4.11.1 On the Poster
The poster is taken from the Pinterest site. It shows a girl painting
herself on Instagram (posting her picture). She is weeping and sad, and her
tears are dropping down her cheeks. On Instagram, she paints herself
as enjoyable and happy.
This poster is aimed to display the fake emotions on social media
and the difference between life in reality and what is seen on platforms.
Myriads of unreal, false, fake, and deceptive posters are posted every day
about different topics and issues. False or adopted emotions of feelings are
amongst the many spread on platforms. Posters' posters may maximise or
minimise emotions of sadness or happiness for a reason or another, but
mainly to gain others' reactions, comments, and interactions. They may
pretend to be happier or sadder, more positive or negative, innocent or
depressed than they really are in reality.
Conceiving of two distinct worlds, real and virtual, is a complex

conceptual process involving the blending of multiple components into
sequential mental spaces.Input1 is visually represented here by two
different shots of a girl; real and virtual. In the real world, she is weeping,
while on Instagram, she is laughing. Input2 is manifested linguistically, it
contains: Instagram. The shared knowledge between the pair of spaces is
generic that here involves: deceptive self-representation, unreal feelings
and emotions, and the virtue world is fake. The final outcome of this
sequential conceptual process is the blend space that involves the advanced
elements and other additive issues. It includes the metaphorical emergent
meaning that is, the social media is a new world, but not real i.e., virtual
world. The two worlds are different and people adopt different or extreme
opposite identities. They adopt or pretend what they want or think
themselves are. Figure (4.11a) metaphorically clarifies how social media
are a field of deceptive self-representation. People experience and hide
certain feelings and post the opposite of those on platforms without being
at the risk of being identified as such. In reality, even if you say, for
instance, you are happy, your voice, your eyes, and your posture can tell
the truth. it is not only speech that talks in the real world, but many other
things as well. Such things are not found in the virtual world and that is
why it is unreal and we do not have to believe all what we see, read, or
hear.
Visual mode that represents the source and serves the target to be expressed
linguistically is essential here. It is a visual dependent that plays the main
role in showing the meaning of the picture. The linguistic mode serves a
secondary function in that it confirms and provides keys for interpretation.
It is the context (visual context); the frame of the phone, the buttons, the
symbols on the bottom and other elements that can give additional
information to be understood. Visual context strengthens the role of visual
mode and diminishes the role of linguistic mode, letting the picture be more
visually interpretable.
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: PRIVACY IS CRUCIFIED BY SOCIAL

MEDIA
PRIVACY IS EXECUTED BY SOCIAL MEDIA
SD: a human body nailed on Facebook logo
TD: privacy violation


The poster is taken from the Pinterest site. It displays the big logo of
Facebook on which a human body is being crucified. The type of shoes and
the length of hair that covers her face clarify that she is a woman. There is a
board hanging on the body that says "privacy". The woman's hands were
nailed bleeding on the crossbeam of the "F" letter of Facebook's name, and
even some drops of blood are on the ground.
A very genius metaphorical picture is drawn by the poster maker to
vividly and creatively deliver his figurative message. He metaphorically
portrayed the invasion/violation of privacy in the way of personification (a
woman is executed/hung on the old Greek and Latin capital punishment
called crucifixion) by social media (Facebook logo represents the stauros
on which privacy is crucified). Facebook, which is a representative of all
social media platforms, has crucified (ruined or violated) privacy by social
media. For example, as more personal information gets placed on profiles
of social platforms, there is an increased danger of hackers, companies, or
malicious interlopers mining your data in ways that undermine personal
privacy. Countless posters are posted every day on social media; pictures,
videos, texts or other types of data can be downloaded/copied/ saved, or
taken as a screenshot and have them on other's phones to use when and the
way they want. Pictures, for instance, can be edited from a simple edition
to a complete transformation. Write texts, change faces, add new people
not found in the real copy to use them in blackmailing/threatening to get
money/ sexual desire.
Family and personal privacy have been invaded by social media
platforms with or without the consent of the posters. Recently, with the
development of social media programs, many families and people share
their daily routines on social media. They share everything, private or
public; their food, their clothes, cleaning the house, buying new things,
even their sleeping rooms, and women appear in indecent clothes. They
share everything that happens with them. Viewers, especially their
followers, feel as if they live with them. So, these countless and increasing
numbers of families have really crucified privacy by the hand of social
media. Many other cases of privacy killing are found on social media.
It is the conceptual network that enables people to conceive the

metaphoricity of crucifying privacy. Blending different modes and getting
the meaning. Input1 represented pictorially, contains: privacy (personified
as a woman) is crucified on the Facebook logo as the stauros. Input2,
linguistically manifested, contains: privacy. Represents the umbrella under
which the two inputs are cross-mapped, generic space
includes: invading, ruining and breaching. The container of the
metaphorical outcome is blend space.
It contains that privacy (metaphorically personified as a woman) is
being crucified (invaded, violated, ruined or breached) by social media
(Facebook is representative), Facebook logo is depicted as the stake/
stauros on which privacy is crucified. Metaphoricity is expressed visually;
privacy (metaphorically visualized as a crucified woman and literally used
here as verbal mode). It is personified as a human being that is tortured,
nailed to a stake to be killed, and ended. It is killed on Facebook logo that
is portrayed here as the stauros or platform on which to execute (invade,
violate) privacy. Facebook here is not only a stage; not merely a place of
crucifixion, but it is the doer; the cause of privacy killing.
Visual mode expresses the SD and linguistic one expresses the TD.
Both are indispensable and complementary to each other.
https://medium.com/@noam717/how-to-make-facebook-less-addictive-
fe8c46fbf9ee
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: FACEBOOK/SOCIAL MEDIA IS
DRUG
SD: a man is sniffing drug
TD: Social media/Facebook addiction
Modality Multimodal metaphor

ST: visually presented
The poster is taken from the Medium site, a special page. It depicts
an addicted boy sorting by a rolled paper a white drug substance. The white
drug substance is made/ rendered to form the word "Facebook".
It is a metaphorical message that says; Facebook and social media

platforms have been addicted to by lots of people, in particular, teenagers,
as it is the case with drugs. Social media addiction is a behavioural
addiction that is defined by being overly concerned about social media,
driven by an uncontrollable urge to log on to or use social media, and
devoting so much time and effort to social media that it impairs other
important life areas. It is a frequently used term these days, as countless
teens are seen to be spending an outrageous amount of their time on the
social networking platform. The most worrisome part is that they start
neglecting other aspects of their life as a result, including studies, physical
activities, real-life interactions, etc. Social media are likened to drugs and
the word "addiction" is being used to describe the uncontrollability or
inability to constrain yourself from using drugs and social media. Checking
and scrolling through social media have become an increasingly popular
activity over the last decade. Addictive social media use will look much
like any other substance use disorder and may include mood modification .
An addicted is snorting a white drug substance, but he in reality

snorting the name of Facebook that made by this substance. So, how that
could be figured out? It needs blending all what the figure contains and gets
the final outcome; however that is not done in one mental space nor one
mental stage. Inputs are the first component to take. Input1 is represented
by visual mode that includes: an addicted snorting a white drug by which
"Facebook" word is written. Input2 linguistically represented that contains:
Facebook. These two conceptual spaces are mapped by the help of
generic space. It includes: addiction, uncontrollable urge and inability to
quit. The last final stage of the network is the blend where the metaphorical
meaning is laid. It involves here that social media networks; Facebook,
Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat etc. are addicted to by countless people
mainly teenagers. It shows an addicted boy sniffing a drug powder, which
is Facebook's name, to metaphorically express that people became addicted
to social media networks.
Originally, the term "addiction" is for a drug that is
neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge
to use drugs. Here, it is portrayed by sniffing to be used with Facebook to
figuratively express the overusing and the psychological condition that
compels someone to be overly concerned of social media. So, people are
not really sniffing social media networks, but they are addicted to them, in
the sense that they are unable to quit or abandon them, even if they are
harmful to them. Besides addiction, harm is another shared item between
social media and drugs. Both drugs and social media are harmful to people
nonetheless, they do not abandon them.
Linguistic mode that is used literally here, manifests the source while
visual mode that expresses the metaphorical meaning, manifests the target.
Both are indispensible and crucial to express this meaning in this way and
degree.
https://www.isrgrajan.com/teenagers-the-darkside-of-social-networking-
sites-in-india.html
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: FACEBOOK/SOCIAL MEDIA EATS UP TIME
FACEBOOK/SOCIAL MEDIA IS TIME CONSUMER
SD: 'Facebook' word portrayed as an open mouth that

wants to eat a o'clock
TD: Facebook /social media

The poster is taken from the ISRGKB site. It shows a Facebook name
made as an open mouth that wants to devour an o'clock.
The poster is aimed at expressing the expenditure or wasting of time

people usually expend on social media. People in general and teenagers in
particular are wasting hours scrolling their phones uselessly. They spend
their time watching movies, TV online, chatting, etc., which eats up a lot of their
useful time. Some teenagers spend 17/16 hours on some days . Because it has
an endless series of items; videos, images, news, articles, comments, replies
and etc., and all these items are in continuous update, so people start
browsing and scrolling one after another to end up spending hours without
feeling, destructing them and eating up their useful time. The social media
platforms themselves are evolving their tools and options to further
attract and engage new audiences (e.g. advent of live-streaming features
and 360-degree photos/videos). Currently, total time spent on social
media beats time spent eating and drinking, socializing, and grooming.
Social media are number one stealer of time
4.14.2 Analysis of Blend Network
To conceive the idea that Facebook eating an o'clock, needs a

complex mental process. Facebook is not merely an inanimate object that
cannot eat; it is untouchable and people cannot feel it. Imagining such an
unreal thing is mentally sequential. Two inputs get mapped under the
observation of generic space to get the blend space. Input1 which is
represented visually here contains: the name of Facebook, is portrayed as
an open mouth that wants to devour a o'clock. Input2 that is represented
verbally here contains: Facebook. Generic space contains: consuming/
wasting/ running out of time.
The blend space contains the metaphorical meaning that the

Facebook or social media in general is consuming/ eating up people's time.
Metaphoricity is expressed visually. Facebook is an inanimate abstract
thing that neither has a mouth nor can be touched. Facebook is
metaphorically expressed as eating up or consuming time. Even 'eating
up/consuming' is figuratively used here. It is food or edible things that can
be eaten, not time, eating and consuming wanted to refer to the expenditure
of time that is spent or wasted time as if eating it up or finishing it up.
Another metaphor is a case of symbolism; the o'clock stands for time. The
linguistic mode is used non-metaphorically; the 'Facebook' word.
The target domain is cued verbally and the source one is visually.
Both modes are inevitable and indispensable in order to jointly form this
metaphorical meaning in its current situation.
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: FACEBOOK/SOCIAL MEDIA IS A
PRISON
SD: someone is in prison
TD: Facebook /social media are social prison

ِ TD: verbally presented
This poster is taken from the Pinterest site. It shows someone in

prison, grasping with his two fists the bars of the prison. Up the bars there
is the word 'Facebook' in its brand colour the 'green' and even the bars are
in the same colour. The atmosphere seems gloomy and dark.
It is undeniable that Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and other social
media applications will help to bring people together. Such apps have made
it possible—even simple—to catch up with former classmates living
thousands of miles away. Yet, modern studies suggest that social media
may also have the power to make people feel isolated and alone.
Imprisonment is the state of being kept away from people and being
isolated to live alone. This is literally what social networks cause so many
people, especially teens, to live in.
Because of its inducement and temptation, social media have caused
addictive behaviour for a high percentage of people. Addictive behaviour
means overusing these platforms and spending most of the time scrolling
through these sites, which inevitably leads to social isolation and
loneliness. Though it is called "social media", in reality it is anti-social life
and social interaction. So, they are social imprison for many people not real
imprison and without bars or police prevent you from going out, but it is
addictive and temptation prison that as real imprison leave you to live alone
and be socially isolated.
To imagine an abstract thing to be a prison, preventing people from

getting out, needs blending conceptual spaces; begins with two input spaces
precedes generic space and ending at the blend space. Input1 contains
visual elements: someone in prison, grasping the bars with his two fists.
Input2 is linguistically presented and contains: Facebook. The generic
space here includes imprisonment, social isolation and loneness. The
final outcome, the metaphorical meaning, is contained in the blend space.
The poster metaphorically says that social media have become a form of
social imprisonment and isolation. Because of people's addiction to them
and spending most of their time on commenting, sharing, replying, posting
and interacting in the virtual world, they have no time to socialise in the
real world. Social media, in a way or another, have deprived people of real
interaction and face-to-face meetings, and have put many people in social
prison and caused them to live lonely lives.
It is the visual mode that expresses metaphoricity. Facebook or

social media is not a real prison that physically prevents people from going
out or interacting with others. It is an analogy that social media as a real
prison has caused many people to live socially imprisoned. The strength of
the social addition is compared to that of irony bars that prevent people
from getting out. However, the former are physical bars, whereas the latter
are psychological bars.
Linguistic realisation manifests the TD, while visual realisation

manifests the SD. Both are essential and indispensible.
4.16 Analysis of Social Issue Poster No.1
Figure (4.16a) Social Issue Poster No.1
Cognitive analysis: Metaphor: FATHER IS A BRIDGE
SD: bridge
TD: father
Modality: Multimodal Metaphor

4.16.1 On the poster
The poster is taken from the Pinterest site. It contains two places
parted by a natural boundary; a large fissure separates them. The side from
which the school boy came seems to be an old and uncivilised town. It is
indicated as a dark place by the word ''darkness'' on top. The second place,
to which the schoolboy is passing, is opposite. It seems to be developed and
modern. It is indicated to be a better shining future for the boy, as indicated
by the word "future" with brilliant colours. The schoolboy passes from
darkened to future on his father's back, referred to as his father.
The designer of the poster depicted a man lying down (father)

linking two separated places in order for his son to pass from darkness to a
brighter future. Metaphorically, a father is likened to a brigade which
endures heavy burdens to pass on it. It is to show the father's sacrifices in
order to a get better life for his sons. Father strives and works hard as much
as possible all his life for his children. They tend to put everything on hold
just to take care of us. Sacrifice becomes an integrated phase of a father’s
life. He puts all his desires and needs in the backseat and keeps himself
hustling, fulfilling ours. We cannot even imagine the amount of care and
affection that he showers his children and family with all his life, yet he
gets happy through every little loving gesture they imply for him.
More effectively imagined and easily understood than saying "father

is a brigade" is to use two supportive and complementary modes of
communication, namely verbio-pictoral metaphors. The generic space
includes: endurance, unselfishness, and sacrifice. Input1 which is the visual
domain contains: an undeveloped town, a lying down man and a modern
city. Input2 that is verbally rendered includes: darkness, father and future.
Blending all the mentioned and more additive issues, the emergent meaning
comes up to be the intended message of the poster. A schoolboy who is a
metonymy for all sons passing on the back of their father's back, who also
stands for father in general to indicate the sacrificing fathers who sacrifices
their lives to see their sons successful and happy.
Unless the two modes are simultaneously presented, this message

cannot be understood in the way it is now. The source is presented by a
man lying to connect two different places and for a child to pass to the
better one. The target is modeled by verbal mode, which shows an old
town, father and a modern city. Integrating the two modes, the metaphor
denotes that a father is his children's bridge on his back with all their
burdens; they pass easily from bad situations, places, and conditions into
better ones. Metaphorically, like a bridge which makes it easy and fast for
cars, people or animals to pass from one side to another with all their loads
or things without feeling the heaviness it is put up with; father puts up with
all the life burdens of his children, sacrificing his rest and life in order to
make a better life for them without letting them know how hardly he is
striving.
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/66005950780290475
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: BE A DOER NOT A THINKER
SD : an overthinking worried man
TD: be a doer

This sample is taken from the Pinterest site. The poster contains two
platforms; The Thinker versus The Doer. The platform of the doer is empty
and on the second beside platform there is a person who seems to be
overthinking and has lots of things and worries in his mind. A line of
footsteps coming from the empty platform, going away, leaves the seat
vacant. It can also be said that the place where the two platforms located is
a public place as the columns behind can suggest.
The poster could have more than one metaphorical interpretation.
The main apparent notion is that of criticism and praise. He positively
visualizes the doer and negatively did toward the thinker. It is the doer who
is intrepid, not hesitant, who is determined, not reluctant; and who is
practical, brave, fearless, and hard to intimidate in putting things into
action. He is the one who does not think twice. On the contrary, it is the
thinker who is hesitant, not, who is reluctant, not determined; and who is
fearful, easy to intimidate and always lacks dare to take action. It is worth
mentioning here that, the doer intended in the poster is not the one who
takes actions recklessly, aimlessly, but the one who has plans and ideas and
is not hesitant to take action, yet he is real in his plans and puts them into
effect. The other side of the poster is the opposite, that is, the author does
not mean to intend the one who thinks in order to decide or to plan well
before implementation, however, he is the one who overthinks to the extent
to be fearful to take action. Here, it is not to be confused by overthinking
with problem-solving.
Of course, the meaning concluded from the blends of visual-verbo

modes is not of one stage or element. The first constituent of the network is
the two input spaces. In the first one, the visual input, involves: a person
with worry, unhappy posture, and an empty platform, footsteps. The second
input contains a thinker; a static person and the doer; the active one. The
two input spaces are motivated to be cross-mapped by the abstract common
knowledge which includes: stationary, movement, body poster and leaving.
The blend space has the emergent meaning which praises and calls for
people to be doers, active, dynamic, and applies their plans; and criticises
and advises people not to be overthinking, inactive, and anxious. The doer
has gone, whose only footsteps can tell that. He left, trying to achieve his
objectives and implement his plans. The other sitting person, as it seems, is
overcome by overthinking, which tied his feet and hands, leaving him like
an unable person who cannot take actions. He has been badly affected by
overthinking and even psychologically damaged.
The TD is rendered verbally and the ST visually. Both the linguistic and
visual elements play an essential role in reaching this metaphorical
meaning and both are inevitable. It is noteworthy that, it is the visual mode
that is the metaphorical one. The man portrayed is only a representative for
a class or category in real life; he is metaphorically not really presented.
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: LEARNING IS SEEING
SD: books reader has climbed over his
books to see beyond the wall
TD: read more know more

ِ TD: verbally/visually presented
4.18.1 On the poster
It is taken from the Pinterest site. The poster contains visual and
verbal elements. The visual elements include one building blocks of his
books to climb and can see beyond the wall. He is carrying a book in his
left hand. He is raising his hand with a closed fist. There seems to be a
shining and better life beyond the wall. Another one beside him is standing
up facing the wall, and he is not tall enough to see anything beyond the
wall. He has no books to climb on and see far away. The verbal one depicts
the expression "the more you read, the more you see".
The poster is aimed metaphorically at showing that reading books

and learning enables one to have a deeper, different, and more inclusive
view in life because the more you read, the more you know and then the
more you will see, feel, love, enjoy and most importantly the more you
understand and comprehend. Reading helps you view beyond what you
normally see and helps you to be as tall in life as you can be and have a
more distant insightful look at life and people. Reading different books
helps you to be more open-minded, inclusive, and tolerant. Books can open
up your mind towards understanding different life phenomena and
minimize the negative perceptions we have towards people.
Based on figure (4.18a) input1 which includes visual elements,

includes: books reader has built up a block of his books and climbed over,
and a second one is beside him, standing on his feet facing the wall. A
common knowledge which promotes mapping the two input spaces is the
generic space, which contains: reading, learning, knowledge, insight, and
broad-mindedness. The output metaphorical meaning of the inputs that
have been mentioned is located in the blend. Both communicative modes
are employed here to express the metaphorical meaning that the more one
reads and learns, the more and further he can see. Metaphoricity emerges
from both the pictorial and linguistic modes. The pictorial mode depicts
metaphorically how a book reader can climb on the books he reads and
how he can see further, deeper, and better shining world. In reality, a reader
does not build up his books and climb over them to see further, but his
books and
knowledge can lift him up mentally, changing him to be more open-

minded, imaginative, insightful, and wiser, allowing him to have a deeper
and wiser view in life, observe the world differently. The linguistic mode is
also used metaphorically, the word 'see' which denotes having the ability to
see or perceive by eyes, does not used in the poster in this meaning, but to
have more knowledge, understanding, insight, wisdom and recognition and
to see things further and beyond others' looking.
The target is cued explicitly linguistically and implicitly pictorially.

The source is cued pictorially. Pictorial mode is the more dependent and
substantial one, and the metaphorical meaning of the multimodal poster
could to some extent thought not fully or expressly be understood.
Linguistic expressions reinforce and enhance the representation of the
target domain.
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: FIRE IS A FATAL ISSUE
SD: fire
TD: a fatal issue
Modality Multimodal Metaphor

The poster is selected from the Pinterest site. It consists of visual and
verbal components. The visual one displays a line of matchsticks, some of
which have been burnt, and one of them has slipped or been taken
down/displaced, which prevents or protects the rest to be burned and the
fire went out. The verbal component contains: ''sometimes you need to take
a step back just to save others''.
The poster could be interpreted in more than one way, but the main
apparent interpretation is that in some social situations, especially where
there is tension and an aggressive climate, there is a need for one part to
retract and take one step back to avoid any fight or conflict. One needs to
back down his own right or position, even if he knows that he is in the
right, but only for the sake of others, he steps back or abandons. It is the
moral and behaviour of those who are virtuous, altruistic and selfless. They
think about and care for other people's needs and wishes rather than their
own.
Unconsciously, the perception of metaphorical meaning is not a

simultaneous single mental stage. Input1 that is manifested by visual mode
contains: a queue of matchsticks half are burnt and the other half is not,
because one matchstick has been drawn down. Manifested verbally, on the
other hand, input2 contains: sometimes you need to take a step back just to
save the others. As a first conceptual stage, the two inputs are cross-
mapped, motivated by generic space. Generic space here contains: fight,
quarrel, misunderstanding, selfless and altrisum. The last stage of the
blending network is the blend space, which is the output of this conceptual
process. It can display the metaphorical meaning of the multimodal poster
that in certain social tensional aggressive situations, it is needed for a
selfless sane man to step back or back down for the sake of others only.
The matchstick is personified as a virtuous man who backs down and gives
up his right to prevent fight or harmful event among others. The
metaphorical meaning mainly springs from the visual mode, which
represents source domain. Its elements: 'fire' and 'backed matchstick', are
not used literally. Fire is a
representative of harmful or fatal issues. The backed matchstick is a

personification that denotes a human being. Target domain is realised
verbally, which is essential here that specifies and highlights the
metaphorical intended meaning.
https://priya-rv.medium.com/the-first-step-218be2de4f0
Cognitive analysis Metaphor: STARTING IS ALWAYS THE HARDEST

SD: a stair with long first step and a boy
trying hardly to climb it
TD: starting point is the hardest
Modality Multimodal Metaphor

4.20.1 On the Poste
The poster is taken from the Priay page of social media. The poster
is a visual-cum-verbal M.M. The former mode depicts a boy trying to go up
a stairs. The first step is very high and the others are normal. Because of its
height, the boy is trying his best to climb it. The latter says: ''the first step is
always the hardest''.
What is aimed at is delivering a figurative meaning. The designer
wants to tell that starting is the most difficult part of any task; starting a
business; a job; a test; writing a novel, a thesis, a letter; learning to drive;
reading a book; making a product; using a new thing and so many other.
Taking the first step is the hardest and most important one because
everything becomes easier after the beginning step. The first step to success
is taking the first step.
When analysing the conceptual blending network, input spaces are

usually started with since they are the first conceptual phase to be done.
Represented by visual mode, input1 here includes: a boy hardly attempting
to go up a stair whose first step is very high whereas input2 is verbally
manifested and contains: the first step is always the hardest. Generic space
provides the common knowledge to invite mapping of the two inputs. It
contains here: starting, hardness, deciding and doing your best.
Blend space is the final consequence of the process, adding some
additional elements to come up with the emergent meaning. It
metaphorically aims at showing the importance of the starting point in any
task. Your first step to success is to take the first step; to get started. Both
visual and verbal modes that manifest the source and target respectively are
metaphorical. The boy and the stairs are not real but figurative and the
word 'step' is not literally used. It is not hard to take a first step in a certain
place, but it signifies making a start or getting started on a new task.
Though both modes represent metaphoricity, they are not identical in their
percentage of dependence on metaphoricity; the visual mode has a higher
percentage than the verbal one, but both are necessary.
Part B. Quantitative Data Analysis
4.1 The Statistical Analysis
This section provides the findings of the study resulted from the
conducted recognition test. It shows the impact of text, gender and kind of
M.Ms on Iraqi EFL learners' M.Ms perception. The findings are presented
by means of tables and figures as well as short descriptive sentences with
each.
4.1.1 Findings of the Impact of Text on EFL Learners' M.Ms

Perception
This point shows the statistical results for the impact of text on the
achievement of students in the various branches of study and also of the
impact of gender on their recognition of M.M. figures. It covers the scores
of each branch and each gender, and their total percentages without text
(Henceforth OT) and with text (Henceforth WT). The total percentages of
all the branches and genders are presented. It is noteworthy that, when
measuring the understandability of M.Ms without having the intention to
refer to text influence, only the tables and figures of M.Ms WT will be
considered because they are multimodal metaphors, i.e., expressed by more
than one channel (verbal mode and visual mode).
4.1.1.1 Findings of the Impact of Branch of Study on EFL

Branches of study will be considered at this point. This section will

present the statistical scores of correct and incorrect answers and their total
percentages OT and WT to show how different or similar the
understandability of each field of study of M.Ms OT and WT.
A. Findings of Linguistic Branch
Table (4.1) shows the scores and percentages of linguistics branch
students' perceptions of M.M. figures of OT (visual mode) and then of
M.Ms WT. With respect to the OT part of the table, a high rate of incorrect
answers is shown; only (54) multimodal figures were perceived correctly
while (146) were either misunderstood or not understood.
Nine students (students 2-10) were unable to perceive even half of the
exposed figures, while only one student could answer half of the figures.
That could come in terms of percentage to (27%) correct against (73%)
incorrect.
Table (4.1): Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for Linguistics Branch OT and WT
Subject Students' answers of Students' answers of

Fig. OT Fig. WT
No. Inc. Co. Inc. Co.
1 9 11 4 16
2 12 8 4 16
3 13 7 4 16
4 14 6 7 13
5 15 5 5 15
6 16 4 10 10
7 16 4 10 10
8 16 4 11 9
9 17 3 11 9
01 18 2 12 8
Total Score 146 54 78 122
Percentage 73% 27% 100% 39% 61% 100%
With respect to multimodal WT, out of (200), (122) responses were

correct while only (78) responses were incorrect in their perceptions of
M.Ms. More specifically, (7) students (students 1-7) out of (10) could
correctly interpret more than half of the questions and only (3) students
(student 8-10) could not interpret even half of the figures. These scores
came down to (61%) of the responses were correct answers and (39%) of
the responses were incorrect.
160
140 146
Frequency 120
122
100
80
60 78
40 54
20
0
Fig. OT Fig.WT
Inc. 146 78
Cr. 54 122
Chart (4.1): Total Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for Linguistics Branch
The difference between the students' answers OT and WT is so

prominent. As chart (4.1) illustrates, the total number of correct answers
has gone up from (54) in OT to (122) in WT and the number of incorrect
answers has reversely decreased from (146) in OT to (78) in WT. The acute
rate of increasing of correct answers and of decreasing of the incorrect
answers illustrates to what extent text is crucial in perceiving M.Ms.
B. Findings of Literature Branch

Table (4.2): Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for Literature Branch OT and WT

Fig. OT Fig. WT
No. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr.
1 10 10 0 20
2 13 7 5 15
3 13 7 7 13
4 14 6 8 12
5 14 6 8 12
6 14 6 10 10
7 14 6 10 10
8 17 3 11 9
9 17 3 12 8
01 17 3 12 8
Percentage 71.5% 28.5% 100% 41.5% 58.5% 100%
The first part of table (4.2) tells that only one literature student
(student 1) out of (10) achieved half of the task; he could identify (10)
M.Ms, whereas (9) students (students 2-10) could not identify even half of
the figures. To have the sum of the scores, there appears to be (143)
incorrect and (57) correct responses out of (200). The percentage of the
mentioned figures comes to (71.5%) of incorrect responses versus (28.5%)
of correct ones.
The second part of the table illustrates that (7) students (students1-7)
out of (10) could understand more than/half of the exposed M.Ms, and only
(3) of them (students 8-10) understood less than half. The total of correct
answers is (117) versus (83) incorrect ones. To take these scores in terms of
percentage, (58.5%) of the answers were correct while (41.5%), on the
other hand, were incorrect answers.
160
140 143
Frequency
120
100 117
80 83
60
40 57
20
0
Fig.OT. Fig. WT.

Inc. 143 83
Cr. 57 117
Chart (4.2): Total Students' Answers of M.M. perception for Literature Branch
The chart above clearly demonstrates the importance of text in

understanding M.Ms by literature students, in that, the total scores of
correct responses increased from (57) OT to (177) WT and on the contrary,
the scores of incorrect responses decreased from (143) OT to (83) WT.
C. Findings of Methodology Branch
Table (4.3): Students' Answers of the M.Ms Perception for Methodology Branch OT and
WT
fig. OT. fig. WT.
1 16 4 6 14
2 17 3 8 12
3 18 2 12 8
4 18 2 13 7
5 18 2 13 7
6 19 1 14 6
7 19 1 15 5
8 19 1 17 3
9 19 1 17 3
01 19 1 19 1
Percentage 91% 9% 100% 67% 33% 100%
Starting from the left half, according to table (4.3), none of the
methodology students could identify even five of the twenty shown figures.
The last five students, each could identify only one figure out of twenty.
When it comes to the total of scores of answers, the table reads that (182)
incorrect answers, versus (18) correct answers only. The percentage of this
part refers that (91%) of the responses were incorrect, while, on the other
hand, (18%) were correct.
The right half of the table indicates that, only (66) M.M. figures out of
(200) ones have been identified successfully by methodology students,
whereas (134) examined multimodal figures either could not or wrongly
been identified. Eight students (students 3-10) out of (10) were unable to
identify even half of them, and only two have crossed half of the scores.
The total percentage of correct answers is (33 %) while of incorrect reaches
to (67 %).
200
Frequency
182
150
134
100
50 66
0 18
Fig. OT Fig. WT
Inc. 182 134
Cr. 18 66
Chart (4.3): Total Students' Answers of M.M. Perception for Methodology Branch
This chart shows a high ratio of correct answers and the opposite of
incorrect answers. It is text that caused such a serious change. The number
of correct responses has risen from only (18) OT to (66) WT, and the
number of incorrect responses has conversely gone down from (182) OT to
(134) WT.
D. Findings of Translation Branch
Table (4.4): Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for Translation Branch OT and WT
Subject Students' Answers of Students' Answers of
fig. OT fig. WT
1 14 6 6 14
2 15 5 9 11
3 16 4 11 9
4 16 4 12 8
5 16 4 12 8
6 17 3 13 7
7 17 3 14 6
8 17 3 14 6
9 17 3 15 5
01 18 2 18 2
Percentage 81.5% 18.5% 100% 62% 38% 100%
An investigation of the table (4.4) indicates a low frequency of correct

answers in both parts of the table. As regards answers of OT, all of the ten
students, but one (student 1), have wrongly perceived three-quarters of the
examined M.Ms. They have made (163) incorrect answers and (37) correct
answers only in turn. Changing these into percentages, it comes to (81.5%)
not/misunderstood responses, whereas (18.5%) correct responses.
In terms of answers of figures with text, translation students could only
understand (76) M.Ms out of (200). In contrast, they misunderstood or
could not completely understand (124) M.M. figures out of (200). Two
students (students 1,2) only out of (10) have crossed the scale of half and
identified more than (10) M.Ms; on the other hand, (8) students (3-10)
could not even reach half of the rate. In terms of percentages, (38%) of
correct answers versus (62%) of incorrect ones.
180
160
Frequency
140 163
120
100 124
80
60 76
40
20 37
0
Fig. OT Fig. WT
Inc. 163 124
Cr. 37 76
Chart (4.4): Total Students' Answers of M.Ms Perception for Translation Branch
Chart (4.4) indicates that the rate of correct answers has doubled from
figures OT to the figures WT, numerically, from (37) correct answers WT
to (76) WT. On the other hand, the rate of incorrect answers has decreased
from (163) incorrect answers to be (124) WT.
E. Findings of All Branches
Table (4.5): Total Scores and Percentages of Students' Answers for all Branches of Both
M.Ms WT and OT
Linguistics Literature Methodology Translation

Students' Answers Students' Answers Students' Answers Students' Answers
OT WT OT WT OT WT OT WT
Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr Inc. Cr.
Total
Score 146 54 78 122 143 57 83 117 182 18 134 66 163 37 124 76
Percen 27 39 61% 71.5 28. 41.5 58. 9% 67 33 81.5 18. 62 38%
tage 73% % % % 5% % 5% 91% % % % 5% %
Table (4.5) and Chart (4.5), are the summary of the scores for total
numbers and percentages of the four branches. The table and chart clarify
the rates of change in each branch that occurs between OT and WT as well
as they represents the rates of change among the four branches. For
simplicity, the percentages of correct answers for all branches OT and WT
will be considered to compare among branches.
80%
Frequency
60% 61% 58.50%
40% 38%
33%
27% 28.50%
20% 18.50%
9%
0%
Linguistics Literature Methodol Translatio

ogy n
Cr. OT 27% 28.50% 9% 18.50%
Cr. WT 61% 58.50% 33% 38%
Chart (4.5): The Percentages of Cr. Answers in all Branches OT and WT
As chart (4.5) illiterates, linguistics students have reached the highest

percentage of correct answers (61%) WT and they have the second place
after literature students in the correct answers OT (27%). Linguistics
learners have shown the highest mean of rise (i.e., 34%), (from 27% to
61%).
Literature students have reached the highest percentage (28%) OT and
they come after linguistics learners in the percentage of WT (27%).
Literature branch also comes after Linguistics in the mean of rising (i.e.,
30.5%) from the percentage of OT (28%) to WT to (58.5%). Linguistics
has come first because it has two points (WT percentage and the mean of
rising) higher than literature, which has only one point (the percentage OT),
that is, in this research is less important than the percentage WT.
Translation learners come in third place in all their achievements; expect
the mean of rising, which is lower than that of methodology. Their
percentage of OT is (18.5%) and WT is (38%), with a mean of rising
(19.5%). Methodology is in the last place, except in the mean of rising it
comes in the third place. Its percentage of OT is (9%), and WT is (33%),
with a mean of rising (24%).
In general, table (4.6) shows all the learners' answers of M.Ms

perception OT and WT. Only the first two learners out of forty could
understand half of the exposed M.Ms in OT part of the recognition test,
while (18) items were correctly interpreted by the same learners after
adding the text. The difference can be considered by comparing the total
number of correct answers OT which is (634) out of (800), with the
incorrect number of answers which is (419)WT.
Table (4.6): Total Detailed Learners' Answers of M.Ms Perception OT and WT
Subject M.M. Fig. OT M.M. Fig. WT

1 9 11 0 20
2 10 10 4 16
3 12 8 4 16
4 13 7 4 16
5 13 7 5 15
6 13 7 5 15
7 14 6 6 14
8 14 6 6 14
9 14 6 7 13
01 14 6 7 13
00 14 6 8 12
02 14 6 8 12
03 15 5 8 12
04 15 5 9 11
05 16 4 10 10
06 16 4 10 10
07 16 4 10 10
08 16 4 10 10
09 16 4 11 9
21 16 4 11 9
20 16 4 11 9
22 17 3 11 9
23 17 3 12 8
24 17 3 12 8
25 17 3 12 8
26 17 3 12 8
27 17 3 12 8
28 17 3 12 8
29 17 3 13 7
31 17 3 13 7
30 18 2 13 7
32 18 2 14 6
33 18 2 14 6
34 18 2 14 6
35 18 2 15 5
36 19 1 15 5
37 19 1 17 3
38 19 1 17 3
39 19 1 18 2
41 19 1 19 1
Total Score 634 311 934 183
Percentage 79.25% 20.75% 100% 52.37% 47.62% 99.99%
In terms of percentages, chart (4.6) explains the difference between

learners' achievements OT and WT. It demonstrates that, the percentage of
correct responses OT is only (20.75%), while it has risen into (47.62%)
WT.
100.00%
Frequency 80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
0.00%
Fig.OT Fig.WT
Percentage of Inc. 79.25% 52.37%
Percentage of Cr. 20.75% 47.62%
Chart (4.6): Percentages of Inc. and Cr. Answers OT and WT for all Students.
4.1.1.2 Findings of the Impact Gender on EFL Learners'

M.Ms Perception
This part covers the quantitative findings the recognition test shown
on the basis of gender and covers gender differences and similarities
implied in regard to the exposed M.Ms OT and WT. Twenty females and
twenty males have contributed to the recognition test.
A. Findings Related to Females

Table (4.7) explains the low frequencies of females' answers to the
exposed items OT. None of them was able to identify even half of the
multimodal figures; the best one (students 1, 2) was able to answer (7) out
of (20). Speaking more generally, out of (200) figures, only (77) figures
were identified correctly, while (323) were wrongly identified. These
scores, in terms of percentage, come to be (80.75%), and be (19.25) of
incorrect and correct answers, respectively.
The second part of table (4.7) of the figures WT shows an acute rise
in scores. Nine students (students 1-10) out of twenty were able to answer
half of the questions or more. Totally, (182) figures were correctly
identified, whereas (218) figures were wrongly identified. The percentage
of correct responses was (45.5%) and of incorrect responses was (54.5%).
Table (4.7): Total Females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT

Subject Learners' answers of Learners' answers of
Fig. OT Fig. WT

1 13 7 4 16
2 13 7 5 15
3 14 6 6 14
4 14 6 7 13
5 14 6 7 13
6 14 6 8 12
7 16 4 10 10
8 16 4 10 10
9 16 4 10 10
01 17 3 11 9
00 17 3 11 9
02 17 3 12 8
03 17 3 12 8
04 17 3 12 8
05 17 3 12 8
06 17 3 12 8
07 18 2 15 5
08 18 2 17 3
09 19 1 18 2
21 19 1 19 1
Total Score 323 77 218 182
Percentage 80.75% 19.25% 100% 54.5% 45.5% 100%
Chart (4.7) summarises the differences in students' perception of

M.Ms OT and WT. The percentage of incorrect responses has gone down
from (80.75%) OT to (54.5%) WT and conversely, the percentage of
correct responses has gone up from (19.25%) OT to (45.5%) WT.
90.00%
80.00% 80.75%
70.00%
60.00%
Frequency
54.50%
50.00%
45.50%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00% 19.25%
10.00%
0.00%
Inc. OT Cr. WT Inc. OT Cr. WT

Percentage of females' Scores 80.75% 19.25% 54.50% 45.50%
Chart (4.7): The Percentages of Females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT
A. Findings Related to Males

With respect to the part of OT, table (4.8) indicates high scores of
incorrect answers and low of correct answers of male students. In terms of
individuals, only two male learners (learners 1, 2) out of (20) ones could
understand half of the figures. On the contrary, (18) learners (learners 3-20)
were lower than this rate. Their inability to comprehend M.M. figures was
reflected in the total answered figures and the percentages assigned to
them. Out of (400), only (89) M.M. figures were identified correctly,
which comes to (22.25%) on the percentage scale, while the incorrect total
was (311) figures that equals to (77.75%) in percentage scale.
The second part WT, differs radically. Half but one male students
(students 1-9) were able to answer from half to fully answer all the figures.
Half and one students (students 10-20) could not identify even half of
shown figures. The incorrect and correct answers of students were equal
but one of the (400) multimodal metaphor shown figures. To read these
frequencies in terms of percentage, it comes to be nearly equal; (50.25%)
incorrect answers and (49.75%) correct ones.
Table (4.8): Total Males' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT
Subject Students' Answers of Students' Answers of

Fig. OT Fig. WT

1 9 11 0 20
2 10 10 4 16
3 12 8 4 16
4 13 7 5 15
5 14 6 6 14
6 14 6 8 12
7 15 5 8 12
8 15 5 9 11
9 16 4 10 10
01 16 4 11 9
00 16 4 11 9
02 16 4 12 8
03 17 3 13 7
04 17 3 13 7
05 18 2 13 7
06 18 2 14 6
07 18 2 14 6
08 19 1 14 6
09 19 1 15 5
21 19 1 17 3
Total Score 311 89 201 199
Percentage 77.75% 22.25% 100% 50.25% 49.75% 100%
80.00% 77.75%
Frequency
70.00%
60.00%
50.00% 50.25% 49.75%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00% 22.25%
10.00%
0.00%
Inc. OT Cr. WT Inc. WT Cr.WT

Percentage of Male correct
77.75% 22.25% 50.25% 49.75%
scores
Chart (4.8): The Percentages of Males' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT

A. Findings of Both Females and Males
Table (4.9) represents all the scores of females and males learners OT and
WT. To draw a comparison, total scores of females and males OT and WT
are considered. With regard to OT part, males' total correct answers are
(89), and of females are (77), males' rate is higher. These scores both go up
in the part WT, in that, males' scores become (199) correct answers, versus
(182) correct answers, again, male is first.
Table (4.9): Total Females' and Males' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT
Subject Students answers of Fig. OT Students' answers of Fig. WT
No. Inc. Inc. Female Cr. Cr. Inc. Inc. Cr. Cr.
Male Male Female Male Female Male Female
1 19 19 11 7 17 19 20 16
2 19 19 10 7 15 18 16 15
3 19 18 8 6 14 17 16 14
4 18 18 7 6 14 15 15 13
5 18 17 6 6 14 12 14 13
6 18 17 6 6 13 12 12 12
7 17 17 5 4 13 12 12 10
8 17 17 5 4 13 12 11 10
9 16 17 4 4 12 12 10 10
01 16 17 4 3 11 11 9 9
00 16 17 4 3 11 11 9 9
02 16 16 4 3 10 10 8 8
03 15 16 3 3 9 10 7 8
04 15 16 3 3 8 10 7 8
05 14 14 2 3 8 8 7 8
06 14 14 2 3 6 7 6 8
07 13 14 2 2 5 7 6 5
08 12 14 1 2 4 6 6 3
09 10 13 1 1 4 5 5 2
21 9 13 1 1 0 4 3 1
Total Score 311 323 89 77 201 218 199 182
Percentage 77.75% 80.75% 22.25% 19.25% 50.25% 54.5% 49.75% 45.5%
The increase of correct answers from OT part to that of text has an average
of rising. Males' rising average is (110) correct, while males' rising average
is (105), once more males are first.
100.00%
80.00% 81%
77.75%
Frequency
60.00% 54.50%
50.25% 49.75%
45.50%
40.00%
20.00% 22.25%
19.25%
0.00%
Inc. Inc. Cr. Cr.

OT WT OT WT
Percentage of Male Scores 77.75% 50.25% 22.25% 49.75%
Percentage of Female Scores 81% 54.50% 19.25% 45.50%
Chart (4.9): The Percentages of Males and Females Scores OT and WT
Chart (4.9) indicates the percentages of males' and females' scores of

both M.Ms OT and WT. For a clear comparison, only the occurrences of
incorrect answers are discussed. Females have reached to a percentage of
(81%) OT, while males' is (77.75%). In the WT part, females also came
before males with percentage of incorrect answers (54.5%), compared to of
males' which reads (50.25%). Males have done better job in identifying
more figures of multimodal metaphors.
4.1.2 Findings of the Impact of Kinds of M.Ms on EFL

This shows the statistical findings on the basis of the four kinds of
M.Ms. How they are similar or different for females and males; OT and
WT. It also shows, in general, how these kinds of M.Ms are different or
similar in terms of hardness or easiness for all learners and what role text
plays in these kinds.
Table (4.10): Females' Answers of all M.M. Kinds WT and OT
Gender Advertisements Caricature Social Media Social Issues
Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. In Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr Inc Cr. Inc. Cr.
c. . .
F.1 5 0 2 3 5 0 1 4 4 1 0 5 2 3 1 4
F.2 4 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 0 5 3 2 1 4
F.3 5 0 3 2 3 2 2 3 5 0 1 4 4 1 4 1
F.4 4 1 2 3 5 0 3 2 3 2 1 4 2 3 1 4
F.5 5 0 3 2 4 1 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 1 2 3
F.6 5 0 3 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 4 2 3 4 1
F.7 5 0 4 1 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 4 3 2
F.8 5 0 3 2 5 0 0 5 1 1 3 2 3 2 1 4
F.9 5 0 5 0 4 1 2 3 0 0 1 4 3 2 2 3
F.10 5 0 1 1 4 1 4 1 2 2 1 4 2 3 1 4
F.11 5 0 3 2 5 0 2 3 5 0 1 4 4 1 0 5
F.12 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 3 2
F.13 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 4 1
F.14 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 1 4 4 1 2 3
F.15 5 0 4 1 5 0 3 2 4 1 0 5 4 1 1 4
F.16 5 0 5 0 5 0 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
F.17 5 0 5 0 4 1 4 1 5 0 3 2 2 3 4 1
F.18 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 5 0 2 3 3 2 2 3
F.19 5 0 3 2 3 2 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 5 0
F.20 5 0 5 0 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 4 3 2
Total 98 2 72 25 83 17 60 40 70 15 38 62 59 41 46 54
Score
Percent 98 2% 72 25 83 17 60 40 70 15% 38 62 59 41% 46 54
age % % % % % % % % % % % % %
Table (4.10) shows the quantitative results of females' perceptions of all

kinds of M.Ms OT and WT. It refers for example, that out of (200) M.M.
figures only (2) were correctly identified of advertisement (Henceforth
Ads.) in OT part, and it rises to (25) WT. For caricature (Henceforth Car.),
the score reads (17) M.M. figures were correctly identified and (40) figures
were correctly identified OT and WT, respectively. It comes, for Social
Media (Henceforth S.M.) as (15) OT figures were correctly identified and
(62) WT figures were correctly identified. Finally, for Social Issues
(abbreviated as S. I.), the same number came to be (41) OT figures were
correctly identified and (54) WT figures were identified.
For percentages, the incorrect answers of OT and WT are considered.

The percentage of incorrect females' responses to M.M. of Ads. on OT part
was (98%). This rate went down to (72%) of WT answers. For Car the rate
reads (83%) of incorrect responses and decreased to (60%) WT. For S.M.
it was (70%) OT and (38%) WT. Finally, S.I. has the lowest percentage of
incorrect answers. It showed (59%), OT and (46%) of WT answers.
Table (4.11): Males' Answers of all M.M. Kinds WT and OT
Gender Ads. Car. S.M. S.I.
Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr. In Cr. Inc. Cr. Inc. Cr Inc Cr. Inc. Cr.
c. . .
M.1 3 2 0 5 2 3 0 5 3 2 1 4 1 4 2 3
M.2 1 4 2 3 2 3 0 5 4 1 0 5 2 3 2 3
M.3 5 0 3 2 4 1 4 1 5 0 1 4 1 4 2 3
M.4 5 0 5 0 5 0 3 2 4 1 2 3 2 3 1 4
M.5 5 0 4 1 5 0 3 2 5 0 2 3 3 2 2 3
M.6 5 0 5 0 3 2 4 1 3 2 5 0 3 2 4 1
M.7 5 0 4 1 1 4 0 5 5 0 0 5 3 2 1 4
M.8 4 1 4 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 1 4 4 1 1 4
M.9 5 0 2 3 2 3 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 4 1
M.10 3 2 0 5 2 3 0 5 4 1 0 5 0 5 0 5
M.11 5 0 1 1 4 1 2 3 5 0 3 2 5 0 4 1
M.12 5 0 0 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 3 2
M.13 5 0 0 0 5 0 3 2 5 0 3 2 4 1 2 3
M.14 5 0 0 0 5 0 4 1 5 0 3 2 4 1 2 3
M.15 5 0 0 0 3 2 2 3 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 1
M.16 5 0 5 0 3 2 2 3 5 0 1 4 3 2 5 0
M.17 5 0 4 1 4 1 1 4 3 2 1 4 4 1 3 2
M.18 5 0 4 1 5 0 2 3 4 1 0 5 4 1 0 5
M.19 5 0 4 1 2 3 3 2 5 0 4 1 4 1 4 1
M.20 5 0 4 1 4 1 3 2 5 0 3 2 4 1 4 1
Total 91 9 49 26 68 32 44 56 85 15 39 61 60 40 50 50
Score
Percent 91% 9% 49 26 68 32 44 56 85 15% 39 61 60 40 50 50
age % % % % % % % % % % % % %
Table (4.11) displays males' in/correct scores of M.M perceptions
OT and WT. It indicates that out of (100) exposed items of Ads. kind, (91)
figures in OT part were wrongly identified. This high rate falls sharply
when text is added, it became (49) incorrect answers. For Car. The scores
were lower; (68) items were wrong OT and (44) items were wrong WT.
The rate went up again in S.M. figures OT which came to (85) incorrect
responses and decreased to only (39) incorrect responses WT. It went lower
for S.I. figures with a total score of (60) incorrect responses OT, whereas
(50) responses WT.
In terms of percentages, only (9%) correct responses of Ads. have

appeared in OT. part, and it changed when text was added to M.M. figures
to reach (26%). Higher rate of correct responses have occurred in Car. of
OT. (i.e. 32%) and it rose more WT to become (56%) correct responses.
The right responses' rate was only (15%) of the males' correct responses in
OT for S.M. and it changed to become (61%) correct responses in WT.
Finally, S.I. shows an excepted rate of both OT. and WT which appeared to
be (40%) and (50%) respectively.
Table (4.12): Total Scores and Percentages of Cr. Females' and Males' Answers of
M.Ms Perception OT and WT
Gender Total Ads. Car. S. M. S. I.
F. Total Score 2 25 17 40 15 62 41 54
M. Total Score 9 26 32 56 15 61 40 50
F. Percentage 2% 25% 17% 40% 16% 62% 41% 54%
M. Percentage 9% 51% 32% 56% 15% 61% 40% 50%
The total scores and percentages of females' and males' answers to

each kind of M.M. OT and WT are displayed in table (4.12). It
demonstrates that there is not a sharp difference in the rate of correct
answers between females and males' perception of different M.M. kinds.
For simpler explanation, only the percentages of OT answers are
considered. Females identified only two per cent of the M.Ms of Ads.,
while males identified nine per cent. Car. showed a higher rate; females
answered (17%) figures compared to (32%) males.
50%
40% 41% 40%
Frequency
32%
30%
20% 17% 15% 15%
10% 9%
2%
0%
Ads. Car. S. M. S. I.
Fs' Cr. Answers O.T. 2% 17% 15% 41%
Ms' Cr. Answers O.T. 9% 32% 15% 40%
Chart (4.10): Total Percentages of Females' and Males' Cr. Answers OT for all M.M.
Kinds
80%
60% 62% 61%

56%
Frequency
54% 50%
40% 40%
25% 26%
20%
0%
Ads. Car. S. M. S. I.
Fs' Cr. Answers W.T. 25% 40% 62% 54%
Ms' Cr. Answers W.T. 26% 56% 61% 50%
Chart (4.11): Total Percentages of Females and Males' Cr. Answers WT for all M.M.
Kinds
With respect to S.M., females and males have done exactly the same
rate, which was (15%). Finally, they both have achieved nearly the same
number of answers in S. I. kind, in that, females were only higher by one
number than males, which their rate was (41) per cent. It has, from these
rates, been concluded for both genders (except 2,3 in WT) and that M.M.
different kinds are not equal in regard with hardness of perception; below is
the order of these kinds from the easiest to the hardest:
OT part for both females and males:
1. S.I. 2. Car. 3. S.M. 4. Ads.
WT part for females:
1. S.M. 2. S.I. 3. Car. 4. Ads.
WT part for males:
1. S.M. 2. Car. 3. S.I. 4. Ads.

Table (4.13): Scores of all Students' Answers of Perception of all M.M. Kinds OT and
WT
No. Ads. Car. S. M. S. I.
Inc Cr. Inc Cr. Inc Cr In Cr. Inc Cr. Inc Cr In Cr. Inc Cr.
. . . . c. . . . c. .
1 5 0 2 3 5 0 1 4 4 1 0 5 2 3 1 4
2 4 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 0 5 3 2 1 4
3 5 0 3 2 3 2 2 3 5 0 1 4 4 1 4 1
4 4 1 2 3 5 0 3 2 3 2 1 4 2 3 1 4
5 5 0 3 2 4 1 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 1 2 3
6 5 0 3 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 4 2 3 4 1
7 5 0 4 1 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 4 3 2
8 5 0 3 2 5 0 0 5 1 1 3 2 3 2 1 4
9 5 0 5 0 4 1 2 3 0 0 1 4 3 2 2 3
10 5 0 1 1 4 1 4 1 2 2 1 4 2 3 1 4
11 5 0 3 2 5 0 2 3 5 0 1 4 4 1 0 5
12 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 3 2
13 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 4 1
14 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 1 4 4 1 2 3
15 5 0 4 1 5 0 3 2 4 1 0 5 4 1 1 4
16 5 0 5 0 5 0 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
17 5 0 5 0 4 1 4 1 5 0 3 2 2 3 4 1
18 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 5 0 2 3 3 2 2 3
19 5 0 3 2 3 2 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 5 0
20 5 0 5 0 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 4 3 2
21 3 2 0 5 2 3 0 5 3 2 1 4 1 4 2 3
22 1 4 2 3 2 3 0 5 4 1 0 5 2 3 2 3
23 5 0 3 2 4 1 4 1 5 0 1 4 1 4 2 3
24 5 0 5 0 5 0 3 2 4 1 2 3 2 3 1 4
25 5 0 4 1 5 0 3 2 5 0 2 3 3 2 2 3
26 5 0 5 0 3 2 4 1 3 2 5 0 3 2 4 1
27 5 0 4 1 1 4 0 5 5 0 0 5 3 2 1 4
28 4 1 4 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 1 4 4 1 1 4
29 5 0 2 3 2 3 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 4 1
30 3 2 0 5 2 3 0 5 4 1 0 5 0 5 0 5
31 5 0 1 1 4 1 2 3 5 0 3 2 5 0 4 1
32 5 0 0 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 4 1 3 2 3 2
33 5 0 0 0 5 0 3 2 5 0 3 2 4 1 2 3
34 5 0 0 0 5 0 4 1 5 0 3 2 4 1 2 3
35 5 0 0 0 3 2 2 3 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 1
36 5 0 5 0 3 2 2 3 5 0 1 4 3 2 5 0
37 5 0 4 1 4 1 1 4 3 2 1 4 4 1 3 2
38 5 0 4 1 5 0 2 3 4 1 0 5 4 1 0 5
39 5 0 4 1 2 3 3 2 5 0 4 1 4 1 4 1
40 5 0 4 1 4 1 3 2 5 0 3 2 4 1 4 1
Total 189 11 121 51 151 49 10 96 155 30 77 123 119 81 96 104
Score 4
Percent 94. 5.5 60. 25. 75. 24. 52 48 77.5 15% 38. 61. 59. 40. 48 52
age 5% % 5% 5% 5% 5% % % % 5% 5% 5% 5 % %
Table (4.13) provides the answers of all students for all M.Ms kinds OT
and WT. For simplicity, one line from each kind is selected, i.e. incorrect
answers of OT. It indicates that out of (200) figures, (189) incorrect
responses were for Ads. and (151) of Car. While (155) of S.M. and (119) of
S.I.
Table (4.14): Total Scores and Percentages of all Students' Answers for all M.M. Kinds
OT and WT
No. Ads. Car. S. M. S. I.
Inc Cr. Inc Cr. Inc Cr In Cr. Inc Cr. Inc Cr In Cr. Inc Cr.
. . . . c. . . . c. .
Total 189 11 121 51 151 49 10 96 155 30 77 123 119 81 96 104
Score 4
Perce 94. 5.5 60. 25. 75. 24. 52 48 77.5 15% 38. 61. 59. 40. 48 52
ntage 5% % 5% 5% 5% 5% % % % 5% 5% 5% 5% % %
To compare M.M. kinds, only correct answers of WT is considered of

all kinds. Out of (200) M.M. figures, only (51) items of Ads. were
identified correctly while (96) figures of Car., and (123) figures of S.M.
and finally, (104) items of S.I. were correctly identified. This indicates, in
terms of easiness, that S.M. kind is the easiest one. S.I. kind comes in
second places of easiness in understanding by Iraqi learners and then Car.
comes in third place. Finally, Ads. kind comes last; it is the hardest kind.
70.00%
60.00%
Frequency
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Ads. Car. S.M. S. I.

Percentage of Cr. O.T. 5.50% 24.50% 15% 40.50%
Percentage of Cr. W.T. 25.50% 48% 61.50% 52%
Chart (4.12): Total Percentages of Cr. and Inc. Scores of all Students OT and WT
Using this chart (4.12), how text is most/least crucial can be clarified.
It explains the percentages for each kind of M.Ms OT and WT. Ads shows
that the rate has come up from only (5.5%) OT to (25.5%) WT and Car. is
(24.5%) OT to (48%) WT, and S.M. and S.I. are from (15%) OT to
(61.5%) WT and from (40.5%) OT to (52%) WT, respectively. To discover
the rate of rise, the difference between the two percentages is calculated for
each kind, which is the mean of rise. The mean of rise is (20%) for Ads.
and is(23.5%) for Car. and is (46.5%) for S.M. and finally, is (11.5%) for
S.I. The order of M.M. kinds is with regard to its need for text mode to be
understood is: (1) S.M. (2) Car. (3) Ads. (4) S.I. The bigger the difference
between the answers of OT and WT the more sensitive to text and vice
versa (For some original samples of the recognition test's responses see
appendix III, P.184 and for the whole original responses of the recognition
test's see appendix (IV, P. 190).
Part C. Discussion the Findings of the Study
According to the qualitative and quantitative analyses, this study has

reached the following results:
1. Other things being equal, it can be said that Iraqi EFL learners,
though not completely, but to some extent, failed to correctly
perceive or understand the metaphorical meaning of M.Ms with a
percentage of (53.37%) incorrect perception and (47.62%) correct
ones, as shown in table (4.6) and chart (4.6) WT part. This high
percentage of incorrect perception is because of the students'
unfamiliarity with this type of new metaphor, so they lack the
generic space that enables them to bend the two modes together
correctly.
2. Linguistic mode is an influential element in M.Ms understanding and
that can be clearly noticed in the increase of correct perception and
the decrease of incorrect perception after bringing back the text to
the exposed figures. All of the correct answers were doubled. That is
illustrated in table (4.6) and chart (4.6). The percentage of total
correct answers OT is (20.70%) while WT is (47.62%). This is due
to M.Ms firm unity organisation. Different modes in M.Ms are used
with an acute interdependence and interconnectedness that deforms
the other if one is removed or taken away.
3. With regard to the influence of branch of study and gender in M.Ms
perception and text importance, it can be as follows:
a. Branch of study has been demonstrated to be an influential
parameter in understanding M.Ms. Varied students' branches have
shown different efficiencies in recognising M.Ms. In general,
linguistics students have done the best job with an average
percentage (61%) of correct perception. Literature students come
in second place, with an average of (58.5%) correct answers.
Translation branch occupied the third rank, with an average of
(38%), and finally, methodology students come at the end of the
queue with an average (33%) correct perception. Table (4.5) and
chart (4.5) can be looked at for more details. These different
performances can be attributed to the fact of un/familiarity. For
their intensive familiarity with CM and the way of mapping and
how CM works, linguistics students have done the best
performance. Literature students also have studied CM as it is an
important poetic device. So, they come after linguistics students.
Translation, though less than the two previous branches, yet they
are exposed to some topics of CM to see how metaphors or
metaphoric expressions are translated. It takes the third place in
M.Ms understanding. Methodology, which is the last branch in
the list of M.Ms, is the branch whose students are the least
familiar with CM.
b. Though not sharp, gender has demonstrated a dissimilar ability in
M.Ms perception. Males' level of comprehending M.Ms is higher
than that of females'. The former has reached (49.75%) as an
average, in turn, females have (45.5%).
c. Regarding text influence in the selected branches of study and
gender. Firstly, table (4.5) and chart (4.5) have indicated that the
four branches are varied in their students' sensitivity to text in
understanding M.Ms OT and WT. With an average of rising
correct answers (43%), linguistics students have shown to be the
most sensitive to text. Literature comes after linguistics with a
mean of rise (30.5%) in terms of text importance. Methodology,
which comes the last in all scales, has taken the third position
with a mean of rise (24%). Translation students have shown the
least sensitivity to text in identifying M.Ms.
Secondly, gender has indicated a slight difference regarding the
importance of text in M.Ms' perception. The average of rise for
male is (27.75%) which is higher than that of females, which is
(26.25%) in M.Ms perception.
4. The different kinds of M.Ms are unequal in terms of students'
perception of M.Ms with respect to easiness and hardness in
understanding. As shown in table (4.14) and chart (4.12), S.I. is the
easiest kind of M.Ms, with an average of (61.5) per cent of correct
answers. With an average of (52) per cent, S.M. kind comes after S.I.
in its ease of interpretability. Car. Takes the third position, with an
average (48) per cent and lastly, Ads. is the hardest M.M. kind for
Iraqi learners to be perceived, in that, its average understanding is the
least (25.5) per cent.
It is not an accident for these to come in this order, but likely,
there are underlying causes. For Ads. and Car. to be the most
difficult is because they are creatively made by specialised people
and especially Ads. called "creative ads". The more creative M.Ms
the harder their metaphorical meanings to be grasped. Familiarity is
also a factor of hardness, since these two kinds are less exposed than
S.I. and S.M. posters. For the other easy couples, S.M. and S.I.
because of their availability on social media and because most of
their figurative meanings are socially well-known by the most
popular.
5. The different M.M. kinds have demonstrated different needs for text
mode in their identification. Text plays the most crucial role in S.M.
M.Ms understanding. Its mean of rise is the highest (46.5%). Car.
comes in the second position with an average of rise ( 23.5%). Ads.
is the third kind in its sensitivity to text, whose mean reads (20%).
The more independent of text is S.I., which has a mean of rise reads
(11.5%). Table (4.12), chart (4.10) and chart (4.11) can provide more
details.
6. Metaphorical meanings are not necessary to be expressed equally by
both modes of M.Ms (verbal mode and visual mode). They are of
two cases within this study:
a. The first case is in which only one mode is metaphorical and
mostly visual mode, while verbal mode is used non-
metaphorically, as in the case of figure (4.2), the image expresses
metaphoricity while verbal is used non-metaphorically. Figure
(4.4), (4.10), (4.15) depict the same and similar cases.
b. The case in which both pictorial and linguistic modes are used
metaphorically, like the case of figure (4.5) in which visual mode
(an ant carrying a can of Pepsi light walking on a thin branch) and
linguistic mode the word "Pepsi light" which is also
metaphorically used to refer to " a low amount of sugar or sugar
free" not to denote about weight. Other examples are (4.1a),
(4.16a), (4.19a).
c. It is noteworthy, on the basis of the two previous cases, to
mention that even when linguistic expression is used non-
metaphorically, it is not a pure literal usage of language, but it can
have to some extent a sort of metaphorical denotation and that
amount of metaphoricity rises from the context in which it is
used. The visual metaphorical context with which linguistic
expression is used like the case of figure (4.3a) in which as if the
linguistic words with visual mode say "this phone is a water-
proof one and it feels liquids as solid things. It is not affected by
liquids as it is not with solid". It is a metaphorical meaning
formed by the two modes jointly. The case of figure (4.4a) is the
same.
7. The more unusual or seemingly unrelated the modes of M.M. (visual
mode and verbal mode) to each other or to the context in which
M.Ms is used, the more creative it is in metaphorical meaning when
its figurative meaning is grasped and vice versa. In turn, the more
creative the M.M., the riskier and more time-consuming it becomes.
Creative M.Ms can more easily than others understood wrongly or
even oppositely, and they need more processing time to get their
meanings.
8. It is not a free visual-cum-verbal M.Ms combinations. Only certain
visual/verbal modes that can be combined to form M.M. where
feature(s) is/are transformed from one thing (which is the source
domain) to another thing (the target domain). The transformed
features must make sense when transformed to the other side and be
homogenous that form better new meanings.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
This chapter is devoted to presenting the conclusions that the study

has arrived at. It also presents recommendations for students, teachers and
researchers in relation to the findings of the current study. Furthermore, it
presents some suggestions for future studies.
5.1 Conclusions
1. A high percentage of Iraqi EFL students were unable to correctly
perceive the exposed M.Ms, i.e., more than half of the exposed
M.Ms were not perceived correctly. It is thought to be because of
their unfamiliarity with conceptual metaphors in general and M.Ms
in particular. This verifies the first hypothesis and answers the first
question.
2. Text plays an essential role in the perception of M.Ms. The
percentages of correct answers highly increased when text was
brought back to M.M. figures and in turn the percentages of incorrect
answers highly decreased. This is attributed to the intensive and
inseparable unity of M.Ms. Modes of M.Ms mostly work in tandem
and M.Ms often be nonsensical when their modes are separated.
Consequently, the second hypothesis is verified and this answers the
second question.
3. The branch of study has proved to be an effective element in M.Ms
understanding. The four investigated branches of study have shown
different performances in interpreting M.M. figures. This is due to
the variations of subjects tackled in the different branches with
relation to conceptual metaphors in general and M.M. in particular.
This verifies the third hypothesis and answers the third question.
4. Gender, unlike the branch of study, has proved to be a secondary
element in perceiving M.Ms, in that females and males have done
approximately similar performances. It is because M.M. figures
understanding depends on background knowledge and familiarity not
to different gender differences. Correspondingly, the forth
hypothesis is refuted and the forth question is answered.
5. Different kinds of M.Ms have proved to have different
interpretability in relation to students' perception of M.Ms in terms
of easiness and hardness of understanding. Advertisement is proved
to be the hardest kind and social issues is the easiest one for Iraqi
EFL learners to understand. Their interpretability often relies on the
popularity of the expressed metaphor and the potentiality of source
and target mapping. Correspondingly, the fourth hypothesis is
verified and also the fourth question is answered.
6. All the target domains in the selected data are represented by verbal
mode and in some M.Ms visual mode also implies the target domain
in combination with verbal one. Linguistic mode is the
steering/guide that steers the meaning of M.Ms in a certain direction,
to convey a certain message. It is a key or trigger for M.Ms
understanding. Limitless metaphorical meanings could be expressed
by changing the verbal expression in the same visual mode. Other
text can direct the meaning in the direction the creator likes.
7. In the selected data, all the source domains are manifested visually
and in some M.Ms, verbal mode implies the source domains jointly
with visual mode. Visual mode represents the base or body of M.Ms
that is oriented by the verbal mode in certain direction to express
certain metaphorical meaning.
8. In accordance with the previous studies, neither the previous related
studies support or reject the findings of the current study nor vice
versa. This is because the current study tackles the topic of M.Ms
from different perspectives and has found a research gap which has
not yet been dealt with, i.e., investigating M.A. students’ perception
in addition to the effect of various variables namely, branch of study,
gender and M.M. kinds, on M.Ms understanding. However, all
studies, including the current one, highlight the immense role of
multimodal metaphors in conveying more meaning to the receiver
via employing different modes.
5.2 Recommendations
Based on the conducted study, some recommendations can be provided, as
follows:
1. Multimodal metaphors should be paid more attention to and included

within the M.A. courses syllabus.
2. Economic and commercial colleges or departments should include
the concept of multimodal metaphor intensively in their studies due
to its frequent usage in marketing and trade.
3. Students or teachers should be acquainted with multimodal
metaphor especially combined with visual mode because it is an
important hallmark of visual technology.
5.3 Suggestions for Further Research
Taking the current study into consideration, related further titles can be
suggested:
1. Verbal and visual metaphors: A cognitive comparative study.

2. The dependability of verbal/visual mode in multimodal metaphors.
3. A comparative study of the universality/ individuality of
verbal/visual metaphors.
4. A discursive-cognitive study of ideology in multimodal metaphor.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX (I)
List of Jury Members and their Specialities and Locations
The Juror's Name Specialty Location
Prof. Muslih Shwaysh Linguistics College of Education for Human

Ahmed (PhD) Sciences/ Anbar University
Prof. Muhammad Badie Linguistics College of Education for Human
Ahmed (PhD) Sciences/University of Tikrit
Prof. Ahmed Mohammed Linguistics College of Education for Human
Salih (PhD) Sciences/University of Tikrit
Prof. Hasan Sha’aban Ali Linguistics College of Education for Human
(PhD) Sciences/University of Tikrit
Asst. Prof. Bushra Ni'ma Linguistics College of Education/Ibn Rushd/
Rashid (PhD) University of Baghdad
Asst. Prof. Jumaa Qadir Linguistics College of Education for Human
Hussein (PhD) Sciences/ Anbar University
Asst. Prof. Samara Linguistics College of Education for Human
Mohammed Ahmed (PhD) Sciences/University of Tikrit
APPENDIX (II)
The Letter to Jury Members
Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
University of Tikrit
College of Education for Humanities
Department of English
M. A. Study / Linguistics
A Letter to the Jury Members
The researcher plans to run an experimental study entitled:

''Investigating the Perception of Multimodal Metaphors by Iraqi EFL
Learners''. The current study has adopted four different multimodal
metaphor species as samples of (verbio-pictorial) metaphors and each of
the below specie consists of five samples (pictures):
1. Advertisements.
2. Caricature.
3. Social media.
4. Social issues.
The study aims at investigating to what extent the Iraqi EFL learners are
familiar with or can identify the multimodal metaphorical borne message
and to measure the span of time consumed for the mental processing in
understanding each of those pictures.
The procedures followed here is to display the same samples twice;

once the pictures without its linguistic expressions (visual mode only), and
then after two/three days with its linguistic expressions (two modes verbal
and visual). It is an online questionnaire with the researcher's intensive
following with each respondent to confirm results reliability.
Being specialist in the realm of linguistics, you are kindly requested,

after having a look at the designation of the questionnaire, to illuminate the
researcher with your invaluable experience and knowledge by expressing
your thoughts and opinions of the suggested way, limits, types and any
other refinements to have as much dependable results as possible. Any
comments, suggestions or additions will be highly appreciated.
Thank you in advance for your assistance and cooperation.
With respect and Gratitude
Yours
M.A. Candidate Supervisor
Rabah Noori Hadi Asst. Prof. Israa B. Abdurrahman (PhD)
ِ Information about the jury member:
Name:
University:
Specialty:
APPENDIX (III)
Some Samples of the Questionnaire's Answers and its Formula

APPENDIX (IV)
Compact disc (CD) Contains the Whole Original Responses of the

Questionnaire as (PDF) files
APPENDIX (V)
SPSS Statistical Analysis Findings
Oneway
Descriptives
Scores
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
No. Mean Student Deviation Student's Inc. Lower Bound Upper Bound Minim
Linguistics 10 5.4000 2.67499 .84591 3.4864 7.3136
Translation 10 3.7000 1.15950 .36667 2.8705 4.5295
Methodology 10 1.8000 1.03280 .32660 1.0612 2.5388
Literature 10 5.7000 2.21359 .70000 4.1165 7.2835
Total 40 4.1500 2.41311 .38155 3.3783 4.9217
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: Scores
Tukey HSD
Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval
(I) English Branches (J) English Branches (I-J) Student's Inc. Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Linguistics Translation 1.70000 .85049 .207 -.5906 3.9906
*
Methodology 3.60000 .85049 .001 1.3094 5.8906
Literature -.30000 .85049 .985 -2.5906 1.9906
Translation Linguistics -1.70000 .85049 .207 -3.9906 .5906
Methodology 1.90000 .85049 .133 -.3906 4.1906
Literature -2.00000 .85049 .105 -4.2906 .2906
*
Methodology Linguistics -3.60000 .85049 .001 -5.8906 -1.3094
Translation -1.90000 .85049 .133 -4.1906 .3906
*
Literature -3.90000 .85049 .000 -6.1906 -1.6094
Literature Linguistics .30000 .85049 .985 -1.9906 2.5906
Translation 2.00000 .85049 .105 -.2906 4.2906
Methodology 3.90000* .85049 .000 1.6094 6.1906
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Means Plots
Oneway
Descriptives
Scores
No. Mean Student Deviation Student's. Inc. Lower Bound Upper Bound Minim
Linguistics 10 12.2000 3.32666 1.05198 9.8203 14.5797
Translation 10 7.6000 3.30656 1.04563 5.2346 9.9654
Methodology 10 6.6000 4.03320 1.27541 3.7148 9.4852
Literature 10 11.7000 3.68330 1.16476 9.0651 14.3349
Total 40 9.5250 4.26066 .67367 8.1624 10.8876
ANOVA
Scores
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 241.475 3 80.492 6.212 .002
Within Groups 466.500 36 12.958
Total 707.975 39
Post Hoc Tests
Tukey HSD
Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval
(I) English Branches (J) English Branches (I-J) Student's Inc. Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Linguistics Translation 4.60000* 1.60987 .034 .2643 8.9357
*
Methodology 5.60000 1.60987 .007 1.2643 9.9357
Literature .50000 1.60987 .989 -3.8357 4.8357
*
Translation Linguistics -4.60000 1.60987 .034 -8.9357 -.2643
Methodology 1.00000 1.60987 .925 -3.3357 5.3357
Literature -4.10000 1.60987 .069 -8.4357 .2357
*
Methodology Linguistics -5.60000 1.60987 .007 -9.9357 -1.2643
Translation -1.00000 1.60987 .925 -5.3357 3.3357
Literature -5.10000* 1.60987 .016 -9.4357 -.7643
Literature Linguistics -.50000 1.60987 .989 -4.8357 3.8357
Translation 4.10000 1.60987 .069 -.2357 8.4357
*
Methodology 5.10000 1.60987 .016 .7643 9.4357
Means Plots
Oneway
Descriptives
Scores
No. Mean Student Deviation Std. Inc. Lower Bound Upper Bound Min
Advertisement 40 .2000 .51640 .08165 .0348 .3652
Caricature 40 1.1000 1.05733 .16718 .7618 1.4382
Social Issue 40 2.0250 1.14326 .18077 1.6594 2.3906
Social Media 40 .7500 .77625 .12274 .5017 .9983
Total 160 1.0188 1.11858 .08843 .8441 1.1934
ANOVA
Scores
Between Groups 70.469 3 23.490 28.522 .000
Within Groups 128.475 156 .824
Total 198.944 159
Post Hoc Tests
Tukey HSD
Mean Difference 95% Conf
(I) Multimodal Metaphors (J) Multimodal Metaphors (I-J) Student's Inc. Sig. Lower Bound
Advertisement Caricature -.90000* .20292 .000 -1.427
*
Social Issue -1.82500 .20292 .000 -2.352
*
Social Media -.55000 .20292 .037 -1.077
*
Caricature Advertisement .90000 .20292 .000 .373
Social Issue -.92500* .20292 .000 -1.452
Social Media .35000 .20292 .314 -.177
*
Social Issue Advertisement 1.82500 .20292 .000 1.298
*
Caricature .92500 .20292 .000 .398
Social Media 1.27500* .20292 .000 .748
*
Social Media Advertisement .55000 .20292 .037 .023
Caricature -.35000 .20292 .314 -.877
*
Social Issue -1.27500 .20292 .000 -1.802
Means Plots
Oneway
Descriptives
Scores
No. Mean Student Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Min
Advertisement 40 1.3500 1.45972 .23080 .8832 1.8168
Caricature 40 2.4000 1.46410 .23149 1.9318 2.8682
Social Issue 40 2.6000 1.41058 .22303 2.1489 3.0511
Social Media 40 3.0750 1.52564 .24122 2.5871 3.5629
Total 160 2.3563 1.58351 .12519 2.1090 2.6035
ANOVA
Scores
Between Groups 63.619 3 21.206 9.873 .000
Within Groups 335.075 156 2.148
Total 398.694 159
Tukey HSD
Mean Difference 95% Conf
(I) Multimodal Metaphors (J) Multimodal Metaphors (I-J) Student's Inc. Sig. Lower Bound
Advertisement Caricature -1.05000* .32771 .009 -1.901
*
Social Issue -1.25000 .32771 .001 -2.101
*
Social Media -1.72500 .32771 .000 -2.576
*
Caricature Advertisement 1.05000 .32771 .009 .198
Social Issue -.20000 .32771 .929 -1.051
Social Media -.67500 .32771 .171 -1.526
*
Social Issue Advertisement 1.25000 .32771 .001 .398
Caricature .20000 .32771 .929 -.651
Social Media -.47500 .32771 .471 -1.326
*
Social Media Advertisement 1.72500 .32771 .000 .873
Caricature .67500 .32771 .171 -.176
Social Issue .47500 .32771 .471 -.376
Means Plots
‫ال ُمستخلص‬
‫بدًل من كونها فكرية‪ ،‬وجد‬ ‫خال ًفا للنظرة التقليدية لإلستعارة بإعتبارها سِ مة لُغوية ً‬
‫ًلكوف وجونسون في كتابهما األساسي "‪ ،)1980( "Metaphor We Live By‬أنَّ‬
‫صير اإلستعارة بواسائط أخرى ما‬ ‫اإلستعارة مسألة فكر وفعل‪ .‬كوسيلة إدراكية‪ُ ،‬ت َ‬
‫عدى اللفظية منها‪ ،‬وتلعب المعلومات متعددة الوسائط‪ ،‬بعد دمج محتوى‬
‫الصورة‪/‬النص دورً ا مهمًا في التعبير عن اإلستعارة والمساهمة في فهمها‪ .‬تتناول هذه‬
‫الدراسة مجال الدراسة الحديثة لإلستعارة "اإلستعارة متعددة الوسائط"‪ .‬تهدف الدراسة‬
‫إل(‪ ) ١‬رحش٘ يذٖ قذسح طهجخ انًبجسز‪ٛ‬ش انؼشاق‪ ٍٛٛ‬يزؼهً‪ ٙ‬انهغخ اإلَكه‪ٛ‬زح نغخ أجُج‪ٛ‬خ‬
‫ف‪ ٙ‬إدساك اإلسزؼبسح يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪ )٢( .‬انزؼشف ػهٗ أًْ‪ٛ‬خ انُص ف‪ ٙ‬اإلسزؼبساد‬
‫يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪ )٣( .‬يالحظخ يب إرا كبَذ األَٕاع انًخزهفخ يٍ اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح‬
‫انٕسبئظ رُظٓش إ٘ إخزالفبد أٔ أٔجّ رشبثّ يٍ ح‪ٛ‬ث قبثه‪ٛ‬زٓب نهزفس‪ٛ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫نزحق‪ٛ‬ق أْذافٓب‪ ،‬إفزشضذ ْزِ انذساسخ َّ‬
‫أٌ‪ُْ )١( :‬بك َسجخ ػبن‪ٛ‬خ يٍ طهجخ انًبجسز‪ٛ‬ش‬
‫انؼشاق‪ ٍٛٛ‬يزؼهً‪ ٙ‬انهغخ اإلَكه‪ٛ‬ز‪ٚ‬خ نغخ أجُج‪ٛ‬خ ال ‪ًٚ‬كُٓى فٓى اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح‬
‫ً‬
‫فؼبال ف‪ ٙ‬إظٓبس‬ ‫انٕسبئظ‪ .‬ف‪ ٙ‬االسزؼبساد يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪ٚ )٢( .‬هؼت انُص دٔسًا‬
‫يؼبَ‪ ٙ‬اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪ )٣( .‬رخزهف إَٔاع اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ يٍ‬
‫َٕع إنٗ أخش يٍ ح‪ٛ‬ث سٕٓنخ أٔ صؼٕثخ فًٓٓب‪.‬‬
‫رضى انشسبنخ ػشش‪ ٍٚ‬ػ‪ُِّٛ‬خ رى جًؼٓب يٍ يصبدس أَزشَذ ُيخزهفخ ٔيٍ ث َّى رقس‪ًٓٛ‬ب إنٗ‬
‫أسثغ فئبد‪ :‬اإلػالَبد‪ ،‬انكبس‪ٚ‬كبر‪ٛ‬ش‪ٔ ،‬سبئم انزٕاصم اإلجزًبػ‪ٔ ٙ‬انقضب‪ٚ‬ب اإلجزًبػ‪ٛ‬خ‬
‫ٔانز‪ ٙ‬رى رحه‪ٛ‬هٓب َٕػ‪ًٛ‬ب ٔكً‪ًٛ‬أ‪ .‬يٍ ح‪ٛ‬ث انزحه‪ٛ‬م انُٕػ‪ ،ٙ‬إسزخذاو انشسبنخ َظش‪ٚ‬خ انًزج‬
‫انًفبْ‪ ًٙٛ‬ل ‪ )2002(Turner ٔ Fauconnier‬نهزحه‪ٛ‬م‪ .‬أيب ف‪ًٛ‬ب ‪ٚ‬زؼهق ثبنزحه‪ٛ‬م‬
‫انكً‪ ،ٙ‬فقذ أجشد انذساسخ إسزج‪ٛ‬بٌ ٔأخضؼذ انؼ‪ُِّٛ‬بد انؼشش‪ ٍٚ‬نهزحش٘ إحصبئ‪ًٛ‬ب ػٍ‬
‫يذٖ قذسح إدساك طهجخ انًبجسز‪ٛ‬ش انؼشاق‪ ٍٛٛ‬يزؼهً‪ ٙ‬انهغخ اإلَكه‪ٛ‬ز‪ٚ‬خ نغخ أجُج‪ٛ‬خ‬
‫نإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪.‬‬
‫إٌ‪ُْ )١( :‬بك َسجخ كج‪ٛ‬شح يٍ طالة انًبجسز‪ٛ‬ش انؼشاق‪ ٍٛٛ‬ال‬ ‫إسزُزجذ انذساسخ إنٗ َّ‬
‫‪ٚ‬سزط‪ٛ‬ؼٌٕ فٓى اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪ٚ )٢( .‬ؼزجش انُص ٔاسطخ راد أًْ‪ٛ‬خ‬
‫كج‪ٛ‬شح ف‪ ٙ‬فٓى اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح انٕسبئظ‪ )٣( .‬رخزهف إَٔاع اإلسزؼبساد يزؼذدح‬
‫انٕسبئظ ف‪ ٙ‬يذٖ سٕٓنخ إدساكٓب نهطهجخ انؼشاق‪ ،ٍٛٛ‬ح‪ٛ‬ث اإلػالَبد ْ‪ ٙ‬انُٕع األصؼت‬
‫إدسا ًكب‪ ،‬ث‪ًُٛ‬ب األيٕس االجزًبػ‪ٛ‬خ ْ‪ ٙ‬األسٓم‪ )٤( .‬قُ ِذ َيذ جً‪ٛ‬غ انً‪ٛ‬بد‪ ٍٚ‬انًسزٓذفخ ف‪ٙ‬‬
‫االسزؼبساد‪ ،‬ضًٍ انج‪ٛ‬بَبد ان ًُحذدح‪ ،‬شفٓ‪ًٛ‬ب‪ ,‬ث‪ًُٛ‬ب جً‪ٛ‬غ ي‪ٛ‬بد‪ ٍٚ‬انًصذس ف‪ٙ‬‬
‫االسزؼبساد قُذيذ ثصش‪ًٚ‬ب‪.‬‬
‫إقرار المشرف‬
‫أشهد بأن هذه الرسالة الموسومة بـ (تقصي إدراك العراقيين متعممي المغة اإلنكميزية لغة‬
‫أجنبية لإلستعارات متعددة الوسائط) جرت تحت إشرافي في جامعة تكريت وهي جزء من‬
‫متطمبات نيل شهادة ماجستير آداب في المغة اإلنكميزية وعمم المغة‪.‬‬
‫التوقيع‪:‬‬
‫االسم‪ :‬أ‪ .‬م ‪.‬د أسراء ُبرهان الدين عبد الرحمن‬
‫التاريخ‪2022/ / :‬‬
‫إقرار رئيس القسم‬
‫بناء عمى هذه التوصيات المقدمة من قبل المشرف أرشح هذه الرسالة لممناقشة‪.‬‬
‫ً‬
‫التوقيع‪:‬‬
‫االسم‪ :‬أ‪ .‬م‪ .‬د‪ .‬محمد برجس سممان‬
‫(رئيس القسم)‬
‫التاريخ‪2022/ / :‬‬
‫مجهىريت العراق‪/‬وزارة التعلين العايل والبحث العلوي‬
‫جاهعت تكريت‪/‬كليت الرتبيت للعلىم اإلنسانيت‬
‫قسن اللغت اإلنكليسيت‬
‫تقصي إدراك العراقيني متعلمي اللغت اإلنكليزيت لغت‬

‫أجنبيت لإلستعاراث متعددة الوسائط‬
‫رسالة تقدم بها الطالب‬
‫رباح نوري هادي العبيدي‬
‫إلى مجمس كمية التربية لمعموم اإلنسانية‪ /‬جامعة تكريت وهي جزء من‬
‫متطمبات نيل شهادة ماجستير آداب في المغة اإلنكميزية وعمم المغة‬
‫بإشراف‬
‫أ‪ .‬م‪ .‬د أسراء بُرهان الدين عبد الرمحن‬
‫م ‪0200‬‬ ‫ه‪4111‬‬

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رباح العبيدي

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Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education &

Investigating the Perception of Multimodal

Asst. Prof. Israa Burhanuddin Abdurrahman (Ph.D)

2022 A.D. 1444 A. H.

In The Name Of Allah, The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful

(And when the anger of Musa (Moses) was calmed down, he

(Al-Hilali and Khan, 2002: 222 ) ( Al-A'raaf: 154)

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for debate

Name: Asst. Prof. Muhammed Barjes Salman (Ph.D.)

Head of the Department of English

College of Education for Humanities, University of Tikrit

Who would have been proud to see this work

My brothers and sisters

My deepest gratitude and appreciation go to the seminar committee for

Finally, I must express my gratitude and affection to my family; my

Titles Page No.

Table Title Page

Figure Title Page

Chart Title Page

4.7 The Percentages of females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT 153

4.8 The Percentages of Females' Answers of M.Ms OT and WT 154

Abbreviated Form Full Form

1.1 Problem of the Study

Metaphor is a complex phenomenon that makes it hard to draw

Human beings can more easily understand and categorize

If the contemporary claim of metaphor is correct, then the conceptual

Most of researches deals with metaphor have centered on linguistic

The current study aims at:

1. Investigating the overall Iraqi EFL learner's accuracy scores in the

1.7 Limits of the Study

1.8 Value of the Study

2.1 Cognitive Linguistics (CL)

Cognitive linguistics (also cognitive linguistics enterprise)

CL is referred to as a ‘movement’ or an ‘enterprise’ since it is not

On a terminological level, a differentiation ought to be made

CL, according to Croft and Cruse (2004: 1-4), is based on three

The second implication is that the cognitive processes that

The second hypothesis denotes that an important issue of human

The third major hypothesis postulates that knowledge of language

Cognitive linguists believe that the systematic structure inside the

The fact of metaphor, as seen by Aristotle, is giving the name of one

Aristotelian theory of metaphor is the root of the traditional

In classical theories of language, the word 'metaphor' was defined as

The traditional view of metaphor is merely a phenomenon of

Metaphor, for Lakeoff and Johnson (1980: 1) is ''understanding and

According to Gibbs (1999: 202), metaphor is a mental mapping in

1. Our relationship has hit a dead-end-street.

2.3.1 The Meaning of Concept

Before getting started with the explanation of what is meant by

the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a

2.3.2 Traditional and Modern Views of Metaphor

The origins of conceptual metaphor theory (Henceforth CMT) are

1. All everyday conventional language is literal, and none is

Two millstone works; Andrew Ortony's edited volume Metaphor

2.3.3 Metaphorical Conceptualisation

To understand what ''metaphorical concept'' could mean and how

The concept of war partially structures many things people do when

2.3.4The Establishment of Metaphorical Conceptualisation

Here is an example to illustrate this claim. According to CMT, the

2.5 Metaphorical Mapping

The quintessence of metaphor is not in language, but in people's

The central premise of CMT is that metaphor is more than just a

2.5.1 The systematicity of Metaphorical Mapping