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1
Chapter 6: Biological Perspectives on Aging
Chapter 6
Biological Perspectives on Aging
Brief IM Outline
• Chapter Outline
• Class Discussion Topics
• Student Project and Research Suggestions
• Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions
• Lecture/Class Activity Ideas
• Community, State, and National Resources
• Internet Resources and Activities
• Suggested Reading
• Films and Videos
Chapter Outline
I. Theories of Biological Aging
For centuries, philosophers and scientists have searched for a central mechanism that
causes aging. The result of a better understanding of aging is a broader range of
treatments and strategies for improving the quality of life of elderly people (Cristofalo,
1996). The aging process occurs in part because of environmental factors and in part
because of some genetically programmed purposeful process in which vulnerability to the
environment increases over time as the body advances through a natural developmental
process from adulthood to death.
A. Environmental Theories of Aging
An early theory of aging, first proposed in 1882 by the German biologist August
Wiesmann, is the wear and tear theory. According to this theory, the body is
analogous to a machine, like an old car or truck, that simply wears out (Cristofalo,
1988). The problem with the wear and tear theory is that it is difficult to test. Another
problem is that the idea of wear and tear implies that a more active organism should
age more quickly.
Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e
© 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or
distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in
whole or part.
2
The somatic mutation theory proposes that harmful or deleterious mutations, that is,
genes that are incorrectly copied, will accumulate with advancing age, leading to an
increase in pathological changes in body systems. Somatic mutation theory first
became prominent after World War II when scientists noted the long-term damage
caused to people who were exposed to radiation from bombs (Bengtson et al., 2005). It
does not take exposure to something as dramatic as a bomb to cause genetic damage,
however.
B. Developmental/Genetic Theories of Aging
The autoimmune theory of aging is based on two scientific discoveries. The first is
that protective immune reactions decline with age, as the body becomes less capable
of producing sufficient quantities and kinds of antibodies (Bengtson et al., 2005). The
second discovery that lends support to the immune system theory is that the aging
immune system mistakenly produces antibodies against normal body proteins, leading
to a loss of self-recognition. In other words, the immune system loses some of its
ability to distinguish between self and nonself and instead attacks the proteins
produced by the body as if they were invaders. Although a decline in immune system
functioning causes disease, there is no evidence to suggest that a less efficient immune
system causes normal aging (Hayflick, 1996).
According to the cross-linkage theory of aging, the accumulation of cross-linked

collagen is responsible for such changes as the loss of elasticity of the skin, hardening
of the arteries of the circulatory system, and stiffness of joints throughout the body.
Although cross-linking is one of many biochemical changes that occur over time, there
is no reason to think it is the most important cause of aging.
One of the most popular theories of aging is the free radical theory. A molecule is a
group of atoms that are chemically linked. Free radicals are unstable molecules that
are produced when the body transforms food into chemical energy. When free radicals
try to unite with other molecules that may be in the vicinity, they can damage the cell
or cause cell mutation. Although it is useful for understanding why some individuals
are at greater risk of certain diseases than others and for describing part of the aging
process, it is not, in itself, a general theory of biological aging.
The genetic control theory of aging proposes that aging is programmed into each cell
of the human bodies. The neuroendocrine theory proposes that a functional loss in
neurons and their associated hormones is central to the aging process.
whole or part.
3
II. The Aging Body
The normal processes of biological aging rarely lead to death by themselves but rather
involve a period of decline that results in increasing frailty. Although disability is a
distressing outcome of some aging processes, most people spend very few of their years
disabled. The measure of the number of years a person can expect to live without a
disability is called active life expectancy (ACL). The active life expectancy for an
individual is measured by the individual’s ability to complete activities of daily living
(ADLs) such as bathing, eating, getting in and out of bed, and toileting. Men have an
active life expectancy of 60 years, which is 84 percent of their whole life expectancy.
Women can expect 58 years of disability-free life, which constitutes 82 percent of their
lifetime (Kinsella and Gist, 1998). Finally, active life expectancy varies from one nation
to the next.
A. Aging of the Exterior Body: Skin and Hair
One of the most obvious signs of aging is the change in skin texture that people know
as wrinkling. Some wrinkling is related to use. Common facial expressions such as
smiling and frowning hasten the appearance of wrinkles at the corners of the eyes
(crow’s-feet), forehead, and mouth (Donofrio, 2003). Most wrinkling, however, is
caused by biological change that occurs as we age because the deeper layers of the
skin lose their elasticity. Another common sign of aging is gray hair. The graying of
hair is caused by a decrease in the number of active pigment-producing cells
(Desmond, 2011).
The superficial layers of the skin also show signs of aging in the form of darkened
spots and other skin changes. Lentigo is the discoloration or spotting that commonly
appears on the face, back of hands, and forearms of people older than 50. If one looks
at the backs of the hands of very old people, one will often see purple bruises, called
senile purpura. These are sites where fragile blood vessels have ruptured.
The term “skin cancer” actually refers to three different medical conditions: basal cell
carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Basal cell carcinoma and
squamous cell carcinoma do not spread to other parts of the body. They can, however,
cause damage by growing and invading surrounding tissue. A melanoma has the
potential to spread (metastasize) throughout the body. Thus, the most serious form of
skin cancer is a melanoma.
B. Aging of the Nervous System
whole or part.
4
The nervous system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system (CNS),
which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS), which consists of all other parts of the nervous system, including the spinal
nerves that arise from the spinal cord. The basic units of the nervous system are
neurons, or brain cells, which carry information throughout the body in the form of
electrical signals. Peripheral nerves called sensory nerves carry incoming messages
from the environment to the CNS. Peripheral nerves called motor nerves carry
outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands throughout the body. As
people grow older, neurons die and are not replaced. Because this cell loss is not
uniform, its effect depends on where it occurs in the nervous system. The loss of these
cells accounts for the decreased flexibility, slowness of movement, and stooped,
shuffling gait seen in many elderly people (Bishop et al., 2010).
A brain structure known as the cerebellum is involved in body movements and, to

some degree, balance. Damage to this area produces disruptions in balance and
muscular movements. Falls are the most common and serious problem that elderly
people face. The risk of falling is highest among people 80 and older. Falls can be
prevented by monitoring an older person’s environment to make sure there are no
physical obstacles like poor lighting or loose carpets and by installing safety
equipment like hand rails (Kenny, 2005).
As people grow old, the normal sleep pattern changes (Kelly, 1991). In older people,
REM sleep decreases. Older people also sleep less each night, awaken more frequently
after falling asleep, and spend less time in deep sleep. By age 70, few people
experience stage 4 deep sleep at all (Ramanand et al., 2010). As a result of these
changes in sleep patterns, many people over 60 complain of insomnia. Some studies
find that up to 65 percent of older people have trouble sleeping. Complaints of poor
sleep are more common in women and are linked to health problems (McCrae et al.,
2005).
Parkinson’s disease is a neurological disorder that may occur as early as age 30 but is
more often diagnosed in older people. Parkinson’s is caused by the slow death of
nerve cells in the central portion of the brain. The risk increases with age, as
Parkinson’s disease generally occurs in the middle or late years of life. The problem is
that there is no early measure of Parkinson’s. Often by the time visible symptoms
occur, nerve cells have already been damaged (Gramling, 2006).
C. Aging of the Sensory Organs
whole or part.
5
As people reach middle age, vision impairments, defined as severe vision loss,
increase. The first indication is often difficulty reading fine print. That’s a symptom of
presbyopia, an inability to focus on near objects. As people age, changes in various
parts of the eye reduce the ability to receive visual stimulation. Visual disorders such
as glaucoma and cataracts are not a part of normal aging, although they become
increasingly common with advancing age. A cataract is caused when the lens of the
eye becomes cloudy and light cannot penetrate. Glaucoma is a serious condition that
can lead to blindness.
As people age, their ability to receive and interpret sound declines. Hearing loss
begins in some people as young as 25 and accelerates after 50. The normal loss of
hearing with age is termed presbycusis.
With age there is a loss in ability to detect odors. The loss of smell becomes most
pronounced in people over 70 and is more pronounced in men (Margrain and Boulton,
2005). The loss of taste is caused by degeneration of the taste buds or by a change in
the way the brain perceives the information from the taste buds (Hayflick, 1996).
Although not life threatening, such changes can lead to poor nutrition. Many older
people compensate for the loss of taste by eating more highly seasoned foods. Using
large amounts of salt can pose other health risks, however, for salt contributes to high
blood pressure.
As people grow old, their bodies also lose some ability to regulate heating and
cooling. Older people have problems staying warm because of the loss of the layer of
fatty tissue beneath the skin that helps insulate the body. The inability of the elderly to
cool down occurs as the sweat glands in the skin decrease or become nonfunctional.
Because older people sweat less, they have more difficulty maintaining normal body
temperature in hot weather, putting them at risk of hypothermia. They also suffer
easily from heat exhaustion or heat stroke.
D. Aging of the Skeletal System: Bones, Cartilage, and Connective Tissues
From childhood to adulthood, bone is made faster than it is broken down, and the
bones become larger and denser. Peak bone mass occurs around age 30. As people
age, the process begins to reverse. Bone is broken down faster than it is made,
resulting in bone loss. Severe bone depletion is termed osteoporosis.
When a person has osteoporosis, the outside walls of the bone become thinner and the
whole or part.
6
inner part becomes spongy. Both men and women lose a small amount (approximately
0.4 percent) of bone each year after age 30. However, women are four times more
likely than men of the same age to suffer from osteoporosis. Researchers wanted to
determine whether women who took supplemental calcium and vitamin D, which have
long been staples in the effort to improve bone health among older women, really
reduced their risk of bone fractures. The study found that women who took calcium
and vitamin D pills experienced a slight reduction in hip fractures but that the
difference was not statistically significant. However, the supplements did not reduce
the risk of fractures of the spine, wrist, or other bones (Jackson et al., 2006).
Arthritis is a chronic disease that afflicts more than one-third of men and one-half of
women older than 65 (Hayflick, 1996). The term is used to describe joint
inflammation and its consequences of pain, swelling, and deformity. Rheumatoid
arthritis involves the inflammation of the synovial membranes, which line the joint
capsule and the cartilage that covers the bones.
E. Aging of the Muscular System: Muscle Mass and Strength
As people age, they experience a gradual loss of muscle strength and aerobic capacity
beginning around age 30 but typically not becoming noticeable until after age 50.
Although the loss of muscular mass and strength is not life threatening, it can make
daily activities more difficult and reduce levels of overall physical activity, which in
turn may cause other health problems. The loss of muscle mass and endurance can be
greatly reduced by high-intensity resistance (strength) exercise.
F. Aging of the Reproductive System
In women the climacteric is referred to as menopause, the permanent cessation of the

menstrual cycle. It occurs when the ovaries stop functioning, leading to (1) the end of
the monthly menstrual flow; (2) the cessation of ovulation (the release of eggs from
the ovaries on a monthly basis); and (3) a decline in the production of the female
hormones estrogen and progesterone. As menstrual periods cease, 75 to 85 percent of
women experience hot flashes, the classic sign of menopause. Other menopausal
symptoms include irritability, volatile mood swings, fatigue, and anxiety.
In May 2002, a government-sponsored study called the Women’s Health Initiative

(WHI) involving 16,608 women between 50 and 79 years of age was terminated early.
The clinical trial, which lasted for eight and a half years, was designed to test whether
hormone replacement therapy (HRT) used to treat symptoms associated with
whole or part.
7
menopause was safe. The researchers found that the use of HRT increased women’s
risk for breast cancer, heart disease, stroke and pulmonary embolism, that is, a blood
clot in the lung (Rossouw et al., 2007).
Though testosterone levels begin to decline when men reach 50 or 60, they have no
clear effect on fertility in healthy older males. While male sexual responsiveness does
begin to change in middle age, this period is not equivalent to female menopause,
which involves a complete cessation of reproductive activity. In the male climacteric,
the frequency of sexual activity gradually declines, but sexual interest and enjoyment
usually do not.
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) is very common among aging men. BPH
simply means that the prostate gland increases in size, although the growth is benign.
BPH is caused primarily by the presence of a breakdown product of testosterone (the
male hormone). Because the prostate gland surrounds the outlet of the bladder, any
increase in size of the prostate gland will put pressure on the tube draining the bladder.
As a result, older men have a frequent urge to urinate, often getting up at night to
urinate.
A common problem in older men is erectile dysfunction (ED), better known as

impotence. Specifically, erectile dysfunction refers to the inability to maintain an
erection sufficient for penetration or sexual intercourse (Masters and Johnson, 1966).
ED affects up to one-third of men throughout their lives, and the incidence increases
with age. The biggest advance was with the invention of the drug, Viagra in 1998.
Viagra and other similar medications work by enhancing blood flow into the “sponge
like” tissue within the penis. The erections produced are compatible with the man’s
age.
Ovarian cancer starts in a woman’s ovaries. It is most likely to occur after women go
through menopause with the median age for diagnosis being 66 (Allen and Roberto
2014). Although ovarian cancer accounts for just three percent of cancers in women, it
can be fatal, because it often goes undetected until it has spread to the pelvis and
abdomen. If ovarian cancer is discovered when it is confined to the ovary, the
prognosis for long term survival is more optimistic.
G. Aging of the Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
There are a number of age-related changes that occur in the heart, including some
muscle atrophy and a reduction in the amount of blood pumped with each contraction.
whole or part.
8
There is also an increase in nonconducting cells, including connective tissue and fat,
which make the heartbeat more irregular. Arrhythmias may be treated in a variety of
ways. There are drugs that control heart rate or reduce the risk of blood clotting. There
are also pacemakers that can be implanted to control the heart rate.
With age, the blood vessels become less pliable because of the loss of elastic fibers,
and blood pressure increases. In a person whose arteries are less pliable, the heart must
work harder to push the blood through the arteries. This condition is called high blood
pressure, or hypertension. In older people, hypertension is made worse by the
accumulation of fatty deposits called plaque, which narrow the arteries. This
narrowing, along with the loss of elasticity, can block the arteries, reduce blood flow,
and cause a heart attack.
There are several medical techniques to correct this problem. The most invasive
procedure involves replacing the blocked arteries using blood vessels from other parts
of the body, usually a vein from the leg. In this surgical procedure, called coronary
bypass surgery, the surgeon opens the chest and replaces the blocked portions of the
coronary arteries with a vein. A small balloon is then inserted into the blocked artery,
which presses the plaque against the artery wall and opens the artery.
Hypertension leading to a heart attack is called hypertensive cardiovascular disease.

Hypertensive cardiovascular disease results from an intricate process of biological and
behavioral factors. One study of the prevalence of angina, which is chest pain that
may precede a heart attack, was conducted on male and female Swedish twins. In
women, the factors associated with angina were smoking, obesity, and exhibiting what
is known as type A behavior, defined as a personality type that is tense or hyper. In
men, the factors associated with angina were work pressure, being in physically
demanding work, smoking, and having a low level of emotional well-being (Roger et
al., 2011). A condition known as congestive heart failure occurs when the heart is
unable to pump enough blood to meet the needs of the body.
Class Discussion Topics
1. Tithonus’ Revenge or Healthy Aging

Have students watch the film Tuck Everlasting. Ask students if they think that the
film shows examples of successful aging. Why, or why not? Ask them whether they
would like to live a long life or a life filled with quality?
2. Cosmetic Surgery and Youth Enhancements
whole or part.
9
Asians are more likely than any other group to have cosmetic surgery. Why do they
undergo cosmetic surgery? Are their reasons the same as the elderly’s reasons for
having cosmetic surgery?
3. Physical Decline of an Older Family Member

Ask students to focus on an older family member who has experienced a physical
limitation. They should try to indicate when and where the limitation occurred and
how the family member is currently addressing it.
Student Project and Research Suggestions
1. Geriatricians
Contact a local geriatrician. Inquire about the types of diagnoses made by the
geriatrician. Ask the geriatrician if there are any variations in the office visits of his
or her patients by their gender and ethnicity or race.
2. Biology of Aging
Check to determine if one’s college or university offers a course in the biology of
aging. If it does not, check surrounding colleges and universities for the same. Ask
professors who teach the course to share some of the typical reactions of students to
the subject matter, especially to the biological theories of aging and the aging body
(decline in the five senses, skin and body, and the skeletal and reproductive
systems).
3. Health Insurance
Compare different health insurance policies for various age-related conditions, such
as osteoporosis, presbycusis, menopause, and erectile dysfunction. Ask students to
find the medications or treatments that are covered or not covered for these age
conditions.
Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions
1. Some scientists believe that the human life span can be extended far beyond its
current limits. What do you think of this idea? Do the theories of aging you have
read about in this chapter seem to support it?
Answer: Students’ answers will vary. The answer should focus on the distinction
between the extension of life and the quality of life or active life expectancy. The
issue can be explored through social exchange or modernization theories as well.
whole or part.
10
For example, if individuals are able to have a long active life expectancy, what are
some of the contributions that they might be able make to society (focusing on the
social exchange theory)?
2. In the United States, the cosmetic surgery business is in the midst of a boom. Many
patients who request this type of surgery are motivated by a wish to regain their
once youthful appearance. Why do you think Americans are so concerned with the
outward signs of aging, most of which are relatively harmless? Is this a positive or
a negative social trend?
Answer: The United States has a capitalistic economy. One aspect of the economy
is materialism or conspicuous consumption. Some people may elect to have
cosmetic surgery because they can afford it, and they might want to keep up with
the latest trend or fashion in the society. Others may elect to have it to conceal a
disability or enhance their employment opportunities.
3. Aging can affect mental functions such as learning and memory. But is the image
of the forgetful older person a reality or a false stereotype? Is there anything people
can do to maintain their mental functions as they age?
Answer: All age groups are subjected to forgetfulness, but studies have found that
short-term memory slows down with age. Mental function can be maintained by
using certain techniques, such as keeping lists and engaging the mind in problem-
solving activities, to compensate for one’s memory loss.
4. Doctors advise people that to reduce their risk of osteoporosis later in life, they
should build up their bones as much as possible before they reach maturity. Do you
and your classmates do anything special to strengthen your bones, such as
exercising or eating calcium-rich foods? If not, why not?
Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Some students may not be aware that
osteoporosis can be reduced through strength training. Their awareness may
encourage them to engage in such physical training as well as encourage their
friends to do so.
5. Scientists say that most cases of erectile dysfunction are psychological rather than
physical in origin. Yet sales of the new drug Viagra are booming. What do these
two facts suggest to you about sexuality in our society and attitudes toward aging?
Are all the people who take Viagra elderly?
whole or part.
11
Answer: Sexuality is of major interest, especially to men in the U.S. culture. The
society is youth-oriented, so there is an emphasis on being physically fit and
sexually attractive and functioning. Younger males may take Viagra to enhance
their sexual performance.
Lectures/Class Activity Ideas
1. Interdisciplinary Focus on the Aging Process

Invite a biologist, environmentalist, and a geneticist to talk about the main cause of
aging from the perspective of their disciplines. The specialists should focus on one
or more of the theories that are covered in the chapter.
2. Leading Causes of Disability and Death

Provide students with data on leading causes of disability and death for persons
aged 65 years and above for the nation and for the state in which one’s
college/university is located. Emphasize any similarities or differences in the data.
3. Fitness Throughout the Life Cycle

Invite a fitness expert from campus or a surrounding health club to discuss the
advantages of fitness routines throughout one’s life course.
Community, State, and National Resources
Community and State Resources
Refer to Chapter 1 for a complete listing of community and state resources.
National Resources
1. USE Arthritis Foundation (www.arthritis.org/)

2. American Association of the Deaf-Blind (http://www.aadb.org/)
3. American Diabetes Association (http://www.diabetes.org)
4. American Heart Association (Stroke Connection) (http://www.anhrt.org)
5. National Osteoporosis Foundation (https://www.nof.org/)
Internet Resources and Activities
1. The National Center for Health Statistics (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/) has

whole or part.
12
information on health and aging. Data available on the website include leading
causes of death, oral health, vision and hearing, and the changing profile of nursing
home residents.
2. The National Institute on Aging (https://www.nia.nih.gov/) has publications,

research, and fact sheets on a variety of age-related physical conditions and
diseases. Some topics that students could research include aging and your eyes,
exercises, high blood pressure, menopause, prostate problems, and urinary
incontinence.
3. MEDSCAPE’s Women’s Health MedPulse

(http://www.medscape.com/womenshealth) is a useful website to examine for the
latest information on women’s health. This is a commercial website because most
of the research on the website is sponsored by pharmaceutical companies.
4. ABC news reports on “More Elderly Seeking Cosmetic Surgery” on January 31,
2002 discusses the trend of more elderly patients getting plastic surgery to look
younger. It is available at the following website:
http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/story?id=126390.
5. “Age Doesn’t Mean Heart Disease For Bolivian Tribe” is a National Public Radio
clip from August 14, 2009 that examines the research done on Bolivia’s Tsimane
tribe. Gerontologist Eileen Crimmins explains a research that observed signs of
heart disease in the Tsimane, who continue to live in a relatively traditional manner.
It is available online at the following website:
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=111889498 (13 minutes).
Suggested Reading
Dietrich, Mareclo O. and Tamas L. Havrath. 2010. “The Role of Mitochondrial

Uncoupling Proteins in Lifespan.” European Journal of Physiology. 459(2):269–275.
DiGiovanna, Augustine G., Ph.D. The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York (2000)
Human Aging: Biological Perspectives
Kornadt, Anna E. and Klaus Rothermund. 2011. “Contexts of Aging: Assessing

Evaluative Age Stereotypes in different Life.” The Journals of Gerontology
66B(5):547–556.
whole or part.
13
Mitteldorf, Josh. 2010. “Aging in not a Process of Wear and Tear.” Rejuvenation
Research 13(2-3):322–326.
Olshansky, S. Jay, and Bruce A. Carnes. 2001. The Quest for Immortality: Science at The
Frontiers of Aging. New York: W.W. Norton.
Simons, Leon A., John McCallum, Yechiel Friedlander, and Judith Simons. 2000.
“Healthy Ageing is Associated with Reduced and Delayed Disability,” Age and
Aging 29(2): 143–148.
Films and Videos
The following videos are available from Terra Nova Films (http://www.terranova.org).
• Fear of Falling: A Matter of Balance (1998, 17 minutes)
• Exercise: It’s Never Too Late (2003, 16 minutes)
The following videos are all available from the Films for the Humanities and Sciences
(http://www.films.com).
Quality of Life, Indicators of Quality

• The Aging Process (1992, 20 minutes)
• Living Past a Hundred (1999, 57 minutes)
• Women at Midlife (2004, 29 minutes)
• BPH: Aging and the Enlarged Prostate (2000, 23 minutes)
• Brain Attack (2000, 51 minutes)
• Hypertension: The Facts (1998, 29 minutes)
• Osteoporosis: Progress and Prevention (1996, 24 minutes)
• Glaucoma: Prevention and Treatment (1998, 20 minutes)
whole or part.
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Full Aging and The Life Course An Introduction To Social Gerontology 7Th Edition Quadagno Solutions Manual Online PDF All Chapter

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Aging and the Life Course An

Introduction to Social Gerontology 7th

Aging and the Life Course An Introduction to Social

Aging Matters An Introduction to Social Gerontology 1st

Power and Society An Introduction to the Social

Power and Society An Introduction to the Social

Explorations An Introduction to Astronomy 7th Edition

Through the Global Lens An Introduction to Social

Analyzing Inequalities An Introduction to Race Class

Meteorology Today An Introduction to Weather Climate

I. Theories of Biological Aging

A. Environmental Theories of Aging

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

B. Developmental/Genetic Theories of Aging

According to the cross-linkage theory of aging, the accumulation of cross-linked

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

II. The Aging Body

A. Aging of the Exterior Body: Skin and Hair

B. Aging of the Nervous System

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

A brain structure known as the cerebellum is involved in body movements and, to

C. Aging of the Sensory Organs

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

D. Aging of the Skeletal System: Bones, Cartilage, and Connective Tissues

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

E. Aging of the Muscular System: Muscle Mass and Strength

F. Aging of the Reproductive System

In women the climacteric is referred to as menopause, the permanent cessation of the

In May 2002, a government-sponsored study called the Women’s Health Initiative

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

A common problem in older men is erectile dysfunction (ED), better known as

G. Aging of the Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Hypertension leading to a heart attack is called hypertensive cardiovascular disease.

Class Discussion Topics

1. Tithonus’ Revenge or Healthy Aging

2. Cosmetic Surgery and Youth Enhancements

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

3. Physical Decline of an Older Family Member

Student Project and Research Suggestions

Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Lectures/Class Activity Ideas

1. Interdisciplinary Focus on the Aging Process

2. Leading Causes of Disability and Death

3. Fitness Throughout the Life Cycle

Community, State, and National Resources

Community and State Resources

Refer to Chapter 1 for a complete listing of community and state resources.

1. USE Arthritis Foundation (www.arthritis.org/)

Internet Resources and Activities

1. The National Center for Health Statistics (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/) has

2. The National Institute on Aging (https://www.nia.nih.gov/) has publications,

3. MEDSCAPE’s Women’s Health MedPulse

Dietrich, Mareclo O. and Tamas L. Havrath. 2010. “The Role of Mitochondrial

Kornadt, Anna E. and Klaus Rothermund. 2011. “Contexts of Aging: Assessing

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Films and Videos

Quality of Life, Indicators of Quality

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

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1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied