Q1. Define electronics. Discuss some of its applications.

The term electronics is derived from the word “electrons”.Electronics is a branch of physics and
electrical engineering that deals with the behavior, manipulation, and control of electrons to generate
various electrical and electronic systems and devices. It involves the study of electronic
components(such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors, understanding their characteristics and
behaviors), circuits, systems, and the application of these elements in various technologies.
Electronics has a broad range of applications in modern life, and some of its key applications include:
Consumer electronics: Consumer electronics are electronic devices that are used for entertainment,
communication, and computing. Examples include televisions, radios, computers, smartphones, and
tablets.
Industrial and Manufacturing: Electronics is used extensively in industrial automation, control
systems, robotics, and quality control processes in manufacturing plants.
Medical electronics: Medical electronics are electronic devices that are used in the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases. Examples include pacemakers, MRI machines, and ultrasound machines.
Home Automation: Electronics is a key component of smart homes, enabling automation and control
of various systems such as lighting, security, heating, and cooling.
Military electronics: Military electronics are electronic devices that are used in military operations.
Examples include radar systems, missile guidance systems, and night vision goggles.
Security Systems: Electronics underpins security systems, including surveillance cameras, alarm
systems, and access control.
Renewable Energy: Solar panels and wind turbines use electronics to convert and manage energy
from renewable sources.
Transportation electronics: Transportation electronics are electronic devices that are used in vehicles
and transportation systems. Examples include anti-lock braking systems (ABS), airbag systems, and
engine control units (ECUs).
Q2. Define the following
A. Electromotive force B. Attenuation C. Modulation D. Amplification

B. Attenuation: Attenuation is the gradual decrease in the intensity or amplitude of a signal voltage as
it travels through a medium or a transmission system and corresponds to a gain of less than 1. For
example, if the signal amplitude is reduced by half, the attenuation is 2, which can be expressed as a
gain of 0.5 because gain is the reciprocal of attenuation. It is commonly used in the context of signal
processing and telecommunications. Attenuation occurs due to factors such as distance, absorption,
scattering, or other forms of signal loss. It results in a weaker or diminished signal at the receiver end
compared to the original signal generated. Attenuation is often measured in decibels (dB) and is a
critical consideration in designing effective communication and transmission systems.

C. Modulation: Modulation is a process in which a carrier signal's fundamental characteristics, such as

amplitude, frequency, or phase, are modified to transmit information. It is commonly used in various
forms of communication, including radio, television, and wireless data transmission. Modulation
allows the encoding of information onto a carrier signal, making it suitable for long-distance
transmission and efficient use of the available bandwidth. Common modulation techniques include
amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
D. Amplification: Amplification refers to the process of increasing the magnitude or strength of an
electrical signal. It is typically achieved using an amplifier, which is an electronic device designed to
take an input signal and produce an output signal with a higher amplitude, allowing it to be more
easily detected, transmitted, or used in subsequent stages of a circuit.Amplifiers are essential
components in electronics and are used in various applications, including audio systems, radio
communication, and signal processing. Amplification is usually measured in decibels (dB), which
quantifies the extent of signal gain or boost achieved by the amplifier.

A. Electromotive Force (EMF): Electromotive Force, often abbreviated as EMF, is a concept in

electromagnetism and electrical engineering. It represents the electric potential difference or voltage
generated by a source, such as a battery or a generator. EMF is responsible for driving an electric
current through a closed circuit. It is typically measured in volts (V) and represents the energy per unit
charge supplied by the source to move electrons through the circuit. EMF is not a "force" in the
traditional sense but is a voltage or potential difference.
Q3. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):
“"The algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a junction (node) in an electrical circuit is always
zero. "
Explanation: This law is based on the principle of conservation of electric charge. It ensures that the
flow of electric charge is conserved at any node or junction in an electrical circuit. Mathematically, it
can be represented as ΣI_in = ΣI_out, where ΣI_in is the sum of currents entering the node, and ΣI_out
is the sum of currents leaving the node.
In the above figure, the currents I1, I2 and I3 entering the node is considered positive, likewise, the
currents I4 and I5 exiting the nodes is considered negative in values. This can be expressed in the form
of an equation:
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):

“"In a closed mesh or loop of an electrical circuit the algebraic sum of charges of potential is zero."”
Explanation: KVL is based on the conservation of energy in an electrical circuit. It ensures that the sum
of the electromotive forces (emf) and voltage drops in a closed loop is always zero. Mathematically, it
can be represented as ΣV_loop = 0, where ΣV_loop is the sum of voltages around a closed loop.

Q4. State and explain Thevenin’s Theorem.

Thevenin's theorem is a network theorem that states that any linear circuit, no matter how complex,
can be simplified to an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a single
resistance connected to a load. The equivalent voltage source is called the Thevenin voltage, and the
equivalent resistance is called the Thevenin resistance.

Q5. What are power amplifiers? Describe its classes.

Power amplifiers are electronic devices designed to increase the power of a given electrical input
signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a level high enough to drive loads of output
devices like speakers, headphones,and radio frequency transmitters. They are used in a wide variety
of applications, such as audio systems, radio transmitters, and optical fiber communication systems.
Power amplifiers are classified into four main types: Class A, Class B, Class AB, and Class C. The
classification is based on the conduction angle of the amplifier transistor.
Class A Amplifiers use a single output transistor biased around the Q-point within the middle of its
load line, conducting over the full 360 degrees of the input cycle. This design ensures excellent
linearity, high gain, and low distortion. However, their constant "ON" state leads to continuous power
loss, resulting in high heat generation and low efficiency (around 25%). Class A amplifiers are known
for superior sound quality but are impractical for high-power applications due to overheating and low
efficiency.

Class B amplifiers were developed to address efficiency and heating issues in Class A amplifiers.It
conducts through one half or 180 degrees. They use two complimentary transistors in a push-pull
arrangement, each amplifying only half of the output waveform. The absence of DC base bias current
in Class B amplifiers leads to higher efficiency (around 79%) (ab has slightly less) but sacrifices
linearity. Transistors switch on/off alternately, conducting only during positive or negative half-cycles.
However, this design introduces distortion at the zero-crossing point due to a 0.7V dead band, making
Class B unsuitable for precision audio applications.

.Class AB amplifiers combine characteristics of Class A and Class B amplifiers. In Class AB, both
transistors can conduct simultaneously around the crossover point, addressing crossover distortion
seen in Class B amplifiers. The conduction angle of Class AB is somewhere between 180 degrees and
360 degrees. In a class AB design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more than
the half cycle of class B but much less than the full cycle of conduction of Class A. Class AB amplifiers
offer a compromise between efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiencies slightly less than
that of class B.
Class C amplifiers are highly efficient but have poor linearity compared to other classes. They are
highly biased, causing the output current to be zero for more than half of an input sinusoidal signal
cycle, resulting in a conduction angle less than 180 degrees, typically around 90 degrees. This biasing
significantly improves efficiency (around 90%) but introduces heavy distortion to the output signal.
Class C amplifiers are unsuitable for audio applications due to this distortion. They are commonly
used in high-frequency sine wave oscillators and specific radio frequency amplifiers

Q6. Describe Op-Amps.

operational amplifiers (op-amps) are a high gain voltage amplifiers and are used primarily to perform
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation—thus the
term operational
The standard operational amplifier (op-amp) symbol is shown in Figure below. It has two input
terminals, the inverting (-) input and the non-inverting (+) input, and one output terminal. Most op-
amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other negative, as shown in Figure
below, although some have a single dc supply.
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) can operate in different modes based on the configuration of the
input signals. The main input signal modes of op-amps are:
Differential Mode
In the differential mode of an op-amp, a single signal is applied to one input with the other grounded,
resulting in an inverted or non-inverted amplified signal at the output(single-ended differential
mode). Alternatively, in the double-ended differential mode, two opposite-polarity signals are
applied, and the amplified difference between them appears on the output. The double-ended
differential mode can be represented by a single source connected between the two inputs.

Common Mode In the common mode, two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and
amplitude are applied to the two inputs, as shown in Figure 12–6. When equal input signals are
applied to both inputs, they tend to cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage

This action is called common-mode rejection

Q7. Write construction, working and application of an optical fiber
(REMAINING FROM PDF)
Optical fiber is a thin, transparent filament made of glass or plastic used for transmitting data typically
in the form of light signals.The key principle behind the fiber optics is the transmission of data through
the internal reflection of light within the fiber allowing for fast and efficient data transfer over long
distances.
Working of an optical fiber
Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection. Total internal reflection is a
phenomenon that occurs when light strikes a boundary between two materials with different
refractive indices at an angle greater than the critical angle. The light is then reflected back into the
material with a higher refractive index.
In an optical fiber, the core has a higher refractive index than the cladding. This means that when light
enters the core from the air, it will undergo total internal reflection and be trapped inside the core.
The light will then travel down the fiber, bouncing off the walls of the core until it reaches the other
end.
Q8. Define and describe types of an oscillator. What are the conditions to obtain a
sustained state for an oscillation?

An oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodically oscillating waveform on its output with dc input.
The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or non sinusoidal, depending on the type of oscillator.
DIAGRAM FROM COPY
Types of oscillators

There are two main types of oscillators:

Feedback oscillators: Feedback oscillators are based on the principle of positive feedback. A fraction
of the output signal is returned to the input with no net phase shift , resulting in a reinforcement of
the output signal. After oscillations are started, the loop gain is maintained at 1.0 to maintain
oscillations. A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier for gain (either a discrete transistor or an
op-amp) and a positive feedback circuit that produces phase shift and provides attenuation, as shown
in Figure Feedback oscillators are the most common type of oscillator and are used in a wide variety
of applications.

Relaxation oscillators:
A second type of oscillator is the relaxation oscillator. Instead of feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses
an RC timing circuit to generate a waveform that is generally a square wave or other non-sinusoidal
waveform. Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or other device that changes states
to alternately charge and discharge a capacitor through a resistor.
OR
Relaxation oscillators are based on the principle of energy storage and release. The oscillator stores
energy until it reaches a threshold, and then releases the energy in a sudden pulse. The pulse triggers
the oscillator to start storing energy again, and the cycle repeats. Relaxation oscillators are often used
in applications where precise frequency control is not required.
Conditions for sustained oscillation

Two conditions are required to obtain a sustained state for an oscillation:

The voltage gain,A around the closed feedback loop (loop gain) must equal 1 (unity).. This means that
the amplifier in the oscillator must amplify the signal enough to compensate for any losses in the
circuit.
The phase shift around the feedback loop must be effectively 0 degree. This means that the signal
must be fed back to the input in phase with the original signal.
If either of these conditions is not met, the oscillation will die out.