The Machine Learning Solutions Architect Handbook 2Nd Edition Early Access David Ping Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

The Machine Learning Solutions
Architect Handbook - 2nd Edition (Early

Access) David Ping
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-machine-learning-solutions-architect-handbook-2n
d-edition-early-access-david-ping/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
A First Course in Machine Learning 2nd Edition

Solutions Manual Simon Rogers
https://ebookmeta.com/product/a-first-course-in-machine-
learning-2nd-edition-solutions-manual-simon-rogers/
Solutions Architect’s Handbook: Kick-start your career

as a solutions architect by learning architecture
design principles and strategies - Second Edition
Saurabh Shrivastava
https://ebookmeta.com/product/solutions-architects-handbook-kick-
start-your-career-as-a-solutions-architect-by-learning-
architecture-design-principles-and-strategies-second-edition-
saurabh-shrivastava/
Machine Learning with Python Cookbook Practical

Solutions from Preprocessing to Deep Learning 2nd Ed
Release 5 2nd Edition Chris Albon
https://ebookmeta.com/product/machine-learning-with-python-
cookbook-practical-solutions-from-preprocessing-to-deep-
learning-2nd-ed-release-5-2nd-edition-chris-albon/
AWS Certified Solutions Architect Associate SAA C03 Jon

Bonso
https://ebookmeta.com/product/aws-certified-solutions-architect-
associate-saa-c03-jon-bonso/
AWS Certified Solutions Architect Associate Jon Bonso &
Adrian Formaran
https://ebookmeta.com/product/aws-certified-solutions-architect-
associate-jon-bonso-adrian-formaran/
Exercises in Architecture: Learning to Think as an

Architect 2nd Edition Simon Unwin
https://ebookmeta.com/product/exercises-in-architecture-learning-
to-think-as-an-architect-2nd-edition-simon-unwin/
SKETCH LIKE AN ARCHITECT ADVANCED TECHNIQUES TOME 2 2

Edition David Dražil
https://ebookmeta.com/product/sketch-like-an-architect-advanced-
techniques-tome-2-2nd-edition-david-drazil/
Building Machine Learning Pipelines, 2nd Edition Robert

Crowe
https://ebookmeta.com/product/building-machine-learning-
pipelines-2nd-edition-robert-crowe/
Machine Learning for Text, 2nd Edition Charu Aggarwal
https://ebookmeta.com/product/machine-learning-for-text-2nd-
edition-charu-aggarwal/
Architect Handbook
Copyright © 2023 Packt Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the
case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.
Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure
the accuracy of the information presented. However, the information
contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express or
implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing, and its dealers and
distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to
be caused directly or indirectly by this book.
Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information

about all of the companies and products mentioned in this book by
the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot
guarantee the accuracy of this information.
Early Access Publication: The Machine Learning Solutions

Architect Handbook
Early Access Production Reference: B20836
Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.
Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK
ISBN: 978-1-80512-250-0
www.packt.com
Table of Contents
1. The Machine Learning Solutions Architect Handbook, Second
Edition: A comprehensive guide to AI use cases, enterprise ML
platform and solutions design on AWS, AI risk management,
and generative AI
2. 1 Machine Learning and Machine Learning Solutions Architecture
I. Join our book community on Discord
II. What are AI and ML?
i. Supervised ML
ii. Unsupervised ML
iii. Reinforcement learning
III. ML versus traditional software
IV. ML life cycle
i. Business understanding and ML problem framing
ii. Data understanding and data preparation
iii. Model training and evaluation
iv. Model deployment
v. Model monitoring
vi. Business metric tracking
V. ML challenges
VI. ML solutions architecture
i. Business understanding and ML transformation
ii. Identification and verification of ML techniques
iii. System architecture design and implementation
iv. ML platform workflow automation
v. Security and compliance
VII. Testing your knowledge
VIII. Summary
3. 2 Business Use Cases for Machine Learning
II. ML use cases in financial services
i. Capital markets front office
ii. Capital markets back office operations
iii. Risk management and fraud
iv. Insurance
III. ML use cases in media and entertainment
i. Content development and production
ii. Content management and discovery
iii. Content distribution and customer engagement
IV. ML use cases in healthcare and life sciences
i. Medical imaging analysis
ii. Drug discovery
iii. Healthcare data management
V. ML use cases in manufacturing
i. Engineering and product design
ii. Manufacturing operations – product quality and yield
iii. Manufacturing operations – machine maintenance
VI. ML use cases in retail
i. Product search and discovery
ii. Target marketing
iii. Sentiment analysis
iv. Product demand forecasting
VII. ML use cases in automotive
i. Autonomous vehicle
ii. Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)
VIII. Summary
4. 3 Machine Learning Algorithms
II. Technical requirements
III. How machines learn
IV. Overview of ML algorithms
i. Consideration for choosing ML algorithms
ii. Algorithms for classification and regression problems
iii. Algorithms for clustering
iv. Algorithms for time series analysis
v. Algorithms for recommendation
vi. Algorithms for computer vision problems
vii. Algorithms for natural language processing (NLP)
problems
viii. Generative AI algorithms
V. Hands-on exercise
i. Problem statement
ii. Dataset description
iii. Setting up a Jupyter Notebook environment
iv. Running the exercise
VI. Summary
5. 4 Data Management for Machine Learning
III. Data management considerations for ML
IV. Data management architecture for ML
V. Data storage and management
i. AWS Lake Formation
VI. Data ingestion
i. Kinesis Firehose
ii. AWS Glue
iii. AWS Lambda
VII. Data cataloging
i. AWS Glue Catalog
ii. Custom data catalog solution
VIII. Data processing
i. AWS Glue ETL
ii. Amazon Elastic Map Reduce (EMR)
iii. AWS Lambda
IX. ML data versioning
i. S3 partitions
ii. Versioned S3 buckets
iii. Purpose-built data version tools
X. ML feature store
XI. Data serving for client consumption
i. Consumption via API
ii. Consumption via data copy
XII. Special databases for ML
i. Vector Database
ii. Graph Databases
XIII. Data pipeline
i. AWS Glue workflows
ii. AWS Managed Airflow
XIV. Authentication and authorization
XV. Data governance
i. Data Lineage
ii. Other data governance measures
XVI. Hands-on exercise – data management for ML
i. Creating a data lake using Lake Formation
ii. Creating a data ingestion pipeline
iii. Creating a Glue catalog
iv. Discovering and querying data in the data lake
v. Creating an Amazon Glue ETL job to process data for
ML
vi. Building a data pipeline using Glue workflows
XVII. Summary
6. 5 Open Source Machine Learning Libraries
III. Core features of open source machine learning libraries
IV. Understanding the scikit-learn machine learning library
i. Installing scikit-learn
ii. Core components of scikit-learn
V. Understanding the Apache Spark ML machine learning
library
i. Installing Spark ML
ii. Core components of the Spark ML library
VI. Understanding the TensorFlow deep learning library
i. Installing Tensorflow
ii. Core components of TensorFlow
VII. Hands-on exercise – training a TensorFlow model
VIII. Understanding the PyTorch deep learning library
i. Installing PyTorch
ii. Core components of PyTorch
IX. Hands-on exercise – building and training a PyTorch model
X. Summary
7. 6 Kubernetes Container Orchestration Infrastructure
Management
III. Introduction to containers
IV. Kubernetes overview and core concepts
i. Namespaces
ii. Pods
iii. Deployment
iv. Kubernetes Job
v. Kubernetes custom resources ( CRs ) and
operators
vi. Services
V. Networking on Kubernetes
i. Service mesh
VI. Security and access management
i. Network security
ii. Authentication and authorization to APIs
iii. Running ML workloads on Kubernetes
VII. Hands-on – creating a Kubernetes infrastructure on AWS
ii. Lab instruction
VIII. Summary
8. 7 Open Source Machine Learning Platforms
II. Core components of an ML platform
III. Open source technologies for building ML platforms
i. Implementing a data science environment
ii. Building a model training environment
iii. Registering models with a model registry
iv. Serving models using model serving services
v. Monitoring models in production
vi. Managing ML features
vii. Feast
viii. Automating ML pipeline workflows
IV. Building end-to-end ML platform
i. ML platform based strategy
ii. ML component based strategy
V. Summary
9. 8 Building a Data Science Environment Using AWS ML Services
III. SageMaker overview
IV. Data science environment architecture using SageMaker
i. Onboarding SageMaker users
ii. Launching a notebook
iii. Preparing data
iv. Creating, storing, and sharing features
v. Training machine learning models
vi. Tuning machine learning models
vii. Deploying machine learning models for testing
V. Automating experimentation and model building
VI. Best practices for building data science environment
VII. Hands-on exercise – building a data science environment
using AWS services
ii. Dataset
iii. Lab instructions
VIII. Summary
10. 9 Building an Enterprise ML Architecture with AWS ML Services
III. The personas of ML platforms and their requirement
i. ML platform builder
ii. Platform user and operator
iii. Common workflow of an ML initiative
iv. Platform capability requirements
IV. Key requirements for an enterprise ML platform
V. Enterprise ML architecture pattern overview
VI. Model training environment
i. Model training engine using SageMaker
ii. Automation support
iii. Model training life cycle management
VII. Model hosting environment deep dive
i. Inference engine
ii. Authentication and security control
iii. Monitoring and logging
VIII. Adopting MLOps for ML workflows
i. Components of the MLOps architecture
ii. Monitoring and logging
iii. Best practices in building and operating ML platform
IX. Hands-on exercise – building an MLOps pipeline on AWS
i. Creating a CloudFormation template for the ML training
pipeline
ii. Creating a CloudFormation template for the ML
deployment pipeline
X. Summary
11. 12 AI Risk Management
II. Understanding AI risk scenarios
i. Bias and discrimination
ii. Misinformation and misinterpretation
iii. Lack of interpretability
iv. Unintended consequences
v. Adversarial Attacks
vi. Privacy violation and sensitive data exposure
vii. Third party risk
viii. Model testing risk
III. The regulatory landscape around AI risk management
IV. Understanding AI risk management
i. Placing trust in AI systems
V. Creating risk management framework for trustworthy AI
i. Governance oversight Principals
ii. AI risk management framework
VI. Applying risk management across AI lifecycle
i. Business problem identification and definition
ii. Data acquisition and management
iii. Experimentation and model development
iv. AI system deployment and operations
VII. Designing ML platform for governance and risk
considerations
i. Data and model documentation
ii. Lineage and reproducibility
iii. Observability and auditing
iv. Scalability and performance
v. Data quality
VIII. Summary
12. 13 Bias, Explainability, Privacy, and Adversarial attacks
II. Understanding bias
i. Bias detection and mitigation
III. Understanding ML explainability
IV. Understanding security and privacy preserving ML
V. Understanding Adversarial Attacks
i. Evasion attacks
ii. Data poisoning attacks
iii. Clean-label Backdoor Attack
iv. Model extraction attack
VI. Defense against adversarial attacks
i. Robustness-based methods
ii. Detector-based method
iii. Open-source tools for adversarial attacks and defenses
VII. Hands-on Lab – Detecting bias, explaining model, and
training privacy-preserving models
i. Overview of the scenario
ii. Detecting bias in the training dataset
iii. Explaining feature importance for trained model
iv. Training privacy preserving models
VIII. Summary
13. 14 Progressing the ML journey
II. Understanding ML journey and AI capabilities
i. ML adoption stages
ii. AI/ML maturity and assessment
iii. AI/ML operating models
III. Solving ML Journey challenges
i. Developing AI vision and strategy
ii. Getting started with first AI/ML initiative
iii. Solving scaling challenge with AI/ML adoption
IV. Summary
Architect Handbook, Second
Edition: A comprehensive guide to
AI use cases, enterprise ML platform
and solutions design on AWS, AI risk
management, and generative AI
Welcome to Packt Early Access. We’re giving you an exclusive
preview of this book before it goes on sale. It can take many months
to write a book, but our authors have cutting-edge information to
share with you today. Early Access gives you an insight into the
latest developments by making chapter drafts available. The
chapters may be a little rough around the edges right now, but our
authors will update them over time.You can dip in and out of this
book or follow along from start to finish; Early Access is designed to
be flexible. We hope you enjoy getting to know more about the
process of writing a Packt book.
1. Chapter 1: Machine Learning and Machine Learning Solutions

Architecture
2. Chapter 2: Business Use Cases for Machine Learning
3. Chapter 3: Machine Learning Algorithms
4. Chapter 4: Data Management for Machine Learning
5. Chapter 5: Open-Source Machine Learning Libraries
6. Chapter 6: Kubernetes Container Orchestration Infrastructure
7. Chapter 7: Open-Source ML Platforms
8. Chapter 8: Building a Data Science Environment using AWS ML
Services
9. Chapter 9: Building Enterprise ML Architecture with AWS ML
Services
10. Chapter 10: Advanced ML Engineering
11. Chapter 11: Building ML solutions with AWS AI Services
12. Chapter 12: ML Risk Management
13. Chapter 13: Bias, Explainability, Privacy, and Adversarial Attacks
14. Chapter 14: Progressing Through the ML Journey
15. Chapter 15: ML Milestones and Research Trends
1 Machine Learning and Machine
Learning Solutions Architecture
Join our book community on Discord
https://packt.link/EarlyAccessCommunity
The field of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning

(ML) has had a long history. Over the last 70+ years, ML has
evolved from checker game-playing computer programs in the 1950s
to advanced AI capable of beating the human world champion in the
game of Go. And more recently, Generative AI (GAI) technology
such as ChatGPT has been taking the industry by the storm,
generating huge interest among company executives and consumers
alike, promosing new ways to transform businesses such as drug
discovery, new media content, financial report analysis, and
consumer product design. Along the way, the technology
infrastructure for ML has also evolved from a single machine/server
for small experiments and models to highly complex end-to-end ML
platforms capable of training, managing, and deploying tens of
thousands of ML models. The hyper-growth in the AI/ML field has
resulted in the creation of many new professional roles, such as
MLOps engineering, AI/ML product management, and ML
software engineering, AI risk manager, and AI strategist
across a range of industries.Machine learning solutions
architecture (ML solutions architecture) is another relatively
new discipline that is playing an increasingly critical role in the full
end-to-end ML life cycle as ML projects become increasingly complex
in terms of business impact, science sophistication, and the
technology landscape.This chapter talks about the basic concepts of
ML and where ML solutions architecture fits in the full data science
life cycle. You will learn the three main types of ML, including
supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. We will
discuss the different steps it will take to get an ML project from the
ideation stage to production and the challenges faced by
organizations, such as use case identification, data quality issues,
and shortage of ML talent, when implementing an ML initiative.
Finally, we will finish the chapter by briefly discussing the core focus
areas of ML solutions architecture, including system architecture,
workflow automation, and security and compliance.
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to identify the

three main ML types and what type of problems they are designed
to solve. You will understand the role of an ML solutions architect
and what business and technology areas you need to focus on to
support end-to-end ML initiatives.In this chapter, we are going to
cover the following main topics:
What is ML, and how does it work?

The ML life cycle and its key challenges
What is ML solutions architecture, and where does it fit in the
overall life cycle?
What are AI and ML?

AI can be defined as a machine demonstrating intelligence similar to
that of human natural intelligence, such as distinguishing different
types of flowers through vision, understanding languages, or driving
cars. Having AI capability does not necessarily mean a system has to
be powered only by ML. An AI system can also be powered by other
techniques, such as rule-based engines. ML is a form of AI that
learns how to perform a task using different learning techniques,
such as learning from examples using historical data or learning by
trial and error. An example of ML would be using historical credit
decision data to train an ML model for making credit decisions.The
current type of AI/ML capabilities that we work and interact with is
called artificial narrow intelligence (ANI). This means that these
AI/ML systems are not capable to performing general intelligent
tasks and are limited to specific tasks they are designed for. On the
other hand, artificial general intelligence (AGI) refers to systems that
can perform any intellectural task that a human can. These systems
would be able to reason, learn, and solve problems in a way similar
to human intelligence. While AGI is not yet a reality, the latest
advancedment in generative AI are exhibiting some behaviors we
would expect from an AGI system.Deep learning (DL) is a subset of
ML that uses a large number of artificial neurons (known as an
artificial neural network) to learn, which is similar to how a
human brain learns. An example of a deep learning-based solution is
the Amazon Echo virtual assistant. To better understand how ML
works, let's first talk about the different approaches taken by
machines to learn. They are as follows:
Supervised machine learning

Unsupervised machine learning
Reinforcement learning
Let's have a look at each one of them in more detail.
Supervised ML
Supervised ML is a type of ML where, when training an ML model, an
ML algorithm is provided with the input data features (for example,
the size and zip code of houses) and the answers, also known as
labels (for example, the prices of the houses). A dataset with labels
is called a labeled dataset. Supervised ML can be thought of as
learning through examples. To understand what this means, let's use
an example of how we humans learn to distinguish different objects.
Say you are first provided with a number of pictures of different
flowers and their names. You are then told to study the
characteristics of the flowers, such as the shape, size, and color for
each provided flower name. After you have gone through a number
of different pictures for each flower, you are then given flower
pictures without the names and asked to distinguish them. Based on
what you have learned previously, you should be able to tell the
names of flowers if they possess the characteristics of the previously
learned flowers.In general, the more training pictures with variations
you have looked at during the learning time, the more accurate you
will likely be when you try to name flowers in the new pictures.
Conceptually, this is how supervised ML works. The following figure
(Figure 1.1) illustrates supervised machine learning using a
computer vision algorithm. The labelled dataset of different flowers
is provided to the algorithm for model training. During the training
process, the algorithm learns to recognize patterns in the input data
and map them to the correct labels. After the model is trained, it will
then be able to correctly classify new and unseen flower images.
Figure 1.1: Supervised ML
Supervised ML is mainly used for classification tasks that assign a

label from a discrete set of categories to an example (for example,
telling the names of different objects) and regression tasks that
predict a continuous value (for example, estimating the value of
something given supporting information). In the real world, the
majority of ML solutions are based on supervised ML techniques.
The following are some examples of ML solutions that use
supervised ML:
Classifying documents into different document types

automatically, as part of a document management workflow.
The typical business benefits of ML-based document processing
are the reduction of manual effort to save cost, faster
processing time, and higher processing quality.
Assessing the sentiment of news articles to help understand the
market perception of a brand or product or facilitate investment
decisions.
Automating the objects or faces detection in images as part of a
media image processing workflow. The business benefits this
delivers are cost-saving from the reduction of human labor,
faster processing, and higher accuracy.
Predicting the probability that someone will default on a bank
loan. The business benefits this delivers are faster decision-
making on loan application reviews and approvals, lower
processing costs, and a reduced impact on a company's financial
statement due to loan defaults.
Unsupervised ML
Unsupervised ML is a type of ML where an ML algorithm is provided
with input data features without labels. This means it can be used to
discover previously unknown insights and correlations in the data.
Let's continue with the flower example, however in this case, you
are now only provided with the pictures of the flowers and not their
names. In this scenario, you will not be able to figure out the names
of the flowers, regardless of how much time you spend looking at
the pictures. However, through visual inspection, you should be able
to identify the common characteristics (for example, color, size, and
shape) of different types of flowers across the pictures, and group
flowers with common characteristics in the same group.This is
similar to how unsupervised ML works. Specifically, in this particular
case, you have performed the clustering task in unsupervised ML:
Figure 1.2: Unsupervised ML
In addition to the clustering technique, there are many other

techniques in unsupervised ML. Another common and useful
unsupervised ML technique is dimensionality reduction, where a
smaller number of transformed features represent the original set of
features while maintaining the critical information from the original
features so that they can be largely reproduced in the number of
data dimensions and size. To understand this more intuitively, let's
take a look at Figure 1.3:
Figure 1.3: Reconstruction of an image from reduced features
In this figure, the original picture on the left is transformed to the

reduced representation in the middle. While the reduced
representation does not look like the original picture at all, it still
maintains the critical information about the original picture, so that
when the picture on the right is reconstructed using the reduced
representation, the reconstructed image looks almost the same as
the original picture. The process that transforms the original picture
to the reduced representation is called dimensionality reduction.The
main benefits of dimensionality reduction are reduction of the
training dataset and helping speed up the model training.
Dimensionality reduction also helps visualize high dimensional
datasets in lower dimensions (for example, reducing the dataset to
three dimensions to be plotted and visually inspected).Unsupervised
ML is mainly used for recognizing underlying patterns within a
dataset. Since unsupervised learning is not provided with actual
labels to learn from, its predictions have greater uncertainties than
predictions using the supervised ML approach. The following are
some real-life examples of unsupervised ML solutions:
Customer segmentation for target marketing: By using

customer attributes such as demographics and historical
engagement data. The data-driven customer segmentation
approach is usually more accurate than human judgment, which
can be biased and subjective.
Computer network intrusion detection: By detecting outlier
patterns that are different from normal network traffic patterns.
Detecting anomalies in network traffic manually and rule-based
processing is extremely challenging due to the high volume and
changing dynamics of traffic patterns.
Reducing the dimensions of datasets: To visualize them in
a 2D or 3D environment to help understand the data better and
more easily.
Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is a type of ML where an ML model learns by
trying out different actions in an enviroment and adjusts its future
behaviors sequentially based on the received responses for the its
actions. The goal of reinforcement learning is to learn a poliy that
maximize the cumulative rewards over time. For example, suppose
you are playing a space invader video game for the first time without
knowing the game's rules. In that case, you will initially try out
different actions randomly using the controls, such as moving left
and right or shooting the canon. As different moves are made, you
will see responses to your moves, such as getting killed or killing the
invader, and you will also see your score increase or decrease.
Through these responses, you will know what a good move is versus
a bad move in order to stay alive and increase your score. After
much trial and error, you will eventually be a very good player of the
game. This is basically how reinforcement learning works.
A very popular example of reinforcement learning is the AlphaGo

computer program, which uses mainly reinforcement learning to
learn how to play the game of Go. Figure 1.4 shows the flow of
reinforcement learning where an agent (for example, the player of a
space invader game) takes actions (for example, moving the
left/right control) in the environment (for example, the current state
of the game) and receives rewards or penalties (score
increase/decrease). As a result, the agent will adjust its future
moves to maximize the rewards in the future states of the
environment. This cycle continues for a very large number of rounds,
and the agent will improve and become better over time:
Figure 1.4: Reinforcement learning
There are many practical use cases for reinforcement learning in the
real world. The following are some examples for reinforcement
learning:
Robots or self-driving cars learn how to walk or navigate in

unknown environments by trying out different moves and
responding to the received results.
A recommendation engine optimizes product recommendations
through adjustments based on the feedback of the customers to
different product recommendations.
A truck delivery company optimizes the delivery route of its fleet
to determine the delivery sequence required to achieve the best
rewards, such as lowest the cost or shortest time.
ML versus traditional software
Before I started working in the field of AI/ML, I spent many years
building computer software platforms for large financial services
institutions. Some of the business problems I worked on had
complex rules, such as identifying companies for comparable
analysis for investment banking deals, or creating a master database
for all the different companies' identifiers from the different data
providers. We had to implement hardcoded rules in database-stored
procedures and application server backends to solve these problems.
We often debated if certain rules made sense or not for the business
problems we tried to solve. As rules changed, we had to
reimplement the rules and make sure the changes did not break
anything. To test for new releases or changes, we often replied to
human experts to exhaustively test and validate all the business
logic implemented before the production release. It was a very time-
consuming and error-prone process and required a significant
amount of engineering, testing against the documented
specification, and rigorous change management for deployment
every time new rules were introduced, or existing rules needed to be
changed. We often replied to users to report business logic issues in
production, and when an issue was reported in production, we
sometimes had to open up the source code to troubleshoot or
explain the logic of how it worked. I remember I often asked myself
if there were better ways to do this.After I started working in the
field of AI/ML, I started to solve many similar challenges using ML
techniques. With ML, I did not need to come up with complex rules
that often require deep data and domain expertise to create or
maintain the complex rules for decision making. Instead, I focused
on collecting high-quality data and used ML algorithms to learn the
rules and patterns from the data directly. This new approach
eliminated many of the challenging aspects of creating new rules
(for example, a deep domain expertise requirement, or avoiding
human bias) and maintaining existing rules. To validate the model
before the production release, we could examine model performance
metrics such as accuracy. While it still required data science
expertise to interpret the model metrics against the nature of the
business problems and dataset, it did not require exhaustive manual
testing of all the different scenarios. When a model was deployed
into production, we would monitor if the model performed as
expected by monitoring any significant changes in production data
versus the data we have collected for model training. We would
collect new labels for production data and test the model
performance periodically to ensure its predictive power had not
degraded. To explain why a model made a decision the way it did,
we did not need to open up source code to re-examine the
hardcoded logic. Instead, we would rely on ML techniques to help
explain the relative importance of different input features to
understand what factors were most influential in the decision-making
by the ML models.The following figure (Figure 1.5) shows a
graphical view of the process differences between developing a
piece of software and training an ML model:
Figure 1.5: ML and computer software

Now that you know the difference between ML and traditional
software, it is time to dive deep into understanding the different
stages in an ML life cycle.
ML life cycle
One of the early ML projects that I worked on was a fasinating yet
daunting sports predictive analytics problem for a major league
brand. I was given a list of predictive analytics outcomes to think
about to see if there were ML solutions for the problems. I was a
casual viewer of the sport; I didn't know anything about the
analytics to be generated, nor the rules of the games in needed
detail. I was provided with some sample data, but had no idea what
to do with it.The first thing I started to work on was an immersion of
the sport itself. I delved into the intricacies of the game, studying
the different player positions and events that make up each game
and play. Only after armed with the newfound domain knowledge,
the data started to make sense. Together with the stakeholder, we
evaluated the impact of the different analytics outcomes, assessed
the modeling feasibility based on the data we had. With clear
understanding of the data, we came up with a couple of top ML
analytics with the most business impact to focus on. We also decided
how they would be integrated into the existing business workflow,
and how they would be measured on their impacts.Subsequently, I
delved deeper into the data and ascertain what information was
available and what was lacking. I processed and prepared the
dataset based on a few of ML algorithms I had considered and
conducted experiments to determine the best approach. I lacked a
tool to track the different experiment results, so I had to document
what I have done manually. After some initial rounds of
experimentation, it became evident that existing data was not
sufficient to train a high-performance model. Hence, I decided to
build a custom deep learning model to incorporate data of different
modalities. The data owner was able to provide additional datasets I
required, and after more experiments with custom algorithms and
significant data preparations and feature engineering, I eventually
trained a model that met the business objectives.After completing
the model, another hard challenge began – deploying and
operationalizing the model in production and integrate it into the
existing business workflow and system architecture. We engaged in
many architecture and engineering discussions and eventually built
out a deployment architecture for the model.As you can see from my
personal experience, the journey from business idea to ML
production deployment involved many steps. A typical life cycle of an
ML project follows formal structure, which include several essential
stages like business understanding, data acquisition and
understanding, data preparation, model building, model evaluation,
and model deployment. Since a big component of the life cycle is
experimentation with different datasets, features, and algorithms,
the whole process can be highly iterative. Furthermore, it is essential
to note that there is no guarantee of a successful outcome. Factors
such as the availability and quality of data, feature engineering
techniques (the process of using domain knowledge to extract useful
features from raw data), and the capability of the learning
algorithms, among others, can all affect the final results.
Figure 1.6: ML life cycle
The previouse figure (Figure 1.6) illustrates the key steps in ML

projects, and in the subsequent sections, we will delve into each of
these steps in greater details.
Business understanding and ML problem framing

The first stage in the life cycle is business understanding. This
stage involves the understanding of the business goals and defining
businss metrics that can measure the project's success. For example,
the The following are some examples of business goals:
Cost reduction for operational processes, such as document

processing.
Mitigation of business or operational risks, such as fraud and
compliance.
Product or service revenue improvements, such as better target
marketing, new insight generation for better decision making,
and increased customer satisfaction.
To measure the success, you may use specific business metrics such
as the number of hours reduced in a business process, an increased
number of true positive frauds detected, a conversion rate
improvement from target marketing, or the number of churn rate
reductions. This is an essential step to get right to ensure there is
sufficient justification for an ML project and that the outcome of the
project can be successfully measured. After you have defined the
business goals and business metrics, you need to evaluate if there is
an ML solution for the the business problem. While ML has a wide
scope of applications, it is not always an optimal solution for every
business problem.
Data understanding and data preparation

The saying that "data is the new oil" holds particularly true for ML.
Without the required data, you cannot move forward with an ML
project. That's why the next step in the ML life cycle is data
acquisition, understanding, and preparation.Based on the
business problems and ML approach, you will need to gather and
comprehend the available data to determine if you have the right
data and data volume to solve the ML problem. For example,
suppose the business problem to address is credit card fraud
detection. In that case, you will need datasets such as historical
credit card transaction data, customer demographics, account data,
device usage data, and networking access data. Detailed data
analysis is then necessary to determine if the dataset features and
quality are sufficient for the modeling tasks. You also need to decide
if the data needs labeling, such as fraud or not-fraud . During this
step, depending on the data quality, a significant amount of data
wrangling might be performed to prepare and clean the data and to
generate the dataset for model training and model evaluation,
depending on the data quality.
Model training and evaluation

Using the training and validation datasets established, a data
scientist must run a number of experiments using different ML
algorithms and dataset features for feature selection and model
development. This is a highly iterative process and could require a
numerous run of data processing and model development runs to
find the right algorithm and dataset combination for optimal model
performance. In addition to model performance, factors such as data
bias and model explainability may need to be considered to comply
with internal or regulatory requirements.Prior to deployment into
production, the model quality must be validated using the relevant
technical metrics, such as the accuracy score. This is usually
accomlished using a holdout dataset, also known as a test
dataset, to gauge how the model performs on unseen data. It is
crucial to understand which metrics are appropriate for model
validation, as they vary depending on the ML problems and the
dataset used. For example, model accuracy would be a suitable
validation metric for a document classification use case if the
number of document types is relatively balanced. However, model
accuracy would not be a good metric to evaluate the model
performance for a fraud detection use case – this is because the
number of frauds is small and even if the model predicts not-fraud
all the time, the model accuracy could still be very high.
Model deployment
After the model is fully trained and validated to meet the expected
performance metric, it can be deployed into production and the
business workflow. There are two main deployment concepts here.
The first involves deployment of the model itself to be used by a
client application to generate predictions. The second concept is to
integrate this prediction workflow into a business workflow
application. For example, deploying the credit fraud model would
either host the model behind an API for real-time prediction or as a
package that can be loaded dynamically to support batch
predictions. Moreover, this prediction workflow also needs to be
integrated into business workflow applications for fraud detection,
which might include the fraud detection of real-time transactions,
decision automation based on prediction output, and fraud detection
analytics for detailed fraud analytics.
Model monitoring
ML life cycle does not end with model deployment. Unlike software,
whose behavior is highly deterministic since developers explicitly
code its logic, an ML model could behave differently in production
from its behavior in model training and validation. This could be
caused by changes in the production data characteristics, data
distribution, or the potential manipulation of request data.
Therefore, model monitoring is an important post-deployment step
for detecting model drift or data drift.
Business metric tracking

The actual business impact should be tracked and measured as an
ongoing process to ensure the model delivers the expected business
benefits. This may involve comparing the business metrics before
and after the model deployment, or A/B testing where a business
metric is compared between workflows with or without the ML
model. If the model does not deliver the expected benefits, it should
be re-evaluated for improvement opportunities. This could also mean
framing the business problem as a different ML problem. For
example, if churn prediction does not help improve customer
satisfaction, then consider a personalized product/service offering to
solve the problem.
ML challenges
Over the years, I have worked on many real-world problems using
ML solutions and encountered different challenges faced by the
different industries during ML adoptions.I often get the same
question when working on ML projects: We have a lot of data – can
you help us figure out what insights we can generate using ML? I
refer to companies with this question as having the business use
case challenge. Not being able to identify business use cases for ML
is a very big hurdle for many companies. Without a properly
identified business problem and its value proposition and benefit, it
becomes difficult to initiate an ML project.In my conversations with
different companies across their industries, data-related challenges
emerge as frequent issue. This includes data quality, data inventory,
data accessibility, data governance, and data availability. This
problem affects both data-poor and data-rich companies and is often
exacerbated by data silos, data security, and industry
regulations.The shortage of data science and ML talent is another
major challenge I have heard from many companies. Companies, in
general, are having a tough time attracting and retaining top ML
talents, which is a common problem across all industries. As ML
platforms become more complex and the scope of ML projects
increases, the need for other ML-related functions starts to surface.
Nowadays, in addition to just data scientists, an organization would
also need function roles for ML product management, ML
infrastructure engineering, and ML operations management.Based
on my experiences, I have observed that cultural acceptance of ML-
based solutions is another sigificant challenge for broad adoption.
There are individuals who perceive ML as a threat to their job
functions, and their lack of knowledge in ML makes them hesitant to
adopt these new methods in their business workflow.The practice of
ML solutions architecture aims to help solve some of the challenges
in ML. In the next section, we will explore ML solutions architecture
and its role in the ML life cycle.
ML solutions architecture
When I initially worked with companies as an ML solutions architect,
the landscape was quite different from what it is now. The focus was
mainly on data science and modeling, and the problems at hand
were small in scope. Back then, most of the problems could be
solved using simple ML techniques. The datasets were also small,
and the infrastructure required was also not demanding. The scope
of the ML initiative at these companies was limited to a few data
scientists or teams. As an ML architect at that time, I primarily
needed to have solid data science skills and general cloud
architecture knowledge to get the job done.In the more recent
years, the landscape of ML initiatives has become more intricate and
multifaceted, necessitating involvement from a broader range of
functions and personas at companies. My engagement has expanded
to include discussions with business executives about ML strategies
and organizational design to faciliate the broad adoption of AI/ML
throughout their enterprises. I have been tasked with designing
more complex ML platforms, utilizing a diverse range of technologies
for large enterprises across many that meet stringent security and
compliance requirements. ML workflow orchestration and operations
have become increasingly crucial topics of discussion, and more and
more companies are looking to train large ML models with enormous
amounts of training data. The number of ML models trained and
deployed by some companies has skyrocketed to tens of thousands
from a few dozen models in just a few years. Furthmore,
sophisticated and security-sensitive customers have sought guidance
on topics such as ML privacy, model explainability, and data and
model bias. As an ML solutions architect, I've noticed that the skills
and knowledge required to be successful in this role have evolved
significantly. Trying to navigate the complexities of a business, data,
science, and technology landscape can be a daunting task. As an ML
solutions architect, I have seen firsthand the challenges that
companies face in bringing all these pieces together. In my view, ML
solutions architecture is an essential discipline that serves as a
bridge connecting the different components of an ML initiative.
Drawing on my years of experience working with companies of all
sizes and across diverse industries, I believe that an ML solutions
architect plays a pivotal role in identifying business needs,
developing ML solutions to address these needs, and designing the
technology platforms necessary to run these solutions. By
collaborating with various business and technology partners, an ML
solutions architect can help companies unlock the full potential of
their data and realize tangible benefits from their ML initiatives.The
following figure (Figure 1.7) illustrates the core functional areas
covered by the ML solutions architecture.
Figure 1.7: ML solutions architecture coverage
In the following sections, we will explore each of these areas in

greater details:
Business understanding: Business problem understanding

and transformation using AI and ML.
Identification and verification of ML techniques:
Identification and verification of ML techniques for solving
specific ML problems.
System architecture of the ML technology platform:
System architecture design and implementation of the ML
technology platforms.
ML platform automation: ML platform automation technical
design.
Security and compliance: Security, compliance, and audit
considerations for the ML platform and ML models.
Business understanding and ML transformation

The goal of the business workflow analysis is to identify inefficiencies
in the workflows and determine if ML can be applied to help
eliminate pain points, improve efficiency, or even create new
revenue opportunities.Picture this: you are tasked with improving a
call center's operations. You know there are inefficiencies that need
to be addressed, but you're not sure where to start. That's where
business workflow analysis comes in. By analyzing the call center's
workflows, you can identify pain points such as long customer wait
times, knowledge gaps among agents, and the inability to extract
customer insights from call recordings. Once you have identified
these issues, you can determine what data is available and which
business metrics need to be improved. This is where ML comes in.
You can use ML to create virtual assistants for common customer
inquiries, transcribe audio recordings to allow for text analysis, and
detect customer intent for product cross-sell and up-sell. But
sometimes, you need to modify the business process to incorporate
ML solutions. For example, if you want to use call recording analytics
to generate insights for cross-selling or up-selling products, but
there's no established process to act on those insights, you may
need to introduce an automated target marketing process or a
proactive outreach process by the sales team.
Identification and verification of ML techniques

Once you have come up with a list of ML options, the next step is to
determine if the assumption behind ML approach is valid. This could
involve conducting a simple Proof of Concept (POC) modeling to
validate the available dataset and modeling approach, or technology
POC using pre-built AI services, or testing of ML frameworks. For
example, you might want to test the feasibility of text transcription
from audio files using an existing text transcription service or build a
customer propensity model for a new product conversion from a
marketing campaign. It is worth noting that ML solutions
architecture does not focus on developing new machine algorithms,
a job best suited for applied data scientists or research data
scientists. Instead, ML solutions architecture focuses on identifying
and applying ML algorithms to address a range of ML problems such
as predictive analytics, computer vision, or natural language
processing. Also, the goal of any modeling task here is not to build
production-quality models, but rather to validate the approach for
further experimentations by full-time applied data scientists.
System architecture design and implementation

The most important aspect of ML solutions architecture role is the
technical architecture design of the ML platform. The platform will
need to provide the technical capability to support the different
phases of the ML cycle and personas, such as data scientists and ops
engineers. Specifically, an ML platform needs to have the following
core functions:
Data explorations and experimentation: Data scientists

use ML platforms for data exploration, experimentation, model
building, and model evaluation. ML platforms need to provide
capabilities such as data science development tools for model
authoring and experimentation, data wrangling tools for data
exploration and wrangling, source code control for code
management, and a package repository for library package
management.
Data management and large-scale data processing: Data
scientists or data engineers will need the technical capability to
store, access, and process large amounts of data for cleansing,
transformation, and feature engineering.
Model training infrastructure management: ML platforms
will need to provide model training infrastructure for different
modeling training using different types of computing resources,
storage, and networking configurations. It also needs to support
different types of ML libraries or frameworks, such as scikit-
learn, TensorFlow, and PyTorch.
Model hosting/serving: ML platforms will need to provide the
technical capability to host and serve the model for prediction
generations, either for real-time, batch, or both.
Model management: Trained ML models will need to be
managed and tracked for easy access and lookup, with relevant
metadata.
Feature management: Common and reusable features will
need to be managed and served for model training and model
serving purposes.
ML platform workflow automation
A key aspect of ML platform design is workflow automation and
continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD). ML is
a multi-step workflow – it needs to be automated, which includes
data processing, model training, model validation, and model
hosting. Infrastructure provisioning automation and self-service is
another aspect of automation design. Key components of workflow
automation include the following:
Pipeline design and management: The ability to create

different automation pipelines for various tasks, such as model
training and model hosting.
Pipeline execution and monitoring: The ability to run
different pipelines and monitor the pipeline execution status for
the entire pipeline and each of the steps.
Model monitoring configuration: The ability to monitor the
model in production for various metrics, such as data drift
(where the distribution of data used in production deviates from
the distribution of data used for model training), model drift
(where the performance of the model degrades in the
production compared with training results), and bias detection
(the ML model replicating or amplifying bias towards certain
individuals).
Security and compliance

Another important aspect of ML solutions architecture is the security
and compliance consideration in a sensitive or enterprise setting:
Authentication and authorization: The ML platform needs

to provide authentication and authorization mechanisms to
manage the access to the platform and different resources and
services.
Network security: The ML platform needs to be configure for
different network security to prevent unauthorized access.
Data encryption: For security-sensitive organizations, data
encryption is another important aspect of the design
consideration for the ML platform.
Audit and compliance: Audit and compliance staff need the
information to help them understand how decisions are made
by the predictive models if required, the lineage of a model from
data to model artifacts, and any bias exhibited in the data and
model. The ML platform will need to provide model
explainability, bias detection, and model traceability across the
various datastore and service components, among other
capabilities.
Testing your knowledge

Great job! You have reached to the end of the chapter. Now, let's put
your newly acquired knowledge to the test and see if you've
understood and retained the information presented.Take a look at
the list of the following scenarios and determine which of the three
ML types can be applied (supervised, unsupervised, or
reinforcement):
1. There is a list of online feedback on products. Each comment

has been labeled with a sentiment class (for example,
positive , negative , neutral ). You have been asked to build
an ML model to predict the sentiment of new feedback.
2. You have historical house pricing information and details about
the house, such as zip code, number of bedrooms, house size,
and house condition. You have been asked to build an ML model
to predict the price of a house.
3. You have been asked to identify potentially fraudulent
transactions on your company's e-commerce site. You have data
such as historical transaction data, user information, credit
history, devices, and network access data. However, you don't
know which transaction is fraudulent or not.
Take a look at the following questions on the ML life cycle and ML

solutions architecture to see how you would answer them:
1. There is a business workflow that processes a request with a set

of well-defined decision rules, and there is no tolerance to
deviate from the decision rules when making decisions. Should
you consider ML to automate the business workflow?
2. You have deployed an ML model into production. However, you
do not see the expected improvement in the business KPIs.
What should you do?
3. There is a manual process that's currently handled by a small
number of people. You found an ML solution that can automate
this process, however, the cost of building and running the ML
solution is higher than the cost saved from automation. Should
you proceed with the ML project?
4. As an ML solutions architect, you have been asked to validate
an ML approach for solving a business problem. What steps
would you take to validate the approach?
Summary
You now have a solid understanding of various concepts such as AI,
ML, and the essential steps of the end-to-end ML life cycle.
Additionally, you have gained insight into the core functions of ML
solutions architecture and how it plays a crucial role in the success
of an ML project. With your newfound knowledge, you can
differentiate between different types of ML and identify their
application in solving business problems. Moreover, you have learned
that it is crucial to have a deep understanding of business and data
to achieve success in an ML project, besides modeling and
engineering. Lastly, you have gained an understanding of the
significance of ML solutions architecture and how it fits into the ML
life cycle.In the upcoming chapter, we will dive into various ML use
cases across different industries, such as financial services and
media and entertainment, to gain further insights into the practical
applications of ML.
2 Business Use Cases for Machine
Learning
Join our book community on Discord
https://packt.link/EarlyAccessCommunity
As a machine learning (ML) practitioner, It is essential for me to

develop a deep understanding of different businesses to have
effective conversations with the business and technology leaders.
This should not come as a surprise since the ultimate goal for any
machine learning solution architecture (ML solution
architecture) is to solve practical business problems with science
and technology solutions. Therefore, one of the main areas of focus
for ML solution architecture is to develop a broad understanding of
different business domains, workflows, and relevant data. Without
this understanding, it would be challenging to make sense of the
data and design and develop practical ML solutions for business
problems.In this chapter, we will explore various real-world ML use
cases across several industry verticals. We will examine the key
business workflows and challenges faced by industries such as
financial services and retail, and how ML technologies can help solve
these challenges. The aim of this chapter is not to make you to an
expert in any particular industry or its ML use case and techniques,
but rather to make you aware of real-world ML use cases in the
context of business requirements and workflows. After reading this
chapter, you will be able to apply similar thinking in your line of
business and be able to identify ML solutions. Specifically, we will
cover the following topics in this chapter:
ML use cases in financial services

ML use cases in media and entertainment
ML use cases in healthcare and life sciences
ML use cases in manufacturing
ML use cases in retail
ML use cases in automotive
ML use cases in financial services

The Financial Services Industry (FSI) has always been at the
forefront of technological innovation, and ML adoption is no
exception. In recent years, we have seen a range of ML solutions
being implemented across different business functions within
financial services. For example, in capital markets, ML is being used
across front, middle, and back offices to aid investment decisions,
trade optimization, risk management, and transaction settlement
processing. In insurance, companies are using ML to streamline
underwriting, prevent fraud, and automate claim management.
While in banking, banks are using it to improve customer
experience, combat fraud, and facilitate loan approval decisions. In
the following sections, we will explore different core business areas
within financial services and how ML can be applied to overcome
some of these business challenges.
Capital markets front office

In finance, the front office is the revenue-generating business area
that include customer-facing roles such as securities sales, traders,
investment bankers, and financial advisors. Front office departments
offer products and services such as Merger and Acquisition
(M&A) and IPO advisory, wealth management, and the trading of
financial assets such as equity (e.g., stocks), fixed income (e.g.,
bonds), commodities (e.g., oil), and currency products. Let's now
examine some specific business functions in the front office area.
Sales trading and research
In sales trading, a firm's sales staff monitors investment news such

as earnings reports or M&A activities to identify investment
opportunities for their institutional clients. The trading staff then
execute the trades for their clients, also known as agency trading.
Additionally, trading staff can execute trades for their firm, which is
known as prop trading. As trading staff often deal with large
quantities of securities, it is crucial to optimize the trading strategy
to acquire the shares at favorable prices without driving up prices.
Research teams support sales and trading staff by analyzing equities
and fixed income assets and providing recommendations.
Algorithmic trading is another type of trading that uses a computer
to execute trades automatically based on predefined logic and
market conditions.The following diagram illustrates the business flow
of a sales trading desk and how different players interact to
complete a trading activity:
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
to intrude when we speak of positive and negative electricity.) Each
kind of electricity attracts its opposite and repels its own kind, like
male and female. It is very easy to see electrical attraction in
operation. For instance, take a piece of sealing-wax and rub it for a
while on your sleeve. You will find that it will pick up small bits of
paper if it is held a little distance above them, just as a magnet will
pick up a needle. The sealing-wax attracts the bits of paper because
it has become electrified by friction. In a similar way, the central
nucleus of an atom, which consists of positive electricity, attracts the
electrons, which consist of negative electricity. The law of attraction
is the same as in the solar system: the nearer the nucleus and the
electron are to each other the greater is the attraction, and the
attraction increases faster than the distance diminishes. At half the
distance, there is four times the attraction; at a third of the distance,
nine times; at a quarter, sixteen times, and so on. This is what is
called the law of the inverse square. But whereas the planets of the
solar system attract one another, the electrons in an atom, since they
all have negative electricity, repel one another, again according to
the law of the inverse square.
Some readers may expect me at this stage to tell them what
electricity “really is.” The fact is that I have already said what it is. It
is not a thing, like St. Paul’s Cathedral; it is a way in which things
behave. When we have told how things behave when they are
electrified, and under what circumstances they are electrified, we
have told all there is to tell. When we are speaking of large bodies,
there are three states possible: they may be more or less positively
electrified, or more or less negatively electrified, or neutral. Ordinary
bodies at ordinary times are neutral, but in a thunderstorm the earth
and the clouds have opposite kinds of electricity. Ordinary bodies are
neutral because their small parts contain equal amounts of positive
and negative electricity; the smallest parts, the electrons and nuclei,
are never neutral, the electrons always having negative electricity
and the nuclei always having positive electricity. That means simply
that electrons repel electrons, nuclei repel nuclei, and nuclei attract
electrons, according to certain laws; that they behave in a certain
way in a magnetic field; and so on. When we have enumerated
these laws of behaviour, there is nothing more to be said about
electricity, unless we can discover further laws, or simplify and unify
the statement of the laws already known. When I say that an
electron has a certain amount of negative electricity, I mean merely
that it behaves in a certain way. Electricity is not like red paint, a
substance which can be put on to the electron and taken off again; it
is merely a convenient name for certain physical laws.
All electrons, whatever kind of atom they may belong to, and also
if they are not attached to any atom, are exactly alike—so far, at
least, as the most delicate tests can discover. Any two electrons
have exactly the same amount of negative electricity, the smallest
amount that can exist. They all have the same mass. (This is not the
mass directly obtained from measurement, because when an
electron is moving very fast its measured mass increases. This is
true, not only of electrons, but of all bodies, for reasons explained by
the theory of relativity, which will concern us at a later stage. But with
ordinary bodies the effect is inappreciable, because they all move
very much slower than light. Electrons, on the contrary, have been
sometimes observed to move with velocities not much less than that
of light; they can even reach 99 per cent, of the velocity of light. At
this speed, the increase of measured mass is very great. But when
we introduce the correction demanded by the theory of relativity, it is
found that the mass of any two electrons is the same.) Electrons also
all have the same size, in so far as they can be said to have a
definite size. (For reasons which will appear later, the notion of the
“size” of an electron is not so definite as we should be inclined to
think.) They are the ultimate constituents of negative electricity, and
one of the two kinds of ultimate constituents of matter.
Nuclei, on the contrary, are different for different kinds of
elements. We will begin with hydrogen, which is the simplest
element. The nucleus of the hydrogen atom has an amount of
positive electricity exactly equal to the amount of negative electricity
on an electron. It has, however, a great deal more ordinary mass (or
weight); in fact, it is about 1850 times as heavy as an electron, so
that practically all the weight of the atom is due to the nucleus. When
positive and negative electricity are present in equal amounts in a
body, they neutralize each other from the point of view of the outside
world, and the body appears as unelectrified. When a body appears
as electrified, that is because there is a preponderance of one kind
of electricity. The hydrogen atom, when it is unelectrified, consists
simply of a hydrogen nucleus with one electron. If it loses its
electron, it becomes positively electrified. Most kinds of atoms are
capable of various degrees of positive electrification, but the
hydrogen atom is only capable of one perfectly definite amount. This
is part of the evidence for the view that it has only one electron in its
neutral condition. If it had two in its neutral condition, the amount of
positive electricity in the nucleus would have to be equal to the
amount of negative electricity in two electrons, and the hydrogen
atom could acquire a double charge of positive electricity by losing
both its electrons. This sometimes happens with the helium atom,
and with the heavier atoms, but never with the hydrogen atom.
Under normal conditions, when the hydrogen atom is
unelectrified, the electron simply continues to go round and round
the nucleus, just as the earth continues to go round and round the
sun. The electron may move in any one of a certain set of orbits,
some larger, some smaller, some circular, some elliptical. (We shall
consider these different orbits presently.) But when the atom is
undisturbed, it has a preference for the smallest of the circular orbits,
in which, as we saw in Chapter I, the distance between the nucleus
and the electron is about half a hundred-millionth of a centimetre. It
goes round in this tiny orbit with very great rapidity; in fact its velocity
is about a hundred-and-thirty-fourth of the velocity of light, which is
300,000 kilometres (about 180,000 miles) a second. Thus the
electron manages to cover about 2,200 kilometres (or about 1400
miles) in every second. To do this, it has to go round its tiny orbit
about seven thousand million times in a millionth of a second; that is
to say, in a millionth of a second it has to live through about seven
thousand million of its “years.” The modern man is supposed to have
a passion for rapid motion, but nature far surpasses him in this
respect.
It is odd that, although the hydrogen nucleus is very much
heavier than an electron, it is probably no larger. The dimensions of
an electron are estimated at about a hundred thousandth of the
dimensions of its orbit. This, however, is not to be taken as a
statement with a high degree of accuracy; it merely gives the sort of
size that we are to think of. As for the nucleus, we know that in the
case of hydrogen, it is probably about the same size as an electron,
but we do not know this for certain. The hydrogen nucleus may be
quite without structure, like an electron, but the nuclei of other
elements have a structure, and are probably built up out of hydrogen
nuclei and electrons.
As we pass up the periodic series of the elements, the positive
charge of electricity in the nucleus increases by one unit with each
step. Helium, the second element in the table, has exactly twice as
much positive electricity in its nucleus as there is in the nucleus of
hydrogen; lithium, the third element, has three times as much;
oxygen, the eighth, has eight times as much; uranium, the ninety-
second (counting the gaps), has ninety-two times as much.
Corresponding to this increase in the positive electricity of the
nucleus, the atom in its unelectrified state has more electrons
revolving round the nucleus. Helium has two electrons, lithium three,
and so on, until we come to uranium, like the Grand Turk, with
ninety-two consorts revolving round him. In this way the negative
electricity of the electrons exactly balances the positive electricity of
the nucleus, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. When,
by any means, an atom is robbed of one of its electrons, it becomes
positively electrified; if it is robbed of two electrons, it becomes
doubly electrified and remains electrified until it has an opportunity of
annexing from elsewhere as many electrons as it has lost. A body
can be negatively electrified by containing free electrons; an atom
may for a short time have more than its proper number of electrons,
and thus become negatively electrified, but this is an unstable
condition, except in chemical combinations.
Nobody knows exactly how the electrons are arranged in other
atoms than hydrogen. Even with helium, which has only two
electrons, the mathematical problems are too difficult to be solved
completely; and when we come to atoms that have a multitude of
electrons, we are reduced largely to guesswork. But there is reason
to think that the electrons are arranged more or less in rings, the
inner rings being nearer to the nucleus than the outer ones. We
know that the electrons must all revolve about the nucleus in orbits
which are roughly circles or ellipses, but they will be perturbed from
the circular or elliptic path by the repulsions of the other electrons. In
the solar system, the attractions which the planets exercise upon
each other are very minute compared to the attraction of the sun, so
that each planet moves very nearly as if there were no other planets.
But the electrical forces between two electrons are not very much
less strong than the forces between electrons and nucleus at the
same distance. In the case of helium, they are half as strong; with
lithium, a third as strong, and so on. This makes the perturbations
much greater than they are in the solar system, and the mathematics
correspondingly more difficult. Moreover we cannot actually observe
the orbits of the electrons, as we can those of the planets; we can
only infer them by calculations based upon data derived mainly from
the spectrum of the element concerned, including the X-ray
spectrum.
We shall have more to say at a later stage about the nature of
these rings, which cannot be as simple as was supposed at first. The
first hypothesis was that the electrons were like the people in a
merry-go-round, all going round in circles, some in a small circle
near the centre, others in a larger circle, others in a still larger one.
But for various reasons the arrangement cannot be as simple as
that. In spite of uncertainties of detail, however, it remains practically
certain that there are successive rings of electrons: one ring in atoms
belonging to the first period, two in the second period, three in the
third, and so on. Each period begins with an alkali, which has only
one electron in the outermost ring, and ends with an inert gas, which
has as many electrons in the outermost ring as it can hold. It is
impossible to get a ring to hold more than a certain number of
electrons, though it has been suggested by Niels Bohr, in an
extremely ingenious speculation, that a ring can hold more electrons
when it has other rings outside it than when it is the outer ring. His
theory accounts extraordinarily well for the peculiarities of the
periodic table, and is therefore worth understanding, though it cannot
yet be regarded as certainly true.
The previous view was that each ring, when complete, held as
many electrons as there are elements in the corresponding period.
Thus the first period contains only two elements (hydrogen and
helium); therefore the innermost ring, which is completed in the
helium atom, must contain two electrons. This remains true on
Bohr’s theory. The second period consists of eight elements, and is
completed when we reach neon. The unelectrified atom of neon
therefore, will have two electrons in the inner ring and eight in the
outer. The third period again consists of eight elements, ending with
argon; therefore argon, in its neutral state, will have a third ring
consisting of a further eight electrons. So far, we have not reached
the parts of the periodic table in which there are irregularities, and
therefore Bohr accepts the current view, except for certain
refinements which need not concern us at present. But in the fourth
period, which consists of 18 elements, there are a number of
elements which do not correspond to earlier ones in their chemical
and spectroscopic properties. Bohr accounts for this by supposing
that the new electrons are not all in the new outermost ring, but are
some of them in the third ring, which is able to hold more when it has
other electrons outside it. Thus krypton, the inert gas which
completes the fourth period, will still have only eight electrons in its
outer ring, but will have eighteen in the third ring. Some elements in
the fourth period differ from their immediate predecessors, not as
regards the outer ring, but by having one more electron in the third
ring. These are the elements that do not correspond accurately to
any elements in the third period. Similarly the fifth period, which
again consists of 18 elements, will add its new electrons partly in the
new fifth ring, partly in the fourth, ending with xenon, which will have
eight electrons in the fifth ring, eighteen in the fourth, and the other
rings as in krypton. In the sixth period, which has 32 elements, the
new electrons are added partly in the sixth ring, partly in the fifth, and
partly in the fourth; the rare earths are the elements which add new
electrons in the fourth ring. Niton, the inert gas which ends the sixth
period, will, according to Bohr’s theory, have its first three rings the
same as those of krypton and xenon, but its fourth ring will have 32
electrons, its fifth 18, and its sixth eight. This theory has very
interesting niceties, which, however, cannot be explained at our
present stage.
The chemical properties of an element depend almost entirely
upon the outer ring of electrons, and that is why they are periodic. If
we accept Bohr’s theory, the outer ring, when it is completed, always
has eight electrons, except in hydrogen and helium. There is a
tendency for atoms to combine so as to make up the full number of
electrons in the outer ring. Thus an alkali, which has one electron in
the outer ring, will combine readily with an element that comes just
before an inert gas, and so has one less electron in the outer ring
than it can hold. An element which has two electrons in the outer ring
will combine with an element next but one before an inert gas, and
so on. Two atoms of an alkali will combine with one atom of an
element next but one before an inert gas. An inert gas, which has its
outer ring already complete, will not combine with anything.
IV.
THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
THE general lines of atomic structure which have been sketched
in previous chapters have resulted largely from the study of radio-
activity, together with the theory of X-rays and the facts of chemistry.
The general picture of the atom as a solar system of electrons
revolving about a nucleus of positive electricity is derived from a
mass of evidence, the interpretation of which is largely due to
Rutherford; to him also is due a great deal of our knowledge of radio-
activity and of the structure of nuclei. But the most surprising and
intimate secrets of the atom have been discovered by means of the
spectroscope. That is to say, the spectroscope has supplied the
experimental facts, but the interpretation of the facts required an
extraordinarily brilliant piece of theorizing by a young Dane, Niels
Bohr, who, when he first propounded his theory (1913), was still
working under Rutherford. The original theory has since been
modified and developed, notably by Sommerfeld, but everything that
has been done since has been built upon the work of Bohr. This
chapter and the next will be concerned with his theory in its original
and simplest form.
When the light of the sun is made to pass through a prism, it
becomes separated by refraction into the different colours of the
rainbow. The spectroscope is an instrument for effecting this
separation into different colours for sunlight or for any other light that
passes through it. The separated colours are called a spectrum, so
that a spectroscope is an instrument for seeing a spectrum. The
essential feature of the spectroscope is the prism through which the
light passes, which refracts different colours differently, and so
makes them separately visible. The rainbow is a natural spectrum,
caused by refraction of sunlight in raindrops.
When a gas is made to glow, it is found by means of the
spectroscope that the light which it emits may be of two sorts. One
sort gives a spectrum which is a continuous band of colours, like a
rainbow; the other sort consists of a number of sharp lines of single
colours. The first sort, which are called “band-spectra,” are due to
molecules; the second sort, called “line-spectra,” are due to atoms.
The first sort will not further concern us; it is from line-spectra that
our knowledge of atomic constitution is obtained.
When white light is passed through a gas that is not glowing, and
then analysed by the spectroscope, it is found that there are dark
lines, which are to a great extent (though not by any means
completely) identical with the bright lines that were emitted by the
glowing gas. These dark lines are called the “absorption-spectrum”
of the gas, whereas the bright lines are called the “emission-
spectrum.”
Every element has its characteristic spectrum, by which its
presence may be detected. The spectrum, as we shall see, depends
in the main upon the electrons in the outer ring. When an atom is
positively electrified by being robbed of an electron in the outer ring,
its spectrum is changed, and becomes very similar to that of the
preceding element in the periodic table. Thus positively electrified
helium has a spectrum closely similar to that of hydrogen—so similar
that for a long time it was mistaken for that of hydrogen.
The spectra of elements known in the laboratory are found in the
sun and the stars, thus enabling us to know a great deal about the
chemical constitution of even the most distant fixed stars. This was
the first great discovery made by means of the spectroscope.
The application of the spectroscope that concerns us is different.
We are concerned with the explanation of the lines emitted by
different elements. Why does an element have a spectrum
consisting of certain sharp lines? What connection is there between
the different lines in a single spectrum? Why are the lines sharp
instead of being diffuse bands of colours? Until recent years, no
answer whatever was known to these questions; now the answer is
known with a considerable approach to completeness. In the two
cases of hydrogen and positively electrified helium, the answer is
exhaustive; everything has been explained, down to the tiniest
peculiarities. It is quite clear that the same principles that have been
successful in those two cases are applicable throughout, and in part
the principles have been shown to yield observed results; but the
mathematics involved in the case of atoms that have many electrons
is too difficult to enable us to deduce their spectra completely from
theory, as we can in the simplest cases. In the cases that can be
worked out, the calculations are not difficult. Those who are not
afraid of a little mathematics can find an outline in Norman
Campbell’s “Series Spectra” (Cambridge, 1921), and a fuller account
in Sommerfeld’s “Atomic Structures and Spectral Lines,” of which an
English translation is published by E. P. Dutton & Co., New York, and
Methuen in London.
As every one knows, light consists of waves. Light-waves are
distinguished from sound-waves by being what is called “transverse,”
whereas sound-waves are what is called “longitudinal.” It is easy to
explain the difference by an illustration. Suppose a procession
marching up Piccadilly. From time to time the police will make them
halt in Piccadilly Circus; whenever this happens, the people behind
will press up until they too have to halt, and a wave of stoppage will
travel all down the procession. When the people in front begin to
move on, they will thin out, and the process of thinning out will travel
down the whole procession just as the previous process of
condensation did. This is what a sound-wave is like; it is called a
“longitudinal” wave, because the people move all the time in the
same direction in which the wave moves. But now suppose a
mounted policeman, whose duty it is to keep half the road clear,
rides along the right-hand edge of the procession. As he
approaches, the people on the right will move to the left, and this
movement to the left will travel along the procession as the
policeman rides on. This is a “transverse” wave, because, while the
wave travels straight on, the people move from right to left, at right
angles to the direction in which the wave is travelling. This is the way
a light-wave is constructed; the vibration which makes the wave is at
right angles to the direction in which the wave is travelling.
This is, of course, not the only difference between light-waves
and sound-waves. Sound waves only travel about a mile in five
seconds, whereas light-waves travel about 180,000 miles a second.
Sound-waves consist of vibrations of the air, or of whatever material
medium is transmitting them, and cannot be propagated in a
vacuum; whereas light-waves require no material medium. People
have invented a medium, the æther, for the express purpose of
transmitting light-waves. Put all we really know is that the waves are
transmitted; the æther is purely hypothetical, and does not really add
anything to our knowledge. We know the mathematical properties of
light-waves, and the sensations they produce when they reach the
human eye, but we do not know what it is that undulates. We only
suppose that something must undulate because we find it difficult to
imagine waves otherwise.
Different colours of the rainbow have different wave-lengths, that
is to say, different distances between the crest of one wave and the
crest of the next. Of the visible colours, red has the greatest wave-
length and violet the smallest. But there are longer and shorter
waves, just like those that make light, except that our eyes are not
adapted for seeing them. The longest waves of this sort that we
know of are those used in wireless-telegraphy, which sometimes
have a wave-length of several miles. X-rays are rays of the same
sort as those that make visible light, but very much shorter; y-rays,
which occur in radio-activity, are still shorter, and are the shortest we
know. Many waves that are too long or too short to be seen can
nevertheless be photographed. In speaking of the spectrum of an
element, we do not confine ourselves to visible colours, but include
all experimentally discoverable waves of the same sort as those that
make visible colours. The X-ray spectra, which are in some ways
peculiarly instructive, require quite special methods, and are a recent
discovery, beginning in 1912. Between the wave-lengths of wireless-
telegraphy and those of visible light there is a vast gap; the wave-
lengths of ordinary light (including ultra-violet) are between a ten-
thousandth and about a hundred-thousandth of a centimetre. There
is another long gap between visible light and X-rays, which are on
the average composed of waves about ten thousand times shorter
than those that make visible light. The gap between X-rays and -
rays is not large.
In studying the connection between the different lines in the
spectrum of an element, it is convenient to characterize a wave, not
by its wave-length, but by its “wave-number,” which means the
number of waves in a centimetre. Thus if the wave-length is one ten-
thousandth of a centimetre, the wave-number is 10,000; if the wave-
length is one hundred-thousandth of a centimetre, the wave-number
is 100,000, and so on. The shorter the wave-length, the greater is
the wave-number. The laws of the spectrum are simpler when they
are stated in terms of wave-numbers than when they are stated in
terms of wave-lengths. The wave-number is also sometimes called
the “frequency,” but this term is more properly employed to express
the number of waves that pass a given place in a second. This is
obtained by multiplying the wave-number by the number of
centimetres that light travels in a second, i.e. thirty thousand million.
These three terms, wave-length, wave-number, and frequency must
be borne in mind in reading spectroscopic work.
In stating the law’s which determine the spectrum of an element,
we shall for the present confine ourselves to hydrogen, because for
all other elements the laws are less simple.
For many years no progress was made towards finding any
connection between the different lines in the spectrum of hydrogen.
It was supposed that there must be one fundamental line, and that
the others must be like harmonies in music. The atom was supposed
to be in a state of complicated vibration, which sent out light-waves
having the same frequencies that it had itself. Along these lines,
however, the relations between the different lines remained quite
undiscoverable.
At last, in 1908, a curious discovery was made by W. Ritz, which
he called the Principle of Combination. He found that all the lines
were connected with a certain number of inferred wave-numbers
which are called “terms,” in such a way that every line has a wave-
number which is the difference of two terms, and the difference
between any two terms (apart from certain easily explicable
exceptions) gives a line. The point of this law will become clearer by
the help of an imaginary analogy. Suppose a shop belonging to an
eccentric shopkeeper had gone bankrupt, and it was your business
to look through the accounts. Suppose you found that the only sums
ever spent by customers in the shop were the following: 19s:11d,
19s, 15s, 10s, 9s:11d, 9s, 5s, 4s:11d, 4s, 11d. At first these sums
might seem to have no connection with each other, but if it were
worth your while you might presently notice that they were the sums
that would be spent by customers who gave 20s, 10s, 5s, or 1s, and
got 10s, 5s, 1s, or 1d. in change. You would certainly think this very
odd, but the oddity would be explained if you found that the
shopkeeper’s eccentricity took the form of insisting upon giving one
coin or note in change, no more and no less. The sums spent in the
shop correspond to the lines in the spectrum, while the sums of 20s,
10s, 5s, 1s, and 1d. correspond to the terms. You will observe that
there are more lines than terms (10 lines and 5 terms, in our
illustration). As the number of both increases, the disproportion
grows greater; 6 terms would give 15 lines, 7 terms would give 21, 8
would give 28, 100 would give 4950. This shows that, the more lines
and terms there are, the more surprising it becomes that the
Principle of Combination should be true, and the less possible it
becomes to attribute its truth to chance. The number of lines in the
spectrum of hydrogen is very large.
The terms of the hydrogen spectrum can all be expressed very
simply. There is a certain fundamental wave-number, called
Rydberg’s constant after its discoverer. Rydberg discovered that this
constant was always occurring in formulae for series of spectral
lines, and it has been found that it is very nearly the same for all
elements. Its value is about 109,700 waves per centimetre. This may
be taken as the fundamental term in the hydrogen spectrum. The
others are obtained from it by dividing it by 4 (twice two), 9 (three
times three), 16 (four times four), and so on. This gives all the terms;
the lines are obtained by subtracting one term from another.
Theoretically, this rule gives an infinite number of terms, and
therefore of lines; but in practice the lines grow fainter as higher
terms are involved, and also so close together that they can no
longer be distinguished. For this reason, it is not necessary, in
practice, to take account of more than about 30 terms; and even this
number is only necessary in the case of certain nebulæ.
It will be seen that, by our rule, we obtain various series of terms.
The first series is obtained by subtracting from Rydberg’s constant
successively a quarter, a ninth, a sixteenth ... of itself, so that the
wave-numbers of its lines are respectively ¾, ⁸⁄₉, ¹⁵⁄₁₆ ... of Rydberg’s
constant. These wave-numbers correspond to lines in the ultra-
violet, which can be photographed but not seen; this series of lines is
called, after its discoverer, the Lyman series. Then there is a series
of lines obtained by subtracting from a quarter of Rydberg’s constant
successively a ninth, a sixteenth, a twenty-fifth ... of Rydberg’s
constant, so that the wave-numbers of this series are ⁵⁄₃₆, ³⁄₁₆, ²¹⁄₁₀₀
... of Rydberg’s constant. This series of lines is in the visible part of
the spectrum; the formula for this series was discovered as long ago
as 1885 by Balmer. Then there is a series obtained by taking a ninth
of Rydberg’s constant, and subtracting successively a sixteenth,
twenty-fifth, etc. of Rydberg’s constant. This series is not visible,
because its wave-numbers are so small that it is in the infra-red, but
it was discovered by Paschen, after whom it is called. Thus so far as
the conditions of observation admit, we may lay down this simple
rule: the lines of the hydrogen spectrum are obtained from Rydberg’s
constant, by dividing it by any two square numbers, and subtracting
the smaller resulting number from the larger. This gives the wave-
number of some line in the hydrogen spectrum, if observation of a
line with that wave-number is possible, and if there are not too many
other lines in the immediate neighbourhood. (A square number is a
number multiplied by itself: one times one, twice two, three times
three, and so on; that is to say, the square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16,
25, 36, etc.).
All this, so far, is purely empirical. Rydberg’s constant, and the
formulæ for the lines of the hydrogen spectrum, were discovered
merely by observation, and by hunting for some arithmetical formula
which would make it possible to collect the different lines under
some rule. For a long time the search failed because people
employed wave-lengths instead of wave-numbers; the formulæ are
more complicated in wave-lengths, and therefore more difficult to
discover empirically. Balmer, who discovered the formula for the
visible lines in the hydrogen spectrum, expressed it in wave-lengths.
But when expressed in this form it did not suggest Ritz’s Principle of
Combination, which led to the complete rule. Even after the rule was
discovered, no one knew why there was such a rule, or what was the
reason for the appearance of Rydberg’s constant. The explanation of
the rule, and the connection of Rydberg’s constant with other known
physical constants, was effected by Niels Bohr, whose theory will be
explained in the next chapter.
V.
POSSIBLE STATES OF THE
HYDROGEN ATOM
IT was obvious from the first that, when light is sent out by a
body, this is due to something that goes on in the atom, but it used to
be thought that, when the light is steady, whatever it is that causes
the emission of light is going on all the time in all the atoms of the
substance from which the light comes. The discovery that the lines of
the spectrum are the differences between terms suggested to Bohr a
quite different hypothesis, which proved immensely fruitful. He
adopted the view that each of the terms corresponds to a stable
condition of the atom, and that light is emitted when the atom passes
from one stable state to another, and only then. The various lines of
the spectrum are due, in this theory, to the various possible
transitions between different stable states. Each of the lines is a
statistical phenomenon: a certain percentage of the atoms are
making the transition that gives rise to this line. Some of the lines in
the spectrum are very much brighter than others; these represent
very common transitions, while the faint lines represent very rare
ones. On a given occasion, some of the rarer possible transitions
may not be occurring at all; in that case, the lines corresponding to
these transitions will be wholly absent on this occasion.
According to Bohr, what happens when a hydrogen atom gives

out light is that its electron, which has hitherto been comparatively
distant from the nucleus, suddenly jumps into an orbit which is much
nearer to the nucleus. When this happens, the atom loses energy,
but the energy is not lost to the world: it spreads through the
surrounding medium in the shape of light-waves. When an atom
absorbs light instead of emitting it, the converse process happens:
energy is transferred from the surrounding medium to the atom, and
takes the form of making the electron jump to a larger orbit. This
accounts for fluorescence—that is to say, the subsequent emission,
in certain cases, of light of exactly the same frequency as that which
has been absorbed. The electron which has been moved to a larger
orbit by outside forces (namely by the light which has been
absorbed) tends to return to the smaller orbit when the outside
forces are removed, and in doing so it give rise to light exactly like
that which was previously absorbed.
Let us first consider the results to which Bohr was led, and
afterwards the reasoning by which he was led to them. We will
assume, to begin with, that the electron in a hydrogen atom, in its
steady states, goes round the nucleus in a circle, and that the
different steady states only differ as regards the size of the circle. As
a matter of fact, the electron moves sometimes in a circle and
sometimes in an ellipse; but Sommerfeld, who showed how to
calculate the elliptical orbits that may occur, also showed that, so far
as the spectrum is concerned, the result is very nearly the same as if
the orbit were always circular. We may therefore begin with the
simplest case without any fear of being misled by it. The circles that
are possible on Bohr’s theory are also possible on the more general
theory, but certain ellipses have to be added to them as further
possibilities.
According to Newtonian dynamics, the electron ought to be
capable of revolving in any circle which had the nucleus in the
centre, or in any ellipse which had the nucleus in a focus; the
question what orbit it would choose would depend only upon the
velocity and direction of its motion at a given moment. Moreover, if
outside influences increased or diminished its energy, it ought to
pass by continuous graduations to a larger or smaller orbit, in which
it would go on moving after the outside influences were withdrawn.
According to the theory of electrodynamics, on the other hand, an
atom left to itself ought gradually to radiate its energy into the
surrounding æther, with the result that the electron would approach
continually nearer and nearer to the nucleus. Bohr’s theory differs
from the traditional views on all these points. He holds that, among
all the circles that ought to be possible on Newtonian principles, only
a certain infinitesimal selection are really possible. There is a
smallest possible circle, which has a radius of about half a hundredth
millionth of a centimetre. This is the commonest circle for the
electron to choose. If it does not move in this circle, it cannot move in
a circle slightly larger, but must hop at once to a circle with a radius
four times as large. If it wants to leave this circle for a larger one, it
must hop to one with a radius nine times as large as the original
radius. In fact, the only circles that are possible, in addition to the
smallest circle, are those that have radii 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 ... times as
large. (This is the series of square numbers, the same series that
came in finding a formula for the hydrogen spectrum.) When we
come to consider elliptical orbits, we shall find that there is a similar
selection of possible ellipses from among all those that ought to be
possible on Newtonian principles.
The atom has least energy when the orbit is smallest; therefore
the electron cannot jump from a smaller to a larger orbit except
under the influence of outside forces. It may be attracted out of its
course by some passing positively electrified atom, or repelled out of
its course by a passing electron, or waved out of its course by light-
waves. Such occurrences as these, according to the theory, may
make it jump from one of the smaller possible circles to one of the
larger ones. But when it is moving in a larger circle it is not in such a
stable state as when it is in a smaller one, and it can jump back to a
smaller circle without outside influences. When it does this, it will
emit light, which will be one or other of the lines of the hydrogen
spectrum according to the particular jump that is made. When it
jumps from the circle of radius 4 to the smallest circle, it emits the
line whose wave-number is ¾ of Rydberg’s constant. The jump from
radius 9 to the smallest circle gives the line which is ⁸⁄₉ of Rydberg’s
constant; the jump from radius 9 to radius 4 gives the line which is
⁵⁄₃₆ (i.e. ¼ = ⅑) of Rydberg’s constant, and so on. The reasons why
this occurs will be explained in the next chapter.
When an electron jumps from one orbit to another, this is
supposed to happen instantaneously, not merely in a very short time.
It is supposed that for a time it is moving in one orbit, and then
instantaneously it is moving in the other, without having passed over
the intermediate space. An electron is like a man who, when he is
insulted, listens at first apparently unmoved, and then suddenly hits
out. The process by which an electron passes from one orbit to
another is at present quite unintelligible, and to all appearance
contrary to everything that has hitherto been believed about the
nature of physical occurrences.
This discontinuity in the motion of an electron is an instance of a
more general fact which has been discovered by the extraordinary
minuteness of which physical measurements have become capable.
It used always to be supposed that the energy in a body could be
diminished or increased continuously, but it now appears that it can
only be increased or diminished by jumps of a finite amount. This
strange discontinuity would be impossible if the changes in the atom
were continuous; it is possible because the atom changes from one
state to another by revolution, not by evolution. Evolution in biology
and relativity in physics seemed to have established the continuity of
natural processes more firmly than ever before; Newton’s action at a
distance, which was always considered something of a scandal, was
explained away by Einstein’s theory of gravitation. But just when the
triumph of continuity seemed complete, and when Bergson’s
philosophy had enshrined it in popular thought, this inconvenient
discovery about energy came and upset everything. How far it may
carry us no one can yet tell. Perhaps we were not speaking correctly
a moment ago when we said that an electron passes from one orbit
to another “without passing over the intermediate space”; perhaps
there is no intermediate space. Perhaps it is merely habit and
prejudice that makes us suppose space to be continuous. Poincaré
—not the Prime Minister, but his cousin the mathematician, who was
a great man—suggested that we should even have to give up
thinking of time as continuous, and that we should have to think of a
minute, for instance, as a finite number of jerks with nothing between
them. This is an uncomfortable idea, and perhaps things are not so
bad as that. Such speculations are for the future; as yet we have not
the materials for testing them. But the discontinuity in the changes of
the atom is much more than a bold speculation; it is a theory borne
out by an immense mass of empirical facts.
The relation of the new mechanics to the old is very peculiar. The
orbits of electrons, on the new theory, are among those that are
possible on the traditional view, but are only an infinitesimal selection
from among these. According to the Newtonian theory, an electron
ought to be able to move round the nucleus in a circle of any radius,
provided it moved with a suitable velocity; but according to the new
theory, the only circles in which it can move are those we have
already described: a certain minimum circle, and others with radii 4,
9, 16, 25, 36 ... times as large as the radius of the minimum circle. In
view of this breach with the old ideas, it is odd that the orbits of
electrons, down to the smallest particulars, are such as to be
possible on Newtonian principles. Even the minute corrections
introduced by Einstein have been utilized by Sommerfeld to explain
some of the more delicate characteristics of the hydrogen spectrum.
It must be understood that, as regards our present question, Einstein
and the theory of relativity are the crown of the old dynamics, not the
beginning of the new. Einstein’s work has immense philosophical
and theoretical importance, but the changes which it introduces in
actual physics are very small indeed until we come to deal with
velocities not much less than that of light. The new dynamics of the
atom, on the contrary, not merely alters our theories, but alters our
view as to what actually occurs, by leading to the conclusion that
change is often discontinuous, and that most of the motions which
should be possible are in fact impossible. This leaves us quite
unable to account for the fact that all the motions that are in fact
possible are exactly in accordance with the old principles, showing
that the old principles, though incomplete, must be true up to a point.
Having discovered that the old principles are not quite true, we are
completely in the dark as to why they have as much truth as they
evidently have. No doubt the solution of this puzzle will be found in
time, but as yet there is not the faintest hint as to how the
reconciliation can be effected.

The Machine Learning Solutions Architect Handbook 2Nd Edition Early Access David Ping Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Machine Learning Solutions Architect Handbook 2Nd Edition Early Access David Ping Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Machine Learning Solutions

Architect Handbook - 2nd Edition (Early

A First Course in Machine Learning 2nd Edition

Solutions Architect’s Handbook: Kick-start your career

Machine Learning with Python Cookbook Practical

AWS Certified Solutions Architect Associate SAA C03 Jon

Exercises in Architecture: Learning to Think as an

SKETCH LIKE AN ARCHITECT ADVANCED TECHNIQUES TOME 2 2

Building Machine Learning Pipelines, 2nd Edition Robert

Machine Learning for Text, 2nd Edition Charu Aggarwal

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information

Early Access Publication: The Machine Learning Solutions

Early Access Production Reference: B20836

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

1. Chapter 1: Machine Learning and Machine Learning Solutions

The field of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning

Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to identify the

What is ML, and how does it work?

What are AI and ML?

Supervised machine learning

Let's have a look at each one of them in more detail.

Figure 1.1: Supervised ML

Supervised ML is mainly used for classification tasks that assign a

Classifying documents into different document types

Figure 1.2: Unsupervised ML

In addition to the clustering technique, there are many other

In this figure, the original picture on the left is transformed to the

Customer segmentation for target marketing: By using

A very popular example of reinforcement learning is the AlphaGo

Figure 1.4: Reinforcement learning

Robots or self-driving cars learn how to walk or navigate in

Figure 1.5: ML and computer software

The previouse figure (Figure 1.6) illustrates the key steps in ML

Business understanding and ML problem framing

Cost reduction for operational processes, such as document

Data understanding and data preparation

Model training and evaluation

Business metric tracking

In the following sections, we will explore each of these areas in

Business understanding: Business problem understanding

Business understanding and ML transformation

Identification and verification of ML techniques

System architecture design and implementation

Data explorations and experimentation: Data scientists

Pipeline design and management: The ability to create

Security and compliance

Authentication and authorization: The ML platform needs

Testing your knowledge

1. There is a list of online feedback on products. Each comment

Take a look at the following questions on the ML life cycle and ML

1. There is a business workflow that processes a request with a set

As a machine learning (ML) practitioner, It is essential for me to

ML use cases in financial services

ML use cases in financial services

Capital markets front office

Sales trading and research

In sales trading, a firm's sales staff monitors investment news such

According to Bohr, what happens when a hydrogen atom gives

You might also like