2nd Quarter Reviewer: Earth Science
Volcano
- opening in the Earth’s crust
where lava, pyroclasts & gases
are ejected onto the surface
during eruptions
● Magma
- molten mixture of rock
forming substances,
gases & water from the
Earth’s mantle
- rises to the surface &
breaks through the
ocean floor creating
volcanoes
String of islands formed: Island Arc
● Lava
- when magma reaches the
Earth’s surface
● Lahar
- indonesian term that
describes the hot/cold
mixture of water & rock
fragments flowing down
the slopes of a volcano
and/or river valleys
● Ring of Fire
- major volcanic belt
formed by the many
volcanoes that rim the
Pacific Ocean
● Viscosity
- resistance of liquid to
flow
● Silica
- major ingredient in
magma made of silicon &
oxygen
Inside a Volcano
● Magma collects below the
volcano in the magma chamber
● Magma flows upward toward a
tube (pipe) that connects the
magma chamber to the surface
● Gas & magma leave through
vents
- Central vent is the
opening at the top
- Side vent anywhere along
the side of the volcano
● Lava pours out of the vents &
creates a lava flow
● A bowl shaped
area called a
crater may form
around the
central vent
Where do Volcanoes occur?
● Most form along plate
boundaries…
1. In subduction zones (one
plate sinks under
another)
2. Over hot spots
3. Where plates are pulling
apart
Kinds of Volcanoes
A. According to Shape &
Composition of the Cone
1. Shield Volcano
● Wide base, largest w/
gentle sloping slides
● Cone is made up purely
of lava that has poured
out & solidified during a
mild/quiet eruption
Examples:
● Mauna Kea-Hawaiian Islands
 ● Mt. Kilauea
- One of the world’s most
active volcanoes
- The eruption of Kilauea
that began in 1983
continues at the cinder-
and-spatter cone of Pu'u
O'o
2. Cinder Cone Volcano
● Built almost entirely of
loose fragments called
cinders (pyroclasts &
tephra)
● Caused by explosive
eruptions
● Narrow base & very steep
slope
● Lava cools into different
sizes of volcanic material
called tephra
● Bowl-shaped crater at
their summit
Example:
● Paracútin
- On February 20, 1943, a
mexican farmer noticed
that a hole in his
cornfield that had been
there for as long as he
could remember was
giving off smoke
- Throughout the night, hot
glowing cinders were
thrown high into the air
- In just a few days, a
cinder cone several
hundred meters high
covered his cornfield
3. Composite Volcano
● A mix of the other 2 types
● Quiet/Violent
● During explosive
eruptions, a huge volume
of gases, ashes &
pyroclasts are ejected
● When the eruption
switches to a quieter
period, a huge volume of
lava is extruded over the
top of the pyroclastic
layer
Examples:
● Mt. St. Helen’s
- Erupted in 1980
- 57 fatalities
- 7000+ big game animals
perished
- 4 billion board feet of
timber destroyed (enough
to build about 300,000 2-
bedroom homes)
- Destroyed 27 bridges,
nearly 200 homes. Blast &
lahars destroyed more
than 185 miles of
highways & roads & 15
miles of railways
● Mt. Pinatubo
- Erupted in 1991
- Killed 847 people
- 184 people injured
- 10,000 homes destroyed &
5,000 were damaged
- The ash cloud took 1 year
to spread around the
globe, reducing global
temperatures. This
resulted in
➢ Floods in 1993
along the
Mississippi River
➢ Drought in Africa
in 1993
➢ The US had its 3rd
wettest & coldest
winter on record
Scientists monitor volcanoes
● To look for warning signs that
an eruption may be coming.
Warning signs include:
- Earthquakes
- Changes in the tilt of the
ground
 - Rising temperatures of
openings
- Changes in volcanic
gases being tested
● Both shield & composite
volcanoes can form features
called calderas, a huge crater
formed by the collapse of the
volcano when magma rapidly
erupts from underneath it
B. According to Activity
1. Active - one that is
erupting/has shown signs
that it may erupt in the
near future
2. Dormant - volcano to
awaken in the future &
become active
3. Extinct - dead volcano;
not likely to erupt again
Volcanic Eruptions
● Begins when pressure on the
magma chamber forces magma
up through the conduit & out
the volcano’s vents
● May be violent, mild, or quiet
● The amount of gases dissolved
in the magma, & its composition
& viscosity are the factors that
determine whether eruption is
violent/quiet
Types of Volcanic Eruptions:
1. Explosive Eruption
● Magma has high silica
content = high viscosity
● Magma doesn’t always
flow out of vent & so it
builds up (like a cork in a
bottle)
● Trapped gases build up
pressure until they
explode
● Magma is pushed out of
the vent with incredible
force
● Very violent explosive
eruptions are called
Plinian eruptions
● 3 products from an
Explosive eruption
- Ash fall: the fallout
of rock, debris &
ash
- Pyroclastic flow:
hot, turbulent,
fast-moving, high
particle
concentration
clouds of rock, ash
& gas
- Pyroclastic surge:
doesn’t have a
high
concentration of
particles &
contains a lot of
gas
2. Quiet Non-explosive eruption
● Magma has low silica =
low viscosity
● Magma flows easier so
gases bubble out gently
● Lava can flow many km
from the vent
● Ex. Hawaiian Islands. Mt.
Kilauea
How & why do volcanoes erupt?
● Hot molten rock (magma) is
buoyant (has lower density than
the surrounding rocks) & will rise
up through the crust to erupt on
the surface
- Same principle as hot air
rising, e.g. how a hot air
balloon works
● When magma reaches the
surface, it depends on how
easily it flows (viscosity) & the
 amount of gas (H2O, CO2, S) it
has in it as to how it erupts.
Why do volcanoes stop erupting?
● All the trapped volatile gases
have degassed & there is no
longer sufficient pressure to
drive the magma out of the
earth
OR
● Enough heat is lost so that the
magma cools & is no longer
buoyant
Volcanic Eruptions & Weather/Climate
How can scientists tell if there is going
to be an eruption?
● “Signs may include very small
earthquakes beneath the
volcano, slight inflation, or
swelling, of the volcano &
increased emission of heat &
gas from vents on the volcano”
- Said U.S Geological
Survey (USGS) Volcano
Hazards Program
coordinator John
Eichelberger.
slopes of the volcanic
cone, etc
● Effects of Pyroclastic flows
- Lahar moves at a great
high speed & can travel
through valleys & flat
areas, destroying &
burying everything in its
path
● Effects of volcanic activities in
the global climate
● Volcanic eruptions can release
ash, gases, & aerosols into the
atmosphere
● Theses particles can block the
sunlight, causing cooler
temperatures & changes in
weather patterns
● Major eruptions can have a
global impact on climate for
several years

Benefits of Volcanic Eruptions:

● Agriculture
● Energy
● Industrial
● Economic & Recreational

Dangers of Volcanic Eruptions:

● Effects of volcanic gases
- Ash like sulfur dioxide,
nitrous oxide &
hydrochloric fumes can
lead to acid precipitation
- Tremendous volume of
sulfur aerosols in the
stratosphere can lead to
lower surface
temperature & promote
depletion of Earth’s
ozone layer

● Effects of Lava Flow

- Destroys everything in its
path - vegetation, field,
ranches, forests in the
Factors affecting Climate
1. Latitude
● The equator serves as a
reference point & is set at
0° latitude
● Latitudinal sections in
the Northern
Hemisphere: Tropic of
Cancer (23.5° N) & the
Arctic Circle (66.5° N)
● Capping the Northern
Hemisphere: North Pole
(90° N)
● Latitudinal Sections in
the Southern
Hemisphere: Tropic of
Capricorn (23.5° S) & the
Antarctic Circle (66.5° S)
● The South Pole (90° N) is
at the base of the
Southern Hemisphere
- As the latitude
increases
north/south, the
temperature
decreases
2. Altitude
● The air temperature
decreases as the altitude
increases
● Higher elevations: air
molecules are farther
apart, making the air less
dense. Lighter air can’t
absorb much heat,
making air temperature
lower. Ultimately, the
decrease in air
temperature is due to the
decrease in air pressure
3. Topography
● Windward side: area in
which the wind blows.
Here, the wind is blocked
by the mountain, forcing
it to move upward. This
will result in precipitation
on the windward side
● Leeward side: air moves
down towards the
opposite region. The cold
air mass starts to absorb
heat & becomes warm &
dry. As a result, the area
near the leeward side
becomes dry & has less
precipitation
4. Distance from Bodies of Water
● Soil absorbs heat faster
than water
● Places near the oceans
havhe moderate climate
as the body of water
regulates the
temperature
● Places without a body of
water nearby tend to
have higher air
temperature during day
time
5. Ocean Currents
● Ocean currents that flow
away from the equator
carry warm water. The air
above the warm water
has higher temperature
● 3 main processes that
make the ocean circulate:
Tidal forces, wind stress,
& density differences
● 2 Circulation types of
ocean currents
- Wind-driven: force
by wind stress
 - Thermohaline: Ways to Mitigate the effects of Climate
overturning Change
circulation 1. Increase carbon sequestration &
conservation
Climate change 2. Use of bioenergy
3. Reduced fertilizer use
Difference between Climate change & 4. Anaerobic digestion of waste
Global warming 5. Improved energy efficiency
● CC refers to any significant
change in the measures of
climate lasting for an extended
period of time
● GW refers to the recent &
ongoing rise in global average
temperature near the earth’s
surface. It’s caused mostly by
increasing concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere

Main Indicators of Climate Change

● 7 indicators: air temperature
over land, sea-surface
temperature, air temperature
over oceans, sea level, ocean
heat, humidity, & tropospheric
temperature in the active-
weather layer of the atmosphere
closets

Causes of Climate Change

● Certain gases in the atmosphere
block heat from escaping. There
are 5 gases responsible for
99.5% of the greenhouse gases.
1. Water vapor
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Methane
4. Nitrous oxide
5. Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)

Climate Change in Focus: Impacts &

Threats
1. Rising temperature
2. Shrinking Ice sheets
3. Sea level rise
4. Biodiversity depletion
5. Ocean acidification
6. Extreme weather
Stars & Constellations - Yellow = intermediate
- Blue = hottest
Stars ● A star can appear bright just
● Ball of plasma undergoing because it’s really
nuclear fusion bright/because of its closeness
● Gives off large amounts of to the Earth
energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation

2 Characteristics of a Star
● Has to be self-bound by gravity
● Has to radiate energy

How are stars formed

● They are formed in space in
large clouds of gas & dust called
nebulae

● Atoms inside the nebula

accelerate inward due to the
Nebula - Birth of Star
force of gravity & they collide
● Where stars are formed
rapidly with each other, causing
● Large cloud of gas & dust in
the center of the nebula to
space
become very dense & hot,
causing the temperature of the Protostars
protostar to rise ● Gravity makes dense region of
gas more compact
● The object switches to become a
● Soon take on a definite shape &
“true star” and it is then able to
are called protostars
make its own heat and light.
● Once the core of a protostar
reaches 10,000,000o C, nuclear
● The life of a star depends on its
fusion begins & the protostar
mass
ignites
Why do stars shine ● The protostar now becomes a
● Because nuclear fusion occurs star
in their core. It changes lighter
● The bright spot is a new star
elements into heavier ones &
igniting
can release tremendous
amounts of energy in the
process

Absolute Magnitude
● True brightness of a star if all
stars were at uniform distance
from earth
Apparent Magnitude
● Brightness of a star as it
appears from Earth with the Nuclear Fusion
naked eye ● The process by which 2 nuclei
combine to form a heavier
Colors of Stars element
● The color of a star measures its ● New stars initially will fuse
temperature hydrogen nuclei together to
- Red = coolest form helium

Main Sequence Stars
● Once the star has ignited, it
becomes a main sequence star.
● They fuse hydrogen to form
helium, releasing enormous
amounts of energy.
● Takes about 10 billion years to
consume all the hydrogen in a
MSS
Balancing Act
● The core of a star is where the
heat is generated. The radiative
& conductive zones move energy
out from the center of the star
● The incredible weight of all the
gas & gravity try to collapse the
star on its core
Unbalanced Forces
● As long as there is a nuclear
reaction taking place, the
internal forces will balance the
external forces.
● When the hydrogen in a main
sequence star is consumed,
fusion stops and the forces
suddenly become unbalanced.
Mass and gravity cause the
remaining gas to collapse on the
core.
Red Giant
● Collapsing outer layers cause
the core to heat up
● Fusion of helium into carbon
begins
● Forces regain balance
● Outer shell expands from 1 to at
least 40 million miles across (10-
100 times larger than the Sun)
● Red Giants last for about 100
million years
● When the Red Giant has fused all
of the helium into carbon, the
forces acting on the star are
again unbalanced.
● The massive outer layers of the
star again rush into the core
and rebound, generating
staggering amounts of energy.
Planetary Nebulas - Final Stages
● Cloud of gas that forms around
a sun-like star that is dying
White Dwarfs
● The pressure exerted on the
core by the outer layers doesn’t
produce enough energy to start
carbon fusion
● The core’s now very dense and
very hot (A tbsp full would weigh
5 tons)
● A white dwarf’s about 8,000 mi in
diameter
● After 35,000 years, the core
begins to cool
Black Dwarfs
● As the white dwarf cools, the
light it gives off will fade through
the visible light spectrum, blue
to red to back (no light).
● A black dwarf will continue to
generate gravity & low energy
transmissions (radio waves).
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
● Plots stars according to their
luminosity & temperature (or
spectral class)
Red Supergiants
● If the mass of a star is 3x that of
our sun/greater, then the Red
Giant will become a Red
Supergiant
● When a massive Red Giant fuses
all of the helium into carbon,
fusion stops & the outer layers
collapse on the core
● This time, there’s enough mass
to get the core hot enough to
start the fusion of carbon into
iron
● Once fusion begins, the star will
expand to be between 10 & 1000x
 larger than our sun (Out to the
orbit of Uranus )
Supernova
● When a Supergiant fuses all of
the Carbon into Iron, there’s no
more fuel left to consume
● The core of the supergiant will
then collapse in less than a
second, causing a massive
explosion called a supernova.
● In a supernova, a massive
shockwave’s produced that
blows away the outer layers of
the star
● Supernova shine brighter than
whole galaxies for a few years
Neutron Star
● Sometimes the core will survive
the supernova
● If the surviving core has a mass
of less than 3 solar masses, then
the core becomes a neutron star
Astronomical significance of
constellations
● Scientifically, constellations
don’t have any significance.
Stars, nebulae/galaxies in the
same constellation may/may not
have anything in common, aside
from the fact that they are
nearby in the sky as viewed from
Earth. They may even be
separated by a greater distance
than objects in 2 different
constellations.
● Many of the constellations
originally had Greek names;
these names were later replaced
by their Latin equivalents by
which they are still known today.
Examples of Constellations
● Cassiopeia: The Queen

Black Holes
● If the mass of the surviving
core’s greater than 3 solar
masses, then a black hole forms
● A black hole’s a core so dense &
massive that it’ll generate so
● Orion: The Hunter
much gravity that not even light
can escape it

Asterism
● Group of stars in the sky that,
when viewed from Earth, create
an outline of some recognizable
shape/pattern
● 2 well-known asterisms: The Big
Dipper & The Summer Triangle
● Ursa Major: The Great Bear
Constellations
● Groups of stars that appear to
form shapes in the sky
● Designed to help us remember
which stars are which.
● The International Astronomical
Union officially recognizes 88
constellations. 42 animals, 29
inanimate objects, & 17
humans/mythological
● Ursa Minor: The Little Bear
characters.

● Gemini: The Twins
● Andromeda: The Chained
Princess
The Changing Constellations
● Some constellations can be seen
only during certain seasons
● In any one evening the
observers at different latitudes
see different constellations
Astronomers divided the constellations
into 3 regions:
1. North circumpolar - seen at
northern mid-latitudes
2. South circumpolar - seen at
southern mid-latitudes
3. Equatorial - lie on either side of
the celestial equator which is
the projection of the Earth’s
equator to the sky
Zodiac Constellations
● Every 3 months, the earth travels
about ¼ of its orbit
● Zodiac means “circle of animals”
in Greek
● There are 13 equatorial patterns
in astronomy
● Used as astrological signs
which have 12 signs that actually
match the celestial
constellations
● The difference in the 2 solar
calendars’ caused by an
astronomical phenomenon
called precession
● Dates when the sun passes
through various constellations
● Most of the faint stars may be
regarded as truly fixed when
viewed from the earth; hence,
they’re used as a reference
frame for the minute motions of
nearby stars known as proper
motion.
● During the summer in the South
Hemisphere, when the South
Pole of the Earth’s pointed
toward the sun, our planet’s
positioned between the
constellation of Orion & the Sun
● Meanwhile, Scorpius, which is
located at the southern part of
the sky, is visibly low in the
eastern sky from May, appears
overhead during August, & is
sinking low in the western sky
during November
● The constellations also appear
to move from east to west across
the sky every night. This
apparent motion occurs due to
the rotation of the earth in its
axis, an imaginary line that
passes through the earth from
its North Pole to its South Pole.