Scientists may have solved

mystery behind Egypt's

pyramids
4 days ago
Malu Cursino,BBC News
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Scientists believe they may have solved the mystery of how 31

pyramids, including the world-famous Giza complex, were built in
Egypt more than 4,000 years ago.
A research team from the University of North Carolina
Wilmington has discovered that the pyramids are likely to have
been built along a long-lost, ancient branch of the River Nile -
which is now hidden under desert and farmland.
For many years, archaeologists have thought that ancient
Egyptians must have used a nearby waterway to transport
materials such as the stone blocks needed to build the pyramids
on the river.
But up until now, "nobody was certain of the location, the shape,
the size or proximity of this mega waterway to the actual
pyramids site", according to one of the study's authors, Prof
Eman Ghoneim.

Eman Ghoneim/UNCW
Prof Ghoneim led the research team who made the discovery

In a cross-continental effort, the group of researchers used radar

satellite imagery, historical maps, geophysical surveys, and
sediment coring (a technique used by archaeologists to recover
evidence from samples) to map the river branch - which they
believe was buried by a major drought and sandstorms
thousands of years ago.
The team were able to "penetrate the sand surface and produce
images of hidden features" by using the radar technology, the
study, published in the journal Communications Earth and
Environment, said.
Among those features were "buried rivers and ancient
structures" running at the foothills of where the "vast majority of
the Ancient Egyptian pyramids lie," Prof Ghoneim said.

Suzanne Onstine
Researches from the US, Egypt and Australia were all involved in mapping the Ahramat branch
of the River Nile

Speaking to the BBC, one of the study's co-authors, Dr Suzanne

Onstine, said "locating the actual [river] branch and having the
data that shows there was a waterway that could be used for the
transportation of heavier blocks, equipment, people, everything,
really helps us explain pyramid construction".
The team found that the river branch - named the Ahramat
branch, with "ahramat" meaning pyramids in Arabic - was
roughly 64km (39 miles) long and between 200-700m (656-2,296
ft) wide.
And it bordered 31 pyramids, which were built between 4,700
and 3,700 years ago.
The discovery of this extinct river branch helps explain the high
pyramid density between Giza and Lisht (the site of Middle
Kingdom burials), in what is now an inhospitable area of the
Saharan desert.
The river branch's proximity to the pyramid complexes suggests
that it was "active and operational during the construction phase
of these pyramids", the paper said.
Dr Onstine explained that ancient Egyptians could "use the
river's energy to carry these heavy blocks, rather than human
labour," adding, "it's just a lot less effort".
The River Nile was the lifeline of Ancient Egypt - and remains so
to this day.

Understanding Plate Tectonic Theory

INTRODUCTION TO PLATE TECTONICS
Tectonic plates, large slabs of rock that divide Earth’s crust, move constantly to reshape
the Earth’s landscape. The system of ideas behind plate tectonics theory suggests that
Earth's outer shell (lithosphere) is divided into several plates that glide over the Earth’s
rocky inner layer above the soft core (mantle). The plates act like a hard and rigid shell
compared to Earth's mantle. The mantle sits between Earth's dense, very hot core and its
thin outer layer, the crust.

Plate tectonics has become the unifying theory of geology. It explains the earth’s surface
movement, current and past, which has created the tallest mountain ranges and the
deepest oceans.

Some scientists think that the shifting plates, which have the ability to help adjust our
planet’s temperature over billions of years, are a vital element for life.

Watch this video animation for more information.

WHAT ARE TECTONIC PLATES?

Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle. They are
made up of oceanic crust and continental crust. Earthquakes occur around mid-ocean
ridges and the large faults which mark the edges of the plates.

The World Atlas names seven major plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian,
North American, Pacific and South American.

California is located at the seam of the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s largest plate at
39,768,522 square miles, and the Northern American plate.
TECTONIC PLATES MAP SHOWING THE RING OF FIRE
The Earth is always on the move due to the motion of the tectonic plates. Seven of the
major plates make up most of the seven continents and the Pacific Ocean. They are
named after nearby landmasses, oceans, or regions.

Source: National Parks Service (Public Domain)

What is the Ring of Fire?

The Ring of Fire is in the Pacific Ocean. It is made up of a string of volcanoes, deep
ocean trenches, and high mountain ranges. It is the site of earthquakes around the
edges of the Pacific Ocean.

The tectonic plates map of the Earth shows where mountain building, volcanoes, and
earthquakes have occurred.

HOW MANY TECTONIC PLATES ARE THERE?

There are major, minor and micro tectonic plates. There are seven major plates: African,
Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific and South American.

The Hawaiian Islands were created by the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s largest
plate at 39,768,522 square miles.
WHAT IS A TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY?
A tectonic plate boundary is the border between two plates. The tectonic plates slowly
and constantly move but in many different directions. Some are moving toward each
other, some are moving apart, and some are grinding past each other. Tectonic plate
boundaries are grouped into three main types based on the different movements.

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

The study of plate boundaries and their motion is like figuring out a constantly
moving jigsaw puzzle. Understanding the types of plate boundaries is vital to
understanding the Earth’s history. Subduction zones, or convergent margins, are one of
the three types of plate boundaries.

The others are divergent and transform margins.

Subduction Zone
At subduction zones, a convergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates push
together. When an ocean plate and a continental plate collide, the ocean plate slides
under the continental plate, and bends downward.

Divergent Margin

A divergent margin occurs when two plates are spreading apart, as at seafloor ridges or
continental rift zones such as the East Africa Rift. Molten rock rises from the Earth’s
center to fill the gap.

Transform Margin
Transform margins mark slip-sliding plates, such as California's San Andreas fault.
The San Andreas fault marks the location where the North America and Pacific plates
grind past each other in a horizontal motion.

The plates do not slide smoothly, but build tension and release it in the form of an
earthquake.

HOW DO TECTONIC PLATES CREATE EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES &

MOUNTAINS?
The Earth’s surface is active according to tectonic theory, moving as much as 1-2 inches
a year. The many tectonic plates shift and interact all the time. This motion reshapes the
Earth’s outer layer. Earthquakes, volcanoes and mountains are the result of this process.

Also at work are the roles of convection and gravity:

 Scientists have discovered that the continents have come together and spread apart at
least three times in the Earth’s history. Geologists believe this motion is driven by
convection in Earth’s mantle which causes hot rock to rise and cooler rock to sink.
  When the denser tectonic plate dives beneath another plate it is due to the high energy
by the Earth’s gravity that pushes into the mantle. Earth’s tides, which are caused by a
gravitational tug of the Moon and the Sun, also put extra strain on geological faults.

HOW TO PREPARE FOR AN EARTHQUAKE

Nothing can prevent the next major California earthquake from happening. The key to
being safe during an earthquake is preparation. While an earthquake safety kit will be
of help after an earthquake, the planning conversations you have with your family
members before an earthquake are most important.

Create an earthquake safety plan for you and your loved ones.

 Identify safe places in each room of your home.

 Practice Drop, Cover and Hold On with each member of your household.
 Make or purchase an earthquake safety kit.

Consider a seismic retrofit which involves strengthening your home’s foundation to

make it more resistant to shaking. CEA offers premium discounts for houses and
mobilehomes that have been retrofitted. Find out about grants to help for
retrofits under the Earthquake Brace + Bolt program, and the CEA Brace + Bolt
program.

Understanding Geologic & Structural Risks

Find about the potential geologic threats to your home in case of a major earthquake.
The violent shaking from earthquakes can:

 Rupture the earth.

 Trigger landslides.
 Turn the surface of the earth into liquid.

If your home was built before 1980, you may have structural risks that could affect your
safety.

Personal Preparedness Guidelines

Follow the Seven Steps to Earthquake Safety. Decrease your risk of damage and injury
from a major earthquake by identifying possible home hazards:

 Tall, heavy furniture that could topple, such as bookcases, china cabinets, or modular
wall units.
 Water heaters that are not up to code by being strapped could rupture.
 Stoves and appliances that could move enough to rupture gas or electrical lines.
 Hanging plants in heavy pots that could swing free of hooks.
 Heavy picture frames or mirrors over a bed that could fall while you are sleeping.
  Latches on kitchen cabinets or other cabinets that will not hold the door closed during
shaking.
 Breakables or heavy objects that are kept on high or open shelves could fall and break
causing additional damage and safety hazards.
 A masonry chimney could crumble and fall through an unsupported roof.
 Flammable liquids, such as painting or cleaning products, would be safer in a garage or
an outside shed.

IS YOUR HOUSE AT RISK FOR EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE?

Do you know about the primary geologic hazards where you live? This information
could affect your family’s and home’s safety during an earthquake. Visit CEA’s
county risk map to find out if you live near an active fault.

Your earthquake hazard and risk depends on the location of your home, your home’s
construction, and your home’s location near an active fault zone. Other factors include:

1. The population density in your community.

2. Building codes.
3. Your family’s emergency preparedness.

If your home was built before 1980, it may also be vulnerable to serious
structural damage. With safety planning, reinforcing the structure of your home,
securing your personal property, and buying earthquake insurance, you stand a better
chance of riding out the next California earthquake.