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CE 301
Engineering Materials
(4 Credit)
Timber
Abdullah Al Mahin
Lecturer, CE, MEC
Contact: abdullahalmahin.cee@gmail.com

Department of Civil Engineering

TIMBER
Timber- Any wood which is used in engineering construction is
termed as timber.
 It is the Primary materials of engineering construction since
the earliest time.
 The main source of timber supply is the trees in the forest.

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USES OF TIMBER

 Building construction
 Construction of house posts
 Construction of beams
 Construction of rafters
 Construction of bridges
 Construction of piles, poles and railway sleepers

USES OF TIMBER (Continuing...)

 For furniture making
 For light packing cases
 For high packing cases (for machinery and similar stores)
 For manufacturing of agricultural implements
 For making toys
 For manufacturing of veneers and ply woods

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ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

 In terms of specific strength, Structural member made of

timber are light in weight
 It is quite durable, if properly seasoned and preserved
 Timber can be used for both load bearing structures and
non-load bearing instruments
 It can be easily converted to any shape and size
 Can be jointed to the required form easily
 Structural connections can be easily made in timber work
 The wastage in timber construction is less because all
wastes can be put one use or the other
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ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER (Continuing…)

 It has high resale and reclaim value

 Timber has better insulating properties than any other
materials
 Non-conductor of heat and sound
 The house built in timber will be warm in winter and cool
in summer
 Timber constructions are light in weight and can be made
economical
 Excellent in aesthetic and decorative appearance

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WOOD:
The organic matter obtained from trees is called wood.
LUMBER:
The sawed wood meant for construction in the form of boards is
called lumber.
VENEER:
Thin sheet of uniform thickness of wood is called veneer.
PLYWOOD:
Veneers used for making plywood are known as plies and ply
wood is made by gluing together plies in odd numbers. Gluing is
done under pressure.

CLASSIFICATION OF TREES

Trees

Exogenous Endogenous

Conifers Deciduous

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A. Exogenous trees:
 The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal section
of stem are called exogenous trees.
 These trees are only fit for engineering construction.
 Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types.
a. Conifers or Evergreen:
• They give soft wood
• They have pointed leaves
b. Deciduous:
• These have hard wood
• These have broad leaves
B. Endogenous trees:
 The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal fibrous mass
are called endogenous trees.
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STRUCTURE OF TREE

From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be

divided into two categories
1. Macro structure
2. Micro structure
Macro structure:
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small
magnification is called macro structure. The following figure
shows the macro structure of exogenous tree.

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STRUCTURE OF TREE

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a. Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree is

called pith or medulla.
b. Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is
known as heart wood.
c. Sap wood: The outer annual rings between heart wood and
cambium layer is known as sap wood.
d. Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and
inner bark is known as cambium layer.
e. Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium
layer is known as inner bark.
f. Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as
outer bark.
g. Medullary rays: The thin radial fibers extending from pith to
cambium layer are known as medullary rays.
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Micro structure:
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications
is called micro structure.
• Conductive cells
• Mechanical cells
• Storage cells

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CONVERSION OF TIMBER
• Trees are cut down during winter as there is less growth,
therefore less sap.
• After cutting, trees are transported to sawmills to be cut into
boards.
• This process of converting logs to boards is known as
conversion.
• 4 methods of conversion
 Through and through sawing
 Tangential sawing/Radial/ Rift/Slash
 Quarter sawing
 Combination sawing
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Through and Through Sawing

This is one of the most popular methods of sawing. The log is
cut in parallel cuts in the direction of the grain.

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Through and Through Sawing (continuing…)

Advantages:
• Low cost and fast
• Maximum width of planks obtained
from log.
• Little wastage.
• Reveals attractive grain pattern,
especially in softwoods.
Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for structural timber
• With this method cupping caused
by tangential shrinkage is a
problem (cupping is the warping of
the plank away from the heart of
the tree)

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Tangential Sawing
• The cut is made at a tangent to the annual rings of the log
• Log must be turned 90° after each cut

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Tangential Sawing (continuing…)

Advantages:
• Tangential boards are strong
boards, used for beams and
joints
• Heartwood and sapwood are
easily separated
• These boards can take a nail
without splitting because of the
position of their annual rings
Disadvantages:
• Prone to shrinkage (Cupping)
• It is expensive as the log is
turned 90° for each cut

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Quarter Sawing
• This method leaves the annual rings of the converted timber
meeting the face of the board at 45° or more.
• It is important to note that the log must be rotated each time a
cut is taken.
• This method can bring the best features in wood as it produces
silver grain which has clearly defined medullary rays .

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Quarter Sawing (continuing…)

Advantages:
• An attractive grain pattern is
produced
• Boards are more stable and
shrink less
• Boards wear more evenly,
important for flooring
Disadvantage:
• Expensive, as the log has to be
first quartered then turned for
every cut.
• Because the log is quartered then
cut again narrower boards are
produced
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Combination sawing

In this method the central portion is swan at right angles by the

ordinary sawing method to get the best advantages of the
method while the outer quadrants are again swan by radial or
rift sawing method.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

 Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of
resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.
 Tensile Strength: Timber is stronger in tension along the
grain but it’s quite difficult to determine this because of the
difficulties in conducting test.
 Compressive Strength: The strength along the grain is
important for columns, props, and post.
 Shear Strength: Shear strength is important in the case of the
beam and slabs.
 Bending Strength or Flexural Strength: This refers as the
strength of the timber as a beam.
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Mechanical Properties of Timber (continuing…)

 Cleavability: High resistance for cleavage is important for
nailing and screwing while low splitting strength is important
for used as firewood.
 Brittleness: It is used to describe the property of suffering little
deformations before breaking.
 Torsion Strength: It is used to determine the torsion strength
of the timber and the specimen is loaded up to failure.
 Hardness: It is important in case of timber for paving blocks
flooring bearings and other similar purposes.
 Stiffness: This property is important to determine the
deflection of a timber under a load

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SEASONING OF TIMBER
 As fresh timber which is obtained from trees contains about
30 to 40 % sap or moisture.
 This sap is very harmful for the life of a timber. Therefore, it is
necessary to remove that sap by applying some special
methods. All those methods which are used for removing
the sap from timber are collectively termed as seasoning of
timber.

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ADVANTAGES OF SEASONED TIMBER

 To reduce movement of timber, to reduce the tendency to
split.
 To make it immune from attack by insects.
 To increase strength, durability, workability and resilience.
 To make the timber receptive to finish like paints, and
varnish.
 To reduce weight and minimize cost of transportation.
 To increase resistance capacity against decay or rot.
 To make the timber burn readily, if used as a fuel.
 To increase its lifetime.

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TYPES OF TIMBER SEASONING

The main types of timber seasoning are as under.
(1) Natural Seasoning
(2) Artificial Seasoning
 Kiln Seasoning
 Chemical Seasoning
 Electric Seasoning
(3) Water Seasoning

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(1) Natural Seasoning:

 In the air seasoning or natural
seasoning or natural drying, timber is
dried by direct action of air, wind and
sun.
 In this method, the timber logs are
arranged one over the other, keeping
some space or distance between
them for air circulation of fresh air.
 Generally, this type of seasoning
requires few months to over a year,
this is very slow process.

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(2) Artificial seasoning:

(a) Kiln Seasoning

(b) Chemical Seasoning

(c) Electric Seasoning

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(a) Kiln Seasoning:

 In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a
chamber with some special heating
arrangement.
 In this process one thing should be
kept in mind that heating system
should be under control, other wise
timber will be crack or wrap.
 The time required for this seasoning
is 3 to 12 days. This is quick process.

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(b) Chemical Seasoning:

 In chemical seasoning carbon dioxide, ammonium carbonate

or urea are used as agents for seasoning, those are applied in
dry state.
 The inner surface of timber dries first than outer side. This
ensures uniform seasoning.
 The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40 days.

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(c) Electric Seasoning:

 In this method electric current is passed through the timber
logs.
 The time required for this seasoning is 5 to 8 hours.

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(3) Water Seasoning:

 In water seasoning, timber logs are kept immersed whole in
the flowing water.
 The sap present in timber is washed away.
 After that logs are taken out from water and are kept in open
air, so water present in timber would be dried by air.
 The time required for this type of seasoning is 2 to 4 weeks.

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DEFECTS IN TIMBER
 A defect is an irregularity or abnormality occurring in or on
wood which is responsible for its-
1. Strength reduction
2. Lowering of durability
3. Lowering of utility
4. Poor appearance
5. Decay

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CLASSFICATIONS OF DEFECTS

Caused due to:

Natural forces
Conversion
Seasoning
Fungi
Insects

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CHEMICAL STAIN

KNOTS

SHAKES

TWISTED FIBRES

RIND GALLS

UPSETS

BURLS

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CHEMICAL STAIN:
The wood is sometimes discolored by the chemical action
caused with it by some external agency. This is known as
chemical stain.
RIND GALLS:
The rind means bark and galls means abnormal growth. Hence
peculiar curved swelling found on the body of the tree are
know as rind galls.
They develop at points from where branches are improperly cut
off or removed. The timber in this part is very Weak and not
durable.

Figure: Chemical stain Figure: Rind galls 36

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SHAKES:
They are the longitudinal separations in wood between the
annual rings. These are the cracks which partly or completely
separate fibers of wood.
The separation make the wood undesirable when appearance is
important.

TYPES OF SHAKES
1. STAR SHAKES
2. CUP SHAKES
3. HEART SHAKES
4. RING SHAKES

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1. STAR SHAKES: These are the cracks

which extended from bark towards the
sap wood. These are wider at outside
ends and narrower at inside ends. They
are usually formed due to extreme heat
or severe frost during the growth of the
tree.

2. CUP SHAKE: It appears as curved split

which partly or wholly separates annual
rings from one another. It is caused due to
excessive frost action on sap present in
the tree especially when the tree is young.

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3.HEART SHAKES: These cracks occur in

center of cross section of tree. These cracks
appear due to shrinkage of interior part of
tree which is approaching maturity. The
heart shake divide the tree cross section
into two or four parts.

4. RING SHAKE: When cup shakes

cover the entire, they are known as
ring shake.

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UPSETS:
These indicate wood fibers which are injured
by crushing or compression. The upsets are
mainly due to improper feeling of tree and
exposure of tree in its young age to fast
blowing wind.

TWISTED FIBRE:
These are known as wandering Hearts
and caused by twisting of young tress
by fast blowing Wind. The timber with
twisted fibers are unsuitable for sawing.

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KNOTS:
These are the bases of branches or limbs which are broken or
cut off from trees. The portion from which the branch is
removed receives nourishment from the stem for a pretty long
time and it ultimately results in formation of dark hard rings
which are known as knots. As continuity of wood fibers are
broken by knots, they form a source of weakness.

Figure: Knots

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CLASSIFICATION ON SIZE BASIS

• Pin knot – Diameter up to 6.50mm
• Small knot – Diameter up to 6.5 and 20mm
• Medium knot – Diameter between 20 and 40mm
• Large knot – Diameter greater than 40mm

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CLASSIFICATION ON FORM AND QUALITY BASIS

• Dead knot- Knot which is separated from the body of
wood. It is not safe to use wood with such a knot for
engineering purposes.
• Decayed knot – Popularly known as unsound knot and
form by action on fungi on wood.
• Live knot - It is thoroughly fixed in wood and cannot
separated out from body of wood. It is free from cracks
and decay . wood containing this knot can be used for
engineering purposes.
• Loose knot- It is preliminary stage of dead knot.
• Round knot- The cross section of this type of knot is either
round or oval
• Tight knot- It is preliminary stage of live knot. The fibers of
knot are firmly held in surrounding wood.
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BURLS:
They are particularly formed when a tree
receives shock or injury in its young age.
Due to its injury, the growth of tree is
completely upset, and irregular
projections appear on the body of
timber. Figure: Burls

WIND CRACKS:
These are the cracks on the outside of a
log due to the shrinkage of exterior
surface.

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DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION

CHIP MARK
DIAGONAL GRAIN
TORN GRAIN
WANE

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CHIP MARK:
This defect is indicated by mark or signs
placed on finished surface of timber.
They may be formed by planning
machine.

DIAGONAL GRAIN:
This defect is formed due to
improper sawing of timber. It is
indicated by diagonal marks on
straight grained surface of timber.
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TORN GRAIN:
Defect caused when a small
depression is formed on a finished
surface of timber by falling a timber
or so.
WANE:
This defect is denoted by presence
of original rounded surface on
manufactured part of timber.

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TWIST CUP BOW SPRING SPLIT HONEY COMBING

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TWIST: When a piece of timber has spirally

distorted along its length, is known as twist.
CUP: This defect is indicated by curvature
formed in transverse direction of timber.
BOW: This defect is indicated by Curvature
formed in direction of Length of timber.
SPRING: It is the curvature of the piece of
sawn timber in the plane of Its wide face:
known as crook or free side bend.

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CHECK: A crack which separates fibers of wood. It does not

extend from one end to the other.
SPLIT: When check extends from one end to other, it is
known as a split

CHECK SPLIT

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HONEY-COMBING:
Due to stress developed during drying, various radial
and circular cracks develop in the interior portion of
timber, which resembles with honey-comb texture.

HONEY-COMB STRUCTURE
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BLUE STAIN
BROWN ROT HEART ROT WHITE ROT
DRY ROT WET ROT

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BLUE STAIN: The sap of wood is stained

to bluish color by the action of certain
type of fungi.
BROWN ROT: The term rot is used to
indicate decay or disease of timber, the
fungi of certain type removes cellulose
compounds from wood and hence
wood assumes the brown color.
WHITE ROT: It is just opposite of brown
rot. In this certain type of fungi attack
lignin of wood and wood assumes the
appearance of a white mass consisting
of cellulose compounds.

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HEART ROT: This is formed when

branch has come out of the tree. In
such case, the heart wood is exposed to
attack of atmospheric agents.
Ultimately the tree becomes weak and
it gives hollow sound when struck with
hammer.
WET ROT: Some kind of fungi caused
chemical decomposition of wood of
timber and in doing so convert timber
into greyish brown powder. It is known
as wet rot. Some important points to be
remembered about wet rot are.
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DRY ROT: Some types of fungi feed

on woods and during feeding they
attack on wood and convert it into
dry powder form. This is known as
dry rot. The following facts to be
noted.
When a part of tree is seriously
affected by dry rot, the damaged
portion may be completely
removed and remaining unaffected
portion should be painted with a
solution of copper sulphate.

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(CAUSED BY)

BEETLES MARINE BOARERS TERMITES

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Flour like powder

 They form pin holes of size about 2mm dia in wood.

 Tunnel formation is done in sap wood by larvae of beetle.
 Conversion of timber into flour like powder.
 They do not disturb outer shell or cover.

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Boars

 They are found in salty water.

 They form tunnels or bores to take shelters.
 Diameter and length of holes are as high as 25mm and 60 mm
respectively.
 Affected wood loses its color and strength.
 No timber is completely immune from attack of marine boarers.
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 Lives in colony and very fast in eating away the wood from
core of cross-section.
 Makes tunnels in different directions and usually not disturb
the outer shell or cover.
 The timber piece attacked by termites may look sound until it
completely fails.
 Few good timbers like teak, sal, etc. can resist the action of
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DETERIORATION /DECAY OF TIMBER

There are so many agencies which may cause decay of timber.

But there are three main harmful agencies which cause
timber decay.
(1) Decay or Rot:
Decay or rot of timber is the result of the activity of various
bacteria and fungi, which utilize various portions of timber as
food; they require both oxygen and excess moisture. Hence
timber having moisture content below 25 % will not rot easily.

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(2) Insects:
There are so many insects which attack the wood, out of them
termites (white ants) are the main insects which are very
dangerous for timber. Termites of one class live under ground
and eat wood and forms tubes or tunnels inside it.

(3) Fire:
Fire is also the damaging factor for timber.
As timber has tendency to burn, so fire can damage it easily.

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PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

It means protecting from fungi and insects attack so that its life is
increased. The following are the widely used:
1. Tar
2. Paints
3. Chemical salt
4. Creosote
5. ASCU

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1. Tar Treatment:
• Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The coating of
tar protects the timber from the attack of fungi and insects.
It is a cheapest way of protecting timber.
Main disadvantage
Appearance is not good after tar is applied
2. Paints Treatment:
• Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean surface
of wood. The paint protects the timber from moisture. The
paint is to be applied from time to time.
• Paint improves the appearance of the timber.
• Solignum paint is a special paint which protects the timber.

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3. Chemical salt Treatment:

• These are the preservatives made by dissolving salts in water.
• The salts used are copper sulphate, masonry chloride, zinc
chloride and sodium fluoride. After treating the timber with
these chemical salt paints and varnishes can be applied to get
good appearance.
4. Creosote oil Treatment:
• Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar.
• The seasoned timber is kept in an air tight chamber and air is
exhausted. Then creosote oil is pumped into the chamber at a
pressure of 0.8 to 1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50°C. After 1
to 2 hours timber is taken out of the chamber.

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5. ASCO Treatment:
• This preservative is developed by the Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun. It consists of 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic
pent-oxide (As2O5, 2 H2O), 3 parts by weight of copper
sulphate(CuSO4⋅5 H2O) and 4 parts by weight of potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7⋅2
H2O).
• This preservative is available in powder form.
• By mixing six parts of this powder with 100 parts of water, the
solution is prepared. The solution is then sprayed over the
surface of timber.
• This treatment prevents attack from termites. The surface may
be painted to get desired appearance.

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FIRE-PROOFING OF TIMBER
 Timber cannot be made fire proof but can only be made fire
resistant.
 It is supposed that the fire-proofing chemicals act in one of
the following ways:
 The melting point of the chemicals is low so that it melts and
forms a barrier to the supply of oxygen to the inside.
 The chemical decomposes under heat, yielding non-
inflammable gases that dilute the inflammable gases. This
retards the ignition of inflammable point.
 The chemical vaporizes at sufficiently low temperature,
absorbing sufficient heat that the temperature of wood does
not rise to decomposition point.
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Following paints are used to save timber from fire:

• Diammonium phosphate,
• Mono ammonium phosphate,
• Mono magnesium phosphate,
• Phosphoric acid.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBERS

• Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard

and of shining appearance.
• Color: A color should preferably be dark.
• Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such
as knots, flaws, shakes etc.
• Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of
resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.
• Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load
causing its deformation is removed.
• Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.
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• Hardness: A good timber should be hard.

• Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily
due to mechanical wear or abrasion.
• Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape
during conversion or seasoning.
• Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant
smell indicates decayed timber.
• Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when
struck.
• Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for
working as structural member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
• Structure: The structure should be uniform.
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• Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of

offering resistance to shocks due to vibration.
• Water permeability: A good timber should have low water
permeability, which is measured by the quantity of water
filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
• Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be
sound and strong.
• Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It
should not clog the teeth of saw.

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Thank You!

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