Professional Documents
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Edci 351 Course Notes
Edci 351 Course Notes
__________________________________________________________________________
BY
MAKINI GETUNO
(0723-803-662; dmakini@egerton.ac.ke)
August 2015
The use of media in education has made important contributions to the effectiveness of
teaching and learning
Hyden and Nagel (1977) have argued that media and materials can ;
There is not one definition acceptable to all practitioners in educational technology. A number of
definitions have been developed by different bodies and organizations. We shall examine three
of them;
Definition 3
Educational technology is a systematic way of designing implementing and evaluating the
total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in
human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and non- human
resources to bring about more effective instruction (Commission on Instructional
Technology, USA).
All the three definitions are similar in that each emphasizes the primary function of educational
technology as that of improving the efficiency of the process of teaching and learning.
(1) Learning resources : i.e messages, people, materials, devices, techniques and settings;
(2) Processes for analyzing and deriving solutions to educational problems through research,
design, production, evaluation and utilization.
(3) The processes involved in organization & personnel management where the focus is on
effective processes to facilitate learning using technologies and understanding the impacts of
technology on learners and organizations.
Technology IN Education
The use of media in education has made some irrefutable contributions to the effectiveness of
teaching and learning. This embraces every possible means by which information can be
presented. It is concerned with the gadget of education and training, such as television, the
various projected media like OHP, OP slides etc, in other words, technology in education is
basically the popular impression of what educational technology is all about, namely
audiovisual aids. The aids have made some of the following contributions to making
teaching and learning more effective, for example;
i. Provided concrete experiences than when words are used alone.
ii. Motivated and aroused interest.
iii. Increased retention of learned material
iv. Provided variety in learning
Technology OF Education
Technology of education is concerned with ways in which education and training could be
improved by thinking more carefully about all aspects of the design of the teaching /learning
situations. Technology of education is therefore to help improve the overall efficiency of the
teaching learning process. The mechanical or electronic gadgets like television, radio and the
computer form only a small part of what educational technology in all about. The principal role
of educational technology is to help improve the overall efficiency of the teaching learning
process in education and training. Improved efficiency may manifest itself in many ways, for
example:
i. Increasing the quality of learning or the degree of mastery
ii. Decreasing the time taken for learner s to attain desired a objectives
iii. Increasing the efficiency of teachers in terms of members of learners taught
without reducing the quality of learning.
iv. Reducing costs without affecting the quality
Addressing such educational issues would require application of technology of education.
Recommendations on how efficiency and effectiveness in teaching and learning can be achieved
will need studying the particular as a whole. Fields such as psychology, sociology, business
management are combined with technical fields like audiovisual aids to produce the optimum
learning- teaching system. Educational technology emphasizes on techniques of teaching and
learning rather that audio visuals only. It is the technology OF education that most
practitioners view as educational technology. Within this concept, technology IN education is
Communication Models
Several models of communication have been developed. We shall examine two of them – the
basic communication model and the transactional communication model.
Transmission: This is the process of sending the message to the receiver through a medium.
The source (sender) sends the symbols to the receiver through the process of transmission,
which takes place in a particular medium- i.e a transmission path or channel.
Decoding: Decoding is the process of deciphering the meaning of a message. The receiver
interprets the meaning of the message through the process of recoding.
Noise: This is any disturbance that interferes with or distorts the transmission of the message.
1) Verbalism
Human beings concentrate their mental attention on what in interesting and desirable on
occasion, we may completely shut out unattended audio stimulation, letting our minds
occupy themselves with pleasanter experiences we have had elsewhere. Similarly, many
learners in the classroom, find it very easy to literary tune us out when our teaching approach
becomes too repetitive, uninteresting or unattractive. Learning efficiency of words actually
declines as more and more words pour forth endlessly. To alleviate this problem the teacher
may draw from a variety of instructional materials activities which use the best of the
communications techniques to transmit a great deal of solid subject content.
3) Day dreaming
This common yet avoidable experience occurs when the student turns away from the flow of
classroom communication and dwells upon his own private experiences and fantasies. Day
dreaming is a remarkable defense mechanism by pupils to protect themselves against the
tedium and boredom of a classroom environment. Day dreaming can be reduced by increasing
the interest level of classroom communication by the application of media and techniques that
are interest -captivating.
4) Physical discomfort
One’s physical environment can produce either a favorable or an inhibiting emotional tone.
There is therefore need for learning to take place in comfortable physical surroundings.
Classrooms that have seen carefully organized in order to make them comfortable and pleasant
are likely to influence the ability of learners to learn. Therefore a broad and varied use of modern
communication devices can effectively offset a host of barriers to effective learning especially if
the physical environment is depressing and chaotic.
1. Emotional communication
A great movie is one where the actors are able to reach the audience and create emotions that
evoke a particular feeling in the audience. Likewise, a successful teacher is able to connect
with students. This encourages participation and stimulates learning. A successful
communicator shows empathy ; he is able to convince the students that he cares about
their learning and is there to support them throughout the process. By establishing an
emotional connection with a student, a teacher can identify what motivates the particular
student and create a collaborative learning environment.
4. Reflective communication
A successful teacher must be able to discern how he should behave in a specific classroom. If
a teacher is in a classroom where students are having particular difficulties with a topic, he
must be able to reflect on the situation and develop a new method for dealing with the topic.
5. Technological communication
Today’s tech-savvy generation is often bored by traditional classroom methods. Therefore , a
successful teacher must be able to incorporate technology into his teaching. Teachers should be
up-to date and try to engage students by using familiar media in the classroom and for
assignments.
Instructional media may be classified on the basis of concrete abstract continuum, beginning
with direct experience to symbolic representation.
Instructional media
Tapes, video, pictures
Hoban, Hoban and Zissman in their book on the use of audio visual materials indicated that the
value of audio – visual materials is a function of their degree of realism. In developing this
concept the author arranged various teaching resources in a hierarchy of greater and greater
abstraction beginning with what the referred to as the total situation, ending with words and the
top of the hierarchy.
- Total situation
The development of instruction should follow the sequence provided by the hierarchy leaving of
experience. This should apply to all lecturers from children to adults. When a learning task is
presented to adults who have no previous relevant experience on which to draw, learning can be
Instructional Media
Media may also be classified according to the senses the appeal to Broadly media can be
classified as either Audio or visual.
5. Boredom among students is an enemy the teacher has to keep on fighting constantly. It is
difficult for teachers to maintain attention for periods longer than 15 minutes without involving
The experience of handling the actual object, participating in a process or observing a factory in
operation involves the use of all senses and provide the best aid to learning. Well thought out
teaching aids can act as effective substitutes to the real experience.
Models of almost anything can be purchased for classroom use. A wide variety of plastic models
kits are also available for assembly by the teacher or the students. Assembly itself can be an
instructional classroom activity. Classroom construction of models appeals to learners of all ages
including adults and can stimulate inquiry and discovery. Assembly activities help sharpen both
cognitive and psychomotor skills.
Models are best used where there is movement, for example of planets around the sun or where 3
dimensional representation is necessary for example, atomic structure and animal skeletons.
Models are developed in order to describe a phenomenon and make it easy to comprehend.
Models are used in the teaching of abstract concepts so as to make visualization possible.
Visualization is important in order to understand abstract concepts such as atoms and molecules
and other abstract mathematical concepts.
Models have a greater impact in teaching and learning that pictures because they can be handled.
1. Scale: The scale of a model is very important .For minute objects there is need to scale them
visible to the learner from a reasonable distance.
2. Dismantling: This is done to reveal inner details of an object and how they relate to one
another .Some parts may be made of transparent materials in order to reveal inner details,
example the structure of earth.
3. Simplification: Some non- essential details may be omitted in order not to confuse the
learners or coloured to emphasize detail.
STILL PICTURES
Still pictures are photographic like representation of people, animals things and places. They can
easily be obtained from newspapers, books, catalogues and magazines still pictures are the most
readily available forms of teaching aids. It is not always possible to expose learners to read – life
experience that are far removed from their classroom experiences. This can be done by using still
pictures flora and fauna which are easily be made available in the classroom. Still pictures are
especially useful when the objectives intended to be achieved are the identification of places,
people or things. Consequently they can be used for testing and evaluation. Still pictures can also
be used to stimulate creative expression such as telling or writing stories or composing of poetry.
Limitations
1. Some photographs are too small for use before a group. It is possible to enlarge any
picture, but that can be an expensive process
2. S – state objectives
The next step is to state the objectives as specifically as possible. The objectives may be
derived from a needs assessment, course syllabus, stated in a textbook, or from a curriculum
guide. Whatever the source of objectives, they must be stated in terms of what the teacher
will be able to do as a result of instruction. The conditions under which the student or trainee
is going to perform and a statement of acceptable performance level should be included.
3. S – select
modify or design materials. Once you have identified your audience and stated your
objectives and have established the beginning (audience’s present knowledge, skills and
attitudes) and the ending points (objectives), your task is to now to build a bridge
between the two. There are three options:-
(i) Select available materials
(ii) Modify existing materials
(iii) Design new materials
6. E- Evaluate
After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its impact and effectiveness. To get the total
picture, you must evaluate the entire instructional process.
Did the learners achieve the objectives?
Did the media assist the learners in reaching the objectives?
Could all the students use the materials properly?
Was the environment comfortable i.e. room temperature suitable and no
distracting noises?
Did the instructor facilitate learning by providing the necessary assistance to
individual students?
DISADVANTAGES
(1) Audio media tends to fix the sequence of a presentation even if it is possible to rewind
the tape and hear a recorded segment again or advance the tape to the upcoming portion.
AUDIO FORMATS
(1) Phonograph Records
These may be used for music, long narrations, classroom listening, historical speeches, drama or
poetry.
All types of communication from the spoken word, through sounds of a strong wind, through the
calls of various birds are recorded on phonograph records. They are relatively inexpensive to
buy. Sections are separated by bands making cueing easy, and records and phonographs are
compatible. There is a wide selection of records available. However, at present this technology is
facing extinction because of the entry into the market newer digital formats such as compact
discs.
Disadvantages
(a) One must economically prepare own records
(b) The record is easily damaged if someone drops the stylus (needle) or the disc or
accidentally scratches the surface.
(c) Excess heat and improper storage may cause the disc to warp and make it difficult to play
(d) Storage can pose a problem because they take up more space as compared to tapes
(2)AUDIO TAPES
Magnetic tapes can be recorded on easily, can be erased and re-used. This is a major advantage
over the disc. Tapes are not easily damaged as compared to the discs and are easily damaged as
compared to the discs and are easily stored unlike discs, broken tapes can be repaired. There are
two main types of tapes.
Disadvantages
(1) It is easy to erase a tape accidentally
Advantages
It is durable- it is immune to shock and abrasion.
It is the easiest of the tape formats to use because it does not require manual threading
of tape.
It is not necessary to rewind the tape before removing it from the machine. You just
stop the tape and push the eject button.
Accidental erasures can be avoided by breaking out the small plastic tabs on the rear
of the cassette
Easily stored.
Disadvantages
1) Cassettes sometimes become stuck and tangles in the recorder , especially the C-
120s.
2) The overall quality of cassette play back units are not as good as reel – to real machine
or record players.
COMPUTER DISCS
The more technology becomes more sophisticated, the more becomes like magic that is
certainly true of the compact disc. Physically, the compact disc looks like a small silver
phonograph record without grooves. The disc is only 12 centimeters in (4.72 inches) in dismeter.
This small disc rotating much faster than a phonograph record, stores an incredible amount
of information some cds contain as much as seventy five minutes of music.
The information in the CD is lead by a laser beam and which moves independently o the CD
unlilke the styles in the phonograph record. This means that it can be programmed to locate
STILL PICTURES
These are photographic (or photograph-like) representations of people, places or things. Still
pictures mostly used in instruction are photographs and illustrations from books, periodicals
and catalogues.
Types of still pictures
1. Flat opaque pictures
Photographic prints- These are exact visual recording of something on
photographic through the use of the camera.
Illustrations - These are non- photographic representations of reality e.g drawings or
painting of a scene or object.
In order to decide on the most effective way to communicate a particular educational message, it
is important to consider interacting factors in the teaching/ learning situation.
These are:-
(1) Specific learning objectives intended to be achieved by the teacher
(2) Learner characteristics
(3) The media characteristics
(4) Costs and other practical constraints
2. The learners
The :
(1) Size of the learning group is one important factor. If you are teaching how to wire a plug;
a practical demonstration is quite effective with only two students. If you have two
hundred students and all of them gather around you to watch a live demonstration, only
the few at the front would be able to see. Some pre-pared A – V presentation such as tape
– slide or film would be needed.
(2) More you know about your learners, the better you are able to decide the best way to
teach them their age, interests and previous knowledge are all significant. If they suffer
from low motivations they may need the ‘big-bang’ aspect of the media to catch and hold
their attention. If they are highly motivated you can concentrate solely on your teaching
message.
(3) Some learners may have sensory defects e.g blind, deaf, physically and mentally
handicapped children. For these, specific use of certain media may be very appropriate
3. Media characteristics
Certain media have special characteristics which make them or not make them be used in certain
circumstances. [Audio communication and moving pictures are sequential presentation. Whereas
a slide can be perceived as a whole]. If you wish to convey colour, it is obvious to use a visual
communication. Let us look at some aspects of the various media.
Print
Print is a perfectly valid visual medium. If you wish to communicate with thousands of people
using a rapidly produced method that could be used anywhere, it would be difficult to make a
better choice than a newspaper. Print is used in the job instructional manual for a medium unless
working conditions are wet or dirty.
Audio
Practical aspect
It is essential to consider practical aspect too. There is no point of planning to use a movie film if
electricity is not available. The desired media must be available, obtainable at reasonable cost.
Do not forget that the simplest aids such as books or blade – board can be highly effective if used
properly.
Learning Resources
Basically, a resources in education or training is a system, set of materials or situation that is
deliberately created or set up in order to enable an individual student to learn. To qualify as a
true learning resource, the resource must satisfy all of the following three conditions:-
(a) It must be readily available
(b) It must allow the student self – pacing
(c) It must be individual, i.e it must cater for the needs of the students working on their own
Pupils should be encouraged to collect such objects while they are being taught about them. Such
objects bring learners into direct contact with real things. Museums and Zoos are important
sources where pupils can come across real things by means of a field trip when they visit a local
bakery and each pupil tastes the fresh bread as it comes from the oven. There are countless real
things in the immediate school environment when these real materials or people are readily and
economically available and can help us to attain our objectives they should be used other
examples could be:
A demonstration using fittings and magnet to reveal the magnetic field around a magnet.
A talk by people intimately associated with an event for example a doctor who has
treated people with aids or drug addicts can give authentic reports about the danger of the
disease or drugs.
SPECIMENS
These are actual plants, animals or parts of the same when a teacher talks about flowers in
general and represents all flowers by a typical flower e.g. a hibiscus, then, it is a specimen
similarly, if the teacher is describing rocks and represents all rocks by a piece of granite or
marble, then these are specimens.
Certainly the primary aim of designing posters, charts and graphs is effective communication through
presentation of clear visual summaries of important processes or set of relationship through the
combination of pictorial graphic, lettering, numerical, or verbal material.
OBJECTIVES
1) Apply drawing and lettering techniques in planning executing posters, charts and graphs
2) Apply different enlargement methods in planning and designing the three teaching visual media
above.
3) Execute these different teaching visual materials, posters, charts and graphs according to the
following criteria:
a) Layout – Emphasis, unity, balance, contrast, rhythm and proportion
b) Proper finish
c) Neatness
d) Consistency of lettering or drawing
e) Size for visibility at 30ft
f) Choice of colour for contrast
g) Margins for appeal
4) Select the appropriate teaching visual from posters, charts and graphs for different purposes.
5) Be able to choose the right materials, (that is, tools paper, ink, pens, colour, etc) for executing the
positive effectiveness.
DEFINITIONS
Posters and charts mean different things to different people. The functions and intentions of both
differentiate the two. It not unusual to hear someone asking for the difference between them.
POSTERS
A poster is a visual combination of bold design, colour, and message (words) intended to catch and hold
the attention of the passer –by at least long enough to communicate a brief message. Billboards along the
highways are examples of posters in large scale.
A poster qualifies or passes for a good poster when it fulfills the following:-
In learning situations posters stimulate interest in a new topic, a special class, or a school event. They can
lure students to a school meeting, or to the media centre, or encourage them to read more. In science
laboratories and other situations where danger may be involved, posters can be used to remind students of
safety factors. “Remember – Mains off” Good health practices can be promoted by using posters. “Don’t
Smoke Keep fit”
Classification of posters
When in need of commercial printed posters, it would be a good idea to consider the purpose and type of
posters for your audience. The posters you may get might not be of the exact subject matter but they may
be adapted to suit that subject. Explore every available source within Kenya for posters. Sources include:
DESIGNING POSTERS
a) Brevity
A poster must be brief so that:
No hard and fast rules as to the exact number of words a poster should contain. Usually there should be
no more than eight words, but four or five words are better. Informative captions are better than those
arousing only general interest and they should point to the heart of the matter.
Captions can have any one or a combination of the four forms below:
b) Simplicity
A good poster should be compact , have a minimum of individual units should have a bold illustration
containing only essential details.
d) Lettering
Striking captions with bold and loud (shouting) letters will make people OBSERVE.
e) Illustrations
A clever caption will often be remembered and an effective poster may be designed with words only.
The viewer’s attention, however, is usually caught by the illustration poster’s message. You should
synchronize your picture and the words to convey the same idea. Pictures relating to the local situation
will always provoke the viewer, particularly if it show how their families, home or farms should be.
Other than the copying and enlarging methods of illustrations, cut- outs of large close-up
photographs of various kinds are particularly effective as illustrations if unnecessary details are
removed by trimming.
f) Layout
Proportions, contrast and impact are aspects of layout and design which can best be learned by
experiment. Various parts of the posters drawn separately and cut out can experiment for various
layouts by moving the pieces around.
Observing and evaluating other people’s designs help a great deal in creating ideas for a poster.
g) Colour
Colour helps to attract attention if properly used, and it is often the best method of emphasizing a
particular point. Colour is never applied just for decoration. In choosing colours we should be careful
because certain colours may be associated with certain political parties or with certain cultural ideas.
Too many colours add confusion but in practice two colours are usually considered adequate. White is
usually an important additional colour and can be used as part of the dark colours on light backgrounds
or vice versa.black on yellow strikes best, and the reverse, amongst the many combinations.
You should be critical of your own poster designs and ready to test them out with potential audiences.
CHARTS
A chart is the presentation of a clear visual summary of an important process or set of relationship
through the combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical. Or verbal materials:-
To the engineer- a technical diagram for teaching purposes charts have certain values and characteristics
of their own.
1. A chart should have clear and well defined purposes. It should concentrate on one main idea,
concept or process.
2. Good charts do not provide large amounts of information. Complex ideas or processes can be
presented in a simplified manner by the use of chart drawings
3. Adequate size for main features to be seen across a room (30ft.away)
4. A chart should contain minimum visual and verbal information needed for understanding. For
a lot of information to convey it is clever to design or develop a series of simple charts rather
than a single complex one. “Simplicity” is the word to remember.
Types of charts
1. Wall charts – These are sometimes similar to stop- and –study posters but may include more
information with symbols and diagrams.
2. Teaching charts- Usually accompanied by a teacher’s verbal explanation as he uses them to
help in formal education.
Wallcharts to be studied
A wall chart can be as simple or as complex as the subject and the training situation or demand. The
main purpose of a chart is to present facts in a visual form.
The eye must be attracted and the attention held by good design and effective display techniques. Put
up the wall charts where people have time to stop and read.
Teaching charts
A teaching chart is one designed to be used by a teacher with a class or group. It saves a lot of time
spent in chalkboard preparation especially in teaching the same subject to different classes. A teaching
chart used as an introduction to a subject needs to be simple and provocative.
For concentration on the chart, remove all unrelated material nearby so that attention can be directed to
the chart to be discussion by posing stimulating questions and problems and summarize the key
points as you proceed.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHARTS
a) Organization charts:
b) Classification charts
organization charts are similar to classification charts but classification charts are mainly used to
classify or categorize objects, events, or species. A chart showing the taxonomy of animals and plants
according to natural characteristics is a good example.
These are linear charts which illustrate chronological relationships between events. In time relationships
of historical events or the relationship of famous people, time lines communicate effectively. They are
very important in summarizing the time sequence of a series of events.
The outline of key points and sub points can be organized in content nature to form a useful chart.
Tabular charts contain numerical information or data. Time information can also be shown conveniently
when the data is presented in columns as in timetables for railroads and airlines.
GRAPHIC CRITERIA
1. Simple
a. Eliminate the nonessential
2. Bold
a. Make bars dominate
3. Legible
a. Large open letters
This type of charts are well suited to showing a sequence, a procedure, or the “flow” of a process.
Flow charts show how different activities , ingredients, or procedures merge into a whole in a
horizontal direction. When the “ flow” rather than the individual steps is emphasized, such diagrams
are frequently referred to as flow charts, or flow- process diagrams.
The tree chart is developed from a base composed of several “roots” that lead into a single “ trunk”. In
turn the “branches “represent developments and relationships which result from a combination of major
factors. A good example is a genealogy chart in which two individuals are the roots from which a family
“tree” grows. The reverse form of the combination of a great variety of elements form one important
product.
g. Technical diagram
These two are used to present data in sequential steps. The strip chart is constructed as a single chart
with various sequential parts covered with strips of paper. Important points may be exposed gradually
by removing each strip of paper at the right time for viewing.
The flip chart (turnover) is useful in presenting graphic information which has sequence but which
cannot be shown on one sheet. Flip charts are made from several sheets of newsprint of the same
size an placed on the appropriate materials on each other. The sheets are then fastened together at the
top with thin metal or wooden strips - one on the front and one on the back. The supporting strip is then
mounted at the top of an easel. When using the flip chart remember:
DESIGNING CHARTS
Many of the points which apply for posters also apply for charts. With charts it is advisable to:-
a) Consider the idea you are trying to communicate and have one which is concrete rather
than an abstract idea. It is appropriate to have two or three charts with one idea each than
having a chart with two or three ideas on it .
b) Simplify your one idea
Get the facts
Eliminate unimportant facts
Arrange the facts in a logical order.
c) Have a logical , clear and orderly layout. A chart must be arranged in a neat, eye catching
manner. Boarders on three sides should be equal and the fourth border- the base of the
drawing – should be slightly wider than the other three for a more pleasing effect. These
margins can either be drawn in bold lines or can be determined by the beginnings and
endings of illustrations and lettering , depending on the type or classification of the chart.
d) Consider the drawing surface which can be divided into quadrants to assist in
determining the most effective layout of parts. This lines should be erased later to leave
the drawing neat and clear. Rough layout of the chart should be sketched in approximately
Remember : The value of a chart is not in proportion to the amount crowded on to it. Empty space is
not necessarily waste space make the chart direct, clear and easy to follow.
There are a number of techniques of transferring the lines drawing or lettering from sketch form to an
enlarged or same size to the chart size (poster size). These include:-
- Projection enlargement ‘
- Ruler diagonal enlargement method
- Panthograph enalargment
- Square enlargement – grid system
- Same size carbon paper transfer.
GRAPHS
Visual representation of numerical data is provided by graphs. Relationships between units of data
and trends in the data are also illustrated with graphs. In most cases tabular charts can be converted
into graphs. Data can generally be interpreted more quickly and effectively in graph form than in
tabular form. However well a numerical tabulation is arranged, graphs are usually more interesting to
learn from . thus , a graph’s purpose is to present comparative quantitative information QUICKLY
and SIMPLY. When a graph is intricate and difficulty to read it loses its chief advantage.
Types of Graphs
There are four major types of graphs: bar, pictorial, circle and line. The type to be used depends
largely on the complexity of the information to be presented and of course graph interpretation skills
of the audience.
There are many subtypes of graphs which are all based on one of the four forms. Graphs may also be
classified into two basic groups: those with only one scale measurement (bar and pie) and those with two
( line and pictorial). One – scale graphs are simpler to understand and are especially useful in
communicating
1. Bar graphs:
These are the easiest and simplest to read type of graphs. They are usually constructed by using
vertical bars with the height of the bar being the measure of the quantity . the width of the bars should
be the same. To avoid confusion there should be a limited number of eight or less bars. This type of
graph is appropriate for comparing similar items of different times or different items at the same
time, for example , the height of one plant overtime, variations are only in one dimension.
In preparing a column graph the space between the bars should be approximately one- half the width
of the bar, with at least a full- bar spacing at the left and right hand side. With grouped bars that touch
each other, the recommended spacing is about the width of a single column, left and right.
The bars can sometimes run both ways (upwards and downwards) from a baseline to indicate change
in two different dimensions).
Identification of the item which the bar measures is done through labeling. This is usually by a listing at
the left called a “stud”
The order of the bars will depend on the purpose of the graph, and may be alphabetical, numerical,
chronological, etc. with numerical order, the rank or relative position is important, while alphabetical
order is used when there is a large number of items and ease of reference is desirable. The chronological
order is used when it is desired to pinpoint dates or to show progress or decline.
Bars may be broken down in two ways – by grouping the elements or by subdividing the bar. Neither
result is entirely satisfactory, as both require calculations.
Grouping emphasizes the parts at the expense of the whole, and the whole can only be arrived at by
subtraction of the unwanted elements.
If grouping is used the sequence of the elements within the group should be maintained. The shading
selected should be such as will make each element stand out clearly from the others. The sub-divided or
segmented bars should have each distinctive section coloured or crosshatched for clarity. The fewer the
segments the easier the graph will be to read.
The only type of subdivided bar graph which is useful and very effective is the percentage bar. All the
bars are usually of equal lengths and divided into segments representing the percentage distribution
within each category. These graphs properly prepared should have the percentages indicated on the
segments.
This is used when two sets of factors are to be compared on different indexes. Each index starts at Zero
and one goes to the right and the other to the left.
Surface Graphs
The construction is based on the same indexes as of vertical bars. The data is expressed by whole surface
filled in with shading or color as solid areas, rather than by plotted lines or curves.
2. Pictorial Graphs
This can be abbreviated as pictographs. A series of simple drawings are used represent the value instead
of using bars. They are interesting and appeal to a wide audience.
Pictorial symbols are used to represent a specific quantity, which might be difficult to read than bar
graphs, and partial symbols are used to depict fractional quantities. These graphs are most frequently used
in displays, advertising, magazine articles, and other publicity media. The pictograph goes with the
pictogram which not only illustrates the subject of the graph, but also shows repetitively or in multiple
groups the quantities.
These can easily be interpreted in that a circle or ‘pie’ is divided into segments, each representing a part
or percentage of the whole. The combined segments of a circle graph should equal 100 percent. An area
of interest can be illustrated separately from the whole pie (circle). The circle graph is most effective
when there are no move than four or five segments involved. Beyond this number, a simple bar graph is
apt to show a better comparison.
4. Line Graphs
These are the most precise and complex of all graphs. Line graphs are based on two scales at right angles
(x-axis and Y axis). Each point has a value on both axis and lines or curves are drawn to connect the
points. Line graphs are very useful in plotting trends of for example, relationship between pressure and
temperature when a certain volume of gas is held constant.
READABILITY OF GRAPHS
1. The circle, or pie graph is the easiest of all graphic forms to comprehend, and that such graphs are
useful only for comparing parts of a whole.
2. Horizontal and vertical bar graphs are the next comprehensive graphic forms.
3. Line graphs are the best type in presenting precise, detailed information or in showing significant
trends.
4. Pictorial graphs have the advantages of the graphic forms with which they are combined. Best are
pictorial horizontal bar graphs. If well designed such graphs are more interesting to the
nontechnical reader than other types of graphs.
1. Introduction
Instructional materials that are used for teaching and training purposes in education require the use of
good lettering. Lettering is important for creating effective displays to provide legible and attractive
captions, labels and titles. One needs to know and apply communicating posters, picture captions, flip-
charts, slides titles, charts and graphs, etc.
2. Objectives
b) To introduce participants on how they can develop skills in constructing and designing legible
d) To learn to arrange in orderly, appealing and attractive manner the words in lettering for effective
communication
e) To outline factors that contribute towards legibility, readability and suitability for use in relation
to AV materials.
To learn simple hand lettering the basic tools and materials required consists of:-
b) Paper
e) Rubber/ Eraser
Other lettering aids for different styles are available in Audio – Visual sections or from dealers in art and
sign supply stores.
4. Typography Terminology
a) Typography is the setting or arrangement of type and printing from it. Typography also refers to
b) Type is a small block, usually metal or wood, having on its upper and raised letter, number or
other character for use in printing. “Type is the general term and single type is usually called ‘a
piece of type’ “type” may also mean shape or image of printed lettering as we see it in front of us
on the made.
c) Point system is the measure and designation of type sizes. The size of type is the height or depth a
line up and down the page. The width of the type is called its set. Sizes range from 6 points to 192
points.
d) Type face originally meant the printing of the piece of type, but today it refers to the shape and
appearance of the letter as it appears on paper. It is therefore used to refer to any individual style
or design of alphabet. There are many type faces each one carefully designed so that it all the
characters fit together well and each one has its own name. the four commonly used typefaces are
times, Roman, Gothic Helvetice and Univers.
The FACE consists of the stem, serifs and on some types the Kern. The face is 00 top of body and is the
portion from which the printing is done when it comes in contact with the ink and paper.
A KERN is piece of type that has its face or the printing surface of the letter overhanging the body.
The STEM is the outline of the letter – the main lines of character without the serifs (Diagram below)
The HAIRLINE is the thinnest stroke of letter and the STROKE is the width as the stem. Some types
have very thin strokes and therefore no hairlines.
The SERIFS are the fine horizontal or oblique terminations added to the tops or bottoms of the vertical or
slopping main lines of the face. Without them we refer to SAN SERIFS
The COUNTER is the shallow space between the lines of the face.
The BEARD is the sloping part between the outside edge of the face and the shoulder.
The SHOULDER is the low flat part. Below, above and sometimes at the sides of the face.
The PIN MARK is slight depression. It consists the point size of type of founding mark or name.
The NICK is the slot or slots which are cut into the body at the lowest side near the bottom of type to
guide the composition when the sets the type.
The GROOVE is the hollow part at the bottom running across the width of the body thereby forming the
body.
The FEET are found at the bottom and are the two parts on each side of the groove which support the
type.
LETTERING
Alphonse de lamar time. Lettering is the art of using letters to form words to present ideas visually.
Lettering enhances communication and for this to happen lettering should be legible and attractive to the
learner’s eye sight. Hand lettering can be used by artists to make effective displays. However, in some
specific cases some lettering aids or devices are available to give a finished professional appearance to
lettered materials.
(iv) Stencils
NB: Non –artists should not be worried put off when preparing their teaching aids. In lettering there is no
quick and easy way of learning to letter. But lettering is a skill that is acquired by observation and carefull
practice.
To determine the correct width of letters. The capital letters can be grouped in four (4) basic divisions.
There are those which occupy ½ a square, ¾ square, 1 full square and just over 1 square.
½ square : B, F, J, P, R, S, T, V, X, Y, Z,
¾ square: A, H, K, L, T, U, N, E
1 square : C, D, G, O, Q (Circle)
For ease of printing letters of the alphabet, we can categorize them into 3 main groups.
These are printers’ terms although they are in widespread use. Upper case means capital letters
though in certain cases compositors refers to them as caps
Lower case means small letters. In daily to daily lettering we use the double case, containing both
upper and lower case. Solid areas of upper lettering are not easy to read but with lower case lettering
reading become easier. This is due to the white spaces left in between the curved strokes of the letters.
The ascending and descending strokes give the words an uneven shape which is easy to recognize.
Upper case letters are all the same height. Lower case letters have more variety of shape
Definition
Legibility is the recognition of a letter or word, while readability is the ease and speed at which
one reads a letter or word.
Legibility and readability of letters and numerals of the alphabet have to be considered in
designing visuals. For effective use of lettering for visuals the following has been recommended in
regards to legibility and readability.
a) The use of readable letter styles, for example san -ser if or gothic type in which all letters are
b) The use of upper case letters should be limited to short titles and labels. For longer captions
and phrases the use of lower case letters with appropriate upper case letters is recommended
c) Allow 11/2 letter widths for the space between words and 3 widths between sentences.
Example,
d) Letters should be “optically” spaced to make spaces look equal regardless of the
measurements.
N.B The contrast may be in terms of tone ( darkness, lightness or paleness). Or colour
(brightness, pigment or hue), or it may be in terms of different patterns and texture that do or
not stand out clearly one from another.
Example:-
Measurement of legibility
Perceptibility
Visibility
Reader preferences.
a) Reflectancy or contrast, In the case of shinny surfaces the lettering is usually affected by
the infilling of light and might appear blurred . Where the background is not distinct
b) Letter size will affect legibility when the viewing distance has not been considered .
c) Typeface or type style will interfere with the ease to recognize and be able to read
In the case of shinny surfaces the lettering is usually affected by the infilling of light and might
appear blurred. Where the background is not distinct legibility will be low. The acceptable contrast
between the colour of the background surface and the lettering should be high.
b) Letter size
Letter size will affect legibility when the viewing distance has not been considered . the minimum
viewing distance should be thirty feet for classroom viewing.
typeface or type style will interfere with the ease to recognize and be able to read. The choice of
lettering style would depend on how familiar the audience are to that typestyle. Script lettering
would not be easy to recognize individual letters.
People tend to recognize that which is familiar to them, exposed at one time to them or have an
experience in that particular area, or existing in their cultural set up.
e) Culture
Inter character, inter word and interlinear spacing should be constructed in balance and not
mathematically spaced such that each character, word and line stand out distinctly to be seen and read
easily and quickly.
b) Age
Young people have stronger eyesight than the old and children. For the old and children the type size
should be above 12 points
c) Education level
This is in relation to visual literacy. Those visually educated will have a higher capability of reading
different lettering styles.
d) Line length
Long lines strain the eyes while the optimum length of line should be about seven words
f) Appropriateness
This is in terns if the norms that affect what is acceptable in relation to format, letter variations and
emphasis
g) Typeface or typestyle
The choice depends on the occasion and content of message, for example in the western culture it is
acceptable for wedding cards to be in script lettering .
h) Age
This has to be in connection with the choice of letter size, letter style (typeface), layout and general
spacing. For example children’s lettered materials should be bold, big letter sizes and straight an-
serfed lettering.
i) Education level
For people who are visually literate more than one lettering style, size, format and variation can be
used to create effective lettering without any loss of message.
The larger the group hence the greater the viewing distance from the lettered visuals. Therefore the
size and weight should be adjusted accordingly for emphasis.
For example
0.5 1.25
1.0 2.50
1.5 3.75
2.0 5.00
3.0 7.50
4.0 10.00
5.0 12.50
It is good to use the lettering that is familiar to the specific audience and this will entail more of
lettering styles.
l) Spacing
The way the lettering is spaced and arranged can help to make it clear and legible
when letters are placed one after another to form a word, it is the volume of space between
characters that decided where they are placed. Good letter spacing is the arrangement of letters in a
line ( using guidelines) so that they will appear to have equal or uniform distance between them. When
doing that it is also important to consider the style, size and combinations of letters involved because
these factors affect letter spacing, for example . a and V
With different letter shapes, different amounts of space are taken up. Each letter has its own visual
space and that space must be judged so that it suits the letters on each side.
when word spacing short lines should not be spaced with wide spaces because wide spaces make
white spots in the type composition which interfere with the readability of the type . To aid making
upper case lines easier to read, the words are quite often letter spaced . where letter spacing is applied
the word spacing is increased . Example 1
notice both word …… the word space in the former is too wide and the word space in the letter is
legible.
interlinear spacing is the placing of space between the lines of type. That is between one line of words
and another there should be enough optical space to necessitate legibility.
Typefaces with short ascenders and descenders require an amount of white space between two lines.
Those with long ascenders and descenders have ample shoulder that admits enough white space
between the lines which means they require no leading and thus set- solid . For example
There is no fixed ……… for the right amount of leading but it is good to remember well that the
longer the line the more leading the better.
Line length: this …………………………………and last characters. Characters include letters of the
alphabet, numerals, punctuations…………………………………..the length of a line ( in length) is
also called the width of a line and is measured in
It is not as alarming as it sounds, and in the long term it is easier and quicker than trying to measure, or
relying on the spacing guides printed on stencils or transfer sheets.
Judging spacing by eye depends on the way things look- the visual spacing- which may be different
from the ‘actual’ spacing you can measure with a ruler. Visual spacing takes account of the shapes of
the letters themselves , and of how they look when placed next to each other. For example look at the
two ways of arranging the word SPACING’. The version on top has equal spaces measured between
the letters, but does not look well balanced; the version underneath is visually spaced so that the space
look even.
Different letters shapes take up different amounts of space. Each letter has its own “visual space’.
Most letters contain space inside their own shape.
Some letters do not, and these need extra space left around the outside in order to look nicely
balanced and to be recognized clearly.
Each space must be judged so that it suits the letters on each side. Here are some guidelines:
A dash should be used that has a stroke as thick as the stroke of the type. A thin space should be
inserted on each side of the dash, and should be in the centre of the x- height of the line characters. For
example ,
a) To draw the attention of the reader to the beginning of the text or to some other spot. .
b) For decoration
The two types of initials employment in typography are the stick-up initial and the sunken initial.
Balance between the first word should be in upper case placed as close to the initial as possible to
make the word continue.
Correct use of the sunken initials. Observe how it lines up with the third lines
Correct use of the stick- up initials. Note how it has been used to align with the rest of the word and
how kit is cut in.
Layout
Layout means the way things are arranged on the working space and the way space is used in and
around text. Illustrations and so on. Good layout is important , it should help the content to be clearly
seen, and should guide the reader on from one piece of information to the next.
Information that sprawls across the design of an artwork in a random way will be difficult to follow
and frustrating to read and comprehend . Try to keep things tidy and regular , and related to each other
so that the reader ‘s encourage the reader by breaking information into manageable chunks, for
example by using :
LETTER LAYOUT
COPY FITTING:
Sometimes one might feel frustrated when having a certain piece of information to be fitted in a
given area on a substrate. For example , you might be wanting to fit a title to a chart and you want it
right at the centre of the paper. What do you do? You copy fit. Trace the intended line of letter with the
lettering device ( letraset or letter catalogue) and mark the centre if the wording is to be centred. For
example
CENTRE LETTER
Once you have got your centre mark on the tracing paper or scrap sheet match up the centre mark on
the tracing paper or scrap sheet with the centre mark on the work surface and then repeat the lettering
on the working surface using the already traced and well spaced letters in letter and word forms. This
is referred to as the mechanical - type letter.
c) The other alternative is to write down the words intended for one line of lettering. Count
up the letters and spaces between the words and mark the centre letter. If the line of
lettering is to be centred on the working surface. Mark a light pencil mark at the centre
point, make a light pencil guideline on the working surface for letters m that require such a
line and position the middle letter at the centre point on the working surface for letters that
require such a line and position the middle letter at the centre point on the working surface.
Work to the left of the middle letter and then to the right of the middle letter until all
letters are fitted .This is referred to as the individual type letters. For example
Any of the copy fitting methods above can be used for flashed left or right layout. Flash left or right
is the left or right justification in alignment of type.
METHODS OF LETTERING
DRY
These are letters that come in sheets of various styles, colours and sizes (points). They range from
about 6pts. To 192 pts. The letters are printed on the back of the sheet and are transferred by
rubbing the sheet with a blunt object like the round part of a pen or pencil. These letters have sharp,
clean edges and are easy to handle. They are excellent for titles, labels and OHP transparencies. The
spacing is done “optically:
Freehand lettering with practice can be done quickly using various kinds of pens and nibs. For
example a cript pen or pen holder. These produce professional- looking results
c) Felt-pen tips. A variety of tip shapes and quick drying ink colours makes this a useful tool in
producing visual aids. Pencils, charcoal or chalk can be used where necessary
d) Brush lettering - this is done by using a brush with ink or paint. It is used for large pieces of
e) Cut- out letters - Letters can be cut out from magazines, coloured paper or fabrib and laid out
to form words. They can be used with adhesives like cow gun or glue to stick.
f) Stencil lettering- This may be done in a variety of ways using different types of stencil
lettering guides, good example are the Wrico signmaker, Leroy Template lettering guides
and Econosign.
g) Paper stencils. Different lettering effects may be obtained from “inside” and “ outside” paper
stencil.
h) Press letters- this is the easiest method of hand lettering and gives the most professional results.
The letters are printed on a carrier sheet and then transferred to artwork by burnishing the
i) Raised cut letters. These make displays effective and can be used over and over again
j) Pre- cut letters. Some have adhesive backing and can be used for tracing letter shape.
k) Airbrush. The technique is effective in achieving colour gradation in lettering (from light to
LETTERS BY PROJECTION:
When large display type letters are required , one of the variety of projection devices can be used
very effectively. Obtaining these letters can be through an art- aid (Repromaster camera), opaque
projector or the most common device the overhead projector.
If you happen to be in one of the schools in the remote areas of the country, there is no reason why you
cannot have lettering aids of your own using the locally available materials. Pens, stencils and
brushes and brushed made from local materials may not produce such neat results, but they can still do a
very useful job. You can make a pen nib. From a twig sharpened like a chisel.
With a pie of matchbox wood fitted into a slit in a twig or in the averse end of an ordinary pen holder.
Take an old felt hat and cut a strip 6cm long. (the width of the strip will depend on the size of
lettering needed). Bind the strip across the blunt end of a pencil or similar stick.
REFERENCES