Free body diagrams:

1. Draw outline of body

2. Draw all forces acting on isolated part (own weight, known applied forces, unknown reaction
forces)
3. Add dimensions and labels

Important reaction forces:

Two force members:

- Hinged at both ends

- No forces applied in between
- The reaction always aligns with direction of member
- Ex. Trusses
Distributed loading:

1. Uniform/Rectangular Load:

𝐹 =𝐿 ×𝑤
(area under load)

2. Triangular Load:

1
𝐹= 2
×𝐿×𝑤

(area under load)

Trusses:

- A truss is a structure that consists of two force members

- Joined only at member ends by smooth pins (hinges)
- All loads are applied at the joints & there are no moments
- Direction of member forces = Tension (elongation)
Compression (shortening)

Method of joints:

1. Find unknown reaction forces from global equilibrium

2. Isolate a joint
3. Draw FBD of all forces acting on the joint
4. Apply equilibrium equations to solve unknowns

NB: When drawing FBD, assume that members are in TENSION.

If you solve eq’s and get negative answer, then member is in COMPRESSION.
Do not change initial FBD.

Zero-Force Members:

- Zero force members: F= 0 N

- They are only present in structure to support other load situations

2 Cases:

1. A joint with NO applied force & Only 2 members tie into the node/joint

2. A node with NO applied force & 3 members tying into the node BUT 2 of the members align
Method of sections:

- Works on the principle that if the structure is in equilibrium, the sub-structure must also be
in equilibrium

1. Decide where to cut (usually through member of interest)

2. Decide which side to use (side with least unknowns)
3. Draw FBD of chosen side
4. Apply equilibrium equations

Frameworks:

TRUSSES FRAMEWORKS
- Only 2 force members - Multiple force members
- Only hinges (no clamped supports) - All types of supports
- No moments - Contains moments
- Calculate member forces from method of - Calculate member forces from method of
joints OR method of sections sections
- Calculate reaction forces from global - Calculate reaction forces from global
equilibrium equilibrium AND equilibrium of parts

 Frame reactions:
- Often required before internal member forces can be calculated
- Use global equilibrium

 Equilibrium of parts:
- Tool to use when structure has more than 3 unknowns BUT hinge separates structure into
2 parts which may be in equilibrium
Finding internal forces:

1. Find reaction forces from global equilibrium/ equilibrium of parts

2. Section at position of interest
3. Draw unknown internal forces in positive convention & draw known reactions
4. Solve internal forces from equilibrium of parts

NB: Internal forces will have normal force, shear force and bending moment

 Sign conventions:

Shear force & Bending Moment diagrams:

- Helps you to visualise where the max forces and moments are on the structure

1. Use method of sections to determine V and M as functions of x (x represents some

arbitrary distance)]
2. Plot the results
3. If the load on the beam suddenly changes, then the region between each load must be
selected to obtain each function of x
 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑉(𝑥)
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑉(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

Integration to obtain diagrams:

𝑑𝑉(𝑥) 𝑑𝑀(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑊(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉(𝑥)

∫ 𝑊(𝑥) = 𝑉(𝑥) ∫ 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑀(𝑥)

POINTLOADS
- Pointload will cause jump in shear force
diagram in direction of pointload.
- The magnitude of the jump will equal the
magnitude of the pointload.
- Does not affect moment diagram.
MOMENTS
- Moments cause jumps on bending moment
diagram
- Clockwise moment = upward jump
- Anti-clockwise moment = downward jump
- Magnitude of jump will equal magnitude of
moment
- Does not affect shear diagram

 Change in shear between 2 points (∆𝑉) = area under distributed loading curve between
those 2 points
 Change in moment (∆𝑀) between 2 points = area under shear diagram between those 2
points
 Points of zero shear represent max/min moments on moment diagram
 Steps: 1. Integrate W(x) to find V(x) and solve integration constant
2. Integrate V(x) to find M(x) and solve integration constant
3. Sometimes necessary to solve integration constants simultaneously
4. Draw diagrams & indicate all points of interest (changes in slopes, max/min
moments etc.)
Definition

- Stress is the force distribution per unit area

- Describes intensity of internal force acting on a specific area passing through a point
- SI-unit: 𝑁/𝑚 2

NORMAL STRESS 𝜎 SHEAR STRESS 𝜏

- The intensity of the stress acting normal to the - The intensity of the stress acting tangent to
surface area (only 1 component) the surface area (2 components)
- If normal force pulls = ‘tensile stress’
- If normal force pushes = ‘compressive stress’
- Perpendicular to section
𝐹 𝑉
𝜎= 𝜏=
𝐴 𝐴

General state of stress:

Important assumptions to be made:

1. Assume material is homogeneous & isotropic (this means that the material maintains same
mechanical and physical properties anywhere and in all directions
2. Assume that force is applied through centroid of section area
Definition:

- Strain can be defined as the deformation caused by forces applied to a body

NORMAL STRAIN SHEAR STRAIN

- The change of the length of a line per unit - The change in angle (direction) between two
length line segments
- Elongation = Positive strain - Reduced angle = Positive shear strain
- Compression = Negative strain - Increased angle = Negative shear strain
- Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity but (NB: This convention is opposite to convention
we still write for example mm/mm used for shear force)
- Measured in radians
- Double shear: V = F/2
- Single shear: V=F

𝛾 = 𝜃𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝜃𝑛𝑒𝑤

Normal forces cause normal strain = Change in Shear forces cause shear strain = Change in
volume slope/angle
The conventional stress-strain diagram:

- The plot is only material dependent (independent of specimen length and area)

1. Elastic behaviour:
- Stress is proportional to strain in this region
- If stress exceeds proportional limit, line starts to bend slightly (no longer linear)
- Bend will continue until elastic limit is reached
- IF load is removed at this point, material will return back to its original shape

2. Yield point/Yield stress:

- At yield point, yielding will occur (yielding = when material deforms permanently)
- This permanent deformation is called plastic deformation
- Once yield point is reached, material will continue to elongate, BUT there will be no
increase in load
- In this state, material is referred to as being perfectly plastic

3. Strain hardening:
- After yielding, material will undergo strain hardening
- Strain hardening = Increase in load supported by the material until ultimate stress point is
reached
- Curve will rise continuously but become flatter as it reaches maximum stress
 4. Necking:
- Just after ultimate stress, the cross sectional area of material will start decreasing in a
localised area of the material
- This causes a constriction (neck) in the localised region as the material continues
elongating
- Stress-strain diagram will then curve downward until fracture stress is reached (material
will break)

Difference between conventional stress-strain and actual stress-strain:

CONVENTIONAL ACTUAL
- Original cross-sectional area and material - Use actual cross sectional area and material
length is used to calculate stress and strain length at the instant the load is measured

Types of materials:

DUCTILE MATERIAL BRITTLE MATERIAL

- Large amount of plastic deformation occurs - Materials that exhibit very little/none plastic
before failure deformation before failure
- Increase in temperature = Decrease in
stiffness & becomes more ductile
- Decrease in temperature = Increase in
stiffness & becomes less ductile

Hooke’s Law:

𝝈 = 𝑬. 𝜺
- Limit on Young’s Modulus of Elasticity = Can only be used when material exhibits linear
elastic behaviour
- If stress in material is greater than proportional limit, the above equation is NOT valid
Poisson’s Ratio:

- When axial tensile force is applied to a body, the body elongates (longitudinally) and also
becomes thinner (laterally)
- Unique numerical value for specific material that is homogeneous and isotropic

∆𝐿
𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 = ∆𝑟 ∆𝑑
𝐿 𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝑂𝑅
𝑟 𝑑
Shear stress-strain:

- G = Shear Modulus of elasticity

Derived equation from v, E, G: