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The Critical Thinker’s Guide to Reasoning
Form a Point of View

Initial description
Clear definition
Look to Examples Look to
one side the other side
Other Point of View Other Point of View

Reasons Reasons
Evidence Evidence
St Arguments ? St Arguments ?
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Relevant? Relevant?
Look behind Build Support Look behind
Reasons Assumptions
Origin Evidence
How did I form this St What are my
ron Arguments i d?
point of view? g ? Relevant? Val unstated beliefs?
Inference
Conclusion
Decision
Solution
Prediction
Consequences
© Cengage Learning
What will happen if

the conclusion
is adopted? A modified version of a schema originally
designed by Ralph H. Johnson.
06:01:01.
58501_ifc_hr.indd 2 8/22/17 12:29 PM

edition
12
Thinking Critically
John Chaffee
Director, Center for Philosophy and Critical Thinking,
City University of New York
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
06:01:01.
58501_fm_hr_i-xxiii.indd 1 8/23/17 12:37 PM

Thinking Critically, Twelfth © 2019, 2015, 2012 John Chaffee
Edition
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
John Chaffee
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
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Brief Contents
1 Thinking ..........................................................3
2 Thinking Critically .........................................49
3 Solving Problems ..........................................99
4 Perceiving and Believing.............................139
5 Constructing Knowledge.............................195
6 Language and Thought................................257
7 Forming and Applying Concepts.................303
8 Relating and Organizing..............................339
9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues........373
10 Constructing Arguments.............................421
11 Reasoning Critically.....................................461
12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively............519
iii
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For Jessie and Joshua
06:01:01.

Preface
C ritical thinking is the cornerstone of higher education, the hallmark of an

educated person, and teaching a course in critical thinking is one of the
most inspiring and rewarding experiences a teacher can have. Because the
thinking process is such an integral part of who we are as people, the prospect of
expanding students’ thinking implies expanding who they are as human beings—
the perspective from which they view the world, the concepts and values they use
to guide their choices, and the impact they have on the world as a result of those
choices. Teaching students to become critical thinkers does not mean simply equip-
ping them with certain intellectual tools; it involves their personal transformation
and its commensurate impact on the quality of their lives and the lives of those
around them. This is truly education at its most inspiring!
Thinking Critically, Twelfth Edition, is a comprehensive introduction to the
cognitive process and helps students develop the higher-order thinking abilities
needed for academic study and career success. Based on a nationally recognized
interdisciplinary program in Philosophy and Critical Thinking established in 1979 at
LaGuardia College (The City University of New York), and involving more than 4,500
students annually, Thinking Critically integrates various perspectives on the thinking
process drawn from a variety of disciplines such as philosophy, cognitive psychology,
linguistics, and the language arts (English, reading, and oral communication).
Thinking Critically addresses a crucial need in higher education by introducing
students to critical thinking and fostering sophisticated intellectual and language
abilities. Students apply their evolving thinking abilities to a variety of subjects
drawn from academic disciplines, contemporary issues, and their life experiences.
Thinking Critically is based on the assumption, supported by research, that learning
to think more effectively is a synthesizing process, knitting critical thinking abilities
together with academic content and the fabric of students’ experiences. Thinking
learned in this way becomes a constitutive part of who students are.
Features
This book has a number of distinctive characteristics that make it an effective tool
for both instructors and students. Thinking Critically
• teaches the fundamental thinking, reasoning, and language abilities that
students need for academic success. By focusing on the major thinking and
language abilities needed in all disciplines, and by including a wide variety of
readings, the text helps students perform more successfully in other courses.
xv
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• stimulates and guides students to think clearly about complex, controversial
issues. The many diverse readings provide in-depth perspectives on significant
social issues. More important, the text helps students develop the thinking and
language abilities necessary to understand and discuss intelligently these com-
plex issues.
• presents foundational thinking, reasoning, and language abilities in a develop-
mentally sequenced way. The text begins with basic abilities and then carefully
progresses to more sophisticated thinking and reasoning skills. Cognitive maps
open each chapter to help students understand the thinking process as well as
the interrelationship of ideas within that chapter.
• engages students in the active process of thinking. Exercises, discussion topics,
readings, and writing assignments encourage active participation, stimulating
students to critically examine their own and others’ thinking and to sharpen and
improve their abilities. The text provides structured opportunities for students
to develop their thinking processes in a progressive, reflective way.
• provides context by continually relating critical-thinking abilities to students’
daily lives. Once students learn to apply critical-thinking skills to situations in
their own experiences, they then apply these skills to more abstract, academic
contexts. In addition, by asking students to think critically about themselves
and their experiences, the text fosters their personal development as mature,
responsible critical thinkers.
• integrates the development of thinking abilities with the four language skills
so crucial to success in college and careers: reading, writing, speaking, and
listening. The abundant writing assignments (short answer, paragraph, and
essay), challenging readings, and discussion exercises serve to improve students’
language skills.
• provides a design for a visual culture. The four-color design supports visual
learning styles, prompts students to think critically about the way print media
messages are shaped, and helps clarify distinctions between the many differ-
ent features and elements of the book’s pedagogy—text, readings, and other
elements.
• includes coverage of analyzing visual information. A section in Chapter 1,
“Images, Decision Making, and Thinking About Visual Information,” discusses
and models the ways in which the medium shapes the message, and introduces
concepts for critical evaluation of visual information. Each chapter also includes
a feature, “Thinking Critically About Visuals,” that engages students in compar-
ing and evaluating images drawn from current events and popular culture.
• includes substantive treatment of creative thinking. Chapters 1 and 12 begin
and end the book by linking critical thinking to creative thinking. Chapter 1
analyzes the creative process and develops creative-thinking abilities, providing
a template for approaching issues and problems both critically and creatively
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throughout the text. Chapter 12, “Thinking Critically, Living Creatively,” rein-
forces these connections and encourages students to create a life philosophy
through moral choices.
• includes a chapter on ethics. Chapter 9, “Thinking Critically About Moral
Issues,” was developed at the suggestion of reviewers who noted the deep
engagement many students have with the moral and ethical choices our complex
and interconnected society requires them to make.
• includes a section on constructing extended arguments. Chapter 10, “Con-
structing Arguments,” includes a section, “Constructing Extended Arguments,”
that presents a clear model for researching and writing argumentative essays.
• includes a critical-thinking test. “Tom Randall’s Halloween Party (The Test of
Critical Thinking Abilities)” developed by the author, is included in the Instruc-
tor’s Resource Manual and in interactive form on the student website, and pro-
vides for a comprehensive evaluation of student thinking and language abilities.
Using a court case format arising from a fatal student drinking incident, the
test challenges students to gather and weigh evidence, ask relevant questions,
construct informed beliefs, evaluate expert testimony and summation argu-
ments, reach a verdict, and then view the entire case from a problem-solving
perspective.
• provides students with a method for integrating self-assessment throughout the
course. The “Assessing Your Strategies and Creating New Goals” section at the
end of each chapter helps students monitor their own progress. Self-assessment
ratings provide an ongoing opportunity for students to evaluate their criti-
cal- and creative-thinking abilities, as well as how thoughtful and enlightened
their choices are. It suggests strategies that students can methodically apply to
improve their thinking abilities and, thus, their lives.
• provides new readings, films, and visuals for students to analyze and critique.
In addition to the casebook approach, the text gives students a richer context in
which to read individual perspectives on current issues.
New to the Twelfth Edition

The twelfth edition of Thinking Critically features a greatly expanded treatment of
thinking critically about social media and other digital concerns; provides new
readings, films, and visuals for students to analyze and critique; and includes new
casebooks of readings that give students a richer context in which to read individual
perspectives on current issues.
Greatly expanded treatment of thinking critically about social media and the
Internet. Since the last edition of this book, our culture—and consciousness—have
experienced a seismic change, one powered by the explosive growth of the Internet,
xvii
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social media, and smartphone technology (and addiction!). The consequences of
this digital explosion have been stunning and far-reaching. Lived reality has found
itself in competition with virtual reality; facts and truth have found themselves chal-
lenged by “alternate” facts and truths; and empirically grounded news reporting has
found itself threatened by “fake” news reporting. But while the culture and social
consciousness has been accelerating at warp speed, developing the abilities to think
critically about this evolving new reality have been left behind at an increasing rate.
This is extraordinarily alarming. Our fundamental ability to analyze our experience
intelligently so that we can make sound judgments and informed decisions is being
obfuscated by the pace of events and the smog of confusion and ignorance. It is for
this reason that I decided to focus this twelfth edition of Thinking Critically on this
new virtual reality, seeking to provide a comprehensive and in-depth understanding
of the cultural tsunami in which we have been swept up. To accomplish this chal-
lenging task, I enlisted two colleagues who are experts in this digital revolution and
are also accomplished teachers of the Critical Thinking course: Cheri Lynne Carr
and Shannon Proctor. Guided by my superb editor, Sarah Edmonds, Cheri and
Shannon assumed a leadership role in the revision, taking responsibility for nearly
every aspect of the revision process. This involved contributing new sections and
revising existing ones; identifying new readings, films, and visuals; and creating new
casebook sections with readings and questions. The result has been an invaluable
expansion and interweaving of the existing structure of Thinking Critically, and I am
indebted to them for their dedication and insight in meeting the goals of this revi-
sion. The new themes and features explored in this revision include the following:
• Fostering creativity through crowdsourcing
• New media dangers such as reputation killers, cyberbullying, trolling, and
catfishing
• New problems involving technology, such as time wasting, nomophobia, smart-
phone addiction, and surfing dangers
• Distinguishing perception from fact, reality from virtual reality
• The role of social media in the murder case of Adnan Syed
• Alternate facts, fake news, viral memes, and the search for authentic knowledge
and truth beyond political spin and clickbait
• A critical-thinking approach to evaluate the validity, accuracy, bias, and rel-
evance of online information using online tools
• Does Hollywood shape our concept of gender?
• Using word clouds to highlight important textual relationships
• Freedom of speech and privacy on the Internet
• Viral outrage in the case of Justine Sacco
• How does social media shape your thinking? Echo chambers and bias bubbles
created by your social media and online news feeds
xviii
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• Searching online for the right career
• Are genetically modified foods really “Frankenfood”?
• Who counts as an American?
• Should anonymity affect moral reasoning?
• Where do you get inspiration?
A casebook approach to readings reveals multiple perspectives on the impor-
tant events of the day and enriches students’ understanding of the larger context
of each issue. For easy reference, all the readings in the book are listed after the
detailed table of contents. The new readings included in this twelfth edition include
the following:
• “The Surprising Truth About How Twitter Has Changed Your Brain,” by Caitlin
Dewey
• “Social Media Is Not the Death of Meaningful Communication,” by Meghan M.
Biro
• “How One Stupid Tweet Blew Up Justine Sacco’s Life,” by Jon Ronson
• “Mob Shaming: The Pillory at the Center of the Global Village,” by Clyde
Haberman
• “When the Cyberbully Is You” by Nick Bilton
• “What’s the Point of Moral Outrage?” by Jillian Jordan, Paul Bloom, Moshe
Hoffman, and David Rand
Expanded lists of “Suggested Films” help students explore the chapter’s top-
ics through the medium of film. A description of each of the seventy suggested
films helps students and instructors decide which are most interesting and relevant
to their current study.
New photos in “Thinking Critically About Visuals” features and throughout
the chapters give students material for critical thinking and evaluation. Each
chapter features new photographs in the “Thinking Critically About Visuals” boxes
and elsewhere. These 31 new photographs, along with the many others in the book,
challenge students to think critically about the role of images in viewers’ perceptions
and about their own responses to them.
MindTap
MindTap® English for John Chaffee’s Thinking Critically, Twelfth Edition, is the digi-
tal learning solution that powers students from memorization to mastery. It gives
you complete control of your course—to provide engaging content, to challenge
every individual, and to build their confidence. Empower students to accelerate
their progress with MindTap. MindTap: Powered by You.
xix
06:01:57.

MindTap gives you complete ownership of your content and learning experi-
ence. Customize the interactive assignments, emphasize the most important topics,
and add your own material or notes in the eBook.
• Interactive activities on grammar and mechanics promote application to student
writing.
• An easy-to-use paper management system helps prevent plagiarism and allows
for electronic submission, grading, and peer review.
• A vast database of scholarly sources with video tutorials and examples supports
every step of the research process.
• Professional tutoring guides students from rough drafts to polished writing.
• Visual analytics track student progress and engagement.
• Seamless integration into your campus learning management system keeps all
your course materials in one place.
The Resources for Teaching folder provides support materials to facilitate an
efficient course setup process focused around your instructional goals: the Educa-
tor’s Guide offers an inventory of MindTap activities correlated to common plan-
ning objectives, so that you can quickly determine what you need. It also includes
a syllabus that offers an example of how these activities could be incorporated into
a sixteen-week course schedule. The Instructor’s Manual provides suggestions for
additional activities and assignments.
To help students transfer their knowledge of concepts into thoughtful action, the
“Reflection in Action” questions that follow each chapter ask students to think about
how critical thinking can be used to enrich their decision making, problem solving,
beliefs, and values in their lives outside the classroom. Each question corresponds to
one major section of the chapter, and you can assign one, several, or all the questions in
a chapter to your students. Answers are submitted online, and you can select whether
to grade these written responses or to check them off as having been submitted.
Students can practice their ability to identify logical fallacies in the game
“What’s That Fallacy?” Questions are organized under twenty-five themes of inter-
est to students, such as “Game of Phones,” “All Nighter,” “Rise Up,” and “Ask Siri,”
and questions worth one hundred to four hundred points comprise each theme.
Students are presented with a statement, dialogue, news item, or scenario and are
asked to identify whether a fallacy is present or which fallacy is used.
Acknowledgments
Many persons from a variety of disciplines have contributed to this book at various
stages of its development over the past editions, and I thank my colleagues for their
thorough scrutiny of the manuscript and their incisive and creative comments. In
xx
06:01:57.

addition, I offer my deepest gratitude to the faculty members at LaGuardia who
have participated with such dedication and enthusiasm in the Critical Thinking
program, and to the countless students whose commitment to learning is the soul of
this text. And for this twelfth edition of Thinking Critically, I have already acknowl-
edged in the previous section the stellar contributions of Cheri Lynne Carr and
Shannon Proctor, who assumed leadership responsibility in the revision process.
The following reviewers also provided evaluations that were of great help in
preparing the twelfth edition:
Leslie Aarons, LaGuardia Community College
Minerva Ahumada, Arrupe College
Don Braunstein, University of Phoenix
Mitch Butts, Pitt Community College
Melinda Campbell, National University
Payal Doctor, LaGuardia Community College
Mel Ervin, Lamar University
William Gibson, Brandman University
Sherry Goodyear, Luna Community College
Joy Harrison, Mt. Sierra College
Allyn Kahn, Champlain College
Vera Kennedy, West Hills College
Tami Lehouillier, Western Nevada College
Lanny Lester, Borough of Manhattan Community College
Matthew Marcus, Borough of Manhattan Community College
Jessica Mayock, California State University San Marcos
Rebecca Snarski, Capella University
Rita Thomson, DePaul University
Sara Vigil, Luna Community College
Jason Whitesitt, Yavapai College
Karen Zempel, Bryant & Stratton College
I have been privileged to work with a stellar team of people at Cengage who
are exemplary professionals and also valued friends. Monica Eckman, Product
Director, has been steadfast in her personal and professional support of Thinking
Critically in its various editions, and I am deeply grateful. Vanessa Coloura, Product
Manager, provided wise guidance and crucial decisions in overseeing this revision
of Thinking Critically; her steady hand at the helm and insightful suggestions at
key junctures were essential. My heartfelt thanks go to Sarah Edmonds who, in
her role as Content Developer, provided the comprehensive direction and creative
vision for this splendid edition that will be crucial for the book’s continued suc-
cess. I am appreciative of the excellent support provided by the product assistant,
Shelby Nathanson, and Michael Lepera and (once again) Aimee Bear, the senior
content project managers, were assiduous in making sure the production process
xxi
06:01:57.

moved ahead flawlessly. I also extend my thanks to the senior production director
Samantha Ross Miller for her expert oversight. I am indebted to Marissa Falco,
who as senior art director oversaw the stunning new design of this edition, and my
thanks go also to the digital content specialist, Elizabeth Cranston. Ann Hoffman
was, as usual, unusually conscientious in her role as IP analyst, and I am grateful
once again for the expert work of the manufacturing planner, Betsy Donaghey. I am
indebted to Betsy Hathaway for her essential contributions and I extend my appre-
ciation to the marketing manager, Kina Lara, for her talented and innovative efforts
on behalf of Thinking Critically.
Finally, I thank my wife, Heide, and my children, Jessie and Joshua, for their
complete and ongoing love, support, and inspiration. It is these closest relationships
that make life most worth living. And I wish to remember my parents, Charlotte
Hess and Hubert Chaffee, who taught me lasting lessons about the most important
things in life. They will always be with me.
Although this is a published book, it continues to be a work in progress. In
this spirit, I invite you to share your experiences with the text by sending me
your comments. I hope that this book serves as an effective vehicle for your own
critical-thinking explorations in living an examined life. You can contact me online
at JCthink@aol.com; my mailing address is LaGuardia College, City University of
New York, Humanities Department, 31-10 Thomson Avenue, Long Island City,
NY 11101.
John Chaffee
xxii
06:01:57.

06:01:57.

Chuck Thomas Close (born July 5,
1940, Monroe, Washington) is an
American painter and photographer
who achieved fame as a photorealist
through his massive-scale portraits.
How does this self-portrait change
when viewed from a distance versus
close up? The writer Oscar Wilde
once said, “The only normal people
are the ones you don’t know well.”
How do people look different from
a distance versus close up?
The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art

Resource, NY
06:01:57.
58501_ch01_hr_002-047.indd 2 8/22/17 7:09 AM

Contents
Preface xv
Chapter 1 Thinking 3
Living an “Examined” Life 4

A Roadmap to Your Mind 9
Working Toward Goals 10
Achieving Short-Term Goals 12
Achieving Long-Term Goals 13
Images, Decision Making, and Thinking About Visual Information 14
Images, Perceiving, and Thinking 15
An Organized Approach to Making Decisions 20
Living Creatively 24
“Can I be Creative?” 25
Becoming More Creative 27
Thinking Ahead 42
Thinking Critically About New Media

Learn to think critically about new media on page 34.
Thinking Critically About Visuals

Learn to think critically about what you see on pages 6, 8, 16, 33, and 38.
The Print Collector/Alamy Stock Photo
Chapter 2 Thinking Critically 49
Thinking Actively 53
Influences on Your Thinking 53
Becoming an Active Learner 54
Carefully Exploring Situations with Questions 55
Thinking Independently 58
Viewing Situations from Different Perspectives 60
Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reasons and Evidence 64
v
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Discussing Ideas in an Organized Way 67
Listening Carefully 69
Supporting Views with Reasons and Evidence 69
Responding to the Points Being Made 70
Asking Questions 72
Increasing Understanding 72
Reading Critically 73
Asking Questions 73
Using a Problem-Solving Approach 74
Analyzing Issues 78
What is the Issue? 78
What is the Evidence? 80
What are the Arguments? 82
What is the Verdict? 84


Learn to think critically about what you see on pages 52, 60, 65, 70, 79, and 92.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY
Chapter 3 Solving Problems 99
Thinking Critically About Problems 100

Introduction to Solving Problems 101
Solving Complex Problems 103
Accepting the Problem 106
Step 1: What is the Problem? 107
Step 2: What are the Alternatives? 110
Step 3: What are the Advantages and/or Disadvantages of Each Alternative? 112
Step 4: What is the Solution? 114
Step 5: How Well is the Solution Working? 116
Solving Nonpersonal Problems 118


Justin Sullivan/Getty Images News/Getty Images
vi
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Chapter 4 Perceiving and Believing 139
Actively Selecting, Organizing, and Interpreting Sensations 141

People’s Perceptions Differ 143
Viewing the World Through “Lenses” 144
What Factors Shape Perceptions? 147
Perceiving and Believing 156
Believing and Perceiving 158
Types of Beliefs: Reports, Inferences, Judgments 160
Reporting Factual Information 163
Inferring 166
Judging 170
Differences in Judgments 172


John Jonik/The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank
Chapter 5 Constructing Knowledge 195
Believing and Knowing 196

Knowledge and Truth 198
Stages of Knowing 199
Thinking Critically About Your Beliefs 204
Using Perspective-Taking to Achieve Knowledge 211
Beliefs Based on Indirect Experience 215
How Reliable are the Information and the Source? 216


AP Images/Susan Sterner
vii
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Chapter 6 Language and Thought 257
The Evolution of Language 258

The Symbolic Nature of Language 259
Semantic Meaning (Denotation) 261
Perceptual Meaning (Connotation) 261
Syntactic Meaning 262
Pragmatic Meaning 263
Using Language Effectively 265
Using Language to Clarify Thinking 267
Improving Vague Language 271
Using Language in Social Contexts 275
Language Styles 275
Standard American English 275
Slang 276
Jargon 278
Social Boundaries of Language 279
Using Language to Influence 279
Euphemistic Language 280
Emotive Language 283


Learn to think critically about what you see on pages 268, 270, and 276.
PHILIPPE HUGUEN/AFP/Getty Images
Chapter 7 Forming and Applying Concepts 303
What Are Concepts? 304

The Structure of Concepts 306
Forming Concepts 308
Applying Concepts 312
Using Concepts to Classify 322
Defining Concepts 326
Relating Concepts with Mind Maps 333
viii
06:01:10.


Shepard Fairey/The Amplifier Foundation
Chapter 8 Relating and Organizing 339
Chronological and Process Relationships 341

Chronological Relationships 341
Process Relationships 344
Comparative and Analogical Relationships 346
Comparative Relationships 346
Analogical Relationships 348
Using Analogies to Shape Our World 351
Causal Relationships 356
Causal Chains 357
Contributory Causes 358
Interactive Causes 359


Learn to think critically about what you see on pages 360, and 365.
Abid Katib/Getty Images News/Getty Images
Chapter 9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues 373
What Is Ethics? 375
Your Moral Compass 378
I Would Follow My Conscience 381
I Do Not Know What I Would Do 381
I Would Do Whatever Would Improve My Own Situation 381
I Would Do What God or the Scriptures Say is Right 381
I Would Do Whatever Made Me Happy 382
I Would Follow the Advice of an Authority, Such as a Parent or Teacher 382
I Would Do What is Best for Everyone Involved 384
ix
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The Thinker’s Guide to Moral Decision Making 386
Make Morality a Priority 386
Recognize That a Critical-Thinking Approach to Ethics is Based On Reason 388
Include the Ethic of Justice in your Moral Compass 388
Include the Ethic of Care in your Moral Compass 390
Accept Responsibility for your Moral Choices 391
Seek to Promote Happiness for Yourself and Others 394
Seek to Develop an Informed Intuition 396
Discover Natural Law 398
Choose to be a Moral Person 399


Learn to think critically about what you see on pages 383, 387, 392, and 400.
David Silverman/Getty Images News/Getty Images
Chapter 10 Constructing Arguments 421
Recognizing Arguments 424
Cue Words for Arguments 426
Arguments are Inferences 430
Evaluating Arguments 432
Validity: Do the Reasons Support the Conclusion? 432
Truth: How True are the Supporting Reasons? 433
The Soundness of Arguments 435
Understanding Deductive Arguments 438
Application of a General Rule 438
Modus Ponens 439
Modus Tollens 440
Disjunctive Syllogism 440
Constructing Extended Arguments 446
Writing an Extended Argument 446


Learn to think critically about what you see on pages 423, 436, and 441.
LondonPhotos-Homer Sykes/Alamy stock photo
06:01:10.

Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically 461
Inductive Reasoning 462
Empirical Generalization 463
Is The Sample Known? 463
Is The Sample Sufficient? 464
Is The Sample Representative? 464
Fallacies of False Generalization 466
Hasty Generalization 466
Sweeping Generalization 467
False Dilemma 468
Causal Reasoning 468
The Scientific Method 469
Controlled Experiments 472
Causal Fallacies 478
Questionable Cause 478
Misidentification of the Cause 479
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 479
Slippery Slope 480
Fallacies of Relevance 481
Appeal to Authority 482
Appeal to Tradition 482
Bandwagon 483
Appeal to Pity 483
Appeal to Fear 484
Appeal to Flattery 485
Special Pleading 485
Appeal to Ignorance 488
Begging the Question 488
Straw Man 489
Red Herring 490
Appeal to Personal Attack 490
Two Wrongs Make A Right 491
The Critical Thinker’s Guide to Reasoning 498
What is My Initial Point of View? 498
How Can I Define My Point of View More Clearly? 498
What is an Example of My Point of View? 498
What is the Origin of My Point of View? 500
What are My Assumptions? 500
xi
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What Reasons, Evidence, and Arguments Support My Point of View? 501
What are Other Points of View on this Issue? 501
What is My Conclusion, Decision, Solution, or Prediction? 502
What are the Consequences? 502


Source: makeameme.org
Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively 519
Living a Life Philosophy 520

Choose Freely 522
Condemned to be Free 522
Free Choice: the Mainspring of Human Action 523
Creating Yourself Through Free Choices 525
Because You are Free . . . 526
Using your Freedom to Shape your Life 528
Escaping From Freedom 529
Increase your Freedom by Eliminating Constraints 530
Deciding on a Career 534
Thinking Errors in Career Decisions 536
Creating Your Dream Job 536
Discovering Who You Are 537
What are your Interests? 537
What are your Abilities? 539
Finding the Right Match 541
Choosing the “Good Life” 547
Meaning of Your Life 548
Final Thoughts 550


Kevin Mazur/Getty Images for Tony Awards Productions/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images
Glossary 556
Index 562
xii
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Readings
Chapter 1 Thinking
MALCOLM X WITH ALEX HALEY From The Autobiography of Malcolm X
LESLEY DORMEN AND PETER EDIDIN “Original Spin”
Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

DANIEL GOLEMAN “Jurors Hear Evidence and Turn It into Stories”
AMY R. GRENIER “The Immigrant Bias: Reflecting on Serial”
Chapter 3 Solving Problems

NICHOLAS CARR “Is Google Making Us Stupid?”
Chapter 4 Perceiving and Believing

THE NEW YORK TIMES “Five Accounts of the Assassination of Malcolm X”
DAN BAUM “The Price of Gun Control”
JEFF MCMAHAN “Why Gun ‘Control’ Is Not Enough”
LISA WADE “The (Terrifying) Transformative Potential of Technology”
JOE SCARBOROUGH “Morning Joe”
Chapter 5 Constructing Knowledge

KEN CALDEIRA “The Great Climate Experiment”
PATRICK BUCHANAN “Global Warming: Hoax of the Century”
TYLER HAMILTON “Why media tell climate story poorly”
Chapter 6 Language and Thought

WILLIAM LEAST HEAT-MOON “From Blue Highways”
THE NEW YORK TIMES “An Account of Avianca Flight 52”
ROBIN TOLMACH LAKOFF “Ancient Greece to Iraq, the Power of Words in Wartime”
YVES SMITH “Twitter, Communication, and My Intermittent Inner Luddite”
CAITLIN DEWEY “The Surprising Truth About How Twitter Has Changed Your Brain”
MEGHAN M. BIRO “Social Media Is Not the Death of Meaningful Communication”
xiii
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Chapter 7 Forming and Applying Concepts
KATE RICE “New ‘Non-Traditional’ American Families”
BOB MORRIS “We Are Family”
LISA BELKIN “Three Grown-Ups and a Baby”
JOEL KOTKIN “The Rise of Post-Familialism: Humanity’s Future?”
NICHOLAS JACKSON “Infographic: The American Identity According to Social Media”
Chapter 8 Relating and Organizing

JOSEPH BRUCHAC “Indian Renaissance”
DRAKE BENNETT “Thinking Literally: The Surprising Ways That Metaphors Shape Your World”
GRAIN.ORG “GMOs: Fooling—Er, ‘Feeding’—The World For 20 Years”
RICHARD MANNING “Eating the Genes: What the Green Revolution Did for Grain, Biotechnology
May Do for Protein”
THE EDITORS OF SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN “Do Seed Companies Control GM Crop Research?”
Chapter 9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues

ROBERT COLES “The Disparity Between Intellect and Character”
PETER SINGER “The Singer Solution to World Poverty”
Chapter 10 Constructing Arguments

GORE VIDAL “Drugs”
A. M. ROSENTHAL “The Case for Slavery”
JON RONSON “How One Stupid Tweet Blew Up Justine Sacco’s Life”
CLYDE HABERMAN “Shaming: The Pillory at the Center of the Global Village”
NICK BILTON “When the Cyberbully is You”
JILLIAN JORDAN, PAUL BLOOM, MOSHE HOFFMAN, AND DAVID RAND “What’s the Point of Moral
Outrage?”
Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

JOHN SABINI AND MAURY SILVER “Critical Thinking and Obedience to Authority”
ANAHAD O’CONNOR “Pressure to Go Along with Abuse Is Strong, but Some Soldiers Find
Strength to Refuse”
xiv
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CHAPTER
Thinking 1
Thinking
Thinking
Creatively
Thinking
Critically
Thinking can be developed and improved by
• becoming aware of the thinking process.
• carefully examining the thinking process.

© 2019 Cengage
• practicing the thinking process.
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4 Chapter 1 Thinking
T
hinking is the extraordinary process we use every waking moment to make
sense of our world and our lives. Successful thinking enables us to solve the
problems we are continually confronted with, to make intelligent decisions,
and to achieve the goals that give our lives purpose and fulfillment. It is an activity
that is crucial for living in a meaningful way.
This book is designed to help you understand the complex, incredible process
of thinking. You might think of this text as a map to guide you in exploring the
way your mind operates. This book is also founded on the conviction that you can
improve your thinking abilities by carefully examining your thinking process and
working systematically through challenging activities. Thinking is an active process,
and you learn to do it better by becoming aware of and actually using the thought
process, not simply by reading about it. By participating in the thinking activities
contained in the text and applying these ideas to your own experiences, you will find
that your thinking—and language—abilities become sharper and more powerful.
College provides you with a unique opportunity to develop your mind in the
fullest sense. Entering college initiates you into a community of people dedicated
to learning, and each discipline, or subject area, represents an organized effort to
understand some significant dimension of human experience. As you are intro-
duced to various disciplines, you learn new ways to understand the world, and you
elevate your consciousness as a result. This book, in conjunction with the other
courses in your college experience, will help you become an “educated thinker,”
expanding your mind and developing your sensibilities.
Achieving the goal of becoming an educated thinker involves two core pro-
thinking cesses that are the mainsprings of our thoughts and actions: thinking critically and
critically thinking creatively. The process of thinking critically involves thinking for ourselves
Carefully by carefully examining the way that we make sense of the world. Taking this approach
exploring the to living is one of the most satisfying aspects of being a mature human being.
thinking process We are able to think critically because of our natural human ability to reflect—to
to clarify our think back on what we are thinking, doing, or feeling. By carefully thinking back on
understanding
our thinking, we are able to figure out how our thinking operates and thus learn to do
and make more
intelligent it more effectively. In this book, we will systematically explore the many dimensions
decisions. of the way our minds work, providing the opportunity to deepen our understanding
of the thinking process and stimulating us to become more effective thinkers.
Of course, carefully examining the ideas produced by the thinking process
thinking assumes that ideas exist that are worth examining. We produce such ideas by think-
creatively
ing creatively.
Using our
thinking process
to develop
ideas that are Living an “Examined” Life
unique, useful,
and worthy Over 2,500 years ago, the Greek philosopher Socrates cautioned, “The unex-
of further amined life is not worth living,” underscoring the insight that when we don’t
elaboration.
make use of our distinctive human capacity to think deeply and act intelligently,
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our lives have diminished meaning. In a warning that is at least as relevant

today as it was when he first spoke it, Socrates cautioned his fellow citizens of
Athens:
“You, my friend—a citizen of the great and mighty and wise city of Athens—are
you not ashamed of heaping up the greatest amount of money and honor and
reputation, and caring so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improve-
ment of the soul, which you never regard or heed at all?”
Today’s world is a complex and challenging place in which to live. The acceler-
ated pace at which many people live often makes them feel as though they are rush-
ing from deadline to deadline, skating on the surface of life instead of exploring its
deeper meanings. What is the purpose of your life? Who are you, and who do you
want to become? These are essential questions that form the core of life, and yet the
velocity of our lives discourages us from even posing these questions, much less
trying to answer them.
Your efforts to become thoughtful and reflective, to explore the nature
of yourself and the meaning of your life, are made even more difficult by
the unthinking world in which we live. Consider all of the foolish opinions,
thoughtless decisions, confused communication, destructive behavior, and
self-absorbed, thoughtless people whom you have to deal with each day. Reflect
on the number of times you have scratched your head and wondered, “What
was that person thinking?” And how many times have you asked yourself,
“What was I thinking?” The disturbing truth is that many people don’t think
very well; they are not making use of their potential to think clearly and
effectively.
Every day you encounter a series of choices, forks in your life path that
have the cumulative effect of defining you as a person. In thinking about these
choices, you may discover that habitual patterns occur in your life and rarely
change. If you find that your life comprises a collection of similar activities and
routines, don’t despair; this is typical, not unusual. However, it may be an indi-
cation that you are not living your life in the most thoughtful fashion possible,
that your choices have become automatic, and that your experiences are fixed in
certain “ruts.” If this is the case, it may be time to reflect on your life, reevaluate
the choices you are making, and consider living in a more reflective and creative
fashion.
You are an artist, creating your life portrait, and your paints and brush strokes
are the choices you make each day. This metaphor provides you with a way to think
about your personal development and underscores your responsibility for making
the most intelligent decisions possible.
You have the capacity to create a richly fulfilling life, but you must develop and
make full use of your thinking potential to do so. By becoming a true educated
thinker, you will have the tools to unlock the mysteries of yourself and meet the
challenges of the world.
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The Mystery of the Mind and Scientific Developments

These images depict different
understandings of the human
mind. The first image represents
phrenology, a science popular
in the 1800s but now debunked,
that claimed personality traits
and dispositions could be
determined by the size and
shape of various parts of the
skull. The second is a functional
magnetic resonance image
(fMRI), a modern neuroscientific
technology used to measure
blood flow in the brain in order
to determine changes in activity
that are used to infer what an
individual is thinking about.
The Print Collector/Alamy Stock Photo
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Compare the two images to identify what visual qualities suggest trustworthiness.
Does the phrenology diagram or the fMRI seem more accurate? Why? How might a critical
thinking student from the 1800s have viewed these images? What about a student in
2100? Do scientific facts ever change?
© Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. All rights reserved.
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You Are the Artist of Your Life

In what ways does this metaphor help you understand your personal development? In
what ways does it highlight the role of personal responsibility in your life? Although
Chuck Close suffered a catastrophic spinal artery collapse in 1988 that left him severely
paralyzed, he has continued to paint and produce work that remains sought after by
museums and collectors. What life lessons can we learn from the way he has responded
to adversity? We all have our own unique challenges to meet in order to find our life
path, just as Chuck Close has overcome physical disability to achieve great success.
What choices will you have to make in order to reach your full potential as a person?
AP Images/Mark Lennihan
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A Roadmap to Your Mind 9
A Roadmap to Your Mind

This book is designed to help you become an educated thinker by providing you
with many opportunities to use your mind in ways that will strengthen and elevate
your thinking abilities. Many of these abilities—such as working toward your goals,
solving problems, or making intelligent decisions—will already be familiar to you.
Others, such as understanding the conceptualization process or constructing rigor-
ous extended arguments, may be less so. But whatever your degree of familiarity,
and no matter what your level of expertise, you can always improve your thinking
abilities, and doing so will enrich your life in countless ways. Here is a brief preview
of the thinking abilities you will be studying in this book—the very same abilities
that you will be using to think with as you study them!
• Establishing and achieving your goals (Chapter 1)
• Becoming an intelligent and effective decision maker (Chapter 1)
• Becoming a confident and productive creative thinker (Chapter 1)
• Becoming an independent, informed, and open-minded critical thinker (Chapter 2)
• Learning to analyze and discuss complex, controversial ideas in an organized
fashion (Chapter 2)
• Becoming a powerful and successful problem solver (Chapter 3)
• Becoming familiar with the perceptual “lenses” through which you view the
world, and understanding the way these lenses shape and influence your entire
experience (Chapter 4)
• Learning to develop informed, well-supported beliefs and achieve authentic
knowledge of important issues (Chapter 5)
• Learning to critically analyze information and images presented in the media,
the Internet, and popular culture (Chapter 5)
• Developing your ability to understand and use language effectively in order to
express your ideas clearly and coherently (Chapter 6)
• Learning to form and apply concepts in order to understand the world in a clear,
sophisticated way (Chapter 7)
• Developing your ability to relate and organize concepts in complex thinking
patterns (Chapter 8)
• Learning to think critically about ethical issues and moral beliefs (Chapter 9)
• Learning to construct logically valid and compelling arguments to support your
point of view (Chapter 10)
• Learning to evaluate the soundness of deductive and inductive arguments and
detect illogical ways of thinking (“fallacies”) (Chapters 10, 11)
• Developing your ability to make enlightened choices and work toward creating
a meaningful and fulfilling life (Chapter 12)
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Of course, these abilities do not operate in isolation from one another; instead, they
work together in complex patterns and relationships. For example, in the remainder
of this first chapter, we’re going to explore three core areas that are central to being
an accomplished thinker and living a successful, fulfilling life:
• Establishing and achieving your goals
• Becoming an intelligent and effective decision maker
• Becoming a confident and productive creative thinker
Achieving your full potential in these areas involves all of the other thinking
abilities that you will be studying in this book. In this chapter, you will be laying
the foundation for achieving your goals, making effective decisions, and learning
to think creatively. However, your abilities in these areas will continue to grow as
you develop and practice the full range of your thinking capabilities using this text.
Working Toward Goals

“Ah, but a man’s reach should exceed his grasp, / Or what’s a heaven for?”
—Robert Browning
My future career goal is to become a professional photographer, working for National

Geographic Magazine and traveling around the world. I originally had different
dreams, but gradually drifted away from them and lost interest. Then I enrolled in
a photography course and loved it. I couldn’t wait until the weekend was over to
attend class on Monday or to begin my next class project—reactions that were really
quite unusual for me! Not everyone is certain at my age about what they would like
to become, and I think it is important to discover a career you will enjoy because
you are going to spend the rest of your life doing it. I have many doubts, as I think
everyone does. Am I good enough? The main thing I fear is rejection, people not lik-
ing my work, a possibility that is unavoidable in life. There is so much competition in
this world that sometimes when you see someone better at what you do, you can feel
inadequate. These problems and obstacles that interfere with my goals will have to be
overcome. Rejection will have to be accepted and looked at as a learning experience,
and competition will have to be used as an incentive for me to work at my highest
level. But through it all, if you don’t have any fears, then what do you have? Lacking
competition and the possibility of rejection, there is no challenge to life.
As revealed in this student passage, goals have extremely important functions,

organizing your thinking and giving your life order and direction. Whether you
are preparing food, preparing for an exam, or preparing for a career, goals suggest
courses of action and influence your decisions. By performing these functions, goals
contribute meaning to your life. They give you something to aim for and lead to a
sense of accomplishment when you reach them, like the satisfaction you may have
felt when you graduated from high school or entered college. Your thinking abilities
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enable you first to identify what your goals are, and then to plan how to reach these
goals.
Most of your behavior has a purpose or purposes, a goal or goals, that you are
trying to reach. You can begin to discover the goals of your actions by asking the
question “Why?” about what you are doing or thinking. For example, answer the
following question as specifically as you can: Why did you enroll in college?
This question may have stimulated any number of responses:
• Because I want to pursue a fulfilling career.
• Because all of my friends enrolled in college.
• Because my parents insisted that I go to college in order to get a good job.
Whatever your response, it reveals at least one of your goals in attending college.
Using your response to the question “Why did you enroll in college?” as a start-
ing point, try to discover part of your goal pattern by asking a series of “Why” ques-
tions. After each response, ask “Why?” again. (For example: Why did you enroll in
college? “Because I want to pursue a fulfilling career.” Why do you want to pursue a
fulfilling career? “Because.…”) Try to give thoughtful and specific answers.
As you may have found in completing the activity, this “child’s game” of repeatedly
asking “Why?” begins to reveal the network of goals that structure your experience
and leads you to progressively more profound questions regarding your basic goals in
life, such as “Why do I want to be successful?” or “Why do I want a happy and fulfill-
ing life?” These are complex issues that require thorough and ongoing exploration.
A first step in this direction is to examine the way your mind works to achieve your
goals, which is the “goal” of this section. If you can understand the way your mind
functions when you think effectively, then you can use this knowledge to improve
your thinking abilities. This in turn will enable you to deal more effectively with new
situations you encounter. To begin this process, think about an important goal you
have achieved in your life, and then complete Thinking Activity 1.1. Thinking Activi-
ties are designed to stimulate your thinking process and provide an opportunity to
express your ideas about important topics. By sharing these ideas with your teacher
and other members of the class, you are not only expanding your own thinking,
but also expanding theirs. Each student in the class has a wealth of experiences and
insights to offer to the class community.
Thinking Activity 1.1

ANALYZING A GOAL THAT YOU ACHIEVED
1. Describe an important goal that you recently achieved.
2. Identify the steps you had to take to achieve this goal in the order in which
they were taken, and estimate the amount of time each step took.
3. Describe how you felt when you achieved your goal.
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ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM GOALS

By examining your responses to Thinking Activity 1.1, you can see that thinking
effectively plays a crucial role in helping you to achieve your goals by enabling you
to perform two distinct, interrelated activities:
1. Identifying the appropriate goals
2. Devising effective plans and strategies to achieve your goals
You are involved in this goal-seeking process in every aspect of your daily life. Some
of the goals you seek to achieve are more immediate (short-term) than others, such as
planning your activities for the day or organizing your activities for an upcoming test.
Although achieving these short-term goals seems as though it ought to be a
manageable process, the truth is your efforts probably meet with varying degrees of
success. You may not always achieve your daily goals, and you might occasionally
find yourself inadequately prepared for a test. By improving your mastery of the
goal-seeking process, you should be able to improve the quality of every area of your
life. Let’s explore how to do this.
Identify five short-term goals you would like to achieve in the next week. Now
rank these goals in order of importance, ranging from the goals that are most essen-
tial for you to achieve to those that are less significant.
Once this process of identifying and ranking your goals is complete, you can
then focus on devising effective plans and strategies to achieve them. To complete
this stage of the goal-seeking process, select the goal that you ranked 1 or 2, and
then list all of the steps in the order in which they need to be taken to achieve your
goal successfully. After completing this list, estimate how much time each step
will take and plan the step in your daily/weekly schedule. For example, if your
goal is to prepare for a quiz in biology, your steps might include the following:
Goal: Prepare for biology quiz in 2 days

Steps to be taken Time involved Schedule
1. Photocopy the notes for the class 20 minutes After next class
I missed last week
2. Review reading assignments and 2 hours Tonight
class notes
3. Make a summary review sheet 1 hour Tomorrow night
4. Study the review sheet 30 minutes Right before quiz
Although this method may seem a little mechanical the first few times you use
it, it will soon integrate into your thinking processes and become a natural and
automatic approach to achieving your daily goals. Much of our failure to achieve
our short-term goals is because that we skip one or more of the steps in this process.
Common thinking errors when seeking our goals include the following:
• We neglect to explicitly identify important goals.
• We concentrate on less important goals first, leaving insufficient time to work
on more important goals.
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• We don’t identify all of the steps required to achieve our goals, or we approach
them in the wrong order.
• We underestimate the time each step will take and/or fail to plan the steps in
our schedule.
Method for Achieving Short-Term Goals

Step 1: Identify the goals.
Identify the short-term goals.
Rank the goals in order of importance.
Select the most important goal(s) to focus on.
Step 2: Devise effective plans to achieve your goals.

List all of the steps in the order in which they should be taken.
Estimate how much time each step will take.
Plan the steps in your daily/weekly schedule.
ACHIEVING LONG-TERM GOALS

Identifying immediate or “short-term” goals tends to be a fairly simple procedure.
Identifying appropriate “long-term” goals is a much more complex and challeng-
ing process: career aims, plans for marriage, paying for children’s college, goals for
personal development. Think, for example, about the people you know who have
full-time jobs. How many of these people get up in the morning excited and look-
ing forward to going to work that day? Probably not many. Unfortunately, many
people have not been successful in identifying the most appropriate career goals for
themselves—goals that reflect their true interests and talents.
How do you identify the most appropriate long-term goals for yourself? To
begin, you need to develop an in-depth understanding of yourself: your talents,
your interests, the things that stimulate you and bring you satisfaction. You also
need to discover what your possibilities are, either through research or actual expe-
rience. Of course, your goals do not necessarily remain the same throughout your
life. It is unlikely that the goals you had as an eight-year-old are the ones you have
now. As you grow and mature, it is natural for your goals to change and evolve as
well. The key point is that you should keep examining your goals to make sure that
they reflect your own thinking and current interests.
Research studies have shown that high-achieving people are able to envision a
detailed, three-dimensional picture of their future in which their goals and aspira-
tions are clearly inscribed. In addition, they are able to construct a mental plan that
includes the sequence of steps they will have to take, the amount of time each step
will involve, and strategies for overcoming the obstacles they will likely encounter.
Such realistic and compelling concepts of the future enable these people to make
sacrifices in the present to achieve their long-term goals. Of course, they may
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modify these goals as circumstances change and they acquire more information,
but they retain a well-defined, flexible plan that charts their life course.
Research also reveals that people who are low achievers tend to live in the pres-
ent and the past. Their concepts of the future are vague and ill defined: “I want to be
happy” or “I want a high-paying job.” This unclear concept of the future makes it diffi-
cult for them to identify the most appropriate goals for themselves, to devise effective
strategies for achieving these goals, and to make the necessary sacrifices in the pres-
ent that will ensure that the future becomes a reality. For example, imagine that you
are faced with the choice of studying for an exam or participating in a social activity.
What would you do? If you are focusing mainly on the present rather than the future,
then the temptation to go out with your friends may be too strong. But if you see this
exam as connected to a future that is real and extremely important, then you are bet-
ter equipped to sacrifice a momentary pleasant time for your future happiness.

ANALYZING AN IMPORTANT FUTURE GOAL
Apply some of the insights we have been examining with regard to working toward
goals to a situation in your own life.
1. Describe as specifically as possible an important longer-term goal that you
want to achieve. Your goal can be academic, professional, or personal.
2. Explain the reasons that led you to select the goal that you did and why you
believe that your goal makes sense.
3. Identify both the major and minor steps you will have to take to achieve your
goal. List your steps in the order in which they need to be taken and indicate
how much time you think each step will take. Make your responses as specific
and precise as possible.
4. Identify some of the sacrifices that you may have to make in the present in
order to achieve your future goal.
Images, Decision Making, and Thinking

About Visual Information
Journalists, scientists, website creators, lawyers, advertisers—a staggering variety
of professionals rely on visuals to communicate. From college and military recruit-
ment brochures to consumer advertising to a company’s annual reports, images
work in both subtle and overt ways to persuade us to do, believe, or buy something.
As a critical thinker, you must pay attention to the ways in which images can inspire,
support, and reflect your beliefs and your goals.
Each chapter of Thinking Critically includes a feature that challenges you to
apply new thinking strategies to pairs of images that provoke the viewer into finding
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connections, confronting beliefs, and questioning evidence. This feature is called

“Thinking Critically About Visuals.”
IMAGES, PERCEIVING, AND THINKING

Whether they are recording events as they happen or reflecting imaginatively on their
personal experiences, visual artists in all media (painters, cartoonists, graphic artists,
photographers, and others) are fundamentally aware that they are communicating—
that, even without words, their images will tell a story, make an argument, show a
process, or provide information. For you to think critically about the many kinds of
information you encounter in your personal, academic, and professional lives, you
need to understand how these images are created and the purposes they serve.
Images and Learning In college, you will often be asked to present informa-
tion in a visual manner. Classes in the sciences and social sciences require you to
present numerical data in the form of charts, graphs, and maps. In the visual arts
and humanities, you may be asked to analyze a painting’s message and style or to
describe a film director’s approach to setting a scene. As you read your textbooks,
study your instructor’s PowerPoint slides, and conduct your own research, be sure
that you understand the point of visual information and how it complements writ-
ten information. In addition, be sure to ask your instructor for each of your classes
how to locate, correctly cite, and usefully include images in your own essays and
research papers.
Images, Creative Thinking, and Problem Solving Creative thinking teaches

us that information can be experienced and communicated in many different ways.
When you use any of the creative or critical approaches to problem solving discussed
in this book, try to incorporate visual as well as verbal descriptions and information.
You could collect images from magazines, books, and online sources and print them
out or scan them electronically to create a kind of visual “mind map.” Or you could
look online at sites such as the National Archives, Flickr, and Google Images, all of
which allow you to search for images using key words related to your task.
Images and “Reading” As you come across visual images to use in your essays,
reports, and arguments, remember that the content of an image—just like the con-
tent of a text—comprises elements that work together to convey a message. Some of
these elements are similar to those you consider when evaluating a piece of writing:
setting, point of view, relationships between characters, and perspective (objective
or subjective). Other elements are specifically visual: how color is used, how i mages
are manipulated in a graphics editor such as Adobe Photoshop, how images are
cropped (or cut), and how images are arranged on a page or screen. Also important,
of course, is how the text that accompanies images describes and contextualizes
what you are seeing; this text, called a caption, should also be a part of your critical
interpretation of visual evidence.
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“Human Sex Trafficking”

Human trafficking for sexual purposes is an international evil involving an estimated
25 million women and children a year, a $35 billion industry that reaches to every
corner of the world. The United States is not immune to this evil: an estimated
45,000–50,000 women and children are caught in the snare of human trafficking every
year. Of those victims who are found and released, 83% are American citizens. So the
idea that sex trafficking “only happens in other countries” is not accurate. Consider
this photograph: What approach is being used to dramatize to the public the evil of
human trafficking? What makes this photograph arresting? Do you find this approach
effective? Why or why not? If you were asked to create an ad to dramatize human
trafficking, how would you go about it?
AP Photos/New Mexico Attorney General’s Office
Images and Evaluation When you have gathered images that relate to your t opic,
you can use questions of fact, interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and
application (pages 55–56) to help you sort through the visuals and select those that
best support your purpose in writing. For example, a witty or satirical editorial cartoon
about the federal response to Hurricane Sandy might be appropriate for an argument
essay in which you analyze the political impact of that disaster, but for a paper about
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This photograph of young girls lined up and dressed in the same outfits tells the
story of human trafficking in a different way. From what perspective is this photograph
taken? What makes this perspective especially compelling? In what ways, and in what
contexts, can visual images tell stories from the perspective of someone other than the
photographer? What story does this photograph tell you? How does this image compare
with the image on the previous page? Does the combined message and effect of these
two images influence your thinking about human trafficking? In what way?
Sean Sprague/Age fotostock
the storm’s long-term environmental effects, you would be better served by a map
showing the loss of land or a satellite photograph showing the extent of flood damage.
The Thinking Critically About Visuals activity on pages 16–17 contains two
photographs of a very different kind of human disaster—the tragedy of human traf-
ficking. Both types of disasters have devastating consequences for innocent people
caught up in these events.
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Thinking Passage
THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF MALCOLM X
Born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of an activist
Baptist preacher, Malcolm X saw racial injustice and violence from a very young
age. His father, Earl Little, was outspoken in his support for the Black Nationalist
leader Marcus Garvey; as a result, the family was the target of harassment and was
forced to move frequently. In 1931, Earl Little’s body was found on the town’s trol-
ley tracks. Although the local police dismissed it as an accident, Earl Little’s death
was believed to have been a murder committed by white supremacists. Malcolm
dropped out of high school after a teacher’s contemptuous discouragement of his
ambitions to become a lawyer. For the next several years, he moved between Boston
and New York, becoming profitably involved in various criminal activities. After
being convicted of burglary in Boston, he was sentenced to prison. There he began
writing letters to former friends and various government officials. His frustration
in trying to express his ideas led him to a course of self-education, described in
the following excerpt from The Autobiography of Malcolm X. After his release from
prison, Malcolm converted to Islam and rose to prominence in the Nation of Islam.
A pilgrimage he made to Saudi Arabia led him to begin working toward healing and
reconciliation for Americans of all races. Unfortunately, the enemies he had made
and the fears he had provoked did not leave Malcolm X much time to share this
message. Three assassins gunned him down as he spoke at the Audubon Ballroom
in Harlem on February 15, 1965.
From The Autobiography of Malcolm X

by Malcolm X, with Alex Haley
Many who today hear me somewhere in person, or on television, or those who read
something I’ve said, will think I went to school far beyond the eighth grade. This
impression is due entirely to my prison studies.
It had really begun back in the Charlestown Prison, when Bimbi first made me feel
envy of his stock of knowledge. Bimbi had always taken charge of any conversation he
was in, and I had tried to emulate him. But every book I picked up had few sentences
which didn’t contain anywhere from one to nearly all of the words that might as well
have been in Chinese. When I just skipped those words, of course, I really ended up with
little idea of what the book said. So I had come to the Norfolk Prison Colony still going
through only book-reading motions. Pretty soon, I would have quit even these motions,
unless I had received the motivation that I did.
I saw that the best thing I could do was get hold of a dictionary—to study, to
learn some words. I was lucky enough to reason also that I should try to improve my
penmanship. It was sad. I couldn’t even write in a straight line. It was both ideas
together that moved me to request a dictionary along with some tablets and pencils
from the Norfolk Prison Colony school.
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I spent two days just riffling uncertainly through the dictionary’s pages. I’d never
realized so many words existed! I didn’t know which words I needed to learn. Finally,
just to start some kind of action, I began copying. In my slow, painstaking, ragged
handwriting, I copied into my tablet everything printed on that first page, down to
the punctuation marks. I believe it took me a day. Then, aloud, I read back, to myself,
everything I’d written on the tablet. Over and over, aloud, to myself, I read my own
handwriting.
I woke up the next morning, thinking about those words—immensely proud to
realize that not only had I written so much at one time, but I’d written words that
I never knew were in the world. Moreover, with a little effort, I also could remember
what many of these words meant. I reviewed the words whose meanings I didn’t
remember. . . .
I was so fascinated that I went on—I copied the dictionary’s next page. And the
same experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned
of people and places and events from history. . . . That was the way I started copying
what eventually became the entire dictionary. . . . Between what I wrote in my tablet,
and writing letters, during the rest of my time in prison I would guess I wrote a million
words. I suppose it was inevitable that as my word-base broadened, I could for the
first time pick up a book and read and now begin to understand what the book was
saying. . . .
Source: From The Autobiography of Malcolm X, by Malcolm X and Alex Haley. Copyright © 1964 by
Alex Haley and Malcolm X. Copyright © 1965 by Alex Haley and Betty Shabazz. Used by permission
of Random House, Inc, and The Random House Group Ltd.
QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS

In describing how he worked toward the goals of becoming literate and knowl-
edgeable, Malcolm X touches on a variety of important issues related to develop-
ing thinking and language abilities. We can analyze some of the issues raised by
responding to the following exercises:
1. Malcolm X describes the process of how learning words from a dictionary
sparked a hunger for learning that led to his being able to “pick up a book and
read and now begin to understand what the book was saying.” Explain the
importance of his hunger for knowledge in terms of how it affected his life.
2. Malcolm X envied one of the other inmates, Bimbi, because his stock of
knowledge enabled him to take charge of any conversation he was in. Explain
why knowledge—and our ability to use it—leads to power in our dealings with
others. Describe a situation from your own experience in which having expert
knowledge about a subject enabled you to influence the thinking of other
people.
3. Malcolm X also states about pursuing his studies in prison that “up to then, I
never had been so truly free in my life.” Explain what you think he means by
this statement.
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An Organized Approach to Making Decisions

Identifying and reaching the goals in our lives involves making informed, intelligent
decisions. Many of the decisions we make are sound and thoughtful, but we may
also find that some of the decisions we make turn out poorly, undermining our
efforts to achieve the things we most want in life. Many of our poor decisions involve
relatively minor issues—for example, selecting an unappealing dish in a restaurant,
agreeing to go on a blind date, taking a course that does not meet our expectations.
Although these decisions may result in unpleasant consequences, the discomfort
is neither life-threatening nor long-lasting (although a disappointing course may
seem to last forever!). However, many more significant decisions occur in our lives
in which poor choices can result in considerably more damaging and far-reaching
consequences. For example, one reason that the current divorce rate in the United
States stands at approximately 50 percent (for first marriages) is the poor decisions
people make before or after the vows “till death do us part.” Similarly, the fact that
many employed adults wake up in the morning unhappy about going to their jobs,
anxiously waiting for the end of the day and the conclusion of the week so they are
free to do what they really want to do, suggests that somewhere along the line they
made poor career decisions, or they felt trapped by circumstances they couldn’t
control. Our jobs should be much more than a way to earn a paycheck—they should
be vehicles for using our professional skills, opportunities for expressing our cre-
ative talents, stimulants of our personal growth and intellectual development, and
experiences that provide us with feelings of fulfillment and self-esteem. In the final
analysis, our careers are central elements of our lives and important dimensions of
our life portraits. Our career decision is one that we’d better try to get right!
An important part of becoming an educated thinker is learning to make effec-
tive decisions. Let’s explore this process more closely.

ANALYZING A PREVIOUS DECISION
1. Think back on an important decision you made that turned out well. Describe
the experience as specifically as possible.
2. Reconstruct the reasoning process that you used to make your decision. Did you:
• Clearly define the decision to be made and the related issues?
• Consider various choices and anticipate the consequences of these various
choices?
• Gather additional information to help in your analysis?
• Evaluate the various pros and cons of different courses of action?
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An Organized Approach to Making Decisions 21
• Use a chart or diagram to aid in your deliberations?

• Create a specific plan of action to implement your ideas?
• Periodically review your decision to make necessary adjustments?
As you reflected on the successful decision you were writing about in Thinking
Activity 1.3, you probably noticed your mind working in a more or less system-
atic way as you thought through the decision situation. Of course, we often make
important decisions with less thoughtful analysis, acting impulsively or relying on
our “intuition.” Sometimes these decisions work out well, but often they don’t, and
we are forced to live with the consequences of these mistaken choices. People who
approach decision situations thoughtfully and analytically tend to be more success-
ful decision makers than people who don’t. Naturally, there are no guarantees that
a careful analysis will lead to a successful result—often, we encounter too many
unknown elements and factors beyond our control. But we can certainly improve
our success rate as well as our speed by becoming more knowledgeable about the
decision-making process. Expert decision makers can typically make quick, accu-
rate decisions based on intuitions that are informed, not merely impulsive. As with
most complex abilities in life, however, we need to learn to “walk” before we can
“run,” so let’s explore a versatile and effective approach for making decisions.
The decision-making approach we will be using consists of five steps. As you
gradually master these steps, they will become integrated into your way of thinking,
and you will be able to apply them in a natural and flexible way.
Step 1: Define the Decision Clearly This seems like an obvious step, but a lot
of decision making goes wrong at the starting point. For example, imagine that you
decide that you want to have a “more active social life.” The problem with this char-
acterization of your decision is it defines the situation too generally and therefore
doesn’t give any clear direction for your analysis. Do you want to develop an inti-
mate, romantic relationship? Do you want to cultivate more close friendships? Do
you want to engage in more social activities? Do you want to meet new people? In
short, the decision to have a “more active social life” can be defined more clearly in
many ways. The more specific your definition of the decision to be made, the clearer
your analysis will be and the greater the likelihood of success.
STRATEGY: Write a one-page analysis that articulates your decision-making
situation as clearly and specifically as possible.
Step 2: Consider All the Possible Choices Successful decision makers explore
all of the possible choices in their situation, not simply the obvious ones. In fact, the
less obvious choices often turn out to be the most effective ones. For example, a stu-
dent in a recent class of mine couldn’t decide whether he should major in a ccounting
or business management. In discussing his situation with other members of the class,
he revealed that his real interest was in the area of graphic design and illustration.
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
la dolcezza, la modestia e la riserva di lei. Morto Druso, Antonia non
volle rimaritarsi più, sebbene la lex de maritandis ordinibus ne
facesse obbligo anche a lei; «giovane e bellissima — scrive Valerio
Massimo — si ridusse a vivere in compagnia di Livia, e il medesimo
letto vide morire il giovane marito e invecchiare la sposa in una
austera vedovanza»; Augusto e il popolo furono così inteneriti da
questa suprema prova di fedeltà alla memoria dell’indimenticabile
marito, che per comune consenso dell’opinione pubblica, essa fu
dispensata dall’obbligo di rimaritarsi; e Augusto stesso, pur così
rigoroso nell’imporre l’osservanza della lex de maritandis ordinibus
alla sua famiglia, fu questa volta disarmato. Per la prima volta la
Ragion di Stato, mezzana e pronuba di prostituzioni legali, rispettò
l’anima e il corpo di una donna pura, esentandola dalle promiscuità
politiche, obbligatorie per tutte le altre donne della sua famiglia e
della sua casta.
Tra una sua villa di Bauli, dove passava la maggior parte dell’anno e
Roma, la bella vedova badava ad allevare i suoi tre figli —
Germanico, Livilla, Claudio — vivendo appartata dalle cose politiche,
nella intimità di Livia, da essa venerata, dopo la morte di Ottavia,
come la madre; e cercando di infondere uno spirito di concordia
nella lacerata famiglia.
Antonia era molto amica di Tiberio, il quale a sua volta ricambiava di
viva simpatia e di un profondo rispetto la bella e virtuosa cognata.
Che Antonia, la quale era legatissima a Livia, abbia parteggiato per
Tiberio, è certo per molti indizî. Ma della lotta che si impegnò in
quegli anni fra nemici ed amici di Tiberio, non Antonia, creatura
dolce e mite, ma Livia, più forte, più autorevole, più energica, fu
l’anima.
Le cose peggiorarono rapidamente: l’opinione pubblica diventava
sempre più ostile a Tiberio e più favorevole a Giulia e al suo figlio;
ben presto si vollero dare al fratello minore di Caio Lucio, gli stessi
onori già assegnati a Caio; gli interessi si allearono agli odi e ai
rancori contro Tiberio, perchè non appena Tiberio era partito, il
Senato aveva aumentato le spese delle frumentazioni per il popolo,
e quelle per i pubblici giuochi. Quanti approfittavano di queste spese
avevano ormai interesse a impedire che Tiberio, famoso per la sua
avversione a tutte le spese inutili, tornasse. Non si badò ai mezzi pur
di rovinare Tiberio; tutte le arti e tutte le calunnie furono lecite,
perfino l’accusa di ordire delle congiure contro Augusto.
Fronteggiare insieme i rancori e le inclinazioni di Augusto, l’opinione
pubblica, la maggioranza del Senato, gl’interessi coalizzati, Giulia e i
suoi amici, era impresa ardua, anche per una donna così abile e
forte come Livia. Quattro anni passarono, l’uno più nero ed infausto
dell’altro per Tiberio ed i suoi. Al partito di Giulia crescevano di
continuo le forze.
GIULIA SABINA
Alla fine il partito di Tiberio si decise ad una audacia disperata:
colpire il partito avversario con uno scandalo nella persona stessa di
Giulia. La lex Iulia de adulteriis, fatta da Augusto nell’anno 18, e che
dava licenza a qualunque cittadino di accusare la sposa infedele
davanti ai tribunali, quando il marito o il padre non l’accusassero, si
applicava a tutti i cittadini romani, dunque anche la figlia di Augusto,
alla vedova di Agrippa, alla madre di Caio e di Lucio Cesare, le due
giovani speranze della repubblica. Giulia aveva sino ad allora violato
la lex Iulia; e non aveva subito la pena, che aveva colpito tante altre
donne dell’aristocrazia, solo perchè nessuno aveva osato provocar
questo scandalo nella prima famiglia dell’impero. Il partito di Tiberio,
protetto e guidato da Livia, l’osò alla fine. È impossibile dire quale fu
la parte di Livia in questa tragedia: certo è che essa o qualche altro
personaggio influente riuscì a procurarsi le prove della colpa di
Giulia, e le portò ad Augusto, minacciando, se egli non compiva il
suo dovere, di portarle al pretore e di fare un processo. Augusto
aveva voluto con la lex Julia che se il marito, come era allora il caso
di Tiberio, non poteva accusare la donna infedele, il padre doveva
farne le veci; ed Augusto dovette subir la sua terribile legge, per
evitare scandali e guai peggiori. Esiliò Giulia nella piccola isoletta di
Pantelleria; e a 37 anni, la giovane, avvenente, piacevole, voluttuosa
signora, che aveva brillato a Roma tanti anni, dovette sparire per
sempre dalla metropoli, ridursi a vivere in una isoletta selvaggia. La
sua vita era troncata per sempre dall’odio implacabile di un partito
nemico, dalla crudeltà inesorabile di una legge, fatta dal padre.
Dopo l’esilio di Giulia, la fortuna di Tiberio e di Livia, per quattro anni
languente, risorge. Ma non così rapidamente, come Livia e Tiberio
forse avevano sperato. Giulia conservò, anche nella disgrazia,
numerose amicizie e una grande popolarità; per molto tempo il
popolo di Roma dimostrò a suo favore; molti sollecitavano il suo
perdono da Augusto: prova evidente che le orribili infamie raccontate
sul suo conto erano esagerazioni di nemici. Giulia aveva violata la
lex Iulia, questo è sicuro: ma se aveva commesso un fallo, non era
un mostro, come i suoi nemici dicevano: era una bella signora, come
molte ce ne furono, ce ne sono e ce ne saranno, provvista di vizi e di
virtù umane. E difatti il suo partito, riavutosi dallo scandalo, riprese la
guerra; e fermo nel pensiero di far perdonare Giulia, tentò quanto
potè per impedire a Tiberio di tornare a Roma e riprender parte alla
vita politica, sapendo che se il marito rimetteva il piede in Roma,
Giulia non ci ritornerebbe più. Uno solo poteva rientrare in Roma: o
Tiberio o Giulia. E la mischia dei due partiti riarse intorno ad
Augusto, più furiosa che mai.
Caio e Lucio Cesare, i due giovani figli di Giulia, prediletti di Augusto,
furono i portavoce dei nemici di Tiberio presso Augusto, il
contrappeso dell’influenza di Livia. Nessuna arte fu negletta per
seminare tale odio e diffidenza tra i due giovani e Tiberio, che non
potessero mai ritrovarsi insieme nel governo e la presenza degli uni
escludesse l’altro. Un nuovo aiuto i nemici di Tiberio trovarono in una
figlia di Giulia e di Agrippa — Giulia minore, come la storia l’ha
chiamata, — che Augusto amava non meno di Caio e di Lucio.
Sposata a L. Emilio Paolo, al discendente di una delle più grandi
famiglie di Roma, Giulia divenne presto, in Roma, al posto della
madre, l’Antilivia; raccogliendosi dattorno, come la madre, una corte
di giovani eleganti, di scrittori, di poeti — Ovidio faceva parte del suo
circolo — la quale bilanciasse la consorteria dei vecchi senatori
(parrucconi, diremmo noi) che facevano circolo intorno a Livia. Non
indugiò molto neppure ad abusare della benevolenza del nonno
come ne aveva abusato la madre; sfoggiando, all’ombra della sua
protezione, un lusso che i nemici del vecchio puritanismo romano
ammiravano appunto perchè vietato dalle leggi; costruendo una
magnifica villa, che era una sfida alla legge suntuaria; e — se si vuol
credere alla tradizione — violando anche quella lex de adulteriis, che
era stata così fatale alla madre.
Cosicchè, anche dopo la caduta di Giulia, i suoi tre figli — Caio,
Lucio, Giulia — erano abbastanza potenti, e per la debolezza di
Augusto, e per il favore pubblico, e per gli appoggi in Senato, da
contrastare il terreno al partito di Livia. A mala pena, dopo infiniti
stenti e quattro anni di intrighi, nell’anno 2 dopo C., Livia riuscì ad
ottenere che Tiberio potesse ritornare a Roma; ma a condizione che
s’occupasse solo dell’educazione del figlio e dei suoi affari privati,
ogni faccenda pubblica esclusa. Augusto era vecchio e non bastava
più all’impero; l’esercito era arrugginito, le finanze dissestate, le
frontiere mal sicure; in Gallia, in Pannonia, in Germania la rivolta
serpeggiava; Tiberio solo, che era il primo generale e uno dei migliori
amministratori del suo tempo, che poteva mettere a disposizione
della repubblica il pieno vigore della sua virilità matura, era in grado
di fare ciò, che Lucio e Caio non sapevano. Ma inutilmente: Augusto
non cedeva alle istanze di Livia: I Giulî erano padroni dello Stato e
ne tenevano lontani i Claudî.
Tiberio sarebbe forse stato bandito per sempre dal potere, se il caso
non l’avesse aiutato, togliendo di mezzo Caio e Lucio Cesare. Poco
dopo il ritorno di Tiberio, il 20 agosto dell’anno 2 d. C. Lucio Cesare
moriva a Marsiglia, spento da breve malattia; e venti mesi dopo, nel
febbraio dell’anno 4, moriva pure Caio, in Licia, in seguito ad una
ferita ricevuta in una scaramuccia. Queste due morti furono così
premature, così vicine l’una all’altra e così opportune per Tiberio, che
la posterità si è rifiutata di considerarle come uno dei tanti accidenti
che possono capitare a tutti gli umani; e ha sospettato in quelle la
mano criminosa di Livia! Senonchè chi conosce un po’ il mondo e gli
uomini, sa che è più facile immaginare e sospettare che compiere
questi avvelenamenti romanzeschi. Pur lasciando in disparte ogni
considerazione sul carattere di Livia, — e molte se ne potrebbero
fare — è difficile immaginare come essa avrebbe osato e potuto
avvelenare i due giovani a tanta distanza da Roma, in Asia l’uno e in
Gallia l’altro, per mezzo di molti complici, in tempi in cui, divisa come
era la famiglia di Augusto da tanti odi, ogni suo membro era
sospettato, spiato, appostato da un partito nemico; e in cui l’esempio
di Giulia provava che la parentela con Augusto non era schermo
sufficiente contro i rigori della legge e la collera dell’opinione
pubblica. È poi cosa notissima che il popolo inclina sempre a
sospettare un delitto ogni qual volta un uomo noto e potente muore
prematuramente. Senza risalire alla leggenda del Conte Rosso
avvelenato dalla madre, ricorderemo che trent’anni fa era tradizione,
a Torino, che Cavour fosse stato avvelenato dalla mano di
un’amante, chi diceva per ordine di Napoleone III, chi dei gesuiti,
solo perchè la sua vita fu repentinamente troncata (da una nefrite,
credo) a 52 anni, proprio quando l’Italia sentiva di averne maggior
bisogno! Questa ecatombe di giovinetti e di giovani nella famiglia di
Augusto sembra la persecuzione di un’oscura fatalità e può riuscir
sospetta: ma appunto perchè le morti premature furono così
numerose, non si possono spiegare se non con il logoramento della
stirpe bacata nel midollo. Tutte le famiglie, invecchiando nel potere e
nella ricchezza, si spengono: onde nessuna aristocrazia potè durare
se non rinnovandosi, e quelle che si sono chiuse in sè, sono perite.
Nessuna seria ragione ci autorizza ad attribuire a una donna, che fu
venerata come un modello dagli uomini migliori della sua età, un
così orrendo delitto; e le favole che ne raccontò il popolino, avverso
a Livia perchè fedele a Giulia, e che gli storici delle età seguenti
raccolsero, valgono quanto le dicerie del popolino torinese sul
veleno propinato a Cavour. La morte di Caio e di Lucio Cesare fu
però una grande fortuna per Tiberio, perchè impose il suo ritorno al
potere. L’impero era nei guai dappertutto; la Germania era mezza in
rivolta; l’esercito aveva bisogno di un capo; pure Augusto, vecchio e
irresoluto, esitava ancora, temendo l’avversione che covava e in
senato e nel popolo contro il troppo autoritario Tiberio. Alla fine,
d’accordo con Livia, la parte più seria, più autorevole, più antica
della nobiltà senatoria, capeggiata da un nipote di Pompeo, Gneo
Cornelio Cinna, gli impose di richiamare Tiberio, minacciando, pare,
di ricorrere a qualche espediente violento, su cui noi non abbiamo
sicure notizie. Certo è che si fece paura al vecchio Augusto,
vincendo così con una paura maggiore la paura di cui gli era cagione
la impopolarità di Tiberio; e il 26 giugno dell’anno 4 dell’êra volgare
Augusto adottava Tiberio come figlio, gli faceva dare la potestà
tribunizia per dieci anni, prendendolo a collega. Tiberio, a sua volta,
per volontà di Augusto, adottava come figlio Germanico, il figlio
maggiore di Druso e di Antonia, la sua fedele amica: un giovane
intelligente, attivo, e da cui tutti speravano molto.
ANTONIA
Ritornato al potere Tiberio provvide, di accordo con Augusto, a

riordinare l’esercito e lo Stato; e a placare, con atti di clemenza e
nuovi matrimoni, le furiose discordie che negli ultimi anni avevano
diviso o turbato la famiglia dei Giuli e dei Claudi. L’esilio di Giulia fu
addolcito; Germanico sposò Agrippina, un’altra figlia di Giulia e di
Agrippa, una sorella di Giulia minore, vedova di Caio Cesare; Livilla,
sorella di Germanico e figlia di Antonia, fu data al figlio di Tiberio, a
Druso, un giovane coetaneo di Germanico e che non ostante certi
difetti, l’irascibilità e l’inclinazione ai piaceri, mostrava alcune qualità
di uomo di Stato: fermezza, mente solida, attività. Si voleva sempre
con questi matrimoni far della famiglia di Augusto, del ramo giulio e
del ramo claudio che la componevano intrecciati, un corpo solo,
formidabile, unito, così da poter essere il fondamento su cui
poserebbe la repubblica, ossia il governo di tutto l’impero. Ma se il
proposito era savio, i fermenti di discordia e la infelicità dei tempi
potevano più che i buoni propositi. Troppo si era aspettato a
richiamar Tiberio al potere; il disordine, dopo dieci anni di governo
senile, era troppo grande; i provvedimenti imaginati da Tiberio per
riassettare le finanze dell’impero, irritarono le classi ricche dell’Italia;
nel 6 dopo C. scoppiò la grande rivolta della Pannonia. Che
spavento fu quello! Parve di tornare ai tempi dei Cimbri e dei
Teutoni. In un istante di follia collettiva si temè perfino che la
penisola potesse essere invasa e Roma assediata dai barbari!
Tiberio accorse rapido, e domò l’insurrezione, non affrontandola in
campo aperto, ma stancandola: metodo sicuro e savio, con le milizie
di cui disponeva! Ma a Roma, passato lo spavento, il protrarsi della
guerra irritò, e divenne per molti un pretesto per sfogar l’odio antico
contro Tiberio, il quale fu accusato di aver paura, di non sapere il
suo mestiere, di tirare in lungo la guerra per ambizione! Il partito
avverso a Tiberio risollevò la testa, tentando perfino di aizzargli
contro Germanico, che giovane, ambizioso, temerario, avrebbe
preferito una guerra rapida; e certo si sarebbe creato già sin da
allora un partito di Germanico ed uno di Tiberio, se Augusto, questa
volta, non avesse da Roma sostenuto Tiberio. Ma le difficoltà e le
incertezze erano grandi; e rinascevano di continuo.
In mezzo a queste lotte e a queste paure un nuovo scandalo scoppiò
nella famiglia di Augusto: Giulia minore, come la madre, si lasciò
cogliere in fallo dalla lex Iulia de adulteriis e dovè prendere
anch’essa la via dell’esilio! Come e per opera di chi lo scandalo
scoppiasse, noi non sappiamo: sappiamo invece che Augusto
amava molto la nipote; onde è da credere che in quell’agitato e
torbido momento, mentre tanti odi si appuntavano contro la sua
famiglia e la sua casa, tanti sforzi si facevano per rovesciare di
nuovo Tiberio, che pure aveva salvato l’impero, Augusto dovè una
seconda volta subire la sua legge; e non osò contendere al partito
puritano, alla minoranza arcaizzante dei senatori, agli amici di
Tiberio, questa seconda vittima della sua famiglia. Certo è che si
fece quanto si potè per limitare lo scandalo; e che dell’esilio della
seconda Giulia appena qualche sommaria notizia sarebbe giunta
sino a noi, se tra i complici che furono esiliati con lei non ci fosse
stato anche Ovidio, che doveva empire venti secoli dei suoi lamenti
e farli giungere sino alle orecchie dei più tardi nipoti.
L’esilio di Ovidio è uno dei misteri che più tormentarono la curiosità
dei secoli, come la maschera di ferro. Ovidio stesso l’ha acuita con
la prudenza, non parlando mai chiaramente delle accuse a cui
soggiacque, facendo ad esse soltanto delle vaghe allusioni, che si
riassumono in due parole: carmen et error. Onde i posteri si
domandano da venti secoli quale fu questo error che mandò
l’elegante poeta a morire tra i barbari Geti, sulle sponde del Danubio;
e naturalmente senza venirne a capo. Se però non è possibile
precisare quale fu l’error che costò così caro ad Ovidio, è possibile
invece rendersi ragione di quel che fu questo singolare e famoso
episodio della storia di Roma, a cui Ovidio deve in parte la sua
immortalità. Ovidio non fu vittima, come troppo si è ripetuto, di un
capriccio del dispotismo; e quindi non può essere paragonato ad uno
dei tanti scrittori russi, che l’amministrazione deportava in Siberia per
odio e per paura, senza una ragione precisa, sotto gli czar. Il suo
caso, in una certa misura, potrebbe piuttosto paragonarsi al
processo di Oscar Wilde, sebbene l’accusa a cui i due poeti
soggiacquero fosse diversa. L’error di Ovidio fu certamente di aver
violata qualche disposizione della Lex Iulia de adulteriis, che, noi lo
sappiamo, era molto minuta e specificava come casi di complicità
molti atti e fatti, che anche agli occhi dei più rigoristi moderni,
sembrerebbero biasimevoli, sì, ma non degni di così terribili pene. È
verosimile che Ovidio incappasse in una di queste disposizioni; ma il
suo error, grave o leggera che fosse, più che la ragione vera della
condanna, fu il pretesto: il pretesto per sfogare su di lui un vecchio
rancore, che aveva ragioni più profonde. Il tradizionale puritanismo
romano volle mandare in esilio il poeta delle signore frivole, eleganti,
leggere; l’autore dei poemi erotici, che con la penna ed i versi aveva
aiutato i tempi a mutare l’antica austera materfamilias in una
dispendiosa amica degli uomini e dei sollazzi; il poeta, che si era
fatto ammirare, sopratutto dalle donne, lusingandone le inclinazioni
più pericolose. Il puritanismo odiava i nuovi indirizzi della vita
sociale, e quindi anche la poesia di Ovidio, precipuamente per i loro
funesti effetti sulle donne, le quali, come vedemmo, nelle famiglie
aristocratiche, non erano punto mantenute nell’ignoranza, e quindi
leggevano poeti e filosofi. Ma perciò appunto ci fu sempre a Roma
una viva avversione contro la letteratura leggera e immorale. Se i
libri fossero andati solo per le mani degli uomini, la poesia di Ovidio
non avrebbe forse avuto la fortuna di una persecuzione, che doveva
attirare su di essa l’attenzione della posterità. La libertà della donna
pareva, insomma, a questa società, dovere imporre una maggior
riserva anche nella letteratura; e Ovidio, che se ne era scordato, se
ne ricordò a proprie spese, quando dovè ridursi in esilio tra i Geti,
sulle rive del Danubio gelato, perchè troppe donne leggevano troppo
volontieri, a Roma, i suoi libri. I quali furono, per ordine di Augusto,
tolti dalle biblioteche: il che non impedì tuttavia che giungessero sino
a noi, quando tante opere più serie — la storia di Tito Livio per
esempio — si sono o interamente o in troppa parte perdute!
II.
Dopo la rovina della seconda Giulia, Augusto non ebbe più, sino alla
morte, che avvenne il 23 agosto del 14 dopo C., gravi dispiaceri
dalle donne della sua casa. La grande sciagura degli ultimi anni del
suo governo è una sciagura pubblica: la disfatta di Varo e la perdita
della Germania. Ma con quanta tristezza doveva Augusto guardare
indietro, nelle ultime settimane della sua lunga vita, la storia della
sua famiglia! Tutti quelli che egli aveva amati erano stati strappati a
lui innanzi tempo da un destino crudele: dalla morte, Druso, Caio e
Lucio Cesare; dall’Infamia e dalla Crudeltà della legge, peggiore che
la morte, le due Giulie! La grandezza senza esempio a cui si era
levata, non aveva portato fortuna alla sua famiglia. Egli restava
vecchio, quasi solo, superstite stanco tra le tombe dei suoi cari
spenti innanzi tempo dal Fato, tra le memorie ancora più dolorose di
quelle che erano state sepolte vive in selvaggie isolette e nella
tomba dell’Infamia; non avendo più altra compagnia che quella di
Tiberio con cui si era riconciliato davvero, di Antonia, la dolce nuora
da tutti rispettata, e di Livia, la donna che il destino aveva messo ai
fianchi negli anni orrendi del sangue e del ferro; la compagna fedele,
per cinquantadue anni, della sua varia, meravigliosa e tragica
fortuna. Si capisce quindi che, come gli storici narrano, le ultime
parole del vecchio imperatore siano state un tenero ringraziamento
alla moglie fedele: «Addio, Addio, Livia; ricordati della nostra lunga
unione!». Con queste parole egli terminava la sua vita da vero
romano: rendendo omaggio alla sposa, che il costume e la legge
volevano compagna fedele e amorosa, non docile schiava
dell’uomo.
Ma se la famiglia di Augusto aveva tribolato e sanguinato già
durante la sua vita, più sofferse e pericolò dopo la morte di lui. Non
si renderà mai conto della storia del primo impero chi, partendo dal
preconcetto che Augusto fondò una monarchia, si imagina che la
sua famiglia dovè godere, nella società romana, dei privilegi che
sono riconosciuti, in tutte le monarchie, alla famiglia del sovrano.
Certo di una condizione privilegiata questa famiglia godè sempre se
non per legge, di fatto, e per la forza stessa delle cose: ma non per
nulla Roma era stata per tanti secoli una repubblica aristocratica, in
cui tutte le famiglie della nobiltà si erano considerate eguali e
sottoposte alle medesime leggi. Del privilegio che alla famiglia dei
Giulio-Claudi assicurava la suprema dignità del suo capo,
l’aristocrazia si vendicò prendendola in odio, sospettandone e
calunniandone tutti i membri, sottoponendola con crudele voluttà,
quando poteva, alle leggi comuni, anzi maltrattando con più feroce
accanimento quelli che per caso cadessero sotto le sanzioni di una
legge. Ai privilegi di cui godevano i membri della famiglia imperiale,
faceva equilibrio il pericolo di dover ricevere più forte i colpi delle
leggi, se qualcuno ci cascasse sotto, per dare all’aristocrazia
senatoria la atroce soddisfazione di vedere uno di questi felici
martoriato come e più degli altri. Non è dubbio, ad esempio, che le
due Giulie furono più severamente punite e infamate che le altre
signore dell’aristocrazia ree dello stesso delitto; e che Augusto aveva
dovuto essere con loro spietato, perchè non si dicesse in Senato,
che faceva leggi non per i suoi, ma per gli altri.
TIBERIO
Tuttavia sinchè Augusto visse, egli fu per i suoi parenti uno schermo
sufficiente. Sopratutto nell’ultimo ventennio Augusto fu l’oggetto di
un rispetto quasi religioso. L’epoca tempestosamente grande da cui
proveniva, straordinaria fortuna, il lungo governo, i servigi che aveva
resi davvero e quelli che era parso rendere, gli avevano conferito
tanta autorità, che l’invidia riponeva innanzi a lui le sue freccie più
avvelenate. Per rispetto a lui, anche la sua famiglia non fu, tranne in
qualche passeggero furore dell’opinione pubblica, come quelli in cui
le due Giulie furono condannate, troppo calunniata e maltrattata. Ma,
lui morto, le cose mutarono, perchè Tiberio, sebbene fosse un
sagace amministratore, un valentissimo generale e un uomo capace,
non godeva le simpatie e il rispetto di Augusto: anzi era odiato da
una parte considerevole del Senato e della aristocrazia, quella che
aveva a lungo parteggiato per Caio e Lucio Cesare. Non
l’ammirazione del Senato e del popolo, ma la necessità l’aveva
imposto come capo della repubblica, perchè, quando Augusto morì,
l’impero essendo in guerra con i Germani e le provincie pannonico-
illiriche in rivolta, era forza affidare l’esercito ad un uomo che
incutesse terrore ai barbari e che al caso sapesse combatterli.
Tiberio stesso era così convinto che la maggioranza del Senato e il
popolo di Roma subirebbero il suo governo per forza, che era stato a
lungo in forse: se accettare o no. Nessuno si illudeva meno di lui che
sarebbe facile governare con gli animi così avversi.
Sotto il governo di Tiberio la famiglia imperiale fu circondata da un
odio molto più intenso e palese, che non sotto Augusto. Una coppia
faceva eccezione: Germanico ed Agrippina, i quali erano molto
amati. Ma qui appunto incominciarono le prime gravi difficoltà per
Tiberio. Intorno a Germanico, che aveva 29 anni quando Tiberio fu
assunto alla presidenza della repubblica, incominciò a raccogliersi
un partito che, corteggiandolo e adulandolo, lo oppose a Tiberio;
inconsapevolmente aiutato sopratutto dalla moglie di Germanico:
Agrippina. Era costei, diversamente da sua sorella Giulia, una donna
di costumi intemerati, innamorata e fedele al marito, una vera
matrona romana come la tradizione l’aveva vagheggiata, casta e
feconda, che a 26 anni aveva già dati nove figli al marito, di cui però
sei erano morti. Ma quasicchè Agrippina fosse destinata a mostrare
che nella casa di Augusto ed in quei tempi torbidi e strani, la virtù
non era meno pericolosa del vizio, sia pure per un altro verso, e per
differenti ragioni, della sua fedeltà al marito, dell’ammirazione che
godeva in Roma, Agrippina era così fiera, che tutti gli altri difetti del
suo carattere erano come inturgiditi dallo smodato orgoglio di questa
sua virtù. E tra questi suoi difetti occorre enumerare una grande
ambizione, una specie di attività faragginosa e tumultuaria, una
irriflessiva impetuosità di passioni, una pericolosa mancanza di
ponderazione e di criterio. Agrippina non era malvagia; ma era
ambiziosa, violenta, intrigante, imprudente, poco riflessiva, quindi
facile a scambiare i suoi sentimenti ed interessi per la ragione
universale del giusto; amava molto il marito, da cui non si staccava
mai, che accompagnava in tutti i viaggi; ma appunto perchè lo
amava lo spingeva a secondare quella sorda opposizione a Tiberio,
che voleva farne il suo campione e il suo favorito.
Se di nuovo il Senato e la famiglia imperiale non si scisse in due
fazioni, fu perchè Germanico resistè saviamente ai suoi troppo
zelanti ammiratori; e forse anche perchè la madre, Antonia, non
smise mai di essere, quanto il governo di Tiberio durò, la più fida ed
affezionata amica dell’imperatore. Dopo il divorzio di Giulia, Tiberio
non si era riammogliato; e gli affettuosi uffici che avrebbe dovuto
compiere presso di lui la moglie, furono compiuti in parte dalla
madre, in parte dalla cognata. Nessuna persona era ascoltata dal
chiuso e diffidente imperatore, quanto Antonia. Chi voleva impetrar
da lui qualche favore, non poteva far meglio che affidar la causa ad
Antonia. È verosimile quindi che Antonia bilanciasse presso il figlio la
moglie. Ma se proprio non si giunse alla scissione, delle difficoltà
nacquero presto. Non solo Agrippina e Livia vennero in discordia,
ma — e fu cosa più grave — cedendo un po’ al suo temperamento,
un po’ ai suggerimenti della moglie e degli adulatori, Germanico, che
alla morte di Augusto era legato per la Gallia, iniziò di suo capo una
politica germanica contraria alle istruzioni di Tiberio. Tiberio, che i
Germani conosceva per lunga esperienza, non voleva più molestarli:
la rivolta di Arminio dimostrava che, minacciati nella loro
indipendenza, sapevano unirsi e diventavano pericolosi; lasciati in
pace, si distruggevano in guerre continue. Occorreva quindi non
assalirli o minacciarli, ma abilmente soffiar nel fuoco delle loro
continue discordie e guerre, affinchè, interdistruggendosi,
lasciassero tranquillo l’impero. Ma questa saggia e prudente politica
poteva piacere a un vecchio guerriero, come Tiberio, che già aveva
raccolti tanti allori; non ad un giovane che ambiva di segnalarsi con
grandi imprese; al cui fianco stava, stimolo continuo, una moglie
ambiziosa e che era circondato da una corte di adulatori.
Germanico, di sua iniziativa, passò il Reno e incominciò una vasta
offensiva, attaccando una dopo l’altra, con rapide e fortunate
spedizioni, le più potenti popolazioni germaniche. A Roma questa
ardita mossa piacque, massime ai nemici di Tiberio che erano molti;
sia perchè l’ardimento piace sempre più che la prudenza, a coloro
che non rischiano nulla e giudicano di una guerra a centinaia di
miglia dai campi di battaglia; sia perchè la gloria di Germanico
poteva offuscare Tiberio. E Tiberio, non ostante disapprovasse, per
un certo tempo lasciò fare il figlio adottivo per non contrariare
l’opinione pubblica e per non parer di invidiare al giovane Germanico
la gloria che si acquistava.
Tuttavia egli non voleva che Germanico si impegnasse troppo con le
tribù germaniche; e quando gli parve che avesse abbastanza
mostrato il valor suo e abbastanza fatto sentire ai nemici la
possanza di Roma, lo richiamò, mandando l’altro figlio suo, figlio non
adottivo, ma vero, Druso. Ma questo richiamo non garbò punto al
partito di Germanico, il quale recriminò amaramente sussurrando
che Tiberio era geloso di Germanico, che lo aveva richiamato per
impedirgli di acquistare gloria in una impresa immortale. Tiberio
pensava così poco a impedire a Germanico di adoperare in servizio
di Roma il suo ingegno, che subito dopo nell’anno 18 d. C. lo mandò
in Oriente a rimettere l’ordine nell’Armenia agitata da interne
discordie, dandogli quindi un comando non meno importante di
quello che gli aveva tolto. Ma nel tempo stesso non volle affidar
interamente ogni cosa al senno di Germanico, che era capace e
valoroso, ma giovane, e sempre accompagnato da una moglie
imprudente e da una corte di adulatori irresponsabili; e perciò gli
mise a fianco un uomo più anziano, maturo e sperimentato: Gneo
Pisone, un senatore, che apparteneva ad una delle più illustri
famiglie di Roma.
Gneo Pisone doveva aiutare, consigliare, e se era necessario,
frenare Germanico; e anche informare Tiberio di quanto il giovane
faceva in Oriente. Di questo non si può dubitare: ma chi vorrà
contestare a Tiberio, che aveva la responsabilità dell’impero, il diritto
di far sorvegliare un giovane di trentatrè anni, cui tanti e così gravi
interessi erano commessi? Senonchè questa ragionevole e misurata
cautela fu cagione di infiniti guai. Germanico si offese, e istigato
dagli amici, venne in guerra con Pisone; Pisone avendo condotto
sua moglie Plancina, che era una grande amica di Livia, come
Germanico aveva condotto Agrippina, Agrippina e Plancina
litigarono, da mogli fedeli, non meno dei loro mariti; l’autorità romana
in Oriente si divise in due cabale, quella di Pisone e quella di
Germanico, che si accusarono di illegalità, di concussione, di
prepotenza, e di cui ciascuna non pensò che a disfare quello che
l’altro aveva fatto. Quale delle due cabale avesse ragione o in che
misura ciascuna avesse torto o ragione, è difficile dire, perchè il
racconto di Tacito, annebbiato da un’ostilità preconcetta, non ci
illumina affatto. Ma è certo che Germanico non rispettò sempre le
leggi e qualche volta agì con soverchia leggerezza, obbligando
Tiberio ad intervenire personalmente: come allorchè andò con
Agrippina a fare un viaggio in Egitto, che anche allora era una meta
favorita dei viaggiatori curiosi e istruiti. Ma allora vigeva anche
un’ordinanza di Augusto che vietava ai senatori romani di metter
piede in Egitto, senza uno speciale permesso. Come aveva
scavalcato questo divieto, non sarebbe meraviglia se Germanico in
altre occasioni non avesse rispettato troppo alla lettera le leggi, che
definivano i suoi poteri.
Purtroppo la discordia tra Germanico e Pisone empì di confusione e
di discordia tutto l’Oriente; e inquietò di riflesso Roma, dove il partito
avverso a Tiberio l’accusò di perseguitare il figlio adottivo per
gelosia; dove anche Livia, non più protetta da Augusto, incominciò
ad essere sospettata di intrigare contro Germanico per odio di
Agrippina. E Tiberio non sapeva che fare, impacciato dalla opinione
pubblica favorevole a Germanico, e desideroso nel tempo stesso
che i suoi figli dessero l’esempio di obbedire alle leggi. Quando, nel
19 d. C. Germanico ammalò ad Antiochia; e dopo una malattia
lunga, alternata di molti miglioramenti e peggioramenti, alla fine,
come suo padre, come i suoi cognati, soccombette al destino, in
piena giovinezza, a 34 anni! È da stupirsi se l’immaginazione
popolare, sgomenta da questa nuova morte immatura, che troncava
una pericolosissima discordia politica, incominciasse subito a
sussurrar di veleno? Il partito di Germanico, esasperato da questa
sciagura che lo annientava, insieme con le speranze di quanti si
erano legati a Germanico per le loro fortune future, raccolse, colorì,
propagò per ogni dove la voce: e chi a questa voce credette con
maggior fede fu Agrippina, che il natural dolore della morte faceva
anche più impetuosa, scriteriata e violenta. Agrippina che, se fosse
stata una donna ponderata e di senno, meglio di ogni altro avrebbe
potuto sapere quanto quella diceria era assurda.
AGRIPPINA
In breve fu diceria universale a Roma che Germanico era stato

avvelenato da Pisone; e per ordine di Tiberio e di Livia, si sussurrò a
voce più bassa. Pisone era stato lo strumento di Tiberio, Plancina
quello di Livia. L’accusa è assurda: lo riconosce anche Tacito, il
quale ci racconta in che modo gli accusatori di Pisone pretendevano
che il veleno fosse stato propinato: in un banchetto, a cui Pisone,
invitato da Germanico, sedeva parecchi posti distante da lui, e
avrebbe versato il veleno nelle sue vivande, in presenza di tutti i
convitati, senza che nessuno se ne accorgesse. Tacito stesso, che
pure odia a morte Tiberio, dice che tutti giudicavano questa una
favola assurda: e tale la giudicherà ogni uomo di buon senso. Ma
l’odio fa credere anche a persone intelligenti le favole più
inverosimili; il popolo, favorevole a Germanico, era invelenito contro
Pisone e non ascoltava ragione; tutti i nemici di Tiberio si persuasero
facilmente che qualche truce mistero si nascondeva sotto questa
morte e che da un processo contro Pisone potrebbe nascere uno
scandalo, il quale riverbererebbe sullo stesso Tiberio; si incominciò a
dire che Pisone possedeva delle lettere di Tiberio, in cui era
contenuto l’ordine di avvelenare Germanico! Alla fine anche
Agrippina giunse a Roma con le ceneri del marito e con l’usata
veemenza incominciò a empire di proteste, di imprecazioni e di
accuse contro Pisone la casa imperiale, il Senato, Roma tutta. Il
popolo, che l’ammirava per la sua fedeltà e il suo amore, si
commosse anche di più e da ogni parte si gridò che un così
esecrando delitto meritava una punizione esemplare.
Difatti se da prima Pisone aveva trattato come meritavano, con
altero disprezzo, queste accuse, presto si accorse che gli era
necessario ritornare a Roma a difendersi. Un amico di Germanico
l’aveva accusato; Agrippina, strumento inconsapevole dei nemici di
Tiberio, riscaldava ogni dì più la opinione pubblica con il suo lutto
querulo ed ostentato; il partito di Germanico agitava il Senato e il
popolo. Ma quando Pisone giunse a Roma, si vide abbandonato
quasi da tutti. Egli sperava in Tiberio, che conosceva la verità e che
desiderava che questa follia dileguasse dagli spiriti. Ma Tiberio era
sorvegliato da una malevolenza spietata; qualunque cosa avesse
fatto a prò di Pisone, sarebbe stata interpretata come la prova che
egli era il complice di lui e che perciò lo voleva salvo. Tutta Roma,
diceva, ripeteva, era sicura che Pisone mostrerebbe al processo le
lettere di Tiberio. Livia si industriò nell’ombra per salvare Plancina,
ma per Pisone Tiberio non potè far altro, che raccomandare al
Senato, quando il processo incominciò, e con un nobilissimo
discorso che Tacito ci ha conservato, la più rigorosa imparzialità.
Giudicassero senza riguardi nè alla famiglia imperiale nè alla
famiglia di Pisone. Inutile ammonimento: chè la condanna era sicura,
non ostante l’assurdità della accusa. I nemici di Tiberio erano così
inviperiti e così risoluti a spingere le cose all’estremo, sperando che
saltassero fuori le famose lettere; l’opinione pubblica era così
esaltata, che Pisone si uccise prima della fine del processo.
Agrippina aveva sacrificato ai Mani del marito, morto
prematuramente, un innocente. Tiberio potè solo salvare la moglie, il
figlio e la fortuna di Pisone, che i nemici volevano distruggere con un
solo colpo.
IV.
TIBERIO E AGRIPPINA.
I.
Con la morte di Germanico e il processo contro Pisone, incomincia

quel tetro periodo, che doveva passar nella storia con il nome di
«tirannide tiberiana». In questo la famosa legge de majestate, non
applicata sotto Augusto, prende forza e flagella Roma a sangue con
gli scandalosi processi, le atroci denuncie, le condanne crudeli, i
suicidi disperati, la rovina e l’infamia di tanti illustri personaggi.
Di questi processi, delle denuncie che li promossero, delle crudeli
condanne in cui terminarono, la storia chiama da venti secoli
responsabile una crudele e sospettosa tirannide del figlio di Livia,
che avrebbe tollerato intorno a sè soltanto servi e sicari, cui ogni
memoria della antica libertà romana avrebbe dato ombra e noia. Ma
quanto è lontano dal vero questo giudizio! Quanto male ha inteso la
posterità superficiale e leggera la terribile tragedia del governo di
Tiberio! Si dimentica sempre che Tiberio fu il secondo princeps o
presidente dopo Augusto; ossia il primo che dopo il fondatore ebbe a
reggere la nuova e un po’ strana carica suprema della repubblica,
senza il prestigio e il rispetto che assicuravano ad Augusto la
straordinaria fortuna della sua vita, l’universale opinione che egli
aveva terminate le guerre civili, ridato pace al travagliato impero,
salvato Roma dalla rovina suprema, di cui l’Egitto, Cleopatra e la
follìa di Marco Antonio, l’avevano minacciata. Questo prestigio e
questo rispetto avevano, sinchè Augusto visse, tenuto in soggezione

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2 Thinking Critically .........................................49

3 Solving Problems ..........................................99

4 Perceiving and Believing.............................139

6 Language and Thought................................257

7 Forming and Applying Concepts.................303

8 Relating and Organizing..............................339

9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues........373

12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively............519

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C ritical thinking is the cornerstone of higher education, the hallmark of an

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Living an “Examined” Life 4

Thinking Critically About New Media

Thinking Critically About Visuals

Chapter 2 Thinking Critically 49

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Thinking Critically About New Media

Thinking Critically About Visuals

Chapter 3 Solving Problems 99

Thinking Critically About Problems 100

Thinking Critically About New Media

Thinking Critically About Visuals

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Actively Selecting, Organizing, and Interpreting Sensations 141

Thinking Critically About New Media

Thinking Critically About Visuals

Chapter 3 Solving Problems 99

Chapter 5 Constructing Knowledge 195

Chapter 7 Forming and Applying Concepts 303

Chapter 8 Relating and Organizing 339

Chapter 9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues 373

Chapter 10 Constructing Arguments 421