Theory and Practice of Public Admin 1

PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
THE CHANGING DEFINITIONS
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Karl Marx
- Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious
purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated
use of resources aimed at making those happen which one wants to
happen
Frederic k Lane
- defines administration as organizing and maintaining human and
fiscal resources to attain a group’s goals.
L D White
- Public administration consists of all those operations having for
their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.
Woodrow Wilson
- public administration is a detailed and systematic application of
law. One can also say that public administration is nothing but the
policies, practices, rules and regulation etc, in action.
F A Nigro
It is essentially a cooperative group effort in public setting.
Secondly, it covers all the three branches of government machinery,

the executive, the legislative and the judicial.
F A Nigro
it is a part of the political process as well (for e.g. Bills and Acts).
It is different from private administration in numerous ways and

that it interacts with various private groups and individuals in
providing services to the community.
Political Definitions
• It Is What Government Does

- No values but merely reflects the cultural norms, beliefs and
power realities of its society
• - Dwight Waldo states that “analysts should see administration
in terms of environment
• Political Definitions
• Both Direct and Indirect
• A Phase In The Public Policy Making
• Implementing the Public Interest
• Doing Collectively What Cannot Be So Well Done Individually
(Shafritz, et.al Introducing Public Administration, 2013)
Legal Definitions
• It is a Law in Action
• - IS THE DETAILED AND SYSTEMATIC EXECUTION OF PUBLIC LAW.”
(Wilson, the Study of Administration, 1887).
• It is Regulation
• Is the King’s Largesse
Legal Definitions
• Is a Theft
• Ayn Rand ( advocating Libertarianism & Objectivist) promotes

positive selfishness and government minimalism (Shafritz, et.al
Introducing Public Administration, 2013)
• Managerial Definitions
• Is the Executive Function in the Government

• - Alexander Hamilton ( The Federalist,no. 72)
• believes that administration of government is limited to
executive details and falls peculiarly within the province of the
executive department
• Managerial Definitions
• Is a Management Specialty
• Is Mickey Mouse
• - used to mean red tape which is the symbol of excessive
formality and attention to routine
• Is Art, Not Science or Vice Versa
(Shafritz, et.al Introducing Public Administration, 2013)
• “REFERS TO THE ACTIVITIES OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCHES OF

NATIONAL, STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS; INDEPENDENT
BOARDS AND COMMISSIONS; AND CERTAIN OTHER AGENCIES OF A
SPECIALIZED CHARACTER. SPECIFICALLY EXCLUDED ARE JUDICIAL
AND LEGISLATIVE AGENCIES WITHIN THE GOVERNMENT…” (Simon,
et.al., Public Administration, 1950, emphasis supplied).
• Occupational Definitions
• Occupational Category
• - whatever the public employees of the world do
• Is an Essay Contest
• Is Idealism In Action
• Is an Academic Field
• Is a Profession (Shafritz, et.al Introducing Public Administration, 2013)
• PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
…”IS THE USE OF MANAGERIAL, POLITICAL, AND LEGAL THEORIES

AND PROCESSES TO FULFILL LEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE, AND JUDICIAL
GOVERNMENTAL MANDATES FOR THE PROVISION OF REGULATORY AND
SERVICE FUNCTIONS FOR THE SOCIETY AS A WHOLE OR FOR SOME
SEGMENTS OF IT…”(Rosenbloom, Public Administration:
Understanding Management, Politics, and Law in the Public Sector,
1986 ,p.6).
Nature and Scope of Public Administration
Bureaucracy is not an obstacle to democracy but an inevitable

complement to it.
By: Joseph A. Schumpeter
The State and Bureaucracy and Public
Administration (PA)
• What is a State?
• What is Bureaucracy?
• Public Administration
- Functions and Personnel From the Ancient to Medieval Times
- PA in the 19th Century
- From patriarchal to hereditary to legal Framework
Events that lead to changes in PA
1. Industrial Revolution
2. Imperialism
3. Nationalism
4. Internationalism
SHIFT IN THE SCOPE OF PA
1. Increased awareness of the people

2. The demand for unified national services,
3. The conflicting interests between the various economic sections
of the society with global migration and subsequently
globalization;
4. the protection of the interests of the multi-ethnic groups of the
society
EVOLUTION OF THE FIELD OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
Phase Indicative Period
Traditional / Classical Public Administration 1800s to 1950s
Modern Public Administration

1950 to the present
Development Administration (1950s to 1960s)
New Public Administration (1970s)
New Public Management (1980s to 1990s)
Reinventing Government (1990s)
PA as Governance (1990s to the present)
New Public Service (2000)

Traditional/Classical Public Administration
• PA is as old as ancient empires of China, India, Egypt, Greece,

Rome and Mesopotomia.
• The institutionalization of administrative capacity for collective
purposes is the foundation of public administration. Such
arrangement, according to Caiden (1982), has existed in all
societies. All societies are devoted to advancing the general
welfare or the public interest
• The idea that “public administration should not be considered

administration of the public but administration for the public” has
been practiced and expressed in the Code of Hammurabi, in
Confucianism and in the funeral oration of Pericles. (Caiden 1982:
7)
• In other words, the idea of client-oriented public administration
has its roots in ancient public administration.
• Caiden (1982) also noted that the genesis of Public Administration

must have had originated from monarchial Europe where
household officials were divided into two groups:
• one in charge of public affairs, i.e. the administration of justice,
finance, training of armies, and
• the other is responsible for personal services
• Rutgers (1998) supports this claim that (i.e. royal) administration

had already been manifested way back in the mid 17th century
and early 18th century in Prussia.
• F.K. Medikus (as cited in Rutgers 1998) likewise argued on the

study of public administration and its positions amidst the sciences
in the 18th century
• He advocated “cameralism” and claimed that it should be treated

as an autonomous field of study of great importance to the state.
• Cameral science is designed to prepare potential public officials

for government service.
• This practice flourished in Europe until the 21st century but it

was, in the long run, replaced by administrative law and legal
studies.
1800 to the present
Classic Public Administration Classic Management Theory
A. Bureaucracy
B. Classic Scientific Management
- is focused on the 'science' of creating
specialized work processes and workforce
skills to complete production tasks
efficiently.
1800 to the present
Classic Public Administration Classic Management Theory
A. Bureaucracy
B. Classic Scientific Management
- is focused on the 'science' of creating
specialized work processes and workforce
skills to complete production tasks
efficiently.
1800 to the present
Public Administration Management Theory
C. Administrative Management Theory

D. Neoclassical Theory of Management
E. Modern Management Theory
Frederick Taylor
Taylor's Four Principles of Scientific

Management:
1.Management should get rid of general

guidelines for how to complete a task;
instead, they should be replaced with a
precise, scientific approach for each task
of a worker's job.
2. Management should use those same

principles of scientific methodology to
carefully recruit, select, train, and
develop each worker according to the job Taylor studied ways of maximizing productivity and
they will hold for the company. efficiency
Frederick Taylor
Taylor's Four Principles of Scientific

Management:
3. There should be a level of

cooperation between staff and
management to be sure that jobs match
plans and principle of the developed
methods.
4. Managers should also provide the
appropriate division of labor and
responsibility between managers and
workers; that is, the managers were
responsible for planning the work, and the Taylor studied ways of maximizing productivity and
employees were responsible for following efficiency
that plan as they completed the work.
Henry Gantt
• His two major contributions were:
1. Gantt chart
2. task and bonus system
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

From Scientific to Administrative
• Managers needed specific roles

in order to manage work and
workers hence, the birth of
administrative school of
management

From Scientific to Administrative
• six functions, or roles, of management:

1. Forecasting
2. Planning
3. Organizing
4. Commanding
5. Coordinating
6. Controlling

Fayol's 14 Principles of Management
• 1. Division of Work
• 2. Authority
• 3. Discipline
• 4. Unity of Command
• 5. Unity of Direction
• 6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest
• 7. Remuneration
Fayol's 14 Principles of Management
8. Centralization
9. Scalar Chain
10. Order
11. Equity
12. Stability of Tenure
13. Initiative
14. Esprit de Corps
Frank and Lilian Gilbreth
- Started under Taylor

- After finishing doctorate in Psychology, the couple made a
research that combined human element of management with
technical observation. These are their findings:
1. Worker satisfaction is connected with productivity
2. ease the amount of fatigue a worker experienced by providing

them with specific movements to use while completing their jobs.
3. need to consider the working conditions and overall environment

in which the workers performed their jobs.
4. This lead to innovations in office furniture, and eventually to the

study of ergonomics.
Known for motion studies

- Increase their bricklaying output from 1,000 to
2,700.
- 'work smarter, not harder'

Classical Administrative School of
Management
• From Individual outputs of workers as discovered by Taylor and

lead to the birth of Scientific Management
• Others lead to the idea that there has to be a system or governing
principles in managing an entire organization hence the birth of
the Classical Administrative School of Management
Management
Contributors:
1. Weber
2. Henry Fayol
3. Mary Parker Follett- People-Oriented, Group-Network
Management
4. Chester Barnard - Informal Organizations and Acceptance Theory
5. Peter Drucker - the founder of modern management; leader in
the development of management education; known for
management by objectives and self-control
Management
Topics included in the Management of Organizations

• organizational principles
• the philosophy of management
• clarification of business terms and concepts relating to

management
Management
Topics included in the Management of Organizations

• social responsibilities of management
• functional responsibilities of management
• organizational structure
• leadership, power, and authority

Neoclassical Theory of Management
• two main sources of neoclassical theory:
1. the human relations movement and
2. the behavioral movement

Modern Management Theory
1. The Quantitative Approach:

- is centered on statistics and mathematical techniques
2. The Systems Approach:

- focuses on systems
3. The Contingency Approach:

- believes there is no one system or approach to managing an
organization.
EVOLUTION OF THE FIELD OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
Phase Indicative Period
Traditional / Classical Public Administration 1800s to 1950s
Modern Public Administration

1950 to the present
Development Administration (1950s to 1960s)
New Public Administration (1970s)
New Public Management (1980s to 1990s)
Reinventing Government (1990s)

Modern Public Administration:
A. Development Administration
• Development Administration (1950s to 1960s)

- Administration is about projects, programs, policies and ideas
which are focused at development of a nation, with the point of
view of socio-economic and socio-political development of society
in general, carried out by talented and skilled bureaucrats
Modern Public Administration :

- Administration is about projects, programs, policies and ideas
which are focused at development of a nation, with the point of
view of socio-economic and socio-political development of society
in general, carried out by talented and skilled bureaucrats

A model of Development Administration must contain the following
points:
1. directed towards change and towards results.
2. There should be Planning


A model of Development Administration must contain the following
points:
3. Innovation
4. It is people-centered

two important concepts:
1. Administration of Development
2. Administrative Development

two important concepts:
1. Administration of Development
- Resources are scarce, material or human thus the need to make optimum
utilization of available resources and making new means for development.
It involves following objectives:
1. Innovation at all levels of planning.
2. Importance to the development at grassroots level.

Objectives of Administration Development:
3. Development of human capital as a resource.
4. Politics and administration must go hand in hand to establish rapid

change in society and bring about just and distinct social order.
5. Freedom of administrative machinery to express ideas, views for the

most effective and efficient use of natural resources.
- the structure of Administration itself must be empowered, large
and capable enough to sustain the pressures by the developmental
activities
- rationalizing and institution building and bringing about a radical

change in the administrative framework, from the traditionalist
approach, to handle and create socio-economic and political
development and social change
Objectives:
1. Building decision making capabilities.
2. Development of skill and specialization to tackle complex issues in the

personnel.
3. Giving importance to training, effective use of technology to bring

about change in Administrative approach.
Objectives:
4. Increasing administrative capacity, capabilities, removing
corruption and bringing in more accountability.
5. Creating leaders out of bureaucrats for promotion of

development initiatives.
B. New Public Administration (1970s)
• NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS A PHILOSOPHY OR MOVEMENT FOR

REFORM THAT EMERGED IN THE LATE SIXTIES FOLLOWING A
CONFERENCE OF “YOUNG PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONISTS” IN THEIR
“REVOLUTIONARY THIRTIES.”
• THIS PERIOD WAS MARKED BY WIDESPREAD YOUTH UNREST AND

STUDENT PROTESTS, PARTICULARLY AGAINST AMERICAN POLICIES IN
VIETNAM, AS WELL AS THE PERCEIVED NEGLECT OF THE
MINORITIES.
THE PERIOD WAS ALSO CHARACTERIZED BY “ESTABLISHMENT”

CONSERVATISM THAT BROUGHT UNEMPLOYMENT, POVERTY, DISEASE
AND IGNORANCE IN SOME SEGMENTS OF THE POPULATION IN WHAT
WAS BELIEVED TO BE AN ERA OF UNPRECEDENTED ECONOMIC
GROWTH IN AMERICA.
ONE OF THE PARTICIPANTS, H. GEORGE FREDERICKSON MAINTAINED

THAT “ADMINISTRATORS ARE NOT NEUTRAL. THEY SHOULD BE
COMMITTED TO GOOD MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL EQUITY AS VALUES,
THINGS TO BE ACHIEVED, OR RATIONALES.”
NEW P.A. REPRESENTED A CALL FOR A REDEFINITION OF THE FIELD TO

IDENTIFY AND REVIEW, AMONG OTHERS, THE PROPER TERRAIN OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, ITS LOGICS OF INQUIRY, ITS SOCIAL
RELEVANCE, AND ITS ETHICAL AND NORMATIVE VALUES.
NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION INVITED ATTENTION TO A REVIEW OF

THE CORE VALUES OF THE DISCIPLINE ENSHRINED IN THE PRINCIPLES
OF MANAGEMENT TRADITION: THE THREE Es: EFFICIENCY,
EFFECTIVENESS AND ECONOMY.
NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BROUGHT ATTENTION TO WHAT IT

CONSIDERED AS NEW AND RELEVANT VALUES THAT MUST BE ADOPTED
TO STRENGTHEN THE DISCIPLINE:
THE THREE Rs OF:

REPRESENTATIVENESS
RESPONSIBILITY, AND
RESPONSIVENESS.
C.New Public Management (1980s to 1990s)
• NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (NPM) EMERGED AS A NEW MANAGERIAL

APPROACH IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR TO CORRECT THE INADEQUACIES
OF TRADITIONAL MODELS (OR PARADIGMS) OF PUBLIC SECTOR
MANAGEMENT;
• IT SEEKS A TRANSFORMATION OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR AND ITS

WORKING RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE PUBLIC AND VARIOUS SECTORS
OR SEGMENTS OF THE LARGER SOCIETY.
Modern Public Administration: C. New Public
Management (1980s to 1990s)
• NPM IS A MODEL SEEKING TO REFORM PUBLIC SECTOR

ORGANIZATIONS BY REPLACING OLD AND TRADITIONAL POLICIES
AND PRACTICES OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR THAT HAVE BEEN
PERCEIVED NOT TO BE WORKING ANYMORE.
• THE APPROACH HAS BEEN GIVEN DIFFERENT LABELS: NEW PUBLIC

MANAGEMENT; MANAGERIALISM; MARKET-BASED PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION; THE POST-BUREAUCRATIC PARADIGM AND THE
ENTREPRENEURIAL GOVERNMENT.
• THE REFORMS UNDER NEW P.M. FEATURED ELEMENTS OF (Geri. 2001. “New Public Management
and the Reform of International Organizations.” International Review of Administrative
Sciences (Sept), pp. 445-460):
• 1. PRIVATIZATION
• 2. DEREGULATION
• 3. REORGANIZATION TO ENGENDER COMPETITION AMONG GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
• 4. THE USE OF “CUSTOMER” AS A METAPHOR FOR USERS OF GOVERNMENT SERVICES

5. EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
6. PUBLIC-PRIVATE SECTOR PARTNERSHIPS
7. REDUCTION OF RULE-BASED MANAGEMENT
8. MEASUREMENT OF OUTCOMES, AND
9. MISSION DRIVEN MANAGEMENT.

5. EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
6. PUBLIC-PRIVATE SECTOR PARTNERSHIPS
7. REDUCTION OF RULE-BASED MANAGEMENT
8. MEASUREMENT OF OUTCOMES, AND
9. MISSION DRIVEN MANAGEMENT.

D. Reinventing Government
• REINVENTING GOVERNMENT (1992) IS PART OF THE STREAM OF

PRESCRIPTIONS IN THE 1990s SEEKING TO REFORM PUBLIC SECTOR
ORGANIZATIONS;
• IT IS A CRITIQUE OF PREVAILING PATTERNS AND PRACTICES OF

MODERN BUREAUCRACIES WORKING AND STRUCTURED WITHIN THE
FRAMEWORK OF THE WEBERIAN MODEL;
• DEVELOPED BY DAVID OSBORNE AND TED GAEBLER, REINVENTING

GOVERNMENT PRESCRIBES THE ALTERNATIVE MODEL OF AN
ENTREPRENEURIAL GOVERNMENT TO REPLACE WEBERIAN
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF MODERN
BUREAUCRACIES;
• REINVENTING GOVERNMENT REJECTS THE TRADITIONAL

HIERARCHICAL, CENTRALIZED, RITUALIZED AND RIGID SYSTEMS OF
BUREAUCRACIES THAT ARE WELL INGRAINED IN BUREAUCRATIC
CULTURES TODAY;
• VARIOUS CONTROL MEASURES EXPRESSED IN VARIOUS LAWS, RULES

AND REGULATIONS HAVE BEEN ADOPTED BY GOVERNMENTS THAT
IMPAIR EFFICIENT AND ECONOMICAL USE OF PUBLIC RESOURCES;
• “IN MAKING IT DIFFICULT TO STEAL THE PUBLIC’S MONEY, WE HAVE

MADE IT VIRTUALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO MANAGE THE PUBLIC’S
MONEY…” (Osborne and Gaebler, Reinventing Government, 1993:
14).
• REINVENTING GOVERNMENT IS CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH NEW

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT IN THAT IT SEEKS TO APPLY PRIVATE SECTOR
TECHNIQUES TO ENSURE EFFICIENCY, ECONOMY AND
EFFECTIVENESS IN BUREAUCRACIES;
• THE PREMISE IS TO DEVELOP ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN GOVERNMENT

OPERATIONS;
• IT SEEKS TO INVOLVE THE VARIOUS SECTORS OF SOCIETY IN THE

MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
• REINVENTING GOVERNMENT EMBODIES A HOST OF PRESCRIPTIONS,

SUCH AS ,
• EVOLVING A CATALYTIC GOVERNMENT;
• A COMMUNITY-OWNED GOVERNMENT;
• A MISSION-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT;
• A RESULTS-ORIENTED AND CUSTOMER-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT ;
• A MARKET-ORIENTED ORIENTED GOVERNMENT, AMONG OTHERS.
Reengineering
• Reengineering was originally conceived as a technique to

introduce radical changes in business operations and
competitiveness to cope with the demands of a complex socio-
economic and political environment.
• Reengineering has become a fairly accepted approach today in the

reform efforts of public sector organizations.
Reengineering
• Reengineering tools and practice have now been either considered

or adopted in the agenda of reform of public sector organizations
among developed and developing countries, both at the local and
national levels.
Reengineering
The Reengineering Processes:

• Evaluate whether a process is necessary;
• Break away from traditional ways and procedures to start with a
clean slate;
• Look at business processes from a cross functional perspective;
• Search for radical improvements using the power of information
technology;
Reengineering
• Reduce and eliminate paper work and documentation;
• Focus on processes and outcomes; and,
• Focus on the customer, the consumer, or the client.

• Governance is “the system of values, policies and institutions by

which a society manages its economic, political and social affairs
through interactions within and among the state, civil society and
private sector” (UNDP, 2004).
• It is “the exercise of political, economic and administrative
authority to manage a nation’s affairs and refers to “complex
mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through
which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their
rights and obligations and mediate their differences (UNDP, 2004).
• Governance has also been described as “the process of policy

making through active and cohesive discussion among policy
makers who are interconnected through a broad range of
networks” (Kooiman, 2003 and World Bank, 1994, as cited in Kim,
et.al., 2005:647.).
• Governance transcends the state but includes civil society

organizations and the private sector “because all three are
involved in most activities promoting sustainable human
development” (UNDP, 1997:9).
• Good governance occurs within an effective political framework

conducive to private economic action, the efficiency of stable
regimes, the triumph of the rule of law, the presence of an
efficient state administration adapted to the roles that
government can actually perform, and a vigorous and dynamic
civil society independent of the state (Hirst, 2000:14).
• The Good Governance Process
• STAKEHOLDERSHIP
• DISCOURSE OF THE STAKES/INTERESTS OF VARIOUS STAKEHOLDERS
• GENERATION OF A CONSENSUS
• ENACTMENT OF POLICIES/ LAWS
• POLICY IMPLEMENTATION
• EVALUATION
• The New Public Service (NPS) approach to reform is premised on

the idea that “government should not be run like a business; it
should be run like a democracy” (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2007.
The New Public Service: 3).
• This approach is actually a reaction to the entrepreneurial
prescriptions of New Public Management and Reinventing
Government.
• The New Public Service argues that “[p]ublic spirit needs to be

“nourished and maintained,” and this can be cultivated by
“constant attention to principles of justice, public participation
and deliberation” (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2007: 30).
• Its proponents further maintain that “administrators should see

citizens as citizens (rather than merely voters, clients, or
‘customers’), should share authority and reduce control, and
should trust in the efficacy of collaboration” (Denhardt and
Denhadt, 2007: 32).
• The New Public Service rests on seven basic principles:
• Serve Citizens, Not Customers.
• Seek the Public Interest.
• Value Citizenship over Entrepreneurship.
• Think Strategically, Act Democratically

• The New Public Service rests on seven basic principles:

• Recognize that Accountability Is Not Simple.
• Serve Rather Than Steer.
• Value People, Not Just Productivity!

Thank You

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PUBLIC

Secondly, it covers all the three branches of government machinery,

It is different from private administration in numerous ways and

• It Is What Government Does

• Ayn Rand ( advocating Libertarianism & Objectivist) promotes

• Is the Executive Function in the Government

• “REFERS TO THE ACTIVITIES OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCHES OF

…”IS THE USE OF MANAGERIAL, POLITICAL, AND LEGAL THEORIES

Bureaucracy is not an obstacle to democracy but an inevitable

1. Increased awareness of the people

Modern Public Administration

New Public Administration (1970s)

New Public Management (1980s to 1990s)

Reinventing Government (1990s)

PA as Governance (1990s to the present)

New Public Service (2000)

• PA is as old as ancient empires of China, India, Egypt, Greece,

• The idea that “public administration should not be considered

• Caiden (1982) also noted that the genesis of Public Administration

• Rutgers (1998) supports this claim that (i.e. royal) administration

• F.K. Medikus (as cited in Rutgers 1998) likewise argued on the

• He advocated “cameralism” and claimed that it should be treated

• Cameral science is designed to prepare potential public officials

• This practice flourished in Europe until the 21st century but it

Classic Public Administration Classic Management Theory

Classic Public Administration Classic Management Theory

Public Administration Management Theory

C. Administrative Management Theory

Taylor's Four Principles of Scientific

1.Management should get rid of general

2. Management should use those same

Taylor's Four Principles of Scientific

3. There should be a level of

• His two major contributions were:

2. task and bonus system

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

• Managers needed specific roles

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

• six functions, or roles, of management:

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

- Started under Taylor

2. ease the amount of fatigue a worker experienced by providing

3. need to consider the working conditions and overall environment

4. This lead to innovations in office furniture, and eventually to the

Known for motion studies

- 'work smarter, not harder'

• From Individual outputs of workers as discovered by Taylor and

Topics included in the Management of Organizations

• the philosophy of management

• clarification of business terms and concepts relating to

Topics included in the Management of Organizations

• functional responsibilities of management

• leadership, power, and authority

• two main sources of neoclassical theory:

1. the human relations movement and

2. the behavioral movement

1. The Quantitative Approach:

2. The Systems Approach:

3. The Contingency Approach:

Modern Public Administration

New Public Administration (1970s)

New Public Management (1980s to 1990s)

Reinventing Government (1990s)

PA as Governance (1990s to the present)