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SKYWATCHER’S
SKYWATCHER’S
SKILLS AND TRICKS FOR EXPLORING
STARS, PLANETS & BEYOND

Linda Shore, David Prosper & Vivian White

of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
 CONTENTS
NAKED-EYE ASTRONOMY TIPS

· Introduction
01 Meet the Universe
02 Dissect a Star
03 Learn Stellar Classification
04 Discover Star Groups
05 Spot the Closest Stars
06 TOP FIVE: Recognize Ideal
Skywatching Conditions
07 Go Urban or Rural
08 Pack a Beginner
Skywatching Kit
09 Optimize Your Vision
10 Improvise a Red Flashlight
11 Notice the Brightness and
Color of Stars
12 Navigate the Northern 23 Make Your Own Planisphere 37 Use the Big Dipper
Celestial Sphere 24 Look South with to Locate Polaris
13 See the Sights in the Your Planisphere 38 Orient Yourself with
Southern Hemisphere 25 Measure the Heavens a Gnomon
14 Witness Zodiacal Light 26 TOP FIVE: Zone the Sky 39 Find South in the
at Dawn 27 Time the Sunset with Southern Hemisphere
15 Spot Morning and Your Fingers 40 Find the Southern Cross
Evening Planets 28 Measure Degrees of 41 Bag the Coalsack
16 Rediscover Sunrise Separation in the Sky 42 Locate Centaurus
17 Meet the Sun 29 Start at the Big Dipper 43 Sail Over to Vela
18 Understand Solstices 30 Pinpoint Arcturus 44 Check Out Capricornus
and Equinoxes 31 Locate Regulus 45 Hunt Down Hydrus
19 Get the Reasons for 32 Suss Out Spica 46 Look for Libra
the Seasons 33 Test Vision with 47 Gaze Upon Carina
20 Explore Ancient the Big Dipper 48 TOP FIVE: Track Things
Astronomical Markers 34 Track Time with That Move Above
21 Track the Sun with the Little Dipper 49 Locate the Celestial Equator
an Analemma 35 Assemble a Star Clock 50 Find 0hr Right Ascension
22 Create Your Own 36 Find Your Way by the Wind, 51 Use Orion to Measure
Solargraphs Stars, and Waves Spherical Coordinates
52 Trace Draco the Dragon 67 Glimpse the Green Flash 80 Pinpoint 51 Pegasi
53 Hunt Down Ursa Major 68 Meet the Moon 81 Find Andromeda the Princess
54 Follow Ursa Minor 69 Decode the Phases 82 Scout Perseus the Hero
55 Get a Glimpse of the Giraffe of the Moon 83 Acquaint Yourself with
56 Begin at Orion 70 Understand the Faint Aries
57 Get Yourself to Gemini Moon Illusion 84 Chase the Charioteer
58 Track Down Taurus the Bull 71 Watch the Tides 85 Behold Corona Borealis
59 Find Canis Major and Come and Go 86 Hail King Cepheus
Canis Minor 72 Spot Some Strange Moons 87 Explore the Zodiacs of
60 Gaze at the Majestic 73 Meet the Man on the Moon, Different Cultures
Milky Way All Over the World 88 Tell a Meteor from
61 Glimpse Spilled Grain in the 74 See the Crescent Moon a Meteoroid
Cherokee Milky Way Story Around the Globe 89 Pick the Best Time
62 See More Milky Way Myths 75 Watch the Moon Turn Red to Meteor-Watch
63 Spot a Llama in the in a Lunar Eclipse 90 TOP FIVE: Go on a
Incan Milky Way 76 Read a Lunar Eclipse Map Meteorite Hunt
64 Learn How the Aboriginals 77 Put Together a Lunar 91 Name That Meteor Shower
See the Milky Way Eclipse Model 92 Save the Date for
65 Luck Out with 78 Meet Mercury Meteor Showers
Noctilucent Clouds 79 Begin with Pegasus 93 Meet Venus
66 Feast Your Eyes on Afterglow the Flying Horse 94 Demystify the
Auroras’ Colors
95 Pick a Prime Spot to
Aurora-Gaze
96 Journey for the Auroras
97 Time Your Aurora Travel
98 Probe Earth’s Atmosphere
99 Catch a Glimpse of Glories
100 Check Out Sun and
Moon Dogs
101 Demystify Twinkling Stars
102 Spot a Solar or Lunar Halo
103 Meet Mars
104 Catch a Conjunction
 CONTENTS
105 Witness Planets in Transit 129 TOP FIVE: Treat Binoculars 139 Look for Leo Minor
106 Watch an Occultation with Respect 140 Pinpoint Pisces
107 Scope Planets at 130 Peep Cassiopeia’s 141 Dissect a Basic Telescope
Maximum Elongation Pacman Nebula 142 Discover the Classic
108 Observe Planets 131 Nab the Double Cluster Refractor Scope
in Retrograde with Binoculars 143 Consider a Reflector
109 Stay up All Night 132 Align Your Sights with Algol Telescope
for Opposition 133 See Star Clusters with 144 Learn About Other
110 Model the Solar System Binoculars Telescope Types
with Paper 134 Feast Your Eyes on Distant 145 TOP FIVE: Select a Telescope
111 Understand Planets’ Galaxies with Binoculars 146 Go Computerized or Stick
Relative Sizes 135 Use Binoculars to Track with Manual
112 Start at the Summer Triangle Jupiter’s Moons 147 Buy a Starter Scope for a Kid
113 Detect Delphinus 136 Tour the Milky Way with 148 Set Up Your Telescope
114 Fly with Aquila the Eagle Binoculars 149 View the Skies with a
115 Soar with Cygnus the Swan 137 Catch Canes Venatici Computerized Scope
116 Find Lyra 138 View Vulpecula 150 Collimate Your Telescope
117 Locate Hercules to Fine-Tune Your View
118 Set Your Sights on Hydra 151 Aim Your Scope with a
119 Track the Serpent Bearer Piggyback Finder
120 Catch the Southern Fish 152 Focus and Point Your
121 See Sagittarius Telescope
122 Say Hello to the First
Great Skywatchers
123 Meet Jupiter

TELESCOPES & OTHER TOOLS

124 Pick a Pair of Binoculars

125 Go with Porro or Roof-Prism
Binoculars
126 Learn All About Eye Relief
127 Adjust Binoculars for Vision
128 Clean Your Binoculars
153 View the Moon with a Scope 168 Mount a Webcam to 183 Enjoy Lunar and Planetary
154 Aim for Antlia Your Telescope Filters
155 Draw the Southern Triangle 169 TOP FIVE: Pick a Solid Tripod 184 Probe Deep Space with
156 Catch the Bird of Paradise 170 Set Up Your Gear for Safety Nebula Filters
157 Notice Norma 171 Take a (Comfortable) Seat 185 Meet Saturn
158 Scan Skies with an for Skygazing 186 Fire Up the Furnace
Altazimuth Mount 172 Cool Your Telescope Tube 187 Get Up Close with Grus
159 Set Up a Dobsonian 173 Light Up Your Tripod 188 Nab the Fly
160 Track Stars with an 174 Piggyback Your Camera 189 Find the Phoenix
Equatorial Mount 175 TOP FIVE: Treat Your 190 Zoom In and Out of the
161 Pick a Proper Eyepiece Scope to a Trip Orion Nebula
162 Understand Eyepiece 176 Camp Under the Stars 191 Gaze Upon Albireo
Magnification 177 Behave at Star Parties 192 Find the Great Cluster
163 Find the Right Field of View 178 Transport Gear Safely in Hercules
164 Boost Resolution with 179 Cover Up, Rain or Shine 193 View Virgo with
the Right Eyepiece 180 Shield Your Scope from Dew a Telescope
165 Pick the Right Finder Scope 181 Cap Your Optics 194 Scope Out the Sombrero
166 Find a Red Line Sight 182 Peep the Sun Safely Through Galaxy
167 Light the Way with Lasers Solar Filters
 CONTENTS
212 Catch the Coma Open 235 Root Out Reticulum
Cluster Through a Telescope 236 Set Your Eyes on Sagitta
213 Take a Peek at the 237 Glimpse the Sculptor
M96 Group 238 Scope Out Scutum
214 Watch the Water Bearer 239 Pack a Basic
215 Nab the Crab Astrophotography Kit
216 Look for Lepus 240 Snap a Mobile Shot Through
217 Discover the Unicorn a Telescope
218 Look at the Sun Safely 241 Freeze Stars with
195 Check Out M87 219 Project the Sun with the 500 Rule
196 See M84 and M86 in a Telescope 242 Shoot Star Trails
Markarian’s Chain 220 See Sunspots in Transit 243 Create Rings in the Sky
197 Spot the Shadows of 221 Bounce the Sun onto a 244 Capture Three-Way Trails
Jupiter’s Moons Wall with a Mirror at the Equator
198 Split Double Stars into Three 222 Watch a Solar Eclipse with 245 Craft a Time Lapse of
199 Spy Saturn’s Rings a Pinhole Viewer a Lunar Eclipse
200 Peek into Orion’s Stellar 223 Sport Eclipse Shades 246 Stack Images in Software
Nursery 224 See Eclipses Through Leaves, 247 Correct Your Scope’s Coma
201 Witness the Death of a Colander, or Your Fingers 248 Merge Your Telescope
Betelgeuse in Orion 225 Travel for Solar Eclipses with a DSLR
202 Watch the Young Pleiades 226 Identify Solar-Eclipse Types 249 Focus Your Camera
in Taurus 227 TOP FIVE: Catch a Total Solar Through a Scope
203 Spot Scorpius Eclipse’s Highlights 250 Speed Up Filter Swaps
204 Find Globular Cluster M4 228 Witness the Eclipse’s 251 Lock On with Autoguiders
205 Peep the Butterfly and Effects on Earth 252 Capture the Beauty of
Ptolemy Clusters 229 Meet Neptune the Auroras
206 Make Out M80 230 Study Up on Asteroids 253 Meet the Inventors of
207 Meet Uranus 231 TOP FIVE: Get Acquainted Skywatching Gadgetry
208 Gaze Back in Time with the Neatest Asteroids 254 Stock Up on Sky-Drawing
with a Telescope 232 Sail Through the Solar Supplies
209 Run the Famous System with Comets 255 Draw Space Objects
Messier Marathon 233 Name That Comet Like a Pro
210 Begin at the Leo Triplet 234 TOP FIVE: Get to Know 256 TOP FIVE: Sketch Our
211 Bag the Coma Galaxy Cluster Some Major Comets Universe’s Highlights
257 Search for Serpens 269 Peep Pillars of Creation 284 Combat Over Illumination
258 Recover the Sextant 270 Sightsee from Space in Your Community
259 Snag the Southern Crown Through Satellites 285 TOP FIVE: Seek Out the
260 Trace the Triangle 271 Track Junk in Orbit Darkest Skies
272 Dissect Space Trash 286 Throw a Star Party
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES 273 Celebrate Our Missions 287 Listen to a Meteor Shower
Among the Stars Over the Radio
261 Travel to the World’s 274 Journey to the Solar 288 Witness the Big Bang
Greatest Observatories System’s Outer Edges on Your TV
262 Peek at Deep Space via 275 Check Out Exoplanets 289 Construct a DIY
the Hubble Space Telescope 276 See the Skies from Scope Mount
263 See Star Birth in Infrared Other Planets 290 Get a Bigger Light Bucket
with SOFIA 277 Search for Intelligent Life 291 Splurge on a High-End
264 Planet-Hunt with Kepler with Drake’s Equation Refractor
265 Observe in Infrared via the 278 Delve into Space’s Mysteries 292 Go All Out with Fancy
James Webb Space Telescope 279 Help Count the Stars as a Eyepieces
266 Look at X-Rays of Space Citizen Scientist 293 Send a Camera into Space
with Chandra 280 Explore the Zooniverse 294 Mod Your Dobsonian with
267 Touch the Hand of 281 Monitor Variable Stars a Custom Tracker
God Nebula 282 Identify Light Pollution 295 Boost Your Light with a
268 Stop and Smell the 283 Study Up on Light Superbright Diagonal
Nebula Roses Pollution’s Effects 296 Make It Permanent
with Piers
297 Swap Out Collimation Knobs
298 Build an Awesome
Observing Chair

· Resources
· Glossary
· Index
· Acknowledgments
· About the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific
WELCOME TO THE COSMIC LABORATORY
A crystal-clear, pitch-dark, starry night is astonishing. The sight of thousands of stars
and the panorama of our own Milky Way Galaxy arching across the sky inspires
philosophers, poets, lovers, and scientists. The night sky is also profoundly democratic.
It is a science laboratory equally accessible to everyone on Earth who is interested in
observing, studying, and exploring. The science of astronomy was developed by
virtually every civilization on the planet as a systematic way to decode the very nature
of the cosmos. First with unaided eyes, then with simple optical telescopes, and now
with sophisticated instruments engineered to look into the very farthest reaches of
space and time, we continue to investigate our fascinatingly intricate universe.
The purpose of this book—and the mission of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific—is to help astronomy enthusiasts of all kinds engage with and appreciate the
extraordinary laboratory unfolding above your head. Maybe you have a casual interest
in astronomy and want to learn more. Perhaps you are interested in buying your first
telescope or trying your hand at astrophotography. You might be an experienced
amateur astronomer wanting some new ideas. No matter what your prior experience
with astronomy, this book will be a resource for you to enjoy at every stage.
You are about to embark on an incredible journey through the universe, and we
are thrilled to be your guides. Within the pages of this book, you’ll find everything you
need to know to study stars, planets, comets, asteroids, nebulae, and galaxies. We start
with showing you how to explore the universe with your unaided eyes. Next we
introduce you to binoculars and telescopes—tools that give you access to what eyes
alone won’t reveal. Finally, we open your eyes to some advanced observational
techniques that you can try, and we show you the tools that modern astronomers use
in their research.
Welcome to your universe. Come on in!

Linda Shore, EdD

Executive Director
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
www.astrosociety.org
 NAKED-EYE
ASTRONOMY TIPS
01 MEET THE
UNIVERSE
The universe is all of space and everything
1

2
LAYERS OF THE UNIVERSE

EARTH

SOLAR SYSTEM
in it—from the smallest speck of subatomic
particle to the biggest galaxy, from the 3 SOLAR INTERSTELLAR NEIGHBORHOOD
planets to the creatures who live (or might
4 MILKY WAY GALAXY
live) on them, and all matter and energy.
But all this quite literally came from 5 LOCAL GROUP
nothing in an event we know as the Big
Bang. When the universe exploded into 6 VIRGO SUPERCLUSTER
existence, it was infinitely dense, infinitely
7 LOCAL SUPERCLUSTER
hot, and infinitely small. In less than a
second, the universe had ballooned to the 8 OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE
size of a grapefruit and continued to grow
rapidly, but at first the temperature was too
hot to allow even atoms to exist. Within this
first second, the temperature dropped
below 18 billion°F (10 billion°C), making it
cool enough for protons and neutrons to 1
form. Within a few minutes, these particles
combined to make the first hydrogen and
helium nuclei. It would take 300,000 years
for the universe to cool down enough to
allow these nuclei to capture electrons,
forming the first atoms.
The first stars and galaxies formed
about 1 billion years after the Big Bang. Our
solar system is a relative newcomer to the
universe, having formed about 8 billion
years after the Big Bang. It is here, on the
third planet from the Sun, nestled within
the Milky Way Galaxy, deep within the Local
Group inside the Virgo Cluster, tucked away
in the Local Supercluster, that we make our
home in the observable universe—everything
we can see with our eyes, telescopes, and 2
other instruments. Using modern orbiting
telescopes like the Hubble (see #262),
astronomers have discovered that the
universe contains hundreds of billions of
galaxies, arranged in large groups and giant
clusters, and that within these galaxies are
untold scores of stars, planets, asteroids,
comets, and other space objects, all ripe for
discovery, observation, and study.
5 6

4 7

3 8
02 DISSECT
A STAR
We know the twinkling lights scattered across the night
sky as stars. Each of those shimmering beauties is a
gigantic ball of mostly hydrogen and helium atoms, all
held together by the force of gravity. There is so much
mass inside a star that its gravitational forces are
powerful enough to raise its core temperature above
27 million°F (15 million°C). At such high temperatures,
hydrogen nuclei move incredibly quickly, colliding to
create helium nuclei. This process is called nuclear
fusion, and it releases huge amounts of energy. While a
lot of that energy creates the forces that push against
gravity, keeping the massive star from collapsing, the
rest of it escapes the star in the form of light and heat.
The closest star to Earth is our Sun. Almost every star
you see in the night sky is larger than it. But there are
also many smaller stars that are too dim to see. The
largest stars, like those of multistar system Eta Carinae
(see #13 and #47), are more than 100 times more massive
than the Sun and emit more than 5 million times more
energy. Large, massive stars have cores hot enough to
fuse heavier elements into carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.
03 LEARN STELLAR
CLASSIFICATION
Astronomers have many ways to classify stars. One way
is using the Morgan–Keenan (MK) classification, a
system based on temperature and luminosity—the
amount of energy a star emits at a given time. Here’s
how stars are described using this system.
MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS These are the vast majority of
stars in the universe—including our Sun. They have
cores hot enough to fuse hydrogen atoms together
through nuclear reactions, creating helium atoms and a
whole lot of energy. Most of a star’s lifespan is spent as
a main-sequence star, but these stars come in all sizes
and colors: There are yellow main-sequence stars with
luminosity and size comparable to our Sun, and there
are red, very small, cool, and dim main-sequence stars
(called red dwarfs), which are the most abundant in our
universe and live longest.
GIANTS A giant star has a large diameter and relatively
cool surface compared to a main-sequence star, which
results after a star has ceased to burn hydrogen.
radiation
radiative
zone
core
convection
zone
The inside of stars resembles an onion, with different
layers responsible for carrying energy from the core into
space. Average-size stars have three layers: the core
(where nuclear reactions make energy), a radiative zone
(a region of gas where light from the star’s core passes
randomly between atoms like a game of hot potato), and
a convection layer (where the star’s gases act like water
boiling turbulently in a pot). Really big stars don’t have
a convection zone and transport energy through a huge
radiation zone. Tiny stars have only convection layers.
Instead, the core of a red giant contains helium fusing
into carbon. The star Arcturus (Alpha Boötis) in the
constellation Boötes is one example (see #30).
SUPERGIANTS Among the largest and most luminous
stars are the supergiants, having masses around
10 or more times that of our Sun. There are plenty of
supergiants that you can see without a telescope, such
as Deneb (Alpha Cygni) in Cygnus or Rigel (Beta Orionis)
in Orion. When these massive stars die, they become
supernovas (immensely bright explosions, followed by
star death) and then sometimes black holes (invisible
areas in outer space with gravity so strong that light
cannot escape them) or neutron stars (stellar remnants).
VARIABLE STARS Some stars defy categorization. From
Earth, variable stars seem to fluctuate in brightness. This
is due to the shrinking or expanding of a star or to
another celestial body eclipsing it. Cepheid variables
pulsate wildly, giving scientists insight into stars’
behavior and their distance from our planet.
04 DISCOVER
STAR GROUPS
05
A
SPOT THE
CLOSEST STARS
Besides the Sun, Earth’s closest twinkling
neighbor is Proxima Centauri, found
within the triple-star system Rigel
Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri) in Centaurus,
a mere 4.24 light years away. Here are
B more stars in our ’hood—some of which
you can see with your naked eyes.

STAR Distance

SUN 8.3 light minutes

C PROXIMA 4.2 light years

CENTAURI

ALPHA 4.3 light years

CENTAURI A & B

BARNARD’S 6.0 light years

STAR

WOLF 359 7.8 light years

There’s often more than meets the eye when it comes to viewing LALANDE 21185 8.3 light years

the heavens—and in some cases, that “more” means more stars LUYTEN 726-8 8.4 light years
than you can make out! Often, stars like to hang out in groups, A& B
such as:
SIRIUS A & B 8.6 light years

A DOUBLE STARS Some stars are not single points of ROSS 154 9.4 light years
brightness—they’re multistar systems that our eyes see as one.
ROSS 248 10.3 light years
In general, there are two types: optical doubles, which appear to
be one star simply due to our perspective on Earth, and binary EPSILON 10.5 light years
stars, two stars that are so close they are gravitationally bound ERIDANI
and orbit each other. The brightest star in our galaxy, Sirius
(Alpha Canis Majoris), belongs to a binary star system. In
naming conventions, the brightest star in a system is preceded
by “Alpha,” the second-brightest by “Beta,” and so on.
C GLOBULAR CLUSTERS Appearing as dense
B OPEN CLUSTERS These families contain thousands of young spheres of stars in the sky, globular clusters are
stars that all came into being at the same time in the same kept together longer than open clusters by
huge molecular cloud. They’re bound loosely to each other by mighty gravitational forces. Omega Centauri
weak gravitational forces, but they will eventually drift apart. A (NGC 5139) is the largest known globular cluster.
majorly famous open cluster that you can see with your naked Hercules’s M13 (NGC 6205) is so prominent it
eyes is the Pleiades (M45) in Taurus (see #58). was mistaken for a single star back in antiquity.
06
TOP FIVE
RECOGNIZE IDEAL
SKYWATCHING
CONDITIONS
Discover the best viewing conditions for
skywatching—you’ll have more fun the more
you can see!

 CHECK THE WEATHER Cloud cover, haze,

fog, dust, and smog all will obscure your view.
Even if the night sky is clear, high humidity can
affect your visibility and rapidly turn to fog and
haze. If you live in a foggy or wet area, monitor
the weather closely so you can take advantage
of rare nights of good stargazing.

 ENLIST TECHNOLOGY Available on the

web and as mobile apps, Clear Sky Chart is an
essential astronomical forecast that alerts you
to upcoming clear, dark, and ideal skies.
Download it and never doubt! Also, given Earth’s
orbit around the Sun, you’ll see different stars
in different seasons. It helps to download a

seasonal star chart app so you can plan
excursions at optimum times.
 MONITOR THE MOON It’s also a good idea
to keep an eye on the lunar phases so you can
avoid observing near a full Moon, which will
wash out faint objects on an otherwise perfect
star-seeking night.
 AVOID LIGHT POLLUTION Stay away from
streetlights, car headlights, and other sources
of bright light. Even looking at your phone can
ruin your eyes’ dark adaption.
 GET UP HIGH Our atmosphere is full of
dust and turbulence, distorting light and
limiting telescopes. The less atmospheric
dust and turbulence you look though—the
higher in altitude you are—the better your
seeing will be.
07
GO URBAN
OR RURAL
The dark skies of the countryside, jam packed full of
stars, can be very confusing for beginners. An odd upside
to city light pollution is that the brightest stars are very
prominent. Light pollution blocks many stars, the Milky
Way, and all but the brightest meteors from city viewers,
and, since the brightest stars make up well-known
constellations, light pollution makes those constellations
easier to find and identify. The lack of background stars
also makes it less difficult to find planets.
Meanwhile, viewing the stars in rural areas can be a
life-changing experience. Depending on the season, the
Milky Way may stretch across the sky, visible as a
luminescent cloud. Stars may sprinkle the entire sky,
while meteor showers can put on an incredible show.
You might even spot distant galaxies and nebulae, such
as the Andromeda Galaxy (M31/NGC 224) and the
Orion Nebula (M42/NGC 1976).
08 PACK A BEGINNER
SKYWATCHING KIT
While you can skywatch with just your eyes, it helps to stock basic supplies. Follow
these suggestions and you will be perfectly prepared for observing the night sky.

 BLANKET As the night progresses and the
temperature drops, you’ll be glad you have a blanket.
It also helps keep you dry when lying on the ground—
great for watching meteor showers.
 LAWN CHAIR Stay comfortable. Adjustable lawn
chairs—or even better, reclining ones!—are perfect for
observing the sky and keep your neck safe from strain.
 RED LIGHT Normal flashlights will destroy your
ability to see in the dark. As movie ushers learned, red
lights are great for helping you see while preserving your
night vision. Get one or make your own (see #10).
 DRINKS AND SNACKS Water will keep you
hydrated, while coffee or tea in a thermos can help you
stay awake. Also, everyone loves snacks.
 STAR CHARTS Print out a star chart or bring a
planisphere that’s specific to your area. (Also see #23 –24
for our planisphere templates.) If you are observing in
an area with a lot of light pollution, try using a
stargazing app on your mobile device.
 EXTRA CLOTHES Even in warm climates, the night
can get chilly, so bring a hat, a scarf, and gloves. Heat
packs for your hands and feet are also not a bad idea.
09 OPTIMIZE
YOUR VISION
Whether you’re embarking on your very
first stargazing adventure or have grown
frustrated trying to identify constellations
within the jumble of stars above, these
handy tips will help you have a successful
evening of skywatching.
LET YOUR EYES ADAPT Human eyes are
sensitive light detectors. Your retina is lined
with two types of receptors (cones and rods)
that activate when light enters the eye. While
cones respond to color, rods respond to light
intensity and help you see the dimmest
stars. Rods become more sensitive in the
darkness, but they take 20 to 30 minutes to
fully adapt. Use the time in the dark to relax
or chat with friends.
USE YOUR PERIPHERAL VISION To see
faint objects, try averted vision: Don’t look
directly at them but slightly to one side.
When you look directly at objects, you use
mostly your color receptors (cones), which
are terrible for detecting dim objects. Rods,
on the other hand, are the receptors located
in your peripheral vision that help your brain
see faint objects. In using peripheral vision,
you are engaging your light-sensitive rods.
RODS
iris retina
lens
CONES
pupil central
cornea fovea
aqueous
humor RODS
optic
nerve
10 IMPROVISE A RED
FLASHLIGHT
After you’ve taken the time to find a prime seeing spot,
haul and set up all your gear, and sit in the dark long
enough to let your eyes adjust, it’d be a shame to knock
your night vision back to square one with a regular
flashlight. Thankfully, there is a happy medium between
ruining your ability to see in the dark and being unable to
read your star chart: red lights.
While you could order a special red flashlight online—or
a red filter for a flashlight you already own—you can easily
make your own with some basic materials. If you have
some red nail polish and are okay with permanently
modifying the lens on a flashlight, give both sides of the
lens a few coats and let it dry. If you’re looking for
something more reversible, try these steps.
STEP ONE Get an older flashlight—the kind with a bulb,
not some high-powered LED light—and some red plastic
wrap. (A red balloon or even tape used to cover brake lights
works well, too.)
STEP TWO Pull out the plastic wrap from the roll until its
width is enough to cover the whole front of your flashlight,
with 1 inch (2.5 cm) or so to spare on either side. Fold this
section back until it’s about 1/8 inch (3 mm) thick. Tear the
whole thing off from the roll. Then fold it in half. This will
be your filter.
STEP THREE Hold the filter over the whole lens on the
front of your flashlight. Secure it in place with a couple of
rubber bands, some string, or good old-fashioned duct tape.
STEP FOUR Test it! In the dark, turn on your newly red
light. Make sure there aren’t any spots where white light
leaks out. Add more film if it’s too bright.
red
plastic
wrap
duct
tape
11 NOTICE THE BRIGHTNESS
AND COLOR OF STARS
Like any lightsource, a star’s brightness (or magnitude) system (O, B, A, F, G, K, and M), shown here. The very
depends on its size, temperature, and distance from us. hottest stars are a pale-blue color. In descending
There are two types of magnitude: intrinsic, which order of surface temperature, stars are white, yellow,
measures how bright stars would appear if they were all orange, and red.
the same distance from us, and apparent (how
bright they look to us at their actual distance SURFACE TEMPERATURE
COLOR (IN KELVINS) CLASSIFICATION
from Earth). The brightest stars visible to the
naked eye are said to be of magnitude 1, while BLUE More than 30, 000 O
the faintest fall around 6. Binoculars can show
you down to magnitude 10, while a 10-inch
BLUE-WHITE 10, 000–30,000 B
(25-cm) telescope can see down to 14 or so.
And the scale goes brighter than 0: At its
BLUE-WHITE TO WHITE 7,500–10,000 A
brightest, the planet Venus is of −4.5 magnitude.
Knowing the magnitudes of the stars in a
WHITE 6, 000 –7,500 F
constellation will help you gauge which ones to
look for first and which may be invisible to you.
But what about color? At first glance, all stars YELLOW-WHITE 5,200–6,000 G
appear white. But once your eyes have adapted,
you’ll notice some are slightly reddish, orange, YELLOW-ORANGE 3,700 –5,200 K
yellow, or pale blue. Star colors correspond to
their surface temperatures, which we label ORANGE-RED Less than 3,700 M
using the Harvard Spectral Classification
 BER
SEPTEM

12 NAVIGATE THE NORTHERN

CELESTIAL SPHERE
If you stood at the North Pole, solar system is moving in the
AU
GU
ST

the heavens above would match direction of Vega as we make our

our chart here, with the
constellations shown appearing
most visible in the months
indicated on the chart’s outer
ring. Everywhere else, you would
see only parts of this sky each
evening, and they would change
at different times of the year. If
you were to travel toward the
way around the Milky Way.
Equuleus
BEEHIVE CLUSTER One of the
largest clusters of nearby new
Delphinus
stars, this compact swarm is a
joy to see in dark skies. In
ancient times, the Beehive
Cluster (M44/NGC 2632) was
Sagitta
used to predict weather. If it

Y
Aquila

equator, you’d see constellations
near the northern horizon
vanish, while new ones became
visible on the southern horizon.
But while you’re here, let’s
see the northern hemisphere’s
most striking sights:
THE MILKY WAY Look for a
hazy band of distant starlight
arcing across the night sky. This
is the edge-on view of our Milky
Way Galaxy, as seen from our
J UL
could not be seen in a clear sky,
a storm was brewing.
ANDROMEDA GALAXY
Look inside the constellation Vulpecula
Andromeda. You’ll find a very
faint, fuzzy oval near the Milky
Serpens
Way: the Andromeda Galaxy Cauda
(M31/NGC 224). It’s the largest
galaxy in the Local Group.
POLARIS It’s not the brightest
star in the sky or part of any

JUNE
location in the outskirts of one huge constellation, but the
of the galaxy’s spiral arms. North Star (or Alpha Ursae Ophiuchus
Minoris) gave our northern Hercules
BETELGEUSE Also called hemisphere ancestors a leg
Alpha Orionis, this red giant up in navigating (see #36).
(at Orion’s shoulder) could go
supernova soon (see #201). When
it does, it will look like a bright CONSTELLATION SEASONS
(BEST EVENING VIEWING)
light in the daytime sky. Serpens
spring winter Caput
VEGA When stars are measured summer circumpolar
for brightness, it is in comparison (visible all
autumn year long)
to venerable Vega (Alpha Lyrae),
whose magnitude is 0. Our whole
AY
M

IL
APR
 BER
SEPTEM

OCT
OB
ER

ST
GU
AU Pisces

Pegasus

NO
VE
MB
Aries Cetus

ER
Andromeda
Lacerta Galaxy

Triangulum

Milky Way Andromeda

Galaxy Cassiopeia Taurus

Perseus
Cygnus

DECEMBE
Lyra
Cepheus Orion
Camelopardalis

R
Vega Auriga

Polaris
Betelgeuse

Ursa Minor Gemini

Draco

Canis Minor
Corona Borealis

JAN
Lynx

AR U
Ursa Major Beehive Y
Cluster

Leo Minor Cancer

Canes Venatici
Boötes

Coma Berenices
Hydra
FE
BR
Leo RY
UA

IL
APR Virgo

MARCH

Skywatcher.indb 23 5/14/20 5:57 PM

 13 SEE THE SIGHTS IN THE
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Astronomer Bart Bok, namesake of
Bok Globules (the nebulae found in
large numbers in the southern
hemisphere), once said, “All the good
stuff is in the southern hemisphere!”
While we’re not ones to choose sides,
it’s a sentiment echoed by most
amateur astronomers. Here are
highlights, which would appear
exactly as they do here if you stood
at the South Pole:
CANOPUS A blue supergiant star
about 300 light years away, Canopus
(Alpha Carinae) is so bright that it is
often the default guide star for
tracking systems on space probes. It is
fairly near Sirius (Alpha Canis Majoris)
in our sky. First, find Canis Major (see
#59), Sirius’s home. Look for a second
bright star above it; that’s Canopus.
MAGELLANIC CLOUDS On a dark
night, you may be able to see what
look to be two glowing clouds in the
sky. These aren’t clouds; they are
satellite galaxies to our own Milky
Way Galaxy, named after Magellan,
the famous global navigator whose
crew spotted them on their voyage
around the world. To find them,
follow a path starting from Sirius
down through Canopus. Keep
following that line until you arrive
near the Large Magellanic Cloud. The
Small Magellanic Cloud is nearby.
SOUTHERN CROSS The Southern
Cross is the symbol of the southern
hemisphere for many. Also known as
Crux, it serves as a handy guide to
Skywatcher.indb 24
many of the other southern night-sky
delights (see #40 – 43). While Crux
should be very noticeable, there is
also a False Cross made of two stars
ER
MB
from Carina and two from Vela. You
VE
NO
can always make sure you have the
true cross by following its crossbar to
the bright stars Hadar (Beta Centauri)
and Rigel Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri).
RIGEL KENTAURUS Check out the
nearest star system to our own: Rigel
Eridanus
Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri), which is
actually three stars in orbit (some of
which have planets orbiting them).
While this star system’s light only Lepus
takes four years to reach us, travel to
R
DECEMBE
it is still out of reach. The fastest craft
we’ve ever sent into space would
take almost 20,000 years (more than
600 generations) to reach it.
Orion
Columba
ETA CARINAE Best seen through a
telescope and found in the glowing
Carina Nebula (NGC 3372), Eta
Carinae are two stars orbiting each Sirius
other. They flared up very brightly in
the 1800s, creating the Homunculus
Nebula. The larger of the two is Canis Major
an enormous supergiant and a
candidate to go supernova soon—you
Y
UAR
may see it explode in your lifetime.
JAN
CONSTELLATION SEASONS
(BEST EVENING VIEWING)
Monoceros
spring winter
summer circumpolar
(visible all
autumn year long)
Y
AR
RU B
FE
5/14/20 5:57 PM
 SEPTEMB
ER

ER
TOB
OC
Aquarius
Cetus
AU
GU
ST

Sculptor

Piscis
Austrinus

Fornax Phoenix Grus

Capricornus

JUL
Tucana Microscopium

Y
Aquila
Indus

Horologium
Small Corona Australis
Magellanic
Caelum Cloud Pavo
Sagittarius
Reticulum Telescopium
Hydrus
Serpens Cauda
Large Magellanic
Cloud Ara
Canopus Triangulum
Australe
Scorpius

JUNE
Carina

Musca Norma
Rigel Ophiuchus
Southern Kentaurus
Cross

Puppis Eta
Carinae
Vela
Lupus
Pyxis Centaurus

Antlia Libra
MA
Y

Hydra
Y
AR Serpens
RU Crater Caput
Corvus
B
FE
Sextans
Virgo
AP
RIL

MARCH

Skywatcher.indb 25 5/14/20 5:57 PM

14 WITNESS ZODIACAL
LIGHT AT DAWN
Our view of the ecliptic (the area of the sky marked by
the zodiac constellations) is littered with trace dust that
reflects the light from our Sun. While much of these
flecks have come from the tails of comets flying into
our solar system at its deepest edges, some may remain
from the solar system’s formation—primordial dust that
has never been absorbed into the greater masses of the
Sun, planets, and smaller rocky bodies. You can take a
peek at the granules of our early solar system by
snagging a glimpse of zodiacal light.
Fall is the best time to witness the light in the
pre-dawn. In the northern hemisphere, this means you
can see it illuminating the horizon from September
through October; in the southern hemisphere, try
catching a glimpse between March and April.
First, find a clear sky free of light pollution on a
Moonless night. Look east about half an hour before
sunrise. The sky will light up in a large, softly glowing
triangle, often called false dawn. That is zodiacal light,
sunlight reflecting off dust in our solar system.
At certain points in the year you can observe the
zodiacal light at sunset, but morning air tends to be
clearer, making it much easier to see the angular and
radiant flush coupled with sunrise’s colors.
15 SPOT MORNING AND
EVENING PLANETS
Before telescopes, Venus was known as both the “morning star” and the 16
“evening star,” because it is only ever seen near the Sun before sunrise or after
sunset. Since Venus and Mercury move against the background constellations,
REDISCOVER
they won’t be found on any permanent sky chart. Here’s how to find them. SUNRISE
You’ve seen it many
VENUS If you see a very bright “star” low on the horizon just after sunset, times before, sure, but
there’s a good chance you’re looking at Venus (see #93). The third-brightest have you really carefully
object in the sky after the Sun and the Moon, Venus can sometimes be seen in observed the dawn?
the daytime if you know where to look. To spot Venus during the day, try this: Before the Sun begins to
When Venus is high in the pre-dawn sky, follow its position as the Sun rises. You rise, take a close look at
should be able to see it well after dawn. (Just be careful not to look at the Sun.) the last moments of
night sky. Note how
MERCURY To spot speedy Mercury, you will need both an unobstructed horizon many changes you see
and crisp, clear skies. Sometimes Mercury can appear very bright, but the planet are the reverse of the sky
often appears dim and can be difficult (yet not impossible) to spot. Be alert: you observe at sunset.
When Mercury is visible just before sunrise or just after sunset, there are only a Dawn itself begins
few days—maybe weeks at best—to spot it before it dips too close to the Sun to with light creeping from
be seen with the naked eye. (Check out #78 for more on this planet.) the east. The dimmest
stars fade out first, along
with any traces of the
Milky Way. Watch all the
stars blink out in order of
brightness until nothing
but the stark outlines
of their respective
constellations remain; in
minutes, those outlines
vanish, too. Last, the
bright planets fade out
from view. You will still
be able to see the Moon
if it is up, albeit not as
brilliantly as at night.
Sunrise starts when
the Sun lights up the sky
as it climbs over the
eastern horizon. Watch
as the sky’s color
changes and brightens
up in a sudden brilliant
stroke of light. Clouds—
especially those high in
the atmosphere—are
often vividly colored in
pinks and purples just
before day begins.
 17 MEET
THE SUN
At the center of our solar system is
a near-perfect sphere of pulsing
plasma—a yellow dwarf star that we
call the Sun. The radiation that it gives
off through constant nuclear fusion
provides our planet with enough
energy to sustain life. While it is
dangerous to look at it without tools
(see #182 and 218 –224), here are some
facts about our solar system’s star.
DIAMETER 864,900 miles (1.4 million km),
or 109 times wider than Earth
MASS 333,000 times Earth’s mass
SURFACE TEMPERATURE 9,980°F
(5,530°C)
CORE TEMPERATURE 27 million°F
(15 million°C)
ROTATION PERIOD 25 Earth days (at the
Sun’s equator) to 34 Earth days (at its poles)
DISTANCE FROM EARTH
An average of 93 million miles (150 million km)
NUMBER OF KNOWN PLANETS 8
AGE 4.6 billion years
SURFACE GRAVITY The Sun’s gravity is
28 times Earth’s gravity. If you weigh 100 pounds
(45 kg) on Earth, you’d weigh 2,800 pounds
(1,270 kg) on the surface of the Sun (that is, if
it were solid and cool enough that you could
actually stand on it).
WORTH THE WAIT Scientists have
calculated that it takes tens of thousands of
years for the Sun’s energy to travel from its core,
through its interior, and into space, but only
8 minutes for this energy to reach Earth.
SUCCESSFUL MISSIONS
1990: Ulysses orbiter (United States and Europe)
1995: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory becomes the South Pole
orbiter (United States and Europe)
2006: Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory
orbiter (United States)
2010: Solar Dymanics Observatory orbiter
(United States)
MANY FACES Our eyes have evolved to
detect the Sun’s visible light. But the Sun
also emits types of “light” our eyes can’t
see, including radio waves, microwaves,
infrared radiation, ultraviolet light, X-rays,
and gamma rays. Scientists put telescopes
in space to observe the Sun in various kinds
of light to better “see” its features.
COMPOSITION The Sun
does not have a solid
surface. It is a ball of
gas—mostly hydrogen
(92.1 percent) and helium
(7.8 percent)—with various
other chemical elements
making up the last fraction.
Like other stars, it has a
core, a radiative zone, and a
convection layer (see #02).
Its visible surface is called
the photosphere, and above
it is a layer of extremely
hot hydrogen called the
chromosphere (the colors
of which you can see
through a filter—see #227).
The corona is a crown
of plasma that the Sun
radiates out for millions of
miles into our solar system.
SOLAR FLARES The Sun
regularly releases sudden
flashes of light that can be as
intense as 1 billion hydrogen
bombs. They are often followed
by coronal mass ejections,
huge clouds of electrons and
atomic nuclei erupting through
the Sun’s corona into space.
Solar activity fluctuates during
an approximate 11-year period
between when the magnetic
poles switch (the North Pole
and vice versa). Solar flares
are so strong that they can
sometimes even interrupt
Earth’s electrical grid.
LIGHTS OUT In about 5 billion years, our Sun will
run out of the hydrogen fuel it has used for billions of
years to produce energy. Forced to burn the helium
inside its core to fuel reactions, it will swell until it
engulfs the orbits of Mercury, Venus, and Earth. At
this stage, our Sun will be a red giant. Someday, it will
run out of helium and a giant shell of gas (called a
planetary nebula) will surround the squashed core—
now just the size of Earth—which will then have all the
characteristics of a white dwarf star.

NUCLEAR FUSION The Sun’s enormous gravity

pulls gases inward, causing the temperature
and pressure at the Sun’s center to skyrocket.
Inside the core, temperatures and pressures are
high enough to support nuclear fusion. Hydrogen
nuclei collide at extremely high speeds and
fuse together to form helium nuclei. With each
collision, a very tiny bit of hydrogen mass is lost
and converted to huge amounts of energy.
Each second, 700 million tons (635 billion kg)
of hydrogen are converted to 695 million tons
(630 billion kg) of helium. The 5 million tons
(4.5 billion kg) of matter that are lost are
converted into an amount of energy equal to
the explosion of a whopping 100 billion tons
(91 trillion kg) of dynamite.

SOLAR WIND The Sun is

continuously streaming charged
electrons and protons, sending them
into space at 1 million miles per
hour (1.6 million km/s). The solar
wind shapes the tails of comets
and creates auroras on Earth and
other planets. Planets with strong
magnetic fields, like Earth or
Jupiter, can deflect the solar wind,
preventing their atmospheres from
being stripped away.

SUNSPOTS The Sun’s plasma (a huge

cloud of ions and electrons) creates volatile
magnetic fields that wreak beautiful
havoc on the surface. Such effects include
sunspots, which are temporary dark areas
that result from a reduction in convection
caused by concentrated magnetic fields.
This loss in convection makes the area on
the surface marginally cooler than the rest
of the Sun—hence the dark colors.
18 UNDERSTAND SOLSTICES
AND EQUINOXES
Many cultures have long marked the annual solstices,
the year’s shortest and longest days, and the equinoxes,
the two days of the year on which night and day are equal
in length. Both events result from Earth’s tilted axis,
which is always inclined at 23.5 degrees. As Earth orbits
the Sun, the northern hemisphere will be warmest and
JUNE 21 Around this date, the northern hemisphere
experiences its longest days and the warmth of summer,
while the southern hemisphere has its shortest days
and is in the middle of winter. The Sun is directly
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees north).
For latitudes above the Arctic Circle (66.5 degrees
north), the Sun will not set at all. And below the Antarctic
Circle (66.5 degrees south), the Sun will never rise.
N
June 21
summer
winter
S September 21
spring
SEPTEMBER 21 In the northern hemisphere, this date (or
one close to it) marks the first day of autumn, or the
autumnal equinox. Like the vernal equinox, days and nights
are equal in duration, but situations for the northern and
southern hemispheres are reversed. Days will get
progressively shorter in the north and longer in the south.
On either equinox, the Sun will be overhead at noon for
observers on the equator.
19 GET THE REASONS
FOR THE SEASONS
Many people think Earth’s changing proximity to the Sun
is the reason why seasons change on Earth. While our
orbit is not a perfect circle, that small shift in proximity to
the Sun doesn’t cause the summer and winter. In fact, our
orbit is closest to the Sun in January—when much of the
northern hemisphere is bundled up in deep freeze. The
real reason for the seasons is the tilt of Earth’s axis.
receive the most direct sunlight in the summer months
of June, July, and August, when the North Pole points
toward the Sun. Meanwhile, in the southern
hemisphere, the warmest months happen in December,
January, and February, when the South Pole points toward
the Sun and brings direct sunlight to that hemisphere.
MARCH 21 This day (or thereabouts) marks the
vernal equinox in the northern hemisphere. It’s the
first day of spring, signaling the start of longer days
and warmer weather. In the southern hemisphere,
the opposite is true: It’s their autumnal equinox,
so the temperatures drop as the days grow shorter.
N Day and night are equal in length on this date—
March 21 hence the term equinox, which means “equal night.”
spring
Ear t
fall h’s o
rbit
S N
December 21
winter
Sun
summer
N
S
fall
23.5° tilt
DECEMBER 21 This day (or one near it) is the
shortest day in the northern hemisphere and the
longest in the southern hemisphere. The Sun will
be directly overhead at noon along the Tropic of
Capricorn (23.5 degrees south). Above the Arctic
Circle (66.5 degrees north) on this date, the Sun
won’t rise. Below the Antarctic Circle (66.5 degrees
south), the Sun won’t set.
When one hemisphere or the other is tilted more
toward the Sun, it causes that hemisphere to
experience longer days and more direct rays from
the Sun. Basically, during the summer, sunshine is
concentrated in a smaller area—on the part of Earth
facing the Sun. So goes the saying, “It’s the length of
the days and the angle of the rays.”
20 EXPLORE ANCIENT
ASTRONOMICAL MARKERS
When humans first began cultivating the land
thousands of years ago, they needed a way to figure out
when to plant and harvest crops each season. Careful
observation of the changes in daylight throughout the
year helped them discover the importance of the
solstices and equinoxes, and many of the ancient
markers that they built to track the seasons still exist
in the world. Here are just a few.
A STONEHENGE A 5,000-year-old observatory
located in Wiltshire, England, Stonehenge appears to be
aligned with the winter solstice sunset and summer
solstice sunrise. Unlikely to have been making detailed
astronomical observations, humans probably used
Stonehenge for ritual around the seasons.
B C
B CHACO CANYON SUN DAGGER Built by the
ancient Anasazi people of the Chaco Canyon in
modern-day New Mexico in the United States, this
observatory was designed so that when sunlight passed
through slabs of rocks during the equinoxes and
solstices, a dagger of light appeared to pierce the spiral
carved into the rocks. Sadly, these rocks shifted in
1989 and the Sun dagger no longer works.
C NEWGRANGE On the winter solstice, the rising
Sun shines on one of the chambers inside this
observatory in Newgrange, Ireland. Built around
3200 BCE, this observatory is older than the pyramids.
Each year, thousands enter a lottery to see the Sun
light up this chamber for 17 minutes.
 21 TRACK THE SUN WITH
AN ANALEMMA
If you mark the Sun’s position on a
wall, working at the same time once
a week for a year, you’ll end up
sketching a figure eight called an
analemma. This neat shape is caused
by Earth’s tilted rotational axis and
elliptical orbit around the Sun.
Earth’s tilted axis makes the Sun
appear to be higher or lower in the
sky at various times of year—thus
creating marks of varying heights
along your analemma’s vertical
axis. For example, in the summer,
when the northern hemisphere is
angled toward the Sun, our star
seems higher; in the winter, when
the northern hemisphere slants
STEP ONE Choose a day and time
when you can Sun-chase weekly,
and then find a south-facing
window. Make sure the Sun will
shine through that window at your
chosen time throughout the year.
STEP TWO Set a small mirror on
the windowsill so it will reflect
sunlight onto a blank wall. Tape the
mirror to the sill, and ask that no
one mess with it for a full year.
STEP THREE On the first day, stick
a piece of paper to the wall where
the reflection hits and note the date.
Each week at the same time, put
another dated sticky on the
reflection. (Remember to adjust for
daylight saving time!)
STEP FOUR At year’s end, see
which shape your notes make. To
make your analemma for keeps,
lightly trace the pattern in pencil.
northern solstice
7/1
6/1
8/1
5/1

away from the Sun, it looks lower.

sticky notes
Meanwhile, the Sun’s elliptical orbit 4/1
9/1 with dates
sunray vernal
makes it rise a little to the east or reflections equinox autumnal
equinox
3/1
west (depending on the season), sunray 10/1
creating the two loops in the penciled
analemma
line
analemma shape. You can make 2/1
11/1
your own analemma using paper southern
solstice
pieces, a mirror, and a bright mirror 1/1 12/1

spot at home.

Skywatcher.indb 32 5/14/20 5:57 PM

22 CREATE YOUR OWN
SOLARGRAPHS
There’s more than one way to catch the Sun’s annual
journey across the sky—and this project results in an
amazing image, too. A solargraph is the product of a
six-month time-lapse exposure made with a pinhole
camera, revealing an arc of colored bands created by the
Sun as it rises and sets every day in a slightly different
pattern. You can make ethereal images of the Sun’s
path with this low-tech, low-maintenance procedure.
STEP ONE Buy some light-sensitive, black-and-white,
semimatte photographic paper.
STEP TWO Make a simple, sturdy pinhole camera by
poking a small hole in one side of an opaque container.
(Aluminum cans and 35mm film canisters will work.)
Make it light tight (besides the pinhole) with duct tape.
STEP THREE Cover the pinhole with a “shutter”—a
tiny piece of electrical tape. You’ll remove this when it’s
time to start your exposure.
3 4
STEP FOUR In a pitch-black room, quickly put the
photo paper inside the canister and seal the top with
duct tape—don’t expose it to light! Orient the emulsion
side so it faces the hole, but don’t cover the hole itself.
STEP FIVE Find a safe, protected spot facing south in
the northern hemisphere or north in the southern
hemisphere. Snap a test shot to get a composition you
like first. Try to include a man-made object for context.
Then, tie down or tape your pinhole rig in place.
STEP SIX Remove the shutter. Leave the camera in
place for one to six months.
STEP SEVEN In a darkened room, quickly place the
unprocessed paper on a decent scanner. Scan the image
with 500+ dpi (don’t preview) for a negative. Use any
photo software to get the inverse of the image, then
adjust contrast and brightness. Marvel at the variation
in the Sun’s path over time.
5 6
23 MAKE YOUR OWN
PLANISPHERE
There are many constellation websites and apps out
there to help you find what you’re after in the night sky.
But you can also go low-tech and make a planisphere
(aka a star finder) out of paper. Of course, planispheres
are not one-size-fits-all. In fact, they only work well for
a specific latitude range (usually of about 10 degrees).
When making yours, cut the lines that correspond
closest to your own latitude.
STEP ONE Using a photocopier (or scanner and
printer), make two copies of the yellow template below.
Glue each copy to a piece of cardstock or thin cardboard.
STEP TWO On the template that will become the front
side, cut along the light-blue line corresponding to your
latitude. For example, if you’re at 30 degrees latitude
(north or south), cut along the light-blue line marked
30 below the horizontal line (marked 0), making a bowl
shape. If you’re in the northern hemisphere, write “N” in
the center, “W” on the left, and “E” on the right. This will
represent your orientation relative to the northern
horizon. If you’re in the southern hemisphere,
write “S” in the center, “E” on the left, and “W” on
the right to represent your orientation relative to the
southern horizon. Cut out the four shaded arcs under
the numbers.
STEP THREE For the second template that will be the
backside, cut along the dark-blue line at the same
latitude but above the horizontal line, making a bump.
If you’re at 30 degrees, cut along the 30-degree line
above the horizontal line (marked 0). In the northern
hemisphere, write “S” in the center under the top of the
hump, “E” on the left, and “W” on the right to represent
your southern horizon. If you are in the southern
hemisphere, write “N” in the center, “W” on the left, and
“E” on the right. This represents your northern horizon.
You now have two covers—one is a bowl, one is a hump
(unless you’re right on the equator). Staple them
together along the outer edge, making a sleeve.

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
EVENING 5 AM MORNING
6 PM

10
15
20
25
30
M

35
7P

4A

40
M

45
50
AM
8
PM

9
PM AM
2
10 M
PM 1A
11 PM 12 AM

10° 0°
5° 5°
0° 10°

5/14/20 5:57 PM
STEP FOUR Copy the northern hemisphere star wheel STEP SIX Go outside. Hold the planisphere up toward
on this page, as well as the southern hemisphere star the sky, orienting the “N” on the cover so it is facing the
wheel on the next page (#24). Glue the northern star direction of the northern horizon. What you will see in
wheel to a piece of manila folder or cardstock, then cut the sky are the constellations just above the N on the
it out. Cut out the southern star wheel and glue it to the planisphere. To view the
opposite side of the cardstock, making sure the months constellations in the
line up. You should have one double-sided star wheel. southern sky, flip your
planisphere over and
STEP FIVE To use your planisphere, insert the wheel use the same method,
so that your hemisphere’s star field is visible through keeping the star finder
the bowl side of the opening. Rotate the wheel so above your head and
today’s date (displayed in the window) lines up with the aligning the “S” with the
time displayed on the star finder’s round edge. southern horizon.

RUARY MAR
FEB CH

s Aquariu
Y r nu s
co
AR
ri
C ap AP
U
N

RI
JA

us
Equule

L
uila

De
lph Pis
Aq

inu ces

Ce
m s
Scutu Pega

tus
s us
itta
Sag Lac
er t
a
Andromeda
R

a
s
ud
MBE

Vulpecula
Arie

Ca
ns nus
rpe

Erida
Se Cyg
DECE

Ce

yra ulum

MAY
ph

g
Trian

nus
L
eus
Ca

chus
ssi

Ophiu Draco e us
op

Pers
eia

Taurus
Hercules Camelopardalis
Se
rpe Ursaor
Lepus

ns
Ca Min Aurig
R

pu a
na
EMBE

Lib
t Coro alis
Bore
Orion

ra
JUNE
tes

Canes
NOV

r
x

Ursa Majo
Lyn
Boö

Venatici
ni
mi
Ge

r
no

Be Com ros
Mi

ce
Ca

ren a no
nis
nc

ice Leo Minor Mo

V ir

Ca
er

s
go

jor

Leo
R

Ma
E

nis
OB

Ca

U
T LY
OC Co Sextans dra
r vu
s Hy
Crat
er
ER AUG
EMB UST
SEPT
24 LOOK SOUTH WITH YOUR
PLANISPHERE
Planispheres make navigating the night sky easier in a lot of the same ways that maps help
us navigate roadways and wilderness: They show us direction, major landmarks, and relative
distance between objects and areas. Unless you’re observing at the north pole, you will
certainly see part of the southern hemisphere’s sky when you look up, so you’ll need this
chart, too. The same goes for those in the southern hemisphere: You will also need the
northern hemisphere star template on the preceding page (#23).

JUNE
Y
JUL

ni
mi
Orion

Ge
MA
no s
Mi ani
r
Tau
Y
C

Cancer r us
ST

Monoceros
GU

Majois
r
Can

Lep Eri
AU

us da
nu
Hydra s
Pyx
mba

is

AP
m

Sextans
Caelu
Hor
Colu
Leo

Pup

RIL
pis
olog

ia Fornax
ntl
ium

Ce
ER

tus
ter la lum
SEPTEMB

Ve
a

Cra cu
rin

ti

Pisces
Ph
Ca

Re
oe
nix

Hydrus
Sculptor
sca
Mu

Triangulum

r us
Australe

Corvus tau Southern Cross

MARCH
n
na

Ce Aqu
a

ariu
Tuc

s
Gr u

vo
Pa
us

Ara
Ind

Norma cis s
Pis trinu
BER

V irg

s
Telescopium Au
o

op ium us
O

Corona osc s
Australis Micr ga
Boö

Lupus
CT

Sagit Pe
ius
tes

tariu
s
O

orp
r nu

s
Sc
FE
co

Libra
pri

s
B
Ca

leu
RU

uu
Eq
Sc

s
A

inu
ut

t
Serpens Capu lph
RY
um

ER De
B
EM Ophiuchus Serp ila
V e
Caud ns Aqu
NO a JA
NU
ARY
R
DECEMBE
25 MEASURE
THE HEAVENS
You would never use a yardstick to measure a mountain range. In much
26
the same way, the cosmos requires its own units of measurement. TOP FIVE
ASTRONOMICAL UNITS The tape measure of the solar system, ZONE THE SKY
astronomical units (au) are used to gauge the distance between objects in Get acquainted with these
relatively close proximity. One au is 93 million miles (150 million km), or basic signposts.
approximately the distance from Earth to the Sun (which changes
throughout the year).  HORIZON The horizon is
just where the line of Earth
MINUTES AND SECONDS OF ARC When astronomers describe the size meets the sky. It’s best to find
of a celestial object or the distance between two celestial bodies, they often a place with low horizons so
speak in terms of angular size—how large an object or distance appears you can see as much of the
from our vantage point in our sky, measured in degrees (°). For example, the sky as possible. This varies
Large Magellanic Cloud in the southern hemisphere takes up 5 degrees of dramatically depending on
the sky, while the Andromeda Galaxy (M31/NGC 224) in the northern your location.
hemisphere takes up 3 degrees. But in the heavens, even 1 degree is often
too large a unit of measure. That’s where minutes and seconds of arc  ZENITH The very center
come in. Each arc minute (') is 1/60 of a degree; each arc second (") is 1/60 of of the sky (aka the point
an arc minute. For a sense of how big (or small) these units are, consider directly above your head) is
that the Moon as viewed from Earth is about 0.5 degrees, or 30 arc seconds. known as the zenith. If you’re
using the right sky chart at
LIGHT YEARS Nothing travels faster than light, so astronomers use the the right time, you should see
enormous distances it can travel as a convenient ruler for measuring space. whatever is at the center of
About 6 trillion miles (10 trillion km), one light year is the inconceivable your chart when you look up.
distance that light travels in a vacuum in one year. But don’t be fooled by its
name: Some mistake light years for a unit of time instead of distance.  POLES These are the
points directly above the
PARSECS Hold your thumb up star at 1 parsec northern and southern poles
distance from on Earth. All other stars appear
at arm’s length and close one eye. the Sun
Note where your thumb appears to circle around these points.
against the background. Switch 1 arcsec angle
eyes—see how your thumb  CELESTIAL EQUATOR
“moved”? That’s called parallax. This circle on the celestial
Scientists use it to gauge a star’s sphere is in the same plane
apparent distance using a parsec as Earth’s equator. Stars near
(pc), or the parallax of 1 arc the equator (like Orion’s belt)
second. If you imagine the Sun are visible from any spot on
and Earth making up two corners Earth in Earth in the globe. It’s also 0 degrees
summer winter
on the short side of a triangle, the declination (see #49).
distance between them is 1 au.
When the angle opposite the  ECLIPTIC This is the
short side (the angle created by path that the Sun and the
the star whose distance you’re Moon appear to take along
measuring) measures 1 arc the stars. All the planets will
1 au
second, that star is 1 parsec—or travel the sky along it, too.
Sun
3.26 light years—away.
 27 TIME THE SUNSET
WITH YOUR FINGERS
When you’re counting down the minutes to your
next evening star gaze, it’s crucial to know what
time the Sun will dip over the horizon and when the
skies should be thoroughly dark enough for viewing.
Of course, not everyone carries around a sunset
calendar or is constantly in range of the all-knowing
Internet. This trick can come in handy when you
need to measure how much light remains in a day.
STEP ONE Hold either hand out at arm’s length
with your elbow straight. Turn your hand sideways
at the wrist, so that the palm faces you. Tuck your
thumb into your palm (or just ignore it).
Skywatcher.indb 38
STEP TWO Line up the top of your index finger
with the bottom border of the Sun. Count the
number of finger widths between the bottom edge
of the Sun and the horizon, moving your hand as
necessary. (As always, don’t look directly at the Sun!)
STEP THREE Multiply the number of finger widths
between the Sun and the horizon by 15. Each finger
width represents about 15 minutes (it depends on
finger width and arm length) until sunset, so this
calculation gives a ballpark estimate of how much
time you have until the Sun goes down. After sunset,
it takes at least half an hour to begin seeing stars.
 All space
above you
makes up The angle of When measuring the
180 degrees. separation height of an object in
between the the sky, you are
horizon and the measuring the angle
point directly from the horizon.
above you is
90 degrees.

Imagine the universe is

a 360-degree sphere
with you at its center.
Everything under your feet—the ground, the center
of Earth, the other side of Earth, and all space
below Earth—makes up 180 degrees.

28 MEASURE DEGREES OF
SEPARATION IN THE SKY
When astronomers want to describe the distance between
USING YOUR HAND
celestial bodies, they speak in terms of angular separation: the
angle of distance between objects as we perceive them, which is A 1° The width of your pinky finger
measured in degrees, arc minutes, and arc seconds (see #25). represents roughly 1 degree of separation.
Using units smaller than degrees generally requires a telescope,
but you can get a rough idea of the angular separation between B 5° Together, your three middle fingers
stars with your hands and some basic math. cover about 5 degrees.
It helps to imagine all of space as a sphere, with Earth at its
center—not as a reversion to some pre-Copernican worldview C 10° A clenched fist is approximately
but because, for the sake of this exercise, you actually are the 10 degrees.
center of the universe. There are 360 degrees in a circle, and
the horizon splits that circle in two, meaning the sky above you D 15° To measure about 15 degrees, separate
and the ground beneath your feet both measure 180 degrees. your pinky and your index finger.
The angular separation between the point directly above you
and the horizon is 90 degrees. To measure smaller than E 25° The distance between the tip of your
90-degree increments, try these hand positions, with your hand pinky and thumb is around 25 degrees.
at arm’s length, elbows straight, palm facing outward. A good
starter object to measure? The Sun or the Moon, which each
take up 0.5 degrees and can be covered by your pinky!

A 1° B 5° C 10° D 15° E 25°

Skywatcher.indb 39 5/14/20 5:57 PM

 SKYHOPPING

29 START AT THE
BIG DIPPER
Making up the tail and rump of the large
BIG
DIPPER
constellation Ursa Major (aka the Great
Bear; see #53), the Big Dipper is one of the
most familiar patterns in the northern
hemisphere. It’s long been important to
navigators because it is visible most of the
year and can always be seen near Polaris
(the North Star, or Alpha Ursae Minoris).
To find it, use a magnetic compass to
face north, then look up from the horizon.
You should spot the Big Dipper about
halfway up the sky. Since its orientation
depends on the time of night and the
season of the year, be prepared to see
the Big Dipper with its bowl facing up,
sideways, or down.
Just as people use familiar landmarks
to navigate unfamiliar areas, the Big
Dipper can help you find many other
constellations. Here are a few celestial
BOÖTES
tours you can take with the Big Dipper.

30 PINPOINT
ARCTURUS
Arcturus (Alpha Boötis) is the fourth-
brightest star in the sky and the second-
brightest in the northern hemisphere. It’s
in the kite-shape constellation Boötes the Arcturus
Herdsman, which ancient skywatchers saw
as a farmer tilling the land with a plow
(the Big Dipper). About 25 times larger than
our Sun, Arcturus is an orange star whose
light takes more than 36 years to reach our
solar system. To find it, start at the three
stars that form the Big Dipper’s curved
handle. Follow this curve away from the
Dipper’s bowl until you reach a bright
orange star. You can remember this by the
mnemonic “arc to Arcturus.”

Skywatcher.indb 40 5/14/20 5:57 PM

 Regulus

LEO
31 LOCATE
REGULUS
Regulus (Alpha Leonis), the brightest
star in the constellation Leo the Lion,
is actually four stars. The system
includes the very large Regulus A
(three times the size of our Sun) and
its tiny, as-yet-unseen orbiting
companion—which astronomers
think is a stellar remnant, also called a
white dwarf star. Farther away,
Regulus B and Regulus C (each half
the size of our Sun) orbit each other.
Light from this quartet takes 79 light
years to get to Earth. To find Regulus,
start with the two stars that make the
handle side of the bowl of the Big
Dipper and connect them with a line.
Extend that line outward from the
bottom of the bowl. The first bright
star you encounter will be Regulus.

32 SUSS OUT
SPICA
Spica (Alpha Virginis) is not one but (at least) two
VIRGO
giant blue stars orbiting each other once every four
days. To the unaided eye—and even through a
telescope—Spica looks like a single, very bright,
pale-blue star. Still, some instruments used to
examine Spica reveal that there may actually be
three or more stars in orbit around each other! To
find Spica, continue following the curved path
used to locate Arcturus. The next bright star you
encounter will be Spica, located in Virgo the Virgin.
Remember these directions using the mnemonics
“spike to Spica” or “speed on to Spica.”

Spica

Skywatcher.indb 41 5/14/20 5:57 PM

33
TEST VISION WITH
THE BIG DIPPER
Next time you spot the Big Dipper,
see if you can make out the double
star, the second star from the end
of its handle. If you can see it,
congratulations—in ancient times,
you could have officially worked as a
soldier or a hunter, or held some other
job that required perfect eyesight.
Romans who could distinguish Mizar
(Zeta Ursae Majoris) and Alcor
(80 Ursae Majoris), the two stars that
make up this double star, were
considered to have excellent vision.
Modern astronomers have taken a
closer look at Mizar and Alcor and
discovered that both stars are much
more complex than the ancients
originally knew. Mizar is actually a
system of four stars orbiting each
other, and Alcor is a system of two
stars, making six gravitationally
connected stars within a couple of light
years from each other. This star system
is a distance of 83 light years from
Earth. But no matter how good your
eyesight is, you won’t be able to see
these six stars with the unaided eye.

34 TRACK TIME WITH

THE LITTLE DIPPER
Need to know how much time has passed since you
3 hours later
(45°)
Start of observation
(0°)
21 hours later
(315°)

stepped outside to stargaze? If you’re in the northern

Little
hemisphere, you can use the Little Dipper as a timer. Dipper
The Little Dipper completes a counterclockwise circle 6 hours later 18 hours later
(90°) Polaris (270°)
around Polaris, or the North Star (Alpha Ursae Minoris),
every 24 hours. This means that every hour it moves 15 hours later
9 hours later (225°)
15 degrees (divide a full 360-degree rotation by 24 and (135°)
you get 15). If you track the Little Dipper and estimate
how many degrees it’s traveled in the circle, you should 1 2 hours later
(180°)
be able to guess how much time has passed.
35
ASSEMBLE A

r
Big Dippe
STAR CLOCK
Before the invention of THE TIME IS
mechanical clocks, people used
the motion of the stars to

Cassio
measure time at night. Turns out
that the Big Dipper is a handy

peia
clock if you forget your watch.
Think of the Big Dipper as the
hand of a clock with Polaris in Little Dipper
the dial’s center—only the hours
of the clock are printed backward.
That’s because the Big Dipper
moves counterclockwise, so this
clock will need to rotate in that
direction, too. Second, the hours
aren’t stationary but change
depending on what month it is. PHOTOCOPY AND CUT OUT
In other words, midnight will not
always be at the top of the dial.

TO MAKE Photocopy and cut out

the circles, then attach the
D EC JAN
centers with a paper fastener.
V F
1 12 11

EB
NO

TO USE Make sure that the 10

2 AM
midnight PM
current month is at the top of PM
AM
the outer circle. Rotate the dark
3

9
M
PM
A

circle until the diagram of the

4

M AR
OCT

AM

PM

Big Dipper matches the real Big

5

Dipper’s position in the sky. The

PM
AM

current time will appear in the

AM
6

PM

cutout. If daylight saving time is

6

in effect (in summer), add one

AM

PM
7

5 4

hour to the time.

APR
SEP

AM

PM
8
M

A M
9

PM
AM
PM
no n A M 0 2
1 12o 11 1
UG

AY
A

J UL JUN
36
FIND YOUR WAY BY THE
WIND, STARS, AND WAVES
Unless you’re a shark, getting lost in the ocean is pretty
much a death sentence. Without the tools of modern
astronomy, the people of the South Pacific managed to
turn an otherwise incredibly dangerous and impossible
adventure into a routine journey between islands.
Long before the oceans and skies were scientifically
mapped and charted—and even longer before satellites
and GPS allowed seafaring adventurers to determine
their location with pinpoint accuracy—Polynesian
navigators relied on the winds, stars, and waves to find
their way among the many tiny islands of the Pacific.
Wayfinding was much less a science of getting from
point A to point B than it was a way of being in the
world; it involved becoming closely attuned to one’s
surroundings and developing an almost felt facility for
traversing the seas. With no map, no compass, and no
sextant to speak of, Polynesian navigators used their
own powers of observation, coupled with knowledge
passed down through generations in sometimes
decades-long apprenticeships, to guide their outrigger
canoes around the Pacific with incredible precision.
But how did it work?
Wayfinding was a sophisticated and complicated
system, which, at its most basic, involved the
memorization of a “star chart”—more a mental map
than anything written down—and almost constant
observation of one’s surroundings, speed, direction, and
time passed. But to call this mental navigational tool
a “star chart” is not really doing it justice. Beyond
mapping the rising and setting locations of a number of practiced today. Here are just a few of the many signposts
important celestial bodies at different times during the Pacific Islanders were using to find their way, long before
year (the “houses” of the stars, or where they appeared anyone else dared leave the relative safety of land.
to “go into” and “come out of ” the ocean), this star chart
also accounted for the directions of the waves and THE SUN Early in the day, the Sun creates a narrow
winds, as well as the flight patterns of birds. The system reflection on the water, which widens as the Sun rises
allowed navigators to determine the direction in which in the sky, then narrows again as the Sun sets. During
they were traveling—and more or less where they the morning and evenings, when our star is not so high
were—in relation to both the stars above and their overhead, navigators would rely on signals from the
starting location. water, as well as the reflections made by the Sun on the
While many of the secrets of ancient Polynesian waves, to determine overall direction.
celestial navigation have been lost to time, something of
a resurgence in non-instrument navigation has resulted WAVES When the Sun was too high in the sky to be
in a mix of Western and traditional methods being helpful for navigation—or the night skies too cloudy to
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The Caucus.

Both the “Independents” of Pennsylvania and the “Half-Breeds” of

New York at first proclaimed their opposition to the caucus system of
nominating candidates for U. S. Senators, and the newspapers in
their interest wrote as warmly for a time against “King Caucus” as
did the dissatisfied Democratic journals in the days of De Witt
Clinton. The situation, however, was totally different, and mere
declamation could not long withstand the inevitable. In Pennsylvania
almost nightly “conferences” were held by the Independents, as
indeed they were in New York, though in both States a show of
hostility was kept up to nominating in party caucus men who were to
be elected by representative, more plainly legislative votes. It was at
first claimed that in the Legislature each man ought to act for himself
or his constituents, but very shortly it was found that the caucuses of
the separate wings were as binding upon the respective wings as they
could have been upon the whole. Dead-locks were interminable as
long as this condition of affairs obtained, and hostility to the caucus
system was before very long quietly discouraged and finally flatly
abandoned, for each struggle was ended by the ratification of a
general caucus, and none of them could have been ended without it.
The several attempts to find other means to reach a result, only led
the participants farther away from the true principle, under
republican forms at least, of the right of the majority to rule. In
Pennsylvania, when Mr. Oliver withdrew, fifty of his friends
assembled and informally named General Beaver, and by this action
sought to bind the original 95 friends of Oliver. Their conduct was
excused by the plea that they represented a majority of their faction.
It failed to bind all of the original number, though some of the
Independents were won. The Independents, rather the original 44,
bound themselves in writing not to change their course of action
unless there was secured the previous concurrence of two-thirds, and
this principle was extended to the 56 who supported Mr. Bayne.
Then when the joint committee of 24 was agreed upon, it was bound
by a rule requiring three-fourths to recommend a candidate. All of
these were plain departures from a great principle, and the deeper
the contest became, the greater the departure. True, these were but
voluntary forms, but they were indefensible, and are only referred to
now to show the danger of mad assaults upon great principles when
personal and factious aims are at stake. Opposition to the early
Congressional caucus was plainly right, since one department of the
Government was by voluntary agencies actually controlling another,
while the law gave legal forms which could be more properly
initiated through voluntary action. The writer believes, and past
contests all confirm the view that the voluntary action can only be
safely employed by the power by the law with the right of selection.
Thus the people elect township, county and State officers, and it is
their right and duty by the best attainable voluntary action to
indicate their choice. This is done through the caucus or convention,
the latter not differing from the former save in extent and possibly
breadth of representation. The same rule applies to all offices elective
by the people. It cannot properly apply to appointive offices, and
while the attempt to apply it to the election of U. S. Senators shows a
strong desire on the part, frequently of the more public-spirited
citizens, to exercise a greater share in the selection of these officers
than the law directly gives them, yet their representatives can very
properly be called upon to act as they would act if they had direct
power in the premises, and such action leads them into a party
caucus, where the will of the majority of their respective parties can
be fairly ascertained, and when ascertained respected. The State
Legislatures appoint U. S. Senators, and the Representatives and
Senators of the States are bound to consider in their selection the
good of the entire State. If this comports with the wish of their
respective districts, very well; if it does not, their duty is not less
plain. Probably the time will never come when the people will elect
United States Senators; to do that is to radically change the Federal
system, and to practically destroy one of the most important
branches of the Government; yet he is not a careful observer who
does not note a growing disposition on the part of the people, and
largely the people of certain localities, and imaginary political sub-
divisions, to control these selections. The same is true of Presidential
nominations, where masses of people deny the right of State
Conventions to instruct their delegates-at-large. In many States the
people composing either of the great parties now select their own
representative delegates to National Conventions, and where their
selections are not respected, grave party danger is sure to follow.
There is nothing wrong in this, since it points to, and is but paving
the way for a more popular selection of Presidents and Vice-
Presidents—to an eventual selection of Presidential electors probably
by Congressional districts. Yet those to be selected at large must
through practical voluntary forms be nominated in that way, and the
partisan State Convention is the best method yet devised for this
work, and its instructions should be as binding as those of the people
upon their representatives. In this government of ours there is
voluntary and legal work delegated to the people directly; there is
legal work delegated to appointing powers, and an intelligent
discrimination should ever be exercised between the two. “Render
unto Cæsar those things which are Cæsar’s,” unless there be a plain
desire, backed by a good reason, to promote popular reforms as
enduring as the practices and principles which they are intended to
support.
Fredrick W. Whitridge, in an able review of the caucus system
published[39] in Lalor’s Encyclopædia of Political Science, says:
“A caucus, in the political vocabulary of the United States, is
primarily a private meeting of voters holding similar views, held
prior to an election for the purpose of furthering such views at the
election. With the development of parties, and the rule of majorities,
the caucus or some equivalent has become an indispensable adjunct
to party government, and it may now be defined as a meeting of the
majority of the electors belonging to the same party in any political
or legislative body held preliminary to a meeting thereof, for the
purpose of selecting candidates to be voted for, or for the purpose of
determining the course of the party at the meeting of the whole body.
The candidates of each party are universally selected by caucus,
either directly or indirectly through delegates to conventions chosen
in caucuses. In legislative bodies the course of each party is often
predetermined with certainty in caucus, and often discussion
between parties has been, in consequence, in some degree
superseded. The caucus system is, in short, the basis of a complete
electoral system which has grown up within each party, side by side
with that which is alone contemplated by the laws. This condition
has in recent years attracted much attention, and has been bitterly
announced as an evil. It was, however, early foreseen. John Adams,
in 1814, wrote in the “Tenth Letter on Government:” “They have
invented a balance to all balance in their caucuses. We have
congressional caucuses, state caucuses, county caucuses, city
caucuses, district caucuses, town caucuses, parish caucuses, and
Sunday caucuses at church doors, and in these aristocratical
caucuses elections have been decided.” The caucus is a necessary
consequence of majority rule. If the majority is to define the policy of
a party, there must be some method within each party of ascertaining
the mind of the majority, and settling the party programme, before it
meets the opposing party at the polls. The Carlton and Reform clubs
discharge for the Tories and Liberals many of the functions of a
congressional caucus. Meetings of the members of the parties in the
reichstag, the corps legislatif and the chamber of deputies are not
unusual, although they have generally merely been for consultation,
and neither in England, France, Germany or Italy, has any such
authority been conceded to the wish of the majority of a party as we
have rested in the decision of a caucus. What has been called a
caucus has been established by the Liberals of Birmingham, England,
as to which, see a paper by W. Fraser Rae, in the “International
Review” for August, 1880. The origin of the term caucus is obscure.
It has been derived from the Algonquin word Kaw-kaw-wus—to
consult, to speak—but the more probable derivation makes it a
corruption of caulkers. In the early politics of Boston, and
particularly during the early difficulties between the townsmen and
the British troops, the seafaring men and those employed about the
ship yards were prominent among the town-people, and there were
numerous gatherings which may have very easily come to be called
by way of reproach a meeting of caulkers, after the least influential
class who attended them, or from the caulking house or caulk house
in which they were held. What was at first a derisive description,
came to be an appellation, and the gatherings of so-called caulkers
became a caucus. John Pickering, in a vocabulary of words and
phrases peculiar to the United States (Boston, 1816), gives this
derivation of the word, and says several gentlemen mentioned to him
that they had heard this derivation. Gordon, writing in 1774, says:
“More than fifty years ago Mr. Samuel Adams’ father and twenty
others, one or two from the north end of the town where all the ship
business is carried on, used to meet, make a caucus and lay their plan
for introducing certain persons into places of trust and power. When
they had settled it they separated, and each used their particular
influence within his own circle. He and his friends would furnish
themselves with ballots, including the names of the parties fixed
upon, which they distributed on the days of election. By acting in
concert, together with a careful and extensive distribution of ballots,
they generally carried their elections to their own mind. In like
manner it was that Mr. Samuel Adams first became a representative
for Boston.” (History of the American Revolution, vol. i., p. 365.)
February, 1763, Adams writes in his diary: “This day I learned that
the caucus club meets at certain times in the garret of Tom Dawes,
the adjutant of the Boston regiment. He has a large house and he has
a movable partition in his garret which he takes down and the whole
club meets in his room. There they smoke tobacco until they cannot
see one end of the room from another. There they drink flip, I
suppose, and there they choose a moderator who puts questions to
the vote regularly; and selectmen, assessors, collectors, wardens, fire
wards and representatives are regularly chosen in the town. Uncle
Fairfield, Story, Ruddock, Adams, Cooper, and a rudis indigestaques
moles of others, are members. They send committees to wait on the
merchants’ club, and to propose in the choice of men and measures.
Captain Cunningham says, they have often solicited him to go to the
caucuses; they have assured him their benefit in his business, etc.”
(Adams’ Works, vol. ii., p. 144.) Under the title caucus should be
considered the congressional nominating caucus; the caucuses of
legislative assemblies; primary elections, still known outside the
larger cities as caucuses; the evils which have been attributed to the
latter, and the remedies which have been proposed. These will
accordingly be mentioned in the order given.
“The democratic system is the result of the reorganization of the
various anti-Tammany democratic factions, brought about, in 1881,
by a practically self-appointed committee of 100. Under this system
primary elections are to be held annually in each of 678 election
districts, at which all democratic electors resident in the respective
districts may participate, provided they were registered at the last
general election. The persons voting at any primary shall be
members of the election district association for the ensuing year,
which is to be organized in January of each year. The associations
may admit democratic residents in their respective districts, who are
not members, to membership, and they have general supervision of
the interests of the party within their districts. Primaries are held on
not less than four days’ public notice, through the newspapers, of the
time and place, and at the appointed time the meeting is called to
order by the chairman of the election district association, provided
twenty persons be present; if that number shall not be present, the
meeting may be called to order with a less number, at the end of
fifteen minutes. The first business of the meeting is to select a
chairman, and all elections of delegates or committeemen shall take
place in open meeting. Each person, as he offers to vote, states his
name and residence, which may be compared with the registration
list at the last election, and each person shall state for whom he
votes, or he may hand to the judges an open ballot, having
designated thereon the persons for whom he votes, and for what
positions. Nominations are all made by conventions of delegates
from the districts within which the candidate to be chosen is to be
voted for. There is an assembly district committee in each assembly
district, composed of one delegate for each 100 votes or fraction
thereof, from each election district within the assembly district.
There is also a county committee composed of delegates from each of
the assembly district committees. The function of these committees
is generally to look after the interests of the parties within their
respective spheres. This system is too new for its workings to be as
yet fairly criticised. It may prove a really popular system, or it may
prove only an inchoate form of the other systems. At present it can
only be said that the first primaries under it were participated in by
27,000 electors.
“The evils of the caucus and primary election systems lie in the
stringent obligation which is attached to the will of a formal
majority; in the fact that the process of ascertaining what the will of
the majority is, has been surrounded with so many restrictions that
the actual majority of votes are disfranchised, and take no part in
that process, so that the formal majority is in consequence no longer
the majority in fact, although it continues to demand recognition of
its decisions as such.
 “The separation between the organization and the party, between
those who nominate and those who elect, is the sum of the evils of
the too highly organized caucus system. It has its roots in the notion
that the majority is right, because it is the majority, which is the
popular view thus expressed by Hammond: ‘I think that when
political friends consent to go into caucus for the nomination of
officers, every member of such caucus is bound in honor to support
and carry into effect its determination. If you suspect that
determination will be so preposterous that you cannot in conscience
support it, then you ought on no account to become one of its
members. To try your chance in a caucus, and then, because your
wishes are not gratified, to attempt to defeat the result of the
deliberation of your friends, strikes me as a palpable violation of
honor and good faith. You caucus for no other possible purpose than
under the implied argument that the opinion and wishes of the
minority shall be yielded to the opinions of the majority, and the sole
object of caucusing is to ascertain what is the will of the majority. I
repeat that unless you intend to carry into effect the wishes of the
majority, however contrary to your own, you have no business at a
caucus.’ (Political History of New York, vol. i., p. 192).—In
accordance with this theory, the will of the majority becomes
obligatory as soon as it is made known, and one cannot assist at a
caucus in order to ascertain the will of the majority, without thereby
being bound to follow it; and the theory is so deeply rooted that,
under the caucus and primary election system, it has been extended
to cases in which the majorities are such only in form.
“The remedies as well as the evils of the caucus and nominating
system have been made the subject of general discussion in
connection with civil service reform. It is claimed that that reform,
by giving to public officers the same tenure of their positions which is
enjoyed by the employes of a corporation or a private business
house, or during the continuance of efficiency or good behaviour,
would abolish or greatly diminish the evils of the caucus system by
depriving public officers of the illegitimate incentive to maintain it
under which they now act. Other more speculative remedies have
been suggested. It is proposed, on the one hand, to very greatly
diminish the number of elective officers, and, in order to do away
with the predetermination of elections, to restrict the political action
of the people in their own persons to districts so small that they can
meet together and act as one body, and that in all other affairs than
those of these small districts the people should act by delegates. The
theory here seems to be to get rid of the necessity for election and
nominating machinery. (See ‘A True Republic,’ by Albert Strickney,
New York, 1879; and a series of articles in Scribner’s Monthly for
1881, by the same writer). On the other hand, it is proposed to
greatly increase the number of elections, by taking the whole primary
system under the protection of the law.[40] This plan proposes: 1. The
direct nomination of candidates by the members of the respective
political parties in place of nominations by delegates in conventions.
2. To apply the election laws to primary elections. 3. To provide that
both political parties shall participate in the same primary election
instead of having a different caucus for each party. 4. To provide for
a final election to be held between two candidates, each
representative of a party who have been selected by means of the
primary election. This plan would undoubtedly do away with the
evils of the present caucus system, but it contains no guarantee that a
new caucus system would not be erected for the purpose of
influencing ‘the primary election’ in the same manner in which the
present primary system now influences the final election. (See
however ‘The Elective Franchise in the United States,’ New York,
1880, by D. C. McClellan.)—The effective remedy for the evils of the
caucus system will probably be found in the sanction of primary
elections by law. * * * Bills for this purpose were introduced by the
Hon. Erastus Brooks in the New York Legislature in 1881, which
provided substantially for the system proposed by Mr. McClellan, but
they were left unacted upon, and no legislative attempt to regulate
primaries, except by providing for their being called, and for their
procedure, has been made elsewhere. In Ohio what is known as the
Baber law provides that where any voluntary political association
orders a primary, it must be by a majority vote of the central or
controlling committee of such party or association; that the call must
be published for at least five days in the newspapers, and state the
time and place of the meeting, the authority by which it was called,
and the name of the person who is to represent that authority at each
poll. The law also provides for challenging voters, for punishment of
illegal voting, and for the bribery or intervention of electors or
judges. (Rev. Stat. Ohio, secs. 2916–2921.) A similar law in Missouri
is made applicable to counties only of over 100,000 inhabitants, but
by this law it is made optional with the voluntary political association
whether it will or not hold its primaries under the law, and if it does,
it is provided that the county shall incur no expense in the conduct of
such elections. (Laws of Missouri, 1815, p. 54.) A similar law also
exists in California. (Laws of California, 1865–1866, p. 438.) These
laws comprise all the existing legislation on the subject, except what
is known as the Landis Bill of 1881, which requires primary officers
to take an oath, and which punishes fraud.”
 Assassination of President Garfield.

At 9 o’clock on the morning of Saturday, July 2d, 1881, President

Garfield, accompanied by Secretary Blaine, left the Executive
Mansion to take a special train from the Baltimore and Potomac
depot for New England, where he intended to visit the college from
which he had graduated. Arriving at the depot, he was walking arm-
in-arm through the main waiting-room, when Charles J. Guiteau, a
persistent applicant for an office, who had some time previously
entered through the main door, advanced to the centre of the room,
and having reached within a few feet of his victim, fired two shots,
one of which took fatal effect. The bullet was of forty-four calibre,
and striking the President about four inches to the right of the spinal
column, struck the tenth and badly shattered the eleventh rib. The
President sank to the floor, and was conveyed to a room where
temporary conveniences were attainable, and a couch was
improvised. Dr. Bliss made an unsuccessful effort to find the ball.
The shock to the President’s system was very severe, and at first
apprehensions were felt that death would ensue speedily. Two hours
after the shooting, the physicians decided to remove him to the
Executive Mansion. An army ambulance was procured, and the
removal effected. Soon after, vomiting set in, and the patient
exhibited a dangerous degree of prostration, which threatened to end
speedily in dissolution. This hopeless condition of affairs continued
until past midnight, when more favorable symptoms were exhibited.
Dr. Bliss was on this Sunday morning designated to take charge of
the case, and he called Surgeon-General Barnes, Assistant Surgeon-
General Woodward, and Dr. Reyburn as consulting physician. To
satisfy the demand of the country, Drs. Agnew, of Philadelphia, and
Hamilton, of New York, were also summoned by telegraph, and
arrived on a special train over the Pennsylvania Railroad, Sunday
afternoon. For several days immediately succeeding the shooting, the
patient suffered great inconvenience and pain in the lower limbs.
This created an apprehension that the spinal nerves had been
injured, and death was momentarily expected. On the night of July
4th a favorable turn was observed, and the morning of the 5th
brought with it a vague but undefined hope that a favorable issue
might ensue. Under this comforting conviction, Drs. Agnew and
Hamilton, after consultation with the resident medical attendants,
returned to their homes; first having published to the country an
endorsement of the treatment inaugurated. During July 5th and 6th
the patient continued to improve, the pulse and respiration showing
a marked approach to the condition of healthfulness, the former
being reported on the morning of the 6th at 98, and in the evening it
only increased to 104. On the 7th Dr. Bliss became very confident of
ultimate triumph over the malady. In previous bulletins meagre hope
was given, and the chances for recovery estimated at one in a
hundred.
From July 7th to the 16th there was a slight but uninterrupted
improvement, and the country began to entertain a confident hope
that the patient would recover.
Hope and fear alternated from day to day, amid the most painful
excitement. On the 8th of August Drs. Agnew and Hamilton had to
perform their second operation to allow a free flow of pus from the
wound. This resulted in an important discovery. It was ascertained
that the track of the bullet had turned from its downward deflection
to a forward course. The operation lasted an hour, and ether was
administered, the effect of which was very unfortunate. Nausea
succeeded, and vomiting followed every effort to administer
nourishment for some time. However, he soon rallied, and the
operation was pronounced successful, and, on the following day, the
President, for the first time, wrote his name. On the 10th he signed
an important extradition paper, and on the 11th wrote a letter of
hopefulness to his aged mother. On the 12th Dr. Hamilton expressed
the opinion that the further attendance of himself and Dr. Agnew
was unnecessary. The stomach continued weak, however, and on the
15th nausea returned, and the most menacing physical prostration
followed the frequent vomiting, and the evening bulletin announced
that “the President’s condition, on the whole, is less satisfactory.”
Next a new complication forced itself upon the attention of the
physicians. This was described as “inflammation of the right parotid
gland.” On August 24th it was decided to make an incision below and
forward of the right ear, in order to prevent suppuration. Though this
operation was pronounced satisfactory, the patient gradually sank,
until August 25th, when all hope seemed to have left those in
attendance.
Two days of a dreary watch ensued; on the 27th an improvement
inspired new hope. This continued throughout the week, but failed to
build up the system. Then it was determined to remove the patient to
a more favorable atmosphere. On the 6th of September this design
was executed, he having been conveyed in a car arranged for the
purpose to Long Branch, where, in a cottage at Elberon, it was hoped
vigor would return. At first, indications justified the most sanguine
expectations. On the 9th, however, fever returned, and a cough came
to harass the wasted sufferer. It was attended with purulent
expectoration, and became so troublesome as to entitle it to be
regarded as the leading feature of the case. The surgeons attributed it
to the septic condition of the blood. The trouble increased until
Saturday, September 10th, when it was thought the end was reached.
He rallied, however, and improved rapidly, during the succeeding
few days, and on Tuesday, the 13th, was lifted from the bed and
placed in a chair at the window. The improvement was not enduring,
however, and on Saturday, September 17th, the rigor returned.
During the nights and days succeeding, until the final moment, hope
rose and fell alternately, and though the patient’s spirits fluctuated to
justify this change of feeling, the improvement failed to bring with it
the strength necessary to meet the strain.
President Garfield died at 10.35 on the night of Sept. 19th, 1881,
and our nation mourned, as it had only done once before, when
Abraham Lincoln also fell by the hand of an assassin. The assassin
Guiteau was tried and convicted, the jury rejecting his plea of
insanity.
 President Arthur.

Vice-President Arthur, during the long illness of the President, and

at the time of his death, deported himself so well that he won the
good opinion of nearly all classes of the people, and happily for
weeks and months all factious or partisan spirit was hushed by the
nation’s great calamity. At midnight on the 19th of September the
Cabinet telegraphed him from Long Branch to take the oath of office,
and this he very properly did before a local judge. The Government
cannot wisely be left without a head for a single day. He was soon
afterwards again sworn in at Washington, with the usual ceremonies,
and took occasion to make a speech which improved the growing
better feeling. The new President requested the Cabinet to hold on
until Congress met, and it would have remained intact had Secretary
Windom not found it necessary to resume his place in the Senate.
The vacancy was offered to ex-Governor Morgan, of New York, who
was actually nominated and confirmed before he made up his mind
to decline it. Judge Folger now fills the place. The several changes
since made will be found in the Tabulated History, Book VII.
It has thus far been the effort of President Arthur to allay whatever
of factious bitterness remains in the Republican party. In his own
State of New York the terms “Half-Breed” and “Stalwart” are passing
into comparative disuse, as are the terms “Regulars” and
“Independents” in Pennsylvania.
 “Boss Rule.”

The complaint of “Boss Rule” in these States—by which is meant

the control of certain leaders—still obtains to some extent. Wayne
MacVeagh was the author of this very telling political epithet, and he
used it with rare force in his street speeches at Chicago when
opposing the nomination of Grant. It was still further cultivated by
Rufus E. Shapley, Esq., of Philadelphia, the author of “Solid for
Mulhooly,” a most admirable political satire, which had an immense
sale. Its many hits were freely quoted by the Reformers of
Philadelphia, who organized under the Committee of One Hundred,
a body of merchants who first banded themselves together to
promote reforms in the municipal government. This organization,
aided by the Democrats, defeated Mayor Wm. S. Stokley for his third
term, electing Mr. King, theretofore a very popular Democratic
councilman. In return for this support, the Democrats accepted John
Hunter, Committee’s nominee for Tax Receiver, and the combination
succeeded. In the fall of 1881 it failed on the city ticket, but in the
spring of 1882 secured material successes in the election of
Councilmen, who were nominees of both parties, but aided by the
endorsement of the Committee of One Hundred. A similar
combination failed as between Brown (Rep.) and Eisenbrown (Dem.)
for Magistrate. On this part of the ticket the entire city voted, and the
regular Republicans won by about 500 majority.
The following is the declaration of principles of the Citizens’
Republican Association of Philadelphia, which, under the banner of
Mr. Wolfe, extended its organization to several counties:
I. We adhere to the platform of the National Convention of the
Republican party, adopted at Chicago, June 2d, 1880, and we
proclaim our unswerving allegiance to the great principles upon
which that party was founded, to wit: national supremacy, universal
liberty, and governmental probity.
 II. The Republican party, during its glorious career, having
virtually established its principles of national supremacy and
universal liberty as the law of the land, we shall, while keeping a
vigilant watch over the maintenance of those principles, regard the
third one, viz.: governmental probity, as the living issue to be
struggled for in the future; and as the pure administration of
government is essential to the permanence of Republican
institutions, we consider this issue as in no way inferior in
importance to any other.
III. The only practical method of restoring purity to administration
is through the adoption of a system of civil service, under which
public officials shall not be the tools of any man or of any clique,
subject to dismissal at their behest, or to assessment in their service;
nor appointment to office be “patronage” at the disposal of any man
to consolidate his power within the party.
IV. It is the abuse of this appointing power which has led to the
formation of the “machine,” and the subjection of the party to
“bosses.” Our chosen leader, the late President Garfield, fell a martyr
in his contest with the “bosses.” We take up the struggle where he left
it, and we hereby declare that we will own no allegiance to any
“boss,” nor be subservient to any “machine;” but that we will do our
utmost to liberate the party from the “boss” domination under which
it has fallen.
V. Recognizing that political parties are simply instrumentalities
for the enforcement of certain recognized principles, we shall
endeavor to promote the principles of the Republican party by means
of that party, disenthralled and released from the domination of its
“bosses.” But should we fail in this, we shall have no hesitation in
seeking to advance the principles of the party through movements
and organizations outside of the party lines.
The idea of the Committee of One Hundred is to war against “boss
rule” in municipal affairs. James McManes has long enjoyed the
leadership of the Republican party in Philadelphia, and the reform
element has directed its force against his power as a leader, though
he joined at Chicago in the MacVeagh war against the form of “boss
rule,” which was then directed against Grant, Conkling, Logan and
Cameron. This episode has really little, if anything, to do with
Federal politics, but the facts are briefly recited with a view to
explain to the reader the leading force which supported Mr. Wolfe in
his independent race in Pennsylvania. Summed up, it is simply one
of those local wars against leadership which precede and follow
factions.
The factious battles in the Republican party, as we have stated,
seem to have spent their force. The assassination of President
Garfield gave them a most serious check, for men were then
compelled to look back and acknowledge that his plain purpose was
to check divisions and heal wounds. Only haste and anger assailed,
and doubtless as quickly regretted the assault. President Arthur, with
commendable reticence and discretion, is believed to be seeking the
same end. He has made few changes, and these reluctantly. His
nomination of ex-Senator Conkling to a seat in the Supreme Bench,
which, though declined, is generally accepted as an assurance to New
Yorkers that the leader hated by one side and loved by the other,
should be removed from partisan politics peculiar to his own State,
but removed with the dignity and honor becoming his high abilities.
It has ever been the policy of wise administrations, as with wise
generals, to care for the wounded, and Conkling was surely and
sorely wounded in his battle against the confirmation of Robertson
and his attempted re-election to the Senate. He accepted the
situation with quiet composure, and saw his friend Arthur unite the
ranks which his resignation had sundered. After this there remained
little if any cause for further quarrel, and while in writing history it is
dangerous to attempt a prophecy, the writer believes that President
Arthur will succeed in keeping his party, if not fully united, at least as
compact as the opposing Democratic forces.
 The Readjusters.

This party was founded in 1878 by Gen’l William Mahone, a noted

Brigadier in the rebel army. He is of Scotch-Irish descent, a man of
very small stature but most remarkable energy, and acquired wealth
in the construction and development of Southern railroads. He
sounded the first note of revolt against what he styled the Bourbon
rule of Virginia, and being classed as a Democrat, rapidly divided
that party on the question of the Virginia debt. His enemies charge
that he sought the repudiation of this debt, but in return he not only
denied the charge, but said the Bourbons were actually repudiating it
by making no provision for its payment, either in appropriations or
the levying of taxes needed for the purpose. Doubtless his views on
this question have undergone some modification, and that earlier in
the struggle the uglier criticisms were partially correct. Certain it is
that he and his friends now advocate full payment less the
proportion equitably assigned to West Virginia, which separated
from the parent State during the war, and in her constitution evaded
her responsibility by declaring that the State should never contract a
debt except one created to resist invasion or in a war for the
government. This fact shows how keenly alive the West Virginians
were to a claim which could very justly be pressed in the event of
Virginia being restored to the Union, and this claim Gen’l Mahone
has persistently pressed, and latterly urged a funding of the debt of
his State at a 3 per cent. rate, on the ground that the State is unable
to pay more and that this is in accord with proper rates of interest on
the bonds of State governments—a view not altogether fair or sound,
since it leaves the creditors powerless to do otherwise than accept.
The regular or Bourbon Democrats proclaimed in favor of full
payment, and in this respect differed from their party associates as to
ante-war debts in most other Southern States.
Gen. Mahone rapidly organized his revolt, and as the Republican
party was then in a hopeless minority in Virginia, publicly invited an
alliance by the passage of a platform which advocated free schools
for the blacks and a full enforcement of the National laws touching
their civil rights. The Legislature was won, and on the 16th of
December, 1880, Gen’l Mahone was elected to the U. S. Senate to
succeed Senator Withers, whose term expired March 4, 1881.
In the Presidential campaign of 1880, the Readjusters supported
Gen’l Hancock, but on a separate electoral ticket, while the
Republicans supported Garfield on an electoral ticket of their own
selection. This division was pursuant to an understanding, and at the
time thought advisable by Mahone, who, if his electors won, could go
for Hancock or not, as circumstances might suggest; while if he failed
the Republicans might profit by the separation. There was, however,
a third horn to this dilemma, for the regular Democratic electors
were chosen, but the political complexion of the Legislature was not
changed. Prior to the Presidential nominations Mahone’s Readjuster
Convention had signified their willingness to support Gen’l Grant if
he should be nominated at Chicago, and this fact was widely quoted
by his friends in their advocacy of Grant’s nomination, and in
descanting upon his ability to carry Southern States.
The Readjuster movement at first had no other than local designs,
but about the time of its organization there was a great desire on the
part of the leading Republicans to break the “Solid South,” and every
possible expedient to that end was suggested. It was solid for the
Democratic party, and standing thus could with the aid of New York,
Indiana and New Jersey (them all Democratic States) assure the
election of a Democratic President.
One of the favorite objects of President Hayes was to break the
“Solid South.” He first obtained it by conciliatory speeches, which
were so conciliatory in fact that they angered radical Republicans,
and there were thus threatened division in unexpected quarters. He
next tried it through Gen’l Key, whom he made Postmaster-General
in the hope that he could resurrect and reorganize the old Whig
elements of the South. Key was to attend to Southern postal
patronage with this end in view, while Mr. Tener, his able First
Assistant, was to distribute Northern or Republican patronage. So far
as dividing the South was concerned, the scheme was a flat failure.
The next and most quiet and effectual effort was made by Gen’l
Simon Cameron, Ex-Senator from Pennsylvania. He started on a
brief Southern tour, ostensibly for health and enjoyment, but really
to meet Gen’l Mahone, his leading Readjuster friends, and the
leading Republicans. Conferences were held, and the union of the
two forces was made to embrace National objects. This was in the
Fall of 1879. Not long thereafter Gen’l Mahone consulted with
Senator J. Don. Cameron, who was of course familiar with his
father’s movements, and he actively devised and carried out schemes
to aid the new combination by which the “Solid South” was to be
broken. In the great State campaign of 1881, when the Bourbon and
anti-Bourbon candidates for Governor, were stumping the State,
Gen’l Mahone found that a large portion of his colored friends were
handicapped by their inability to pay the taxes imposed upon them
by the laws of Virginia, and this threatened defeat. He sought aid
from the National administration. President Garfield favored the
combination, as did Secretary Windom, but Secretary Blaine
withheld his support for several months, finally, however, acceding
to the wishes of the President and most of the Cabinet.
Administration influences caused the abandonment of a straight-out
Republican movement organized by Congressman Jorgensen and
others, and a movement which at one time threatened a disastrous
division was overcome. The tax question remained, and this was first
met by Senator J. Don. Cameron, who while summering at
Manhattan Island, was really daily engaged in New York City raising
funds for Mahone, with which to pay their taxes. Still, this aid was
insufficient, and in the heat of the battle the revenue officers
throughout the United States, were asked to contribute. Many of
them did so, and on the eve of election all taxes were paid and the
result was the election of William E. Cameron (Readjuster) as
Governor by about 20,000 majority, with other State officers divided
between the old Readjusters and Republicans. The combination also
carried the Legislature.
In that great struggle the Readjusters became known as the anti-
Bourbon movement, and efforts are now being made to extend it to
other Southern States. It has taken root in South Carolina, Georgia,
Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and more recently in Kentucky,
where the Union War Democrats in State Convention as late as
March 1, 1882, separated from the Bourbon wing of the party. For a
better idea of these two elements in the South, the reader is referred
to the recent speeches of Hill and Mahone in the memorable Senate
scene directly after the latter took the oath of office, and cast his vote
with the Republicans. These speeches will be found in Book III of
this volume.