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 THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO
GENDER, MEDIA AND VIOLENCE

With heated discussion around #MeToo, journalistic reporting on domestic abuse, and the
popularity of true crime documentaries, gendered media discourse around violence and
harassment has never been more prominent.
The Routledge Companion to Gender, Media and Violence is an outstanding reference
source to the key topics, problems and debates in this important subject and is the first
collection on media and violence to take a gendered, intersectional approach. Comprising
over 50 chapters by a team of interdisciplinary and international contributors, the book is
structured around the following parts:

• News
• Representing reality
• Gender-based violence online
• Feminist responses

The media examples examined range from Australia to Zimbabwe and span print and
online news, documentary film and television, podcasts, pornography, memoir, comedy,
memes, influencer videos, and digital feminist protest. Types of violence considered include
domestic abuse, “honour”-based violence, sexual violence and harassment, female genital
mutilation/cutting, child sexual abuse, transphobic violence, and the aftermath of conflict.
Good practice is considered in relation to both responsible news reporting and pedagogy.
The Routledge Companion to Gender, Media and Violence is essential reading for students
and researchers in Gender Studies, Media Studies, Sociology, and Criminology.

Karen Boyle is Professor of Feminist Media Studies at the University of Strathclyde,

Scotland.

Susan Berridge is Senior Lecturer in Film and Media at the University of Stirling, Scotland.
 ROUTLEDGE COMPANIONS TO GENDER

Recent titles in series:

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Edited By Maxine Leeds Craig
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Edited By Ann Brooks
The Routledge Companion to Gender and Sexuality in Comic Book Studies
Edited By Frederick Luis Aldama
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Edited By Susan Bernardin
The Routledge Companion to Gender, Sexuality and Culture
Edited By Emma Rees
The Routledge Companion to Black Women’s Cultural Histories
Edited By Janell Hobson
The Routledge Companion to Intersectionalities
Edited By Jennifer C. Nash, Samantha Pinto
The Routledge Companion to Gender and Science Fiction
Edited By Lisa Yaszek, Sonja Fritzsche, Keren Omry, Wendy Gay Pearson
The Routledge Companion to Gender and Affect
Edited By Todd W. Reeser
The Routledge Companion to Gender, Media and Violence
Edited by Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge-
Companions-to-Gender/book-series/RCGENDER
 THE ROUTLEDGE
COMPANION TO
GENDER, MEDIA AND
VIOLENCE

Edited by Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

 Designed cover image: Getty Images
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
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© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge; individual
chapters, the contributors
The right of Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge to be identified as the author of the
editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
With the exception of Chapter 30, no part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Chapter 30 of this book is available for free in PDF format as Open Access from the
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Names: Boyle, Karen, 1972- editor. | Berridge, Susan, editor.
Title: The Routledge companion to gender, media and violence / edited by Karen Boyle
and Susan Berridge.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. |
Series: Routledge companions to gender | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2023011063 (print) | LCCN 2023011064 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032061368 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032061382 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003200871 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Violence in mass media. | Violence‐‐Sex differences. | Sex role in
mass media. | Women in mass media. | Women‐‐Violence against. | Feminism and
mass media. | LCGFT: Essays.
Classification: LCC P96.V5 R68 2024 (print) | LCC P96.V5 (ebook) |
DDC 302.23‐‐dc23/eng/20230713
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023011063
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023011064
ISBN: 978-1-032-06136-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-06138-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20087-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003200871
Typeset in Times New Roman
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
 CONTENTS

List of figures and tables xii

List of contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xxvii

Introduction 1
Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

PART 1
News 13

News: Introduction to Part 1 15

Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

1 “Sensational spikes” and “isolated incidents”: Examining the

misrepresentation of domestic abuse by the media using the
case studies of football and Covid-19 23
Nancy Lombard

2 The media and male victim-survivors of domestic abuse 34

Stephen R. Burrell and Alishya Dhir

3 Invisible feelings, anti-Asian violences and abolition feminisms 44

Salonee Bhaman and Rachel Kuo

v
 Contents

4 Towards a fair justice system in Canada: Women and girls homicide

database project 55
Kandice Parker, Melanie A. Morrison, Todd G. Morrison,
Senator Lillian Eva Quan Dyck, and Karissa Wall

5 Familicide, gender and “mental illness”: Beyond false dualisms 65

Denise Buiten

6 Femminicidio in Italian televised news: A case study of La Vita in

Diretta 75
Federica Formato

7 Cruel benevolence: Vulnerable menaces, menacing vulnerabilities

and the white male vigilante trope 84
Kathryn Claire Higgins

8 Exploring US news media portrayals of girls’ violence in the 1980s

and 1990s: The emergence of a moral panic 95
Tia S. Andersen, Jennifer Silcox, and Deena A. Isom

9 Child sexual exploitation and scapegoating minority communities 105

Aisha K. Gill

10 Hidden or hypervisible? Mapping the making of a moral panic over

female genital mutilation/cutting 116
Emmaleena Käkelä

11 Examining the Zimbabwean news media’s framing of men as victims

of sexual assault 127
Mthokozisi Phathisani Ndhlovu

12 The HIV man, Alexandra man and Hotboy: Swedish news coverage
of rape as a folklore of fear 136
Gabriella Nilsson

13 Forward and backwards: Sexual violence in Portuguese news media 145

Júlia Garraio, Inês Amaral, Rita Basílio Simões, and Sofia José Santos

14 Representations of gender-based violence against children in Nigeria 155

Onyinyechi Nancy Nwaolikpe

vi
 Contents

15 Media, courts and “#RiceBunny” testimonies in China 163

Li Jun

16 Journalism, sexual violence and social responsibility 174

Einar Thorsen and Chindu Sreedharan

PART 2
Representing reality 185

Representing reality: Introduction to Part 2 187

Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

17 The politics of the traumatised voice: Communicative injustice and

structural silencing in contemporary media culture 194
Jilly Boyce Kay

18 Public survivors: The burdens and possibilities of speaking as a

survivor 204
Tanya Serisier

19 Telling an authentic, relatable #MeToo story on YouTube 213

Carol Harrington and MacKenzie Gerrard

20 Mental images and emotive voices in true crime podcasts focused on

female victims 222
Jennifer O’Meara

21 Sexual violence and social justice: The celebrity #MeToo

documentary in the US 232
Tanya Horeck

22 Remediating the “Yorkshire Ripper” event in the era of feminist true

crime 242
Hannah Hamad

23 Class, victim credibility and the Pygmalion problem in real crime

dramas Three Girls and Unbelieveable 251
Helen Wood

vii
 Contents

24 Victimhood and violence: Weaponising white femininity in South

Africa 261
Nicky Falkof

25 Pregnant and disappeared: The Missing White Woman Syndrome in

magazines 271
Jennifer Musial

26 Discourses and narratives of gender-based violence in Greek

women’s magazines 281
Rafaela Orphanides

27 Just a fantasy: How the discourse of fantasy attempts to resolve the

conflicts of porn consumption 290
Maria Garner and Fiona Vera-Gray

28 Patriarchal protectors of the national body: Violence, masculinity

and gendered constructions of the US/Mexico border 300
Lucia M. Palmer

29 Militarised masculinity and the perpetration of violence in Chilean

documentary 310
Lisa DiGiovanni

30 Women’s activist filmmaking against gendered violence in Pakistan 319

Rahat Imran

PART 3
Gender-based violence online 329

Gender‐based violence online: Introduction to Part 3 331

Susan Berridge and Karen Boyle

31 Technology-facilitated abuse: Intimate partner violence in digital

society 337
Anastasia Powell

32 Tactics of hate: Toxic “creativity” in anti-feminist men’s rights politics 348

Debbie Ging

viii
 Contents

33 Bad actors or bad architecture? Rethinking gendered violence online 358

Emma A. Jane

34 Networked misogyny on TikTok: A critical conjuncture 369

Sarah Banet-Weiser and Sophie Maddocks

35 Naming and framing the harms of cyberflashing: Men sending

non-consensual dick pics 380
Clare McGlynn

36 The non-consensual dissemination of intimate images on Telegram:

The Italian case 391
Silvia Semenzin and Lucia Bainotti

37 Online child sexual exploitation in the news: Competing claims of

gendered and sexual harm 401
Michael Salter

38 Responding to transphobic violence online 412

Ben Colliver

39 Homophobic humour in rape memes 423

Maja Brandt Andreasen

40 Online discourses of violence against men: Portrayals of neglect,

discrimination and equality gone too far 432
Satu Venäläinen

41 The curious case of Karen Carney: The argument for equity over
equality in curbing the online abuse of women in sports media 442
Guy Harrison and Melody Huslage

42 “Online othering”: The case of women in politics 452

Emily Harmer

43 Cyberviolence against women in politics 462

Eleonora Esposito

44 Violence and the feminist potential of content moderation 473

Carolina Are and Ysabel Gerrard

ix
 Contents

PART 4
Feminist responses 483

Feminist responses: Introduction to Part 4 485

Susan Berridge and Karen Boyle

45 Engaging men online: Using online media for violence prevention

with men and boys 491
Michael Flood

46 Hashtag feminism in Brazil: Making sense of gender-based violence

with #PrimeiroAssédio 501
Gabriela Loureiro

47 After the affect: The tenuous leadership of viral feminists 511

Angela Towers

48 Mediatisation of women’s rage in Spain: Strategies of discursive

transformation in digital spaces 522
Sonia Núñez Puente and Diana Fernández Romero

49 Hashtag feminism straddling the Americas: A comparison between

#NiUnaMenos and #MeToo 531
Francesca Belotti, Vittoria Bernardini, and Francesca Comunello

50 Digital feminist activism against gender violence in South Korea 543

Kaitlynn Mendes and Euisol Jeong

51 Women 2020: How Pakistani feminisms unfolded between Twitter

and the streets 553
Munira Cheema

52 Digital feminist and queer activism against gender violence in China 563
Jia Tan

53 Controversies, protests, coalitions: Screen media’s lessons from the

past 573
Gary Needham

x
 Contents

54 Collective action, performance and the body-territory in Latin

American feminisms 582
Paula Serafini

55 Doing feminist activism through creative practice research 592

Eylem Atakav

56 Rethinking the curriculum: #MeToo and contemporary literary

studies 601
Mary K. Holland and Heather Hewett

57 I won’t look: Refusing to engage with gender-based violence in

women-led screen media 611
Rebecca Harrison

Index 621

xi
 FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures
4.1 Victim-perpetrator relationships by presumed or confirmed victim
race (percent) 58
4.2 Conviction types based on presumed or confirmed victim and
perpetrator race (percent) 59
4.3 Second-degree murder sentencing length (years) by presumed or
confirmed victim and perpetrator race 60
15.1 Xianzi and her supporters before the first trial. Her placard reads
“Must Win”. Photography: Zhang Yiyi 165
15.2 Xianzi and other feminists show support for He Qian and Zou
Sicong during the Deng Fei trial. Photo provided by Xianzi 166
30.1 Emphasising vulnerability in Swara (Samar Minallah) 322

Tables
6.1 Corpus of televised news recalling episodes of femminicido in La
Vita in Diretta 79
8.1 Description of the analytical sample of print news media articles
(1980–1999) (n = 97) 97
8.2 Print media coverage of girls’ violence over time (1980–1999) (n = 97) 98
26.1 GBV in Global North and Global South settings in women’s
magazines 287

xii
 CONTRIBUTORS

Inês Amaral is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University
of Coimbra. She holds a PhD in Communication Sciences from the University of Minho
and is a researcher at the Centre for Communication and Society Studies. She has been
researching sociabilities in digital social networks, media and digital literacy, technologies
and ageing, audiences and media consumption in the digital age, gender and media. Inês has
published in journals including the International Journal of Communication, El Professional
de la Información, Media Studies and the European Journal for Research on the Education
and Learning of Adults.

Tia S. Andersen, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Department of Criminology and

Criminal Justice at the University of South Carolina. Her main areas of research include
mentoring and other strength-based approaches to positive youth development, service-
learning and media constructions of girls’ violence, and gender and racial disparities in
juvenile justice system processing.

Maja Brandt Andreasen is a Postdoctoral Fellow in Gender Studies at the University of

Stavanger, Norway. She holds a PhD in Gender Studies from the University of Strathclyde.
Her research is interdisciplinary, focusing on the discursive construction of gender, race and
sexuality in online humour. Her research interests include Internet memes, rape culture,
online extremism, the manosphere, and online misogyny, racism and homophobia.

Carolina Are is an Innovation Fellow at Northumbria University’s Centre for Digital

Citizens. Her work on social media moderation, platform governance and algorithm bias
has been published in Feminist Media Studies, Porn Studies, First Monday and Journalism,
and featured in MIT Technology Review, The Atlantic, Vice, Wired and Mashable. She is
also a blogger, writer, pole dance instructor and award-winning activist.

Eylem Atakav is Professor of Film, Gender and Public Engagement at the University of
East Anglia where she teaches courses on women and world cinema; gender and Middle

xiii
 Contributors

Eastern media and documentary. She is the author of Women and Turkish Cinema: Gender
Politics, Cultural Identity and Representation (2012) and editor of Directory of World
Cinema: Turkey (Intellect, 2013). She is the director of Growing Up Married – an
internationally acclaimed documentary about forced marriage and child brides in Turkey;
and co-director of Lifeline, a documentary that reveals the reality of working in the frontline
of the domestic abuse sector in the UK during the pandemic.

Lucia Bainotti (PhD) is Lecturer in New Media and Digital Culture and a postdoctoral
researcher at the University of Amsterdam. As a postdoctoral researcher, she works on the
SoBigData++ project, focusing on visual analysis for social media research. Her main
research interests revolve around digital consumer cultures, social media influencers, digital
methods and gender-based abuse online. She is the author of the book Donne tutte puttane.
Revenge porn and maschilità egemone (with Silvia Semenzin, Durango Edizioni), which
addresses the phenomenon of the non-consensual dissemination of intimate images on
Italian Telegram channels.

Sarah Banet-Weiser is Distinguished Professor at the University of Pennsylvania’s Annenberg

School for Communication and Professor of Communication at the University of Southern
California’s Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism. She is the founding
director of the Center for Collaborative Communication at the Annenberg Schools (CCAS).
She has authored or edited eight books, including the award-winning Authentic™: The
Politics of Ambivalence in a Brand Culture and Empowered: Popular Feminism and Popular
Misogyny. Her latest book, co-authored with Kathryn Higgins, is forthcoming in 2023 with
Polity Books, titled Believability: Sexual Violence, Media and the Politics of Doubt.

Rita Basílio Simões is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the
University of Coimbra. She holds a PhD in Communication Sciences and is a researcher at
the NOVA Institute of Communication. Rita serves as coordinator of the Portuguese
Association of Communication (SOPCOM) Working Group on Gender and Sexualities and
of the Portuguese participation in the Global Media Monitoring Project. She has expertise
in feminist media studies, digital media, journalism studies, gender violence and media
policy. Her research focuses on feminist studies, digital media, journalism, gender violence
and media policy.

Francesca Belotti (PhD) is currently a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Department of

Communication and Social Research, Sapienza University of Rome (Italy). Her research,
carried out between Europe and Latin America, focuses on alternative media practices of
grassroots organizations, ranging from Indigenous communities to feminist and youth
climate movements. She also investigates digital media usage practices across generations,
with a focus on ICT-related sexist and ageist stereotypes.

Vittoria Bernardini (PhD) is currently a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Department of

Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization, University of Tuscia (Italy).
Her main area of research is gender-based violence and feminist digital activism. She has
also worked on young people’s constructions of gender and intersectional identities.

xiv
 Contributors

Susan Berridge is Senior Lecturer in Film and Media at the University of Stirling, Scotland.
Her research focuses on gender inequalities on- and off-screen in film and television. She has
published on these themes in journals including Feminist Media Studies, European Journal of
Cultural Studies and Journal of British Cinema and Television as well as in edited collections
on gender and media. She is currently working on a BA/Leverhulme funded project on
intimacy coordination in contemporary UK television (with Tanya Horeck).

Salonee Bhaman is a PhD Candidate in the Department of History and programme in

Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies at Yale University. Her research interests focus on
histories of race, gender, social welfare, migration and labor in the twentieth century United
States. She also leads historical walking tours of New York City and is a co-leader of the
Asian American Feminist Collective.

Karen Boyle is Professor of Feminist Media Studies at the University of Strathclyde, Scotland.
Her research focuses primarily on gender, violence and representation and publications
include #MeToo, Weinstein and Feminism (Palgrave, 2019), Everyday Pornography (as editor,
Routledge, 2015) and Media and Violence: Gendering the Debates (Sage, 2010). She is
currently working on a BA/Leverhulme funded project on the use of trigger warnings in higher
education.

Denise Buiten is Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Social Justice at The University of Notre
Dame Australia and Senior Research Associate of the University of Johannesburg. Her
research focuses on understanding gender-based violence and tracing the evolving discourses
surrounding gendered violence in media, policy and public debates.

Stephen R. Burrell is a Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellow in the Department of

Sociology at Durham University. His research focuses on men, masculinities and violence.
He is currently exploring the impact of climate change on these issues and how to engage
men and boys in caring for the environment. Stephen is the Deputy Director of Durham’s
Centre for Research into Violence and Abuse, a trustee at White Ribbon UK and steering
group co-chair for a local community interest company, Changing Relations. He also co-
hosts a podcast called Now and Men: Current conversations about men’s lives.

Munira Cheema is Lecturer in Culture, Media and Creative Industries at King’s College,
London. Her research interests are at the intersection of cultural studies, media and politics.
She is currently working on two projects: the first looking at the rise of social media as an
alternative public sphere in Pakistan; the second evaluating female politicians’ participation
across mediated and parliamentary contexts in Pakistan. Her books include Women and TV
Culture in Pakistan: Gender, Islam and National Identity (Bloomsbury, 2018) and the
forthcoming Spaces of Protest in Pakistan: Debating National Identity on Social Media and
in Cafes (Palgrave MacMillan, 2024).

Ben Colliver is Senior Lecturer in Criminology at Birmingham City University. His research
interests focus on hate crime, gender and sexuality. His research broadly investigates the
role of gender and sexuality in relation to victimisation. He has published extensively on
transgender people’s experiences of hate crime, online hate speech and the representation of

xv
 Contributors

lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer people in video-games. He is also a member of
the British Society of Criminology “Hate Crime Network” as a steering group member.

Francesca Comunello (PhD) is Full Professor in the Department of Communication and

Social Research, Sapienza University of Rome (Italy), where she teaches “Internet and Social
Media Studies” and “Gender and Media Studies”. Her research and publications focus on the
intersections between digital technology and society, including digitally mediated social
relations, ageing and digital communication, gender and digital platforms, digital media and
disaster communication.

Alishya Dhir is a PhD researcher and Teaching Fellow based in the Centre for Research into
Violence and Abuse (CRiVA) in the Department of Sociology, Durham University, UK.
Alishya’s PhD is focused on youth image-based sexual abuse and police responses. She has
also carried out research into technologically-facilitated sexual violence and sexual violence
at music festivals.

Lisa DiGiovanni is Professor of Spanish Peninsular and Latin American Studies, jointly
appointed in the Departments of Modern Languages and Cultures and Holocaust and
Genocide Studies at Keene State College (USA). She is also affiliated faculty in Women’s
and Gender Studies. Her interdisciplinary research and teaching centers on representations
of war and dictatorial violence in 20th – 21st century Spain and Latin America. Her first
book, Unsettling Nostalgia in Spain and Chile: Longing for Resistance in Literature
and Film, was published in 2019. Her current book, Militarized Masculinity in Spain and
Chile, focuses on narratives that render visible the causes and consequences of militaristic
culture.

The Honourable Senator Lillian Dyck, PhD, occupied roles as both Professor and Associate
Dean at the University of Saskatchewan. The Honourable Lillian Dyck is a member of the
Cree Gordon First Nation in Saskatchewan as well as a first-generation Chinese Canadian.
Dr. Lillian Dyck has dedicated her life to the pursuit of equity, equality and justice, and was
the first Indigenous woman to occupy the role of Senator in Canada and the first Canadian-
born Senator of Chinese descent.

Eleonora Esposito is a Researcher at the Institute for Culture and Society (ICS) of the
University of Navarra (Spain) and a Seconded National Expert at the European Institute
for Gender Equality (EIGE). A Marie Skłodowska-Curie Alumna (2019-2021), Eleonora
has been investigating complex intersections between language, identity and the digitalised
society in a number of global contexts, encompassing the EU, the Anglophone Caribbean
and the Middle East.

Nicky Falkof is Associate Professor of Media Studies at Wits University in Johannesburg.

Her books include Worrier State: Risk, Anxiety and Moral Panic in South Africa (2022),
Intimacy and Injury: In the Wake of #MeToo in India and South Africa (2022), Anxious
Joburg: The Inner Lives of a Global South City (2020) and The End of Whiteness: Satanism
and Family Murder in Late Apartheid South Africa (2015).

xvi
 Contributors

Diana Fernández Romero holds a PhD in Communications. She is Senior Lecturer in

Communications and Media at Rey Juan Carlos University (Madrid, Spain). Her research
interests include Discourse Analysis, Communication and Gender, Gender-based Violence
and Digital Feminist Activism. She has been Visiting Researcher at Birkbeck, University of
London, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin and Università di Bologna. Her recent research
has been published in journals like Journal of Gender Studies, Feminist Media Studies, Social
Science Computer Review, Feminist Theory and European Journal of Women’s Studies.

Michael Flood is an internationally recognised researcher on violence against women,

violence prevention, and men, masculinities and gender. He has made significant
contributions to scholarly and public understanding of men’s involvements in preventing
violence against women and building gender equality, and to scholarship and programming
regarding violence and prevention. Professor Flood is also an educator and advocate. He is
the author of Engaging Men and Boys in Violence Prevention (2019), the co-author of
Masculinity and Violent Extremism (2022) and the lead editor of Engaging Men in Building
Gender Equality (2015) and The International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities (2007).

Federica Formato is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics at the University of Brighton. Her

research interests range from gendered and inclusive language to masculinities and to male
violence against women. Her work has been published in international peer-review journals.
In 2019, Palgrave published her first monograph Gender, Discourse and Ideology in Italian.
She is currently working on Feminist, Corpus-Assisted Research and Language Inclusivity
(under contract with Cambridge University Press).

Maria Garner is Research Fellow at the Child and Woman Abuse Studies Unit, London
Metropolitan University, where she researches violence against women.

Júlia Garraio is researcher at the Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, where
she currently co-coordinates the working group Policredos (Religion, Gender and Society)
and the Observatory of Masculinities. She is co-founder of the international research group
SVAC-Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict. She is Reviews Editor on the International
Editorial Board of the European Journal of Women’s Studies. Júlia has participated in six
research projects in the areas of Gender Studies, Memory Studies, Cultural Studies,
Literature and Communication. Her main focus of research is narratives and the politics of
representing sexual violence in literature and the media.

MacKenzie Gerrard is a recent Master’s graduate in Criminology from Victoria University of

Wellington, New Zealand. Her Master’s research focused on the ethical concerns surrounding
transnational conglomerates in the digital era, with a particular focus on corporate
greenwashing. She has most recently worked as a research assistant, collaborating on
publications relating to the intersection of stigma, sexual harm on social media, and
government mismanagement of natural disaster victims. She has previously worked as a tutor
and marker on courses relating to women and crime, criminal psychology and research methods.

Ysabel Gerrard is Lecturer in Digital Media and Society at the University of Sheffield. Her
research on social media content moderation has been published in journals like New Media

xvii
 Contributors

and Society and Social Media + Society, and featured in venues like The Guardian and
WIRED. Ysabel is also the Chair of ECREA’s Digital Culture and Communication section
and has been a member of Meta’s Suicide and Self-Injury Advisory Board since March 2019.

Aisha K. Gill, PhD, CBE is Professor of Criminology at University of Bristol. Her main research
areas are health and criminal justice responses to violence against Black, minority ethnic and
refugee women in the UK, Afghanistan, Georgia, Jordan, Libya, Iraqi Kurdistan, India,
Pakistan and Yemen. She has been involved in grassroots work to address violence against
women and girls, “honour” crimes and forced marriage for 23 years. Recent publications focus
on femicide, “honour” killings, forced marriage, child sexual exploitation and sexual abuse in
Black and racially minoritised communities, FGM, sex selective abortions, and women who
kill. She is Co-Chair of End Violence Against Women Coalition.

Debbie Ging is Associate Professor of Digital Media and Gender at Dublin City University.
She teaches and researches on digital misogyny, anti-feminism, male supremacism online
and the incel community. Debbie is co-editor of Gender Hate Online: Understanding the New
Antifeminism (Palgrave, 2019). She is a member of the National Anti-Bullying Centre and of
the Institute for Future Media, Democracy and Society (FuJo).

Hannah Hamad is Senior Lecturer in Media and Communication at Cardiff University,

School of Journalism, Media and Culture. She is the author of Postfeminism and Paternity
in Contemporary US Film: Framing Fatherhood (Routledge, 2014) and Film, Feminism and
Rape Culture in the Yorkshire Ripper Years (BFI/Bloomsbury, forthcoming 2023).

Emily Harmer is Senior Lecturer in Media and Co-Director of DigiPol: Centre for Digital
Politics, Media and Democracy at the University of Liverpool. Her work addresses the
relationship between gender, media and politics. Her recent work explores the online abuse,
harassment and everyday sexism aimed at women in the UK Parliament. She is the author
of Women, Media and Elections: Representation and Marginalisation in British Politics
(Bristol University Press, 2021) and co-editor of Online Othering: Exploring Digital Violence
and Discrimination on the Web (Palgrave, 2019).

Carol Harrington is Senior Lecturer in the School of Social and Cultural Studies, Victoria
University of Wellington, New Zealand. Her research concerns politics and policy on violence
against women, sexual violence and sex work. She has taught courses on the sociology of
violence, sexuality and comparative welfare regimes. She has published on the politics of
sexual violence, including anti-sex-trafficking policy in Bosnia and Kosovo, gender expertise
within peacekeeping operations and sex work knowledge politics in Timor Leste, Sweden, the
UK and New Zealand. Most recently, she has published the book Neoliberal Sexual Violence
Politics: Toxic Masculinity and #MeToo (Palgrave, 2022).

Guy Harrison is Assistant Professor of Journalism and Electronic Media at the University of
Tennessee, Knoxville. His research focuses on gender and race in U.S. sports media. In
2021, he published the book On the Sidelines: Gendered Neoliberalism and the American
Female Sportscaster.

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 Contributors

Rebecca Harrison is Lecturer in Film and Media at The Open University and a freelance
film critic. As a survivor and from a working-class background, she is committed to
challenging the white, patriarchal, and elitist structures that have historically excluded
students and scholars from Higher Education. Her research tends to focus on histories of
media technologies and questions of identity and power. Her writing appears in MAI:
Feminism and Visual Culture and Sight & Sound, among many other venues, and her most
recent book is the BFI Film Classic title The Empire Strikes Back (2020).

Heather Hewett is Associate Professor of Women’s, Gender and Sexuality Studies and an
affiliate of the English Department at SUNY New Paltz. She is a co-editor, with Mary
Holland, of #MeToo and Literary Studies: Reading, Writing, and Teaching about Sexual
Violence and Rape Culture (Bloomsbury, 2021). Her work on contemporary women’s
writing and feminism has been published in scholarly journals and edited collections as well
as mainstream and literary publications. During 2022-2024, she will be working with the
American Council of Learned Societies on their higher education initiative.

Kathryn Claire Higgins is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the Annenberg Center for Collaborative
Communication at the University of Pennsylvania. Her writing on language, culture and the
politics of vulnerability is published in Journalism, Visual Communication and Feminist
Media Studies, among others. Together with Sarah Banet-Weiser she is the co-author of
Believability: Sexual Violence, Media, and the Politics of Doubt (Polity, 2023).

Mary K. Holland is Professor of English at SUNY New Paltz, where she teaches
contemporary literature, women’s writing and theory. Her most recent book is #MeToo
and Literary Studies: Reading, Writing, and Teaching about Sexual Violence and Rape
Culture (co-edited with Heather Hewett, Bloomsbury, 2021). She is also the author of The
Moral Worlds of Contemporary Realism (Bloomsbury, 2020) and Succeeding Postmodernism
(Bloomsbury, 2013), and co-editor of Approaches to Teaching the Works of David Foster
Wallace (MLA, 2019). Currently, she’s working on a collection of narratives about
gendered abuse in academia.

Tanya Horeck is Professor of Film and Feminist Media Studies at Anglia Ruskin
University. She is the author of Public Rape: Representing Violation in Fiction and Film
and Justice on Demand: True Crime in the Digital Streaming Era. Her current research
projects include an UKRI/AHRC funded study on online sexual risks and gendered harms
for young people during Covid-19 and a British Academy funded study on the rise of
consent culture and intimacy coordination.

Melody Huslage is a doctoral candidate in the College of Social Work at the University of
Tennessee, Knoxville. Her research utilises an intersectional framework to investigate issues
of diversity, equity and inclusion.

Rahat Imran holds a PhD in Cinema Studies from the School of Communication, Simon
Fraser University, Canada. Dr Imran held a 2-year MSCA Post-doctoral Research
Fellowship at the Department of Film and Screen Media, University College Cork
(UCC), Ireland (2020-2022). Prior to this, she served as Associate Professor at the School

xix
 Contributors

of Creative Arts, University of Lahore, Pakistan. She published the first academic book on
Pakistani documentary cinema: Activist Documentary Film in Pakistan: The Emergence of a
Cinema of Accountability (Routledge, 2016) and is currently writing the first monograph on
Afghan women filmmakers (forthcoming, Routledge, 2024).

Deena A. Isom is Associate Professor in the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice
and the African American Studies Program at the University of South Carolina. She received
her PhD from Emory University in 2015. Her research aims to understand the causes and
consequences of disparities in criminal behaviours and contact with the justice system.

Emma A. Jane – formerly published as Emma Tom – is Associate Professor at UNSW

Sydney. She researches the social implications of emerging technologies using public interest
technology frameworks and co-design methods to interrogate the issues and consider
proposed interventions. She has presented her research findings to the Australian Human
Rights Commission, the Australian government’s Workplace Gender Equality Agency and
the Festival of Dangerous Ideas at the Sydney Opera House. Prior to her academic career,
Dr Jane spent nearly 25 years working in print, broadcast and electronic media. Over the
course of her working life, she has received multiple awards and prizes for her scholarly
work, journalism and fiction. Her 11th book, Diagnosis Normal (Penguin Random House,
2022), is a hybrid memoir.

Euisol Jeong is an instructor in Women’s and Gender Studies at Chungnam National

University, South Korea. Her research interests include digital practices, feminist
movement, and the role of digitally mediated affect in social activism, specifically in the
recent feminist phenomena in East Asian societies. She is currently preparing a manuscript
on “trollish” digital feminist activism, based on her PhD Troll feminism: the rise of popular
feminism in South Korea (2020). She is also working on a research project that investigates
the impact of digital feminism on the gendered experiences of young women living in non-
metropolitan areas of South Korea.

Emmaleena Käkelä is Research Associate at the School of Social Work and Social Policy at
the University of Strathclyde. Her participatory doctoral research explored refugee women’s
changing vulnerabilities in relation to female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and other
forms of gender-based violence from a migration perspective. Her research interests are in
the areas of forced migration and asylum, cultural and identity negotiation and the
relationship between gender-based and structural forms of violence and harm.

Jilly Boyce Kay is Lecturer in Media and Communication at the University of Leicester who
specialises in feminist media and cultural studies. She has published widely on gender, class,
feminism and popular and political culture. She is author of the monograph Gender, Media
and Voice: Communicative Injustice and Public Speech (Palgrave, 2020).

Rachel Kuo is Assistant Professor of Media and Cinema Studies at the University of Illinois,
Urbana-Champaign. Her research interests focus on race, feminism, social movements and
digital technology. She is a founding member and current affiliate of the Center for Critical
Race and Digital Studies and a co-leader of the Asian American Feminist Collective.

xx
 Contributors

Li Jun (AKA Li Sipan,李思磐) has a PhD in political sociology. She is Chau Hoi Shuen
Scholar-in-Residence of Beatrice Bain Research Group at the University of California
Berkeley and Associate Professor at the Cheung Kong School of Journalism and
Communication, Shantou University in China. In 2004, she established the feminist
organisation Women Awakening Network (新媒体女性), focusing on gender equality in
journalism and communication. Li has coordinated many landmark advocacy projects on
anti-sexual harassment policy and anti-domestic violence legislation. Her research focuses
on the generational difference in media strategy within Chinese feminist activism.

Nancy Lombard is Professor in Sociology and Social Policy at Glasgow Caledonian

University. Her research, in the main, looks at violence, gender and young people. Her
findings have generated policy change and investment in gender equality programmes across
health, education and the voluntary sector. She is currently co-leading a Horizon
Innovation project across Europe examining innovative solutions to eliminate domestic
abuse. She is an Associate Director at the Centre for Research in Families and
Relationships and also leads GREeN: Gender Research and Equalities Network. She
provides consultation and training on gender equality. Dr Lombard is a disability advocate
and community activist.

Gabriela Loureiro is a researcher, lecturer and queer feminist mainly interested in feminism,
antiracism, decoloniality, migration, sexuality and emotions. She currently teaches
Sociology of Emotions at the University of Edinburgh. Gabriela’s doctoral thesis
examines the role of emotions in Brazilian online feminist activism and theorises hashtags
as digital consciousness-raising. She holds a master’s degree in Gender, Sexuality and the
Body by the University of Leeds and a BA in journalism by the Federal University of Santa
Maria (UFSM). Before academia, she worked as a journalist in newsrooms in Brazil and at
the BBC in London.

Sophie Maddocks is a doctoral candidate in the Annenberg School for Communication at

the University of Pennsylvania. Particularly concerned with cyber-sexual violence, she has
published research on image-based abuse (commonly misnamed “revenge porn”), deep
fakes and gender-based trolling. Sophie’s current work examines individual, organisational
and legislative responses to image-based sexual abuse.

Clare McGlynn is Professor of Law at Durham University and has over twenty years’
experience working with victim-survivors, policy-makers and violence against women
organisations to reform laws and policies on pornography, sexual violence and online abuse.
She is co-author of Cyberflashing: Recognising Harms, Reforming Laws (Bristol University
Press, 2021) and Image-based Sexual Abuse: A Study on the Causes and Consequences of Non-
consensual Nude or Sexual Imagery (Routledge, 2021).

Kaitlynn Mendes is Associate Professor of Sociology and Canada Research Chair in

Inequality and Gender at the University of Western Ontario, Canada. She is interested in
the relationship between digital technologies, feminist activism and sexual violence. More
recently, she has focused on translating her research into impactful resources for young
people, parents and educators. She is author of the award-winning SlutWalk: Feminism,

xxi
 Contributors

activism and media (Palgrave, 2015), Feminism in the News (Palgrave, 2011) and Digital
Feminist Activism: Girls and Women Fight Back Against Rape Culture (Oxford University
Press, 2019, with Jessica Ringrose and Jessalynn Keller).

Melanie A. Morrison is Full Professor in the Department of Psychology and Health Studies in
the College of Arts and Science, at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada. Melanie is
passionate about promoting the health and safety of women and girls and, in so doing,
challenging and eradicating gender-based, cultural violence. As a social psychologist, Melanie
has spent much of her career conducting attitudinal and behavioural research and publishing
peer-reviewed works on the stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination that marginalise social
groups and serve to compromise the wellness of individuals in their communities.

Todd G. Morrison, PhD, is Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of

Saskatchewan. His interests include cultural representations of marginalised groups,
homonegativity, gay male pornography, masculinities and psychometrics. He has
published in peer-reviewed journals including Body Image, Porn Studies, Psychology of
Men and Masculinities, Sexuality & Culture, International Journal of Transgender Health,
Journal of Sex Research and Journal of Homosexuality. He is Co-editor of Psychology &
Sexuality and serves on editorial boards including the Journal of Social Psychology,
Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity and Journal of Sex Research. He is a
Fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association.

Jennifer Musial is Associate Professor of Women’s and Gender Studies at New Jersey City
University and holds a PhD in Women’s Studies. She publishes in three fields; 1) reproductive
justice and gender-based violence; 2) critical yoga studies; and 3) Women’s and Gender
Studies field formation. Recent work has been published in Social and Legal Studies, Journal
of Feminist Scholarship and Feminist Formations. She has forthcoming chapters in Rethinking
Women’s and Gender Studies Volume II and Carcerality Locally and Globally: Feminist
Critiques of States of Violence. She is the managing editor for Race and Yoga.

Mthokozisi Phathisani Ndhlovu is a PhD student in the Department of Communication and

Media at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He is also a lecturer in the
Department of Journalism and Media Studies at the National University of Science and
Technology (NUST) in Zimbabwe. His research interests are in political communication
and media and sexuality.

Gary Needham is Senior Lecturer in Film and Media at The University of Liverpool. He is
the co-editor of Queer TV (Routledge, 2009) and United Artists (Routledge, 2020) and his
forthcoming book Sex, Guys, and Videotape (Edinburgh University Press) is a history of
American independent film during the AIDS crisis.

Gabriella Nilsson is Associate Professor in Ethnology at the Department of Arts and

Cultural Sciences, Lund University. Her research has long had a focus on how violence is
portrayed, explained, politicised and negotiated in various discursive contexts and historical
times. Most recently, she has been working on a project about the news media’s coverage of
rape in Sweden during 1990-2015.

xxii
 Contributors

Sonia Núñez Puente is Professor of Gender and Media at the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos
(Madrid, Spain). Her research focuses on the analysis of social media and the
transformation of cultural violence. She has led national and international research and
development projects on feminist digital activism and gender-based violence. She has been a
Leverhulme Research Fellow at the University of Aberdeen (Scotland) and a lecturer
at Vanderbilt University (USA). She has been a Visiting Scholar at The University of
Cambridge (United Kingdom), The University of Coimbra (Portugal), The University of
Milano-Bicocca (Italy) and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (Germany), among others.

Onyinyechi Nancy Nwaolikpe is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication

at McPherson University, one of the private universities in Nigeria. She has a PhD in Mass
Communication, specialising in Development Communication, from Babcock University,
Nigeria and has just completed a postgraduate programmme on Gender Analysis in
International Development at the University of East Anglia, United Kingdom. She has
published articles in local and international academic journals and books and won many
research travel grants to present her research papers at international conferences.

Jennifer O’Meara is Assistant Professor in Film Studies at Trinity College Dublin. She has
published widely on the topic of screen sound and gender, in publications including Feminist
Media Studies and the Journal of Cinema and Media Studies. Her latest book, Screening
Women’s Voices in the Digital Era: The Sonic Screen from Film to Memes, was published by
University of Texas Press in 2022.

Rafaela Orphanides obtained her PhD in 2020 from Loughborough University. Her current
interdisciplinary research explores the relationship of Reality and the Imaginary in popular
culture. Through this research she has explored mediations of authenticity, success and
gender-based violence in media, and the triple entanglement of feminism, postfeminism, and
neoliberalism in mediated representations. Dr Orphanides has experience from Universities
in the UK and Cyprus in teaching modules at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

Lucia M. Palmer is Assistant Professor of Media and Communication at Middle Georgia

State University. She has published articles in journals such as Feminist Media Studies,
International Journal of Communication, Studies in Popular Culture, and Studies in Spanish
and Latin American Cinemas. Her interests primarily revolve around the intersections
between media, culture and constructions of nationality, gender, race and sexuality.
Currently, her research focuses on how cultural and political movements utilise media, in
particular alternative and independent formats, to struggle over meanings of the US/Mexico
border and immigration.

Kandice M. Parker is a PhD candidate in the Psychology of Culture, Health and Human
Development programme at the University of Saskatchewan. She has previously acquired a
B.Sc. in Biology (UVic), a B.A. in Psychology with Honours and M.A. in Applied Social
Psychology at the University of Saskatchewan. Her research interests include gender and
violence, men and allyship, woke performativity, gender equality and postfeminism.
Kandice has published in numerous outlets including Psychology & Sexuality, Porn
Studies and Journal of Bisexuality.

xxiii
 Contributors

Anastasia Powell is Professor of Family & Sexual Violence at RMIT University (Melbourne,
Australia). Her research examines the intersections of gender, violence, justice and
technology, and includes the books: Image-based Sexual Abuse (Routledge, 2020), Digital
Criminology (Routledge, 2018), Sexual Violence in a Digital Age (Palgrave, 2017), Domestic
Violence (Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2011) and Sex, Power and Consent (Cambridge
University Press, 2010).

Michael Salter is a Scientia Fellow and Associate Professor of Criminology at the University
of New South Wales. His research is focused on complex trauma, gender-based violence and
child sexual abuse. His published work includes the books Organised Sexual Abuse
(Routledge, 2013) and Crime, Justice and Social Media (Routledge, 2017) and over fifty
papers in international journals and edited collections. He is the academic member of the
Advisory Group to inform the development and implementation of the Commonwealth ten
year National Plan To Prevent Violence Against Women and Their Children.

Sofia José Santos is Assistant Professor in International Relations at the Faculty of

Economics of the University of Coimbra and a Researcher at the Centre for Social
Studies of the same university where she leads as PI the Project DeCode/M. She holds a
PhD in International Relations (University of Coimbra) and a specialisation in
Communication (ISCTE-IUL). Since 2008, she has undertaken research on media and
international relations; media and masculinities; and internet and technopolitics. Sofia
has published in journals such as the European Journal of Women’s Studies and Contexto
Internacional.

Silvia Semenzin is a postdoctoral fellow in Digital Sociology at the Complutense University

of Madrid and a digital rights activist. She researches on data justice, technological
imaginaries and cyberviolence against women and girls. In 2019, she promoted the art.612-
ter included in the ‘Red Code’ bill to criminalize image-based sexual abuse in Italy and in
2021 she co-founded Virgin & Martyr, a non-profit association for gender and sex
education. Together with Lucia Bainotti, she published the book Donne Tutte Puttane
(Durango Edizioni, 2021) to discuss the widespread phenomenon of the non-consensual
dissemination of intimate images across Italian Telegram channels.

Paula Serafini is Lecturer in Creative and Cultural Industries at Queen Mary University of
London. Her research is situated in the field of cultural politics, and her interests include
extractivism, social movements, art activism, performance, cultural labour, cultural policy,
feminist politics and alternatives to development. She is author of Performance Action: The
Politics of Art Activism (Routledge, 2018) and Creating Worlds Otherwise: Art, Collective
Action, and (Post)Extractivism (Vanderbilt University Press, 2022).

Tanya Serisier is Reader in Feminist Theory in the Department of Criminology at Birkbeck

College University of London. She researches the cultural politics of sex, sexuality and
sexual violence with a particular interest in the effects of feminist activism and scholarship.
Her work on public survivors builds on her previous work on speaking out, including her
2018 monograph, Speaking Out: Feminism, Rape and Narrative Politics.

xxiv
 Contributors

Jennifer Silcox, PhD, is Assistant Professor in the Department of Child and Youth Studies
at King’s University College at Western University. Her main areas of research include
social inequality, youth crime and legislation in Canada, youth mental health, and media
representations of crime.

Chindu Sreedharan, PhD, is Associate Professor of Journalism at Bournemouth University

(UK). A former journalist, he has a particular interest in journalistic storytelling as a
means to improve human rights situations. His research focuses on “abnormal
journalisms”, reportage that extends the boundaries of conventional newswork––from
crisis and post-disaster reporting, to new forms of digital and long narratives. Chindu’s
publications include Sexual Violence and the News Media (co-authored), Impact of Covid-
19 on journalism in Sierra Leone (co-authored), Hold Your Story: Reflections on the News of
Sexual Violence in India (co-edited) and Disaster Journalism: Building Media Resilience in
Nepal (co-authored).

Jia Tan is Assistant Professor of Cultural Studies at the Chinese University of Hong Kong.
She is the author of Digital Masquerade: Feminist Rights and Queer Media in China (NYU
Press, 2023).

Einar Thorsen, PhD, is Professor of Journalism and Communication and Executive Dean
of the Faculty of Media and Communication at Bournemouth University (UK). His
research covers journalism and social change, citizens’ voices, news reporting of crisis and
politics. He has co-authored and co-edited several reports, including a 2021 UNESCO
report on journalism and sexual violence in India and national survey reports on the
impact of Covid-19 on journalists in Nepal (2020) and Sierra Leone (2021). His recent
books include Media, Journalism and Disaster Communities (Palgrave, 2020, co-edited
with Jamie Matthews).

Angela Towers is a postgraduate researcher at Lancaster University UK within Feminist

Media and Cultural Studies. She is currently working on an oral history of viral feminism of
the last decade. She works as a graduate teaching assistant across the Sociology and Media
and Cultural Studies programmes at Lancaster.

Satu Venäläinen is a postdoctoral researcher in Social Psychology in the Faculty of Social

Sciences at the University of Helsinki. Her research focuses on discourses, identities and
affects linked specifically to the shifting gender relations both in online and offline contexts.
She has specifically done research on meanings linked to gendered violence and her current
research project explores affective and discursive meanings and dynamics of sexual
harassment among young people. She has published in journals such as Social Problems,
Men and Masculinities, The Sociological Review, Feminist Media Studies, European Journal
of Women’s Studies, and Feminism & Psychology.

Fiona Vera-Gray is the Deputy Director of the Child and Woman Abuse Studies Unit
(CWASU) at London Metropolitan University. She is the author of two books on public
sexual harassment and a forthcoming book on what porn means for women.

xxv
 Contributors

Karissa Wall completed her Masters in Applied Social Psychology at the University of
Saskatchewan. Karissa now works as the Manager of Institutional Research at Kwantlen
Polytechnic University in Vancouver, BC, Canada.

Helen Wood is Professor of Media and Cultural Studies at the University of Lancaster UK.
She has published widely on class and gender in the media including the books Reality
Television and Class and Reacting to Reality Television with Beverley Skeggs. She has edited
Television for Women: New Directions with Rachel Moseley and Helen Wheatley and the
book The Wedding Spectacle Across Media and Culture with Jilly Kay and Melanie
Kennedy. Her recent work on representations of the working-class girl can be found in
Feminist Media Studies and the Journal of British Cinema and Television.

xxvi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This collection originated in a conversation with Alexandra McGregor at Routledge, at the

very beginning of the first lockdown in 2020. We would like to thank Alex for her
enthusiasm for the project, careful stewarding of the commissioning process and her
understanding and support as we adjusted to the new normal. Eleanor Catchpole Simmons
and Charlotte Taylor at Routledge have provided ongoing guidance, particularly in the final
stages of the project, and we are grateful for their care and attention.
To all our contributors who have juggled their chapters with the realities of pandemic life
and many other unforeseen circumstances: we are so grateful for your commitment to the
project, your good humour and patience in responding to our editorial comments and, most
of all, for continuing to work in an area which can be so challenging. We hope you are
pleased with the final collection and enjoy the opportunity to learn from each other over
these pages as we have enjoyed learning from you.
We have been incredibly lucky to work on this together, to be able to keep each other
going, spread the load and maintain intellectual engagement with a wider world,
particularly during periods of home schooling, lockdown and illness. And so we thank
each other for being the best other half of an editorial team we could have wished for.
Karen would like to thank Ian Garwood for his love, unwavering support and for taking
on way more than his fair share of everything else as the deadline approached; and Alec and
Carys Garwood for providing (usually welcome) distraction and motivation.
Susan would like to thank Vicky Wason, Duncan Robertson and Mike Rowling for their
unconditional love, support and encouragement; and Marshall and Emmett Robertson for
their wise words and for helping me keep things in perspective. Thanks also to Indiana
Bones for alleviating stress along the way.

xxvii
 INTRODUCTION
Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

Thinking about gender, violence and the media in a pandemic

This is a pandemic collection. The Covid-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on how
communities globally engage with media and communications technologies, but also on
experiences and understandings of gender violence. As a core principle of feminist theorising
on gender violence is that it is inextricably linked with gender inequality, the historical
moment in which this collection is situated is clearly significant.
As is well-documented, the pandemic exacerbated inequalities and enhanced vulnerabilities.
In the first months of the pandemic, UN Women reported that violence against women had
intensified (UN Women, 2020a, p. 3), and that – across 13 countries – 45% of women reported
that they, or a woman they know, had experienced some form of violence since the beginning of
the pandemic (p. 4). Help-seeking behaviours were also impacted, with increasing reports of
domestic violence and/or increased demand for emergency shelter documented in Argentina,
Australia, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Germany, Lebanon, Mexico, Spain, the UK and the US
(UN Women, 2020b, pp. 2–3). Unsurprisingly, online abuse increased, with implications for
workplaces as well as educational settings (see Ging, Chapter 32, this volume). The trajectory
of the pandemic also led to targeted racist attacks in a number of contexts, including the US
(see Bhaman and Kuo, Chapter 3, this volume).
From the early days of the pandemic, its broader gendered implications were also apparent.
For instance, a UN Women report noted that women in Asia and the Pacific had been dis-
proportionately impacted by income reductions and their formal employment opportunities
had been curtailed whilst unpaid caring responsibilities increased at a rate higher than men’s.
Whilst men were more likely to die from the virus itself, the emotional impact of the pandemic
fell disproportionately on women (UN Women, 2020b). This wider picture matters. Where
gendered inequalities increase, the prospects of ending gender violence diminish.
The pandemic has thus brought into sharp relief the persistence of violence against
women and the adaptability of patriarchy. Persistence and adaptability is a core theme of
this collection, one which contributors explore not only in relation to the pandemic but also
in terms of technological, economic and political shifts and the ways in which these have
given rise to specific gender-based abuses. Whilst such developments are often hailed as

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200871-1 1
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

“new” or “unprecedented” by mainstream media inattentive to histories of feminist activism

and scholarship, in this collection we work to establish the connections, continuities and
changes across time, place and platform.
Like many of our contributors, we have started this introduction with evidence produced
by transnational bodies about the prevalence of violence against women. However, whilst
these accounts place women’s experiences – and vulnerabilities – centre stage, they often do
so in a way that renders men invisible as the primary perpetrators of this violence. In the
next section, we trace variations on this linguistic vanishing act and situate this collection in
relation to these debates.

What’s in a name?
Although the terms gender-based violence and (men’s) violence against women are often
used interchangeably in activist, research and policy contexts (Boyle, 2019a) it is important
to insist on the distinctions between them. This collection is centrally concerned with how
violence is understood in and through gender – and vice versa. But this does not mean it is
concerned only – or specifically – with gender-based violence.
UN Women give the following definition of gender-based violence:

Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to harmful acts directed at an individual or a

group of individuals based on their gender. It is rooted in gender inequality, the abuse
of power and harmful norms. The term is primarily used to underscore the fact that
structural, gender-based power differentials place women and girls at risk for multiple
forms of violence. While women and girls suffer disproportionately from GBV, men
and boys can also be targeted. The term is also sometimes used to describe targeted
violence against LGBTQI+ populations, when referencing violence related to norms
of masculinity/ femininity and/or gender norms.
(UN Women, n.d.)

As this makes clear, not all gender-based violence is violence against women. However, this
definition emphasises the greater risk to women and girls, without identifying who is most at
risk of perpetrating that violence. If gender-based violence is rooted in gender inequality and
involves an abuse of power, the people perpetrating that violence in a patriarchal society are
most likely to be men. This is not to say that gender-based violence is only perpetrated by
men. For instance, female genital mutilation and cutting can be understood as gender-based
violence not because it is always practised by men (it isn’t), but because it targets women
and is a violent expression of gendered inequalities. Likewise, whilst transphobic violence
may be perpetrated by people of all genders, that it functions to uphold gender-binary
norms makes it a form of violence that is based in gender. But these examples do not
undermine our point that just as women and girls “suffer disproportionately”, so men and
boys are disproportionately represented as perpetrators. Yet, men and boys are only
mentioned in this definition as potential victims.
Even in the UN’s definition of violence against women and girls – the most common
form of gender-based violence – it is gendered risk which is centred:

Violence against women and girls is defined as any act of gender-based violence that
results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to

2
 Introduction

women and girls, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. Violence against women and girls
encompasses, but is not limited to, physical, sexual and psychological violence oc-
curring in the family or within the general community, and perpetrated or condoned
by the state.
(UN Women, n.d.)

Reading these definitions you could be left wondering who on earth is doing all this violence.
In our editorial choices for this collection, we have emphasised men’s violence against
women, but to gain a fuller understanding of the ways that gender and violence are made
meaningful in and through representation we have also included chapters that focus on
other forms of gender-based violence, as well as on violence which is gendered (that is,
understood in relation to gender) but not gender-based (an abuse of power). For instance,
women’s violence is routinely framed in media reporting as a story about gender (and,
sometimes, about feminism) making it important to consider in a collection of this type. It
is not, however, gender-based violence according to the UN’s definition, as it is not –
typically – “rooted in gender inequality, the abuse of power and harmful norms”.
This discussion demonstrates that language matters and that applies not only when we
are looking at the media, but also at policy and activist practice. Of course, it is inevitable
that in any international collection which deals with such a wide variety of types of violence,
there is no one definition that unites all of the chapters. As editors, we have not tried to
impose one. But we have pushed contributors to be as precise as possible about who is doing
what to whom and to be cautious of umbrella terms which may obfuscate gendered
dynamics. This cautious approach to umbrella terms is one which is also advocated by Mia
Fischer in relation to transgender visibility. Fischer is critical of “the framework of trans-
gender visibility” which might “allow mainstream LGB(T) organizations to allege inclusion of
the T without actually addressing the urgent needs and issues of transgender people” (2019,
p. 13). In the context of gender and violence, we understand violence against trans people
because of their gender identity to be a form of gender-based violence. This includes violence
against trans women because they are women, and violence against trans women and men
because they are trans: in these cases, both misogynist and transphobic violence can be based
on perceived gender roles and gender (non)conformity. But to go back to the UN Women
definition above, it is not obvious that all violence against the wider LGBTQI+ population is,
or should be, understood as gender-based: homophobic violence, for instance, may not always
be related to “norms of masculinity/femininity and/or gender norms”.
A large part of what is at stake in these definitions, then, is the commonalities they
establish between different forms of violence and different social groups. This leads us to a
core concept which has informed our editorial selections and is adopted by many of our
contributors: continuum thinking (Boyle, 2019a).

Continuum thinking
Continuum thinking is a characteristic of feminist theorisations of gender and violence and
can be arrived at via the work of a range of different theorists. Our own use of the con-
tinuum is indebted to Liz Kelly who introduced the concept in her 1988 book Surviving
Sexual Violence as a means of understanding women’s experiences of sexual violence. For
Kelly, the continuum was a way of conceptualising how women made sense of individual

3
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

actions in relation to a continuum of related experiences throughout their lives. The con-
tinuum was a means of identifying the “basic common character that underlies many dif-
ferent events” and/or “a continuous series of elements or events that pass into one another
and cannot be easily distinguished” (1988, p. 76). The value of the continuum, for Kelly,
was in allowing us to see how experiences accumulated and worked together – in a context
characterised by gender inequality – to shape women’s lives.
Whilst it was Kelly’s work on sexual violence which led her to develop the concept of the
continuum, subsequent feminist work adopted and adapted the continuum to trace how
different forms of (men’s) (gender-based) violence against women are connected (Boyle,
2019a). The brackets are intended to highlight that feminist work has expanded beyond the
continuum to consider a range of different continuums which allow us to make connections
not only in the lives of victim/survivors (Kelly’s original focus), but also, for instance, by
considering men’s behaviour, or the meaning and function of violence. In Surviving Sexual
Violence, Kelly foresaw some of these uses of the concept, noting that continuum thinking
could also help to establish the ways in which “typical” and “aberrant” male behaviour shades
into one another (Kelly, 1988, p. 75). As Karen Boyle notes “this demands that we pay
attention not only to women’s experiences of male behaviour, but also to that behaviour itself
and how it is rendered meaningful for men” (2019a, p. 29). Media representations are some of
the many ways in which that behaviour is rendered meaningful for men.
Here, it is useful to turn to Raewyn Connell’s work and her term “hegemonic mascu-
linity”. Hegemonic masculinity is the dominant/dominating form of masculinity in a given
historical and society-wide social setting that legitimates unequal and hierarchical gender
relations (Connell and Messerschmidt, 2005). Reflecting on male violence specifically,
Connell writes:

most men do not attack or harass women; but those who do are unlikely to think
themselves deviant. On the contrary they usually feel they are entirely justified, that
they are exercising a right. They are authorized by an ideology of supremacy.
(Connell, 1995, p. 83)

We can connect this back to our discussion of the UN definitions above to note that one
way male dominance is maintained is by not noticing it exists. Hegemonic masculinity
means that much of men’s violence goes unrecognised as male violence, if, indeed, it is
recognised as violence at all and not, for instance, disguised as sex or romance, as a winning
mentality for business or sport, or as honour. When these linguistic disguises are adopted
the speaker accepts the perpetrator’s framing of his behaviour (Campbell, 2022).
In an article focusing on rape and sexual assault in the news, Boyle, Brenna Jessie and
Megan Strickland note:

To state that in certain conditions, and for certain types of men, rape and sexual
assault can be “normal” is to recognise that the social and cultural construction of
male sexuality and gender inequality legitimates and indeed celebrates sexual
aggression as part of what it means to be “a man.” As such, if a man’s sexually
assaultive behaviour is to be recognised as a problem, then he cannot simultaneously
be recognised as a man.
(2022, p. 116)

4
 Introduction

The “certain types of men” referred to here are those who are most closely aligned with
hegemonic masculinity in any given culture. To qualify Boyle, Jessie and Strickland’s argu-
ment slightly, then, he cannot simultaneously be recognised as that kind of man. As many of
the chapters in this collection demonstrate, if he is, or was, that kind of man (an award-
winning movie producer, say) then he must have been miscategorised – he isn’t actually one of
them at all, he’s a monster. At the same time, across many of the contexts discussed in this
book, there is an increasing sense that the ideology of male supremacy is under threat and that
at least some of the men who did not previously think themselves deviant are being forced to
think again. Feminist activism – including in media spaces – has had an important role to play
in these reckonings.
For an internationally-oriented collection, continuum thinking is a fundamentally
political intervention because it allows us to see connections across disparate contexts whilst
remaining alert to their specificities. Importantly, continuum thinking is about under-
standing the common character of differently-situated experiences, it is not about asserting
an equivalence or a hierarchy. In this, it echoes long-standing principles of feminist orga-
nising, as well as debates about sameness and difference in women’s experiences within and
across nations and the structural inequalities produced by race, religion, sexuality, gender
identity, class and dis/ability. A collection like this allows us to contribute to this broader
project of building a feminist community and theorising gender and violence by opening up
space for reflection on the assumptions underpinning not only media coverage but also
representation in theory and research.
As one practical example of this, we want to briefly reflect on what we have learned from
considering how “honour” structures justificatory accounts of men’s violence against
women across different contexts in this collection. “Honour” is directly referenced in a
number of chapters which deal with abuse in Islamic contexts such as Rahat Imran’s
(Chapter 30) and Munira Cheema’s (Chapter 51) chapters focusing on Pakistan and Eylem
Atakav’s (Chapter 55) discussion of child marriage in Turkey. But honour – and its cor-
relate, shame (Gill, 2014, p. 2) – also feature heavily in reports of familicide in white
communities in the UK and Australia discussed by Denise Buiten (Chapter 5); whilst ideas
about honour, pride and white nationalism circulate in Kathryn Claire Higgins’s examples
from Australia (Chapter 7) and Nicky Falkof’s from South Africa (Chapter 24). We are not
suggesting that these examples are the same. Indeed, there are clear and important differ-
ences. So-called “honour” crimes are, typically, attempts to maintain or restore (familial)
“honour” by ensuring women conform to cultural and religious expectations – or are
punished for their failure to do so (Siddiqui and Mahmod, 2021, p. 404). In the cases
discussed by Buiten, Higgins and Falkof, there are parallels in the positioning of men as the
arbiters of family or community honour, but it is men’s understanding of their own beha-
viour or position (and how that is threatened) that is more central. But running through all
these examples is the extent to which gender norms are underpinned by male entitlement
and gender inequality, and that the violent policing of those norms is most often at the
expense of women in families and communities.
Putting these chapters together allows us to see connections in men’s excuses for violence
(and so in women’s experiences of it), but at the same time raises questions about the very
different language typically used to refer to these acts, both in media and research contexts.
Activists are understandably dubious when debates over terminology become a means of
deflecting responsibility and delaying action, particularly on the part of governments
(Siddiqui and Mahmod, 2021). At the same time – and as other chapters in this collection

5
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

explore in relation to phenomena including cyberflashing (McGlynn, Chapter 35) and child
abuse images (Salter, Chapter 37) – the terms we use can determine patterns of recognition
and restitution. This may be where those of us involved in media disciplines are able to
make useful interventions in wider debates.
So, to go back to our example of “honour”, what might we gain by thinking of certain
kinds of familicide or white vigilantism as honour-based violence? What would such a
framing allow (and deny), both in terms of our understandings of familicide and vigilantism
and of our understandings of how ideas about “honour” are mobilised in Western accounts
of “Islamic” practices and communities? To return to Siddiqui and Mahmod, might this
offer a means to challenge the exoticisation of minoritised communities which often ac-
companies discussions of “honour”-based violence in the West (p. 409) and, therefore, limits
minority women’s access to effective state protection? At the same time, might it also
challenge the normalisation and relative invisibility of some forms of white men’s violence
against white women which mean that their violence is likely to be understood in individ-
ualist rather than structural terms (Chantler and Gangoli, 2011)? Similar debates have taken
place in relation to the relationship between “honour” violence and coercive control (Patel
and Siddiqui, 2011; Gill, 2011) or “date” rape (Chantler and Gangoli, 2011). This work also
interrogates whose versions of honour, of community and of gender are prioritised and
naturalised – the troubling of “honour” often signalled (as we have done here) by the use of
scare quotes or by insisting on its disputed status: so-called honour (Chantler and Gangoli,
2011, p. 359). These debates may be semantic, but they are also material, impacting, among
other things, on how governments weaponise violence against minoritised women – and
violence by minoritised men – to serve anti-immigration agendas: something which emerges
in a range of contexts in this collection (e.g. Bhaman and Kuo, Chapter 3; Gill, Chapter 9;
Käkelä, Chapter 10).
It is important here to distinguish between continuum thinking – which has underpinned
the editorial selections and analysis in this book – and analogous thinking. By analogous
thinking, we are referring to attempts – in both media and some feminist work – to make
gender-based violence matter by establishing how it is “like” something else: torture, ter-
rorism, hostage-taking (Boyle, 2019a, p. 23). We have seen a lot of this, in various contexts,
since 2020, as gender-based violence – and men’s violence against women in particular – has
been described as a pandemic of its own. UN Women (2020c), for instance, described
violence against women during Covid-19 as the “shadow pandemic”. Given the extent to
which the Covid-19 pandemic has dominated every aspect of our lives since early 2020, this
is an understandable move as it aims to make visible the scale of the problem and the sheer
number of women impacted by it.
However, we are wary of analogous thinking because the analogies are so often not
themselves gendered and/or are phenomena for which individuals cannot be clearly
accountable. As such, we can end up in a situation where we are talking about gender-based
violence and even men’s violence against women in curiously ungendered terms and/or only
focusing on structure, evading questions of personal responsibility. We understand why
feminists have at times adopted this strategy as a way of getting the issue onto agendas
which might be resistant to explicitly feminist language and analysis: indeed, we have done
this ourselves (Boyle, 2019a, pp. 19–20). However, in the context of a collection about the
media, the problematic ways in which analogous thinking – along with any form of eu-
phemistic language – can work to constrain understanding and limit which kinds of vio-
lence, victims and perpetrators come into view are acutely felt.

6
 Introduction

Our primary focus in this collection is on inter-personal gender-based violence – pre-

dominately, but not exclusively, men’s violence against women – but as the discussion so far
should make clear, it is a core principle of feminist theorising that we cannot understand
that violence in individualistic terms. Rather it requires a structural analysis which extends
beyond the interpersonal to an analysis of kinship structures, as well as institutions in both
public and private sectors (and, of course, media span both). It is important to emphasise
that we are not suggesting that the media is a cause of men’s violence against women. This
would be to divorce media from the wider societies in which they sit, whilst simultaneously
denying the agency of media consumers, a group which, of course, includes victim/survi-
vors, perpetrators, bystanders and policymakers. At the same time, a focus on cause and
effect detracts attention from the abusive production practices within media organisations
which have, for instance, been brought into sharp relief by the Harvey Weinstein case. As
Meenakshi Gigi Durham (2021, p. 2) puts it, “[t]he media are in fact, quite literally, sites of
sexual violence”, an issue explored in some detail in Part 3.
Instead, we consider the media as part of the “conducive context” (Kelly, 2016) for
gender-based violence – as well as, on occasions, a means of disrupting that context. In
relation to the conducive context, Sam Keen’s description of “the hostile imagination” in
the context of war is illuminating: “We first kill people with our minds, before we kill them
with weapons” (Silver, 1991). We want to connect this comment to Connell’s understanding
of the role of violence in hegemonic masculinity. Engaging with the media can be one of the
ways in which violent behaviour can be imagined and understood as a normal – and in some
contexts desirable – expression of masculinity.
Militarised masculinities have a role to play in this process. Cynthia Cockburn (2004,
2012), whose work informs Lisa DiGiovanni’s analysis of militarised masculinity in Chile in
Chapter 29, writes, “the violence of militarization and war, profoundly gendered, spills back
into everyday life and increases the quotient of violence in it” (Cockburn, 2012, n.p.). Whilst
this collection focuses primarily on inter-personal violence, there are a number of contri-
butions which examine military or other forms of state-sanctioned violence and oppression,
including in relation to police brutality (Bhaman and Kuo, Chapter 3) and border control in
the US (Palmer, Chapter 28), restrictions to reproductive freedoms in Brazil (Loureiro,
Chapter 46), or state-control of media systems in China (Li, Chapter 15; Tan, Chapter 52).
These contributions are still characterised by continuum thinking but emerge from a range
of different disciplinary, political and geographically-located vantage points – as with
DiGiovanni’s centring of Cockburn’s version of the continuum, for instance; or Paula
Serafini’s use of the work of Verónica Gago (2019, p. 14) to establish a “political cartog-
raphy” of violence and so connect women’s experiences of male violence and their ex-
periences of/under state oppression in Latin America.
For us as editors, one of the challenges of adopting this expansive understanding of the
continuum of gendered violence is the extent to which this opens up the field significantly
beyond the parameters of one edited collection – even one with 57 chapters. Contemporary
events – including the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the state-sanctioned killing and torture
of feminist protestors in Iran, and the extension of existing restrictions to reproductive
freedoms in a range of territories including the US – demonstrate the importance of this
model of thinking. Yet, mediated responses to war and state-sanctioned torture are not
foregrounded in this collection as centrally as they would be if we were to start the com-
missioning process today. Instead, commissioning during a pandemic led us to privilege
online spaces of violence and protest as we outline in the next section.

7
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

Organisation of the collection

The book is organised into four sections: News, Representing Reality, Gender-based
Violence Online and Feminist Responses. This structure allows for the identification and
analysis of different forms of violence in specific media forms, platforms and national
contexts, as well as considering appropriate measures to change and challenge this occur-
rence, whether at the level of editorial policy, activism, production practices, platform
moderation, regulation, public education or legislation. Contributors come from a range of
disciplinary traditions and are writing from, and/or in relation to, different national con-
texts with distinct legal frameworks. These specificities sometimes lead to diverging prior-
ities and strategies for feminist work on and with the media: what may work in one context,
may not translate to another.
As outlined above, there is no one term we can comfortably use to collectively describe
the violence discussed across all the chapters in this collection. The unifying concern is not a
type of violence – or a type of victim/survivor or perpetrator – but, rather, an approach to
centring gender in examining how violence is made meaningful (particularly at the inter-
personal level) whilst remaining attentive to local, cultural and contextual specificities.
Many individual chapters explore more than one type of violence, highlighting the re-
lationships between various forms of abuse, the way in which one type of violence may be
experienced alongside another and/or the porous nature of online/offline boundaries. This
kind of continuum thinking also characterises our editorial introductions to each part.
The majority of chapters focus on contemporary examples. Whilst some explore media
representations in national contexts marked by traditional gender roles, many others discuss
examples from contexts where equality discourses are assumed. However, contributors
highlight the complex ways in which equality discourses can at times be mobilised to
reinforce right-wing views in order to justify surveillance of, and/or violence against, women
and minoritised communities. There are parallels here with Sarah Banet-Weiser’s (2018)
understanding of the deep entanglement of “popular feminism” and “popular misogyny”. It
is important to recognise that this backlash to feminism is figured in ideological terms.
Individual examples are used to make general critiques of feminism and women’s position in
the public sphere more broadly. The personal and political are, therefore, at stake in both
feminist and anti-feminist responses.
The chapters in Part 1 focus on print, online and televised news, recognising that a great
deal of feminist scholarship is concerned with the gendered and racialised nature of news
reporting. However, subsequent sections look across a range of media. Part 2 includes
chapters on gender violence in comedy, vlogs, podcasts, documentaries, dramatised versions
of real crime, magazines, pornography, survivor memoirs, official state media and social
media. Parts 3 and 4 mainly look at online platforms and social media, though Part 4
extends this scope to include considerations of performance, physical protests, campaign
materials, literature, film and television. Although there is only one chapter that includes
pornography in the title, there are others that discuss pornography in relation to image-
based abuse and other forms of gender-based violence online. Public education and strategic
communication are considered, but in chapters with a broader focus and there are no
chapters that focus solely on these forms. A more notable gap, perhaps, is the lack of
attention to advertising, radio, reality television and photography, as well as to sports and
entertainment journalism. However, we aimed first for geographical range and whilst there
are – inevitably – patterns of dominance, and some notable gaps (particularly in relation to

8
 Introduction

the Middle East and Eastern Europe), we include case studies from 21 different countries,
including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Finland, Greece, India, Italy,
Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Portugal, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, the UK,
US and Zimbabwe. Several chapters offer more theoretical and/or less geographically-
bounded case studies, bringing in examples from a range of different contexts. Our hope is
that the collection will prompt readers to consider the relationship between the examples
illuminated here and other local, national or regional contexts in their own research.
Before moving into the individual chapters, however, there are ethical considerations for
a collection like this which are important to address.

Coda: Representing violence ethically in academic work

Ethical questions and considerations permeate this collection due to the nature of the subject
matter and commitment to ethics in feminist research praxis more widely. As would be ex-
pected in a book titled Gender, Media and Violence, each chapter explores examples of vio-
lence, some of which are described in detailed ways. We have not included content warnings,
though each section has an editorial introduction that maps out some of the different forms of
violence discussed. Authors take different approaches to how to handle explicitness and this is
by no means resolved within the wider academic field. Some authors choose not to include
explicit accounts of violence as a way of mitigating the reproduction of the (often exploitative)
representational patterns they are critiquing. Whilst the book contains no violent or sexually
explicit images, there are chapters that contain explicit examples of racist and sexist hate
speech as well as graphic descriptions of violence. For some authors, it is important to capture
this detail explicitly in order to render visible the existence and severity of abuse and highlight
the violent aspects of practices that are not always seen in this way.
We recognise that there is a wealth of often polemical debates around trigger warnings.
However, the nature of trauma means that it is impossible to determine what an individual’s
trigger might be. As Jack Halberstam (2017, p. 539) asserts, there is a potential danger of
prioritising some forms of gender-based violence over others, which works against the
notion of continuum thinking and risks flattening out the complex differences that race and
class might make to responses to certain material. Nevertheless, we do not dispute “the
demand for new accountability around reception” (Halberstam, 2017, p. 539) and discus-
sions of this accountability for consumers, researchers and educators recur in several
chapters. Yet, as Halberstam (ibid) notes, many of the arguments around the use of trigger
warnings rely on the idea of passive consumers. We trust in your agency as readers to use
the editorial introductions to each part, along with the chapter titles, to make your own
decisions about how to prepare mentally to engage with, or even avoid, particular content.
There are also complex ethical questions and considerations raised in relation to the
representation of victim/survivors in academic writing, particularly when dealing with
survivor testimony. Different media forms and platforms enable different terms of agency
for victim/survivors which contributors are attentive to. The extent to which victim/survi-
vors, and their loved ones, can retain control over their experiences – particularly in relation
to commercially-oriented media – and the potential harm caused when they lose this con-
trol, is a recurring question throughout this book, as are the ethics of our own affective
responses as media consumers, researchers and educators.
Many chapters engage with forms of media – vlogs, social media posts – where victim/
survivors can retain some form of editorial control over their disclosures and, therefore,

9
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

may choose to retract or restrict previously publicly-available posts or videos at a later date.
For this reason, our editorial stance has been to ask contributors to omit identifying details
(such as usernames) for private or (on Twitter) unverified1 individuals unless a professional
role is associated with their accounts or their online identities are well known. Still, even
when users have large followings and might expect their videos and posts to be widely
viewed, there remain ethical questions to consider about our role as researchers in handling
that material. There is a recognition that whilst it is important for victim/survivors to be
acknowledged in these debates, it is also important that they are not permanently linked to
that identity.
Chapters in Part 1 also explore questions of ethics in relation to decisions on how to
report gender-based violence, considering how journalists can help change public under-
standings and attitudes. However, we need to remain attentive to local restrictions – legal or
otherwise – which may shape what journalists are allowed to say about victim/survivors,
perpetrators and specific actions or patterns of behaviour. For example, there may be
restrictions around revealing victim/survivors’ identities – most often in sexual assault cases,
and when the victim/survivor is a child. Whilst such restrictions are often to protect victim/
survivors, this can mean that perpetrators’ perspectives and lives are allowed to dominate
media narratives (Miller, 2019; Boyle, Jessie and Strickland, 2022) encouraging a “himpa-
thetic” response (Manne, 2018). There are further considerations around defamation, and –
as Li Jun demonstrates in Chapter 15 – uneven access to legal instruments can leave public
survivors vulnerable to prosecution. This is also an issue for those of us writing about these
issues, meaning we often have to be less definitive in our language than we might like (Boyle,
2019b, pp. 13–14). As we move throughout the book, contributors also consider ethics in
relation to our own engagement with representations of gender-based violence and/or with
media produced in abusive contexts – as audiences, filmmakers, teachers and researchers.
Finally, a note on the language used to refer to those experiencing, and those perpe-
trating, violence. We have not insisted contributors take a uniform approach to this, re-
cognising that different terms can have utility and power in different contexts. In our
editorial work, we have used the term victim/survivor. Whilst the term “victim” has been
rejected by some as stigmatising, other feminists have insisted that there is no stigma in
victimisation and cautioned that the refusal of the term can be a means of minimising harm
(Jordan, 2004, p. 12). At the same time, “survivor” is often preferred in activist contexts as it
offers a more agentic identity and the possibility of recognising women’s active resistance
(Kelly, 1988). We see value in both terms and use the compound victim/survivor to
acknowledge that neither victimisation nor survival are discrete experiences but are them-
selves moving points on a continuum rather than definitive identity markers (Kelly, Burton
and Regan, 1996). This makes sense, for instance, of the oft-repeated claims that media
coverage can itself be revictimising (Boyle, 2019b, p. 15). More recently, the term “perpe-
trator” has also been the focus of critique for similarly suggesting “a kind of person rather
than an act or experience” (Khan et al., 2018, p.453). Whilst acknowledging these limita-
tions, we have continued to use “perpetrator” in this collection in the absence of a widely
recognised alternative.

Note
1 All of the research presented in this book was conducted before Elon Musk’s takeover of Twitter
in October 2022.

10
 Introduction

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Khan, S. R., Hirsch, J. S., Wamboldt, A. and Mellins, C. A. (2018) ‘“I didn’t want to be ‘that girl’”:
The social risks of labelling, telling, and reporting sexual assault’, Sociological Science, 5(19),
pp. 432–460.
Kelly, L. (1988) Surviving sexual violence. Cambridge: Polity.
Kelly, L. (2016) ‘The conducive context of violence against women and girls’, Discover Society, 1
March. Available at: https://archive.discoversociety.org/2016/03/01/theorising-violence-against-
women-and-girls/ (Accessed: 18 December 2022).
Kelly, L., Burton, S. and Regan, L. (1996) ‘Beyond victim or survivor: Sexual violence, identity and
feminist theory and practice’, in Adkins, L. and Merchant, V. (eds.) Sexualizing the social:
Power and the organisaiton of sexuality. Basingstoke: Macmillan, pp. 77–101.
Manne, K. (2018) Down girl: The logic of misogyny. New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller, C. (2019) Know my name. New York: Viking Press.
Patel, P. and Siddiqui, H. (2011) ‘Standing in the same dream: Black and minority ethnic women’s
struggles against gender-based violence and for equality in the UK’, in Thiara, R. K., Condon,
S. and Schröttle, M. (eds.) Violence against women and ethnicity: Commonalities and differences
across Europe. Leverkusen-Opladen: Verlag Barbara Budrich, pp. 259–275.
Siddiqui, H. and Mahmod, B. (2021) ‘Far and beyond’, Progressive Review, 27(4), pp. 401–413.

11
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

Silver, R. (1991) ‘Why peace isn’t covered: An interview with Sam Keen’, Media & Values, 56. Available at:
https://www.medialit.org/reading-room/why-peace-isnt-covered (Accessed: 18 December 2022).
UN Women (2020a) Measuring the shadow pandemic: Violence against women during Covid-19.
Available at: https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/documents/Publications/Measuring-
shadow-pandemic.pdf (Accessed: 18 December 2022).
UN Women (2020b) Covid-19 and violence against women and girls: Addressing the shadow pandemic.
Policy Brief no. 17. Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/
Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2020/Policy-brief-COVID-19-and-violence-against-
women-and-girls-en.pdf (Accessed: 18 December 2022).
UN Women (2020c) The shadow pandemic: Violence against women during Covid-19. [Campaign
materials] Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/in-focus-gender-equality-
in-covid-19-response/violence-against-women-during-covid-19 (Accessed: 16 December 2022).
UN Women (n.d.) ‘Frequently asked questions: Types of violence against women and girls’. Available
at: https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/faqs/types-of-
violence (Accessed: 18 December 2022).

12
PART 1

News
 NEWS
Introduction to Part 1
Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

In Part 1, we focus on news media. The news has been a site of concern for feminist scholars
working on gender and violence in a range of disciplinary contexts. This is evidenced in our
choice of contributors for Part 1, a number of whom arrive at media analysis in a round-
about way, for instance, as a side-effect of empirical work with/for victim/survivors. They,
and we, understand the analysis of the media as part of the broader feminist project to
challenge and change gendered inequalities in the social world and see the news as one of the
most visible sites of struggle.
Research on gender and news globally has consistently pointed to the marginalisation of
women as journalists, sources and subjects. The 2020 Global Media Monitoring Project – the
largest international, collaborative, longitudinal study of women and news – showed that
women made up around four in ten journalists and presenters for the leading news stories
globally (Macharia, 2021, p.4) and 25% of news subjects and sources (ibid, p.17). Reflecting
on where and in what roles women appear in the news, the GMMP 2020 report notes,
“Women’s points of view were less frequently heard in the topics that dominated the news
agenda; even in stories that affected women profoundly, such as gender-based violence, the
male voice prevailed” (ibid, p.1). Having identified gender-based violence as a topic in around
6% of the stories in the global GMMP data, the report continues, “The near absence of
coverage of gender-based atrocities committed against girls and women further supports the
observation that such acts have been normalized in and through media coverage” (ibid, p.13).
For gender-based violence to be at stake in 6% of the most prominent news stories globally
does not seem to us to be a “near absence”. However, this interpretation points to a concern
that characterises much work in this area: namely, that the everyday nature of gender-based
violence – particularly men’s violence against women and girls – is not proportionately rep-
resented in news media. That the mundane nature of certain forms of gender-based violence
defies newsworthiness is a recurring theme in the chapters which follow. This matters because
making the problem visible is part of how we can make it actionable.
Yet, at the same time, for the media to play a role in normalising gender-based violence,
as also suggested in the GMMP quote, suggests a contradictory concern: namely that
gender-based violence is a routine and unexceptional element of news coverage. This sug-
gests that it is not the “near absence” of gender-based violence which is the problem, but

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200871-3 15
 Karen Boyle and Susan Berridge

rather the lack of feminist analysis in this coverage. Underpinning the contradictions in the
GMMP report, then, is a broader tension in feminist research and activism around gender-
based violence which sees the media as both a tool for change and as part of the problem.
Sometimes simultaneously.
Quantitively oriented projects like GMMP have been persuasive in policy contexts, but
are less effective in helping us to unpack the ideological work of news media and this is
where qualitative methodologies have prevailed.1 There is now a rich tradition of this work,
spanning nations, regions and news genres, different kinds of violence and differently po-
sitioned perpetrators and victim/survivors. The chapters in Part 1 are in conversation with
this tradition and demonstrate depressing consistencies in news coverage, particularly in
relation to victim-blaming and a lack of willingness to engage critically with men’s violence
in relation to gender norms. It is notable, for instance, how rarely the term men’s violence is
used: the maleness of violence is both assumed and, yet, invisible as such. At the same time,
stories about men’s violence against women – and gender-based violence more broadly – are
mobilised in different ways to serve specific local and national agendas at different times.
We will see, for instance, a recurring concern with how these stories can be mobilised for
regressive political ends in relation to race, ethnicity and immigration. Collectively, then, the
chapters in Part 1 demonstrate the resilience of certain long-standing feminist critiques of
news coverage, whilst highlighting the importance of being attentive to context.
We open with a chapter from Nancy Lombard focusing on news coverage of domestic
abuse in the UK. Lombard situates her interest in the media in relation to concerns about
how sociological research can be distorted in news stories. She demonstrates this by con-
sidering how sociological concern with correlations between domestic abuse and football or
Covid-19 can become news stories which imply causality and, therefore, suggest easy ways
to “fix” the problem of domestic abuse. These stories – and the fixes they imagine – ignore
the gendered dimensions of the abuse, render victim/survivors less visible and fail to hold
perpetrators to account.
This provides an essential context for Stephen R. Burrell and Alishya Dhir’s research on
male victims of domestic abuse, which similarly draws on research undertaken in the UK.
Burrell and Dhir argue that misrepresentations of men’s violence against women – like those
detailed by Lombard – also harm male victim/survivors. Whilst focusing on a statistically
rarer form of domestic abuse (against men) this chapter highlights the newsworthiness of
the exceptional and asks how these exceptional cases work to redefine the norm. Using
social research with victim/survivors to make recommendations about representation,
Burrell and Dhir note that many of the men in their study struggled to name their ex-
periences and have them recognised by others. Burrell and Dhir’s argument isn’t that this is
the fault of the media (although the gender stereotypes their respondents came up against
are familiar from media representations), but rather that news media have an important role
to play in shaping how the problem is understood.
Following this, in Chapter 3, Salonee Bhaman and Rachel Kuo weave media examples
together with broader debates about policing, justice and immigration in their reflections on
the heightened visibility accorded to “Asian hate” in the US in 2022. Bhaman and Kuo
demonstrate how violence against Asian American women is most visible and most legible
as violence, when it can be slotted into a narrative of classed and racialised conflict where
professional Asian American women are the helpless victims of Black men.2 This distorts
the realities of racist, misogynist violence most routinely experienced by Asian American
women and, importantly, prevents a wholesale analysis of American racism which would

16
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Wähänen Laulu-
kirja
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Wähänen Laulu-kirja

Editor: J. F. Granlund

Release date: February 15, 2024 [eBook #72965]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Turku: J. F. Granlund, 1864

Credits: Tuula Temonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WÄHÄNEN

LAULU-KIRJA ***
WÄHÄNEN LAULU-KIRJA

Toimittanut

J. F. Granlund

Kolmas lisätty painos

Turussa,
Frenckellin kirjapainossa, 1864,
J. F. Granlundin kustannuksella.

Registeri / Sisällys:

Eläköön armias
Arvon mekin ansaitsemme
Entinen aika on Suomelle
Suomenkin maas'
Kyllä on Suomessa luminen luonto
Nouse, riennä, Suomen kieli (1)
Mun muistuu mieleheni nyt
Täällä, pohjantähden alla (2)
Lämpöselle Louna-maalle (1)
Ei huolien pilviä taivahallamme (1)
Luonnon suuren lapsukaiset
Kulkeissani vainiolla
Woi kuinka mailma kolkka on
Lännen ruskokukkasiin
Syksy nyt on, taas meri
Wienan reunall’ koivun alta
Neitto itki itseksensä
Sen ihanaisen Emman saan
Kukka kasvoi kaunokainen (2)
Sammaltunut kota
Tuoll' on mun kultani
Minä seisoin korkialla vuorella
Kultani kukkuu, kaukana
Minun kultan' kaunis on, sen (2)
Itkettää ja surettaa
Onneton olin minä ollessani
Suosio on soma
Ilon ääni ihanainen
Kiilto-mato kukkasissa
Sua, lähe kaunis, katselen
Kesäisen illan kullasta
Mies on maassa oivallinen
Talon-poika, taitava
Jos vaikka kaikki järjestänsä
Touvon aika lähenee
Jo päivä ilman lämmittää (2)
Nyt kesän viime kukka (2)
Mistä Suomi leivän saa
Minä mielin muistutella
Jussi lähti kaupunkiin
Piika-parvi paras
Harjun-mäen kalliolla
Tuo on mun kukkoni (1)
Juoma janon sammuttaa
Pojat! pois nyt kalja tieltä
Löytyypi kultaa kupiksi
Tyhjät maljat pidossa
Ei maljasta maisteta maaten (1)
Mull' oli pullo (1)
Syksy nyt on, Wiina jo poltolla
Pamppu soittaa torvellansa (1)
Ämmä, hoi (2)
Nyt surussani (1)
Juovuksissa kaiken yön (1)
Ystävä-kullat, Siukut ja Weikot! (1)

(1) merkityt laulut ovat lisätyt toiseen painokseen [1861] ja (2)

merkityt tähän kolmanteen. [1. painos 1856].

Tähän painokseen olen pannut niitten laulujen alle nimet, joitten

tekiät eli kääntäjät olen tietänyt, toivoen heidän ei pahaksuvan sitä,
koska heidän nimensä on jo kumminkin tullut tutuksi
nimimerkeistänsä edellsissä painoksissa.

Turussa 20 syyskuuta 1864.

Kustantaja.
SUURELLE RUHTINAALLE

Nuotti "God save the king" etc.

Eläköön armias,
Rakkahin Ruhtinas
Rauhallinen!
Jossa on onnemme,
Jossa on ilomme,
Turva ja toivomme
Täydellinen.

Avaten armonsa
Wahvisti valtansa
Wartiamme;
Lepo on levinnyt,
Walistus virinnyt,
Elatus enennyt
Majoissamme

Suojeltu sodassa
Riemuitkoon rauhassa
Suomalainen!
Olen taas uudella
Uskollisuudella,
Urhollisuudella
Alammainen.

O, Luoja laupias!
Wahvista voimallas
Ruhtinaamme!
Elonsa enennä,
Päivänsä pidennä,
Waivoja vähennä
Waltiamme!

Töidensä tunnossa,
Menonsa muistossa
Eläköön hän!
Waeltain vieläkin
Taivahan tielläkin,
Muistossa meilläkin
Eläköön hän!
LAULU SUOMESSA

Arvon mekin ansaitsemme

Suomen maassa suuressa,
Waikk’ ei riennä riemuksemme
Leipä miesten maatessa;
Laiho kasvaa kyntäjälle,
Arvo työnsä täyttäjälle.

Suomen poika puolestansa

Tunnetaan jo jaloksi,
Korvet kylmät voimallansa
Perkailee hän pelloksi;
Hän on rakas, rauhallinen,
Mies sodassa miehuullinen.

Opin teillä oppineita

Suomessa on suuria,
Wäinämöisen kanteleita
Täällä tehdään uusia;
Walistus on viritetty,
Järki hyvä herätetty.
 Suomen tytön poski-päihin
Luopi veri kukkaiset,
Hall' ei pysty harmaa näihin,
Näit' ei pane pakkaiset;
Luonnossa on lempeyttä,
Sydämessä siveyttä.

J. Juteini
LAULU SUOMELLE

Entinen aika on Suomelle aivan

Liiaksi lisännyt vaaran ja vaivan;
Waan nyt on huokea huoletkin voittaa,
Kuin onnen aurinko armas jo koittaa.

Suomessa säilyvät rauha ja riemu,

Syttynyt rakkaus, sydämen liemu,
Warahin valistus loputa loistaa,
Elämän polulta varjoja poistaa.

Taipumus työlle on nääntänyt nälän,

Täyttänyt aineilla aittamme väljän;
Pohjolan pojat, ne tottuvat toimeen,
Tyttäret työntävät kudetta loimeen.

Korkean koulun ja opiston suuren

Tutkinnot tuottavat järjelle juuren,
Joka jo toivolle alkua antaa,
Hengelle hedelmät kaunihit kantaa.

Wiisahat ottavat opista vaarin,

Kyntäjät työllänsä täyttävät laarin,
Kuulusa kunnia keskemme kestää,
Tuntomme turmiot elosta estää.

J. Juteini
SUOMENMAALLE

Nuotti: "Herrliga Land" etc.

Suomenkin maas'
Aurinko lämmin on noussut;
Jää on jo virtana juossut
Suomenkin maast'.

Kaunojen maan
Wuoret ja metsiköt suuret
Waattehet kantavat uudet.
Kaunonen maa!

Onnemme maa!
Ei vapauttakan puutu,
Rakkaus, riemu ei muutu
Onnemme maas'.

Woimakas maa!
Kansa on urhosa aina,
Waivat ne miestä ei paina.
Woimakas maa!
 Äitimme maa
Walvovan saanut on mielen;
Kaunon ja kuulemme kielen
Äitimme maan.

A. Warelius

[Ensikerta laulettu Länsisuomalais oppilaisten vuosi-juhlalla

Helsingissä, toukokuun 15 p. 1847.]
MENESTYS SUOMESSA

Kyllä on Suomessa luminen luonto,

Mutt' hyvän-suonto
Riemulla rintoja lämmittää.
Kulkekoon talvella kylmänä kuukin,
Lämmin on luukin,
Kun veri ystävät yhdistää.

Kesällä leikkivät linnut ja karjat,

Makeat marjat
Warsista valmiina taitellaan;
Kedolla kestävät lapset ja laumat,
Pellolle aumat
Korkeat, laveat laitellaan.

Pienestä piiasta paisuupi nainen,

Niin, samallainen,
Kuin marja kukasta viljellään.
Miehiksi nousevat poikamme norjat,
Suorat ja sorjat,
Miehinä mieltänsä kiitellään,
 Ei ole elämä onnea vailla
Suomenkan mailla;
Avoina ovi on nautintoon.
Naitavan neitosen lempeä laatu,
Simasta saatu,
Aina on sulava suosioon.

J. Juteini
SUOMALAINEN LAULU

Nuotti: "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser".

Nouse, riennä, Suomen kieli,

Korkeallen kaikumaan!
Suomen kieli, Suomen mieli,
Niiss’ on suoja Suomen-maan;
Yksi mieli, yksi kieli
Wäinön kansan soinnuttaa.
Nouse, riennä, Suomen kieli,
Korkealle kaikumaan!

Suomalaisen kuokka, aura,

Kyntäneet on Suomen-maan;
Kasvoi vehnä taikka kaura,
Maa on meidän perkamaa.
Kelläs täss' ois äänen vuoro
Meidän maata johdattaa?
Nouse siis sä, Suomen kieli,
Korkeallen kaikumaan!
 Suomalainen yksin kesti
Ruton, näljän aikana,
Yksin miekallansa esti
Wihollisen maastansa;
Suomalain siis yksin käyköön
Käsin ohjiin onnensa.
Nouse, nouse, Suomen kieli,
Korkealle kaikumaan!

Äänis-järvi, Pohjan-lahti,
Auran-rannat, Ruijan-suu,
Siin' on, Suomalainen, mahti,
Jok' ei oo kenenkään muun,
Sillä maalla sie oot vahti,
Älä ääntäs' halveksu!
Nouse, riennä, Suomen kieli,
Korkeallen kaikumaan!

A. Oksanen
SAWOLAISENLAULU

Mun muistuu mieleheni nyt

Suloinen Savon maa!
Sen kansa kaikki kärsinyt
Ja onnehensa tytynyt
Tää armas, kallis maa!

Kuin korkiat sen kukkulat

Kuin vaarat loistoiset!
Ja laaksot kuinka rauhaiset,
Ja lehdot kuinka vilppahat,
Kuin tummat siimehet!

Sen salot kuin siniset on

Puut kuinka tuuheat,
Ja kuin humina hongikon
Syv' on ja jylhä, ponneton,
Ja tuulet lauhkeat!

Ja kussa tähdet tuikkavat

Kovalla talvella,
Ja kussa Pohjan valkeat