Jimma University

Continuing and Distance Education

Department of Sociology
Center: Addis Ababa
Sociological Theories II: Contemporary Perspective
(SOCI 1041)
Individual Assignment

Submitted by: - Nardos Melaku Hailu

ID Number: - DUO116/14-0
Year 3, Term 1
Submission Date: - March. 23, 2024
1. Contemporary sociological theories encompass a wide range of perspectives and approaches
that aim to explain and understand social phenomena. While these theories may differ in their
emphasis and focus, they also share certain similarities and common dimensions. Here, I will
discuss some of the dimensions of difference and similarity among contemporary sociological
theories:
Contemporary sociological theories can be broadly categorized into several major theoretical
perspectives, including structural functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism,
feminist theory, postmodernism, and critical theory. Each perspective offers a unique lens
through which sociologists analyze and interpret social phenomena.
 Level of Analysis: Sociological theories may differ in terms of their level of analysis.
Some theories focus on micro-level interactions, such as symbolic interactionism, which
examines how individuals construct meaning through their interactions. In contrast, other
theories, like structural functionalism and conflict theory, emphasize macro-level
structures and institutions that shape society.
 Basic Assumption: Sociological theories vary in their emphasis on agency (individual
actions and choices) versus structure (social institutions and systems). For example,
symbolic interactionism highlights individual agency and the role of meaning-making in
shaping social behavior, while structural functionalism emphasizes the ways in which
social structures and institutions constrain and guide individuals' actions.
 Methodological Approaches: Sociological theories also differ in their methodological
approaches. Some theories, such as positivism, emphasize quantitative research methods
and the use of statistical analysis to uncover patterns and relationships. In contrast,
interpretive and qualitative approaches, associated with theories like symbolic
interactionism and ethnography, focus on understanding the subjective meanings
individuals attribute to their experiences.
 Objective: Sociological theories may have different epistemological assumptions
regarding the nature of knowledge and the ways in which it can be obtained. Positivist
theories, for instance, assume that objective knowledge can be derived through empirical
observation and measurement. In contrast, postmodernist and critical theories challenge
the notion of objective truth and emphasize the role of power, discourse, and multiple
perspectives in shaping knowledge.
2. Feminist theory encompasses a diverse range of perspectives that aim to understand and
address gender inequality and oppression. While it is difficult to capture the full breadth of
feminist theories, here are some key varieties:
 Liberal Feminism: Liberal feminism focuses on achieving gender equality through legal
and political reforms within existing systems. It emphasizes equal rights, opportunities,
and access to resources for women. Liberal feminists advocate for policies such as equal
pay, reproductive rights, and gender-neutral laws to challenge gender-based
discrimination.
 Radical Feminism: Radical feminism seeks to challenge and transform the patriarchal
foundations of society. It views gender oppression as deeply rooted in power structures
 and advocates for the abolition of gender roles and the dismantling of oppressive
institutions. Radical feminists highlight issues such as violence against women, sexual
objectification, and the devaluation of women's labor.
 Intersectional Feminism: Intersectional feminism recognizes that gender intersects with
other social categories, such as race, class, sexuality, and ability, creating unique forms of
oppression and privilege. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of various social identities
and the need to consider multiple axes of power and inequality. Intersectional feminists
aim to center the experiences of marginalized women and challenge systems of
intersecting oppressions.
 Postcolonial Feminism: Postcolonial feminism examines how gender oppression is
shaped by colonialism, imperialism, and cultural domination. It highlights the
experiences of women in postcolonial contexts and the effects of globalization on gender
relations. Postcolonial feminists critique Western-centric feminism and advocate for
diverse voices and perspectives.
 Ecofeminism: Ecofeminism explores the connections between gender oppression and
environmental degradation. It argues that the exploitation of women and nature are
intertwined and rooted in patriarchal and capitalist systems. Ecofeminists advocate for
environmental sustainability, social justice, and the recognition of women's traditional
ecological knowledge.
3. Georg Ritzer's integrative theoretical paradigm focuses on the concept of "McDonaldization,"
which he believes is a trend of rationalization in various social domains, such as education,
healthcare, and the workplace. This approach integrates various sociological theories and
perspectives, such as structural functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and
postmodernism, to understand contemporary social life. Ritzer emphasizes the
multidimensionality of social reality and encourages interdisciplinary research, drawing insights
from disciplines like psychology, economics, and cultural studies, to provide a more nuanced and
comprehensive analysis of social phenomena. This approach allows for a broader understanding
of social processes and their implications.
In sociology, a paradigm refers to a framework or model that guides the study and understanding
of social phenomena. While different sociological paradigms may vary in their specific
components, there are four key components that are commonly found in most paradigms:
o Ontology: Ontology refers to the basic assumptions about the nature of social reality. It
addresses questions such as: What does the sociological paradigm consider to be real and
worthy of study? How does it conceptualize and define social entities and phenomena?
Different paradigms may have contrasting ontological assumptions. For example, some
paradigms may view social reality as objective and external to individuals, while others
may emphasize the subjective and constructed nature of social reality.
o Epistemology: Epistemology concerns the nature of knowledge and the ways in which it
can be obtained. It explores questions such as: How can sociologists gain knowledge
about social phenomena? What methods and approaches should be used to study and
understand society? Epistemological considerations shape the research methods, data
 collection techniques, and analytical approaches employed within a paradigm.
Sociological paradigms may differ in their emphasis on quantitative or qualitative
methods, objective or subjective interpretations, or empirical or interpretive approaches.
o Methodology: Methodology refers to the specific research methods and techniques used
to gather data and analyze social phenomena. It encompasses the tools, procedures, and
processes through which sociologists study society. Methodological choices depend on
the paradigm's ontological and epistemological assumptions, as well as the research
questions being addressed. Different paradigms may employ a range of methods,
including surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, archival research, or content
analysis.
o Theory: Theory forms the conceptual framework or set of ideas that guide the
interpretation and explanation of social phenomena within a paradigm. It involves the
formulation of concepts, propositions, and explanatory frameworks that help make sense
of social reality. Theories within a paradigm provide a lens through which sociologists
analyze, interpret, and explain social phenomena. They offer explanations for patterns,
processes, and relationships observed within society.

4. Modernity is a central subject matter of sociology, as it refers to a complex social, cultural,

economic, and political condition that emerged in Western societies during the late 18th and
early 19th centuries. It represents a transformative period characterized by a shift from traditional
societies to more rational, industrialized, and urbanized ones.
Sociologists have been interested in studying modernity because it has profound implications for
various aspects of social life. Here are some key dimensions of modernity that sociology
explores:
i. Social Change: Modernity is associated with rapid and profound social change. It
involves shifts in social structures, institutions, norms, values, and ways of life.
Sociologists study the causes and consequences of these changes and examine how they
impact individuals, groups, and societies.
ii. Industrialization and Urbanization: Modernity is closely linked to processes of
industrialization and urbanization. Sociologists examine the growth of factories, the rise
of wage labor, and the transformation of agrarian societies into urban and industrial ones.
They study the social, economic, and environmental effects of these changes and their
impact on social relations and inequality.
iii. Rationalization: One key feature of modernity is the rationalization of social life.
Rationality, efficiency, and calculation become central values in various spheres of
society, from bureaucracy and organizations to education and consumerism. Sociologists
investigate how this rationalization shapes social institutions, cultural practices, and
individual behavior.
iv. Individualism and Autonomy: Modernity is characterized by an emphasis on
individualism and personal autonomy. Sociologists analyze the rise of individual rights,
freedoms, and identity formation in modern societies. They explore how individualism
 intersects with social structures and cultural norms and how it influences social
relationships, family dynamics, and collective identities.
v. Globalization: Modernity is intricately connected to processes of globalization.
Sociologists study the expansion of global networks, flows of goods, information, and
people, and the increasing interconnectivity of societies. They examine how globalization
affects economic systems, cultural practices, social inequalities, and power dynamics.
vi. Fragmentation and Disenchantment: Modernity is often associated with the fragmentation
of traditional social structures and the loss of shared values and meanings. Sociologists
explore the consequences of this fragmentation, such as social dislocation, alienation, and
the erosion of community ties. They also examine the challenges and possibilities for
creating new forms of social cohesion and meaning in modern societies.

5. Talcott Parsons was a prominent sociologist known for his theory of structural functionalism,
which aimed to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding society as a complex
system. At the core of Parsons' theory is the AGIL scheme, which represents four functional
imperatives that must be fulfilled for a society to maintain stability and equilibrium.
The AGIL scheme stands for Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency. Each
component of the AGIL scheme corresponds to a specific action system and is associated with
particular social institutions:
i. Adaptation: The Adaptation component refers to the system's ability to interact
effectively with its external environment and adapt to changing circumstances. It involves
the economic subsystem, which is responsible for the production and distribution of
goods and services. Economic institutions, such as markets and corporations, play a
crucial role in fulfilling the adaptive needs of society by ensuring the provision of
resources and meeting the demands of the population.
ii. Goal Attainment: The Goal Attainment component pertains to the system's ability to
establish and achieve collective goals. It includes the political subsystem, which is
concerned with decision-making, governance, and the allocation of power. Political
institutions, such as governments and bureaucracies, are responsible for formulating and
implementing policies, maintaining social order, and addressing societal needs and
aspirations.
iii. Integration: The Integration component focuses on maintaining social cohesion and
solidarity within the system. It encompasses the social subsystem, which deals with social
interaction, norms, and values. Social institutions, including families, schools, and
religious organizations, contribute to social integration by socializing individuals,
transmitting cultural values, and fostering social bonds.
iv. Latency: The Latency component refers to the system's ability to maintain cultural
values, maintain motivation, and ensure social stability over time. It encompasses the
cultural subsystem, which encompasses beliefs, ideas, and symbols. Cultural institutions,
such as the media, education systems, and religious institutions, play a vital role in
 shaping and disseminating shared meanings, norms, and beliefs that underpin social
cohesion and stability.
According to Parsons, the AGIL scheme and its associated action systems and social institutions
work together to maintain social equilibrium and fulfill the functional needs of society. He
argued that when these functional imperatives are adequately met, society achieves a state of
balance and order. However, if any of these components fail to function effectively, it can lead to
social dysfunction and instability.

6.
i. Deprivation: The first dimension of the globalization of nothing theory is deprivation. It
suggests that globalization leads to a sense of deprivation or lack of authenticity in
consumer culture. As globalized consumer products and experiences become more
widespread, local and traditional forms of culture are often displaced or commoditized.
This can result in a loss of unique cultural expressions and a sense of sameness or
blandness in consumer experiences.
ii. Consumption: The second dimension focuses on the role of consumption in globalization.
Ritzer argues that globalization creates a global consumer culture characterized by the
consumption of standardized products and experiences. This global consumer culture is
driven by a desire for novelty, convenience, and the pursuit of status and identity through
consumption. It often leads to the homogenization of consumer tastes, preferences, and
behaviors across different societies.
iii. Commodification: The third dimension emphasizes the commodification of cultural
products and experiences in the context of globalization. Ritzer argues that cultural
objects and practices are increasingly turned into commodities to be bought and sold in
the global marketplace. This commodification process involves transforming cultural
goods, such as traditional crafts, music, or cuisine, into standardized and mass-produced
products that can be easily consumed and traded.
iv. Simulation: The fourth dimension of the theory is simulation. Ritzer suggests that in a
globalized consumer culture, reality becomes increasingly simulated or mediated. The
proliferation of media, advertising, and digital technologies creates a hyperreal
environment where images, representations, and simulations dominate. This can lead to a
blurring of boundaries between reality and illusion, making it challenging to distinguish
between authentic experiences and manufactured or simulated ones.

7. Globalization refers to the interconnectedness and interdependence of countries, societies, and

individuals on a global scale. It involves the increasing flow of goods, services, capital,
information, and ideas across national borders, facilitated by advances in transportation,
communication, and technology. Globalization encompasses economic, political, social, cultural,
and environmental dimensions, shaping various aspects of contemporary life.
Here are some practical examples that illustrate different dimensions of globalization:
 i. Economic Globalization: Economic globalization refers to the integration of national
economies into a global economic system. It involves the expansion of trade, investment,
and financial flows across borders. Examples include:
- International Trade: The growth of global trade has led to the increased exchange of goods
and services among countries. For instance, products manufactured in one country may be sold
in markets worldwide. Companies like Apple and Samsung produce their devices in different
countries and distribute them globally.
- Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Globalization has facilitated the flow of capital across
borders, with companies investing in foreign countries to establish production facilities or
acquire local businesses. For example, multinational corporations like McDonald's and Coca-
Cola have established franchises and operations in numerous countries.
- Global Supply Chains: Many products are now manufactured through global supply chains,
where different stages of production occur in different countries. This allows for specialization,
cost efficiencies, and access to resources. For instance, an automobile may have parts
manufactured in multiple countries before being assembled and sold internationally.
ii. Technological Globalization: Technological advancements have been instrumental in
driving globalization. Examples include:
- Information and Communication Technology (ICT): The internet, smartphones, and other
ICT tools have revolutionized communication and information exchange. They have facilitated
instantaneous global connections, enabling people to communicate, collaborate, and access
information across borders.
- E-commerce: Online platforms have enabled the growth of e-commerce, allowing consumers
to purchase products and services from anywhere in the world. Companies like Amazon and
Alibaba have global customer bases and provide access to a wide range of products from
different countries.
iii. . Cultural Globalization: Cultural globalization refers to the spread of ideas, values,
practices, and cultural products across borders. Examples include:
- Media and Entertainment: Media platforms, such as television, films, music, and social
media, enable the dissemination of cultural products globally. For instance, Hollywood films and
popular music genres from different countries have gained global audiences.
- Global Cuisine: The availability and popularity of diverse cuisines from around the world in
various countries reflect cultural globalization. Restaurants serving international dishes, such as
sushi, pizza, or curry, can be found in numerous cities globally.
iv. Environmental Globalization: Globalization has environmental implications due to the
interconnectedness and shared ecological challenges faced by different countries.
Examples include:
 - Climate Change: Environmental issues, such as climate change, require global cooperation
and action. The Paris Agreement, an international climate accord, demonstrates efforts to address
this global challenge through collective action and agreements among countries.
- Trans boundary Pollution: Pollution and environmental degradation often transcend national
borders. For instance, air pollution in one country can impact neighboring countries due to the
movement of pollutants across boundaries, necessitating international cooperation for sustainable
solutions.
8. Critical theory, also known as the Frankfurt School, is a sociological and philosophical
framework that emerged in the 20th century. It originated from the work of scholars associated
with the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany, during the 1930s and beyond.
Critical theory aims to analyze and critique societal structures and systems of power to promote
social emancipation and transformation. Here are some key assumptions and methodological
orientations of critical theory:
Assumptions:
 Critique of Power and Domination: Critical theory assumes that power and domination
are pervasive features of society. It seeks to uncover and challenge the underlying
structures and mechanisms that perpetuate social inequalities and oppression. It critiques
existing power relations, hierarchies, and ideologies, with a focus on understanding how
they shape and maintain social systems.
 Historical and Social Context: Critical theory emphasizes the significance of historical
and social contexts in shaping social phenomena. It recognizes that social conditions and
structures are contingent upon historical processes and broader social dynamics.
Understanding the historical context is essential for analyzing and challenging social
injustices and inequalities.
 Social Transformation: Critical theory is oriented towards social transformation. It seeks
to move beyond descriptive analysis and aims to contribute to the emancipation of
individuals and the collective. It advocates for social change by challenging existing
power structures, promoting human rights, and envisioning alternative possibilities for a
more just and equitable society.
 Methodological Orientations:
 Dialectical Analysis: Critical theory employs dialectical analysis, drawing on Hegelian
and Marxist traditions. It examines contradictions, conflicts, and tensions within social
systems and explores how they shape social change. Dialectical analysis emphasizes the
interplay between opposing forces and the potential for transformation that arises from
these contradictions.
 Ideology Critique: Critical theory engages in the critique of ideologies, examining how
dominant ideas, beliefs, and values contribute to the reproduction of power and
inequality. It seeks to uncover the hidden interests and biases embedded in ideologies and
challenges the ways in which they shape social norms, practices, and institutions.
 Interdisciplinarity: Critical theory encourages interdisciplinary approaches to
understanding society. It draws on various disciplines such as sociology, philosophy,
 political science, psychology, and cultural studies to provide a comprehensive analysis of
social phenomena. This interdisciplinary approach allows critical theorists to explore the
complex and multifaceted nature of social issues.
 Reflexivity and Self-Reflection: Critical theory emphasizes reflexivity and self-reflection,
encouraging researchers to critically examine their own assumptions, biases, and
positions of power. It acknowledges that researchers are not detached observers but are
situated within social structures and systems themselves. Self-reflection is crucial for
understanding one's own positionality and potential biases that may influence research
and analysis.
 Praxis: Praxis refers to the integration of theory and practice. Critical theory emphasizes
the importance of applying theoretical insights to practical action for social change. It
seeks to bridge the gap between academia and activism, encouraging scholars to engage
with social movements, advocate for marginalized groups, and contribute to the
transformation of society.
9. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on how individuals interpret
and give meaning to their social interactions and the symbols they use in those interactions.
While symbolic interactionism offers valuable insights into the construction of social reality, it
also has certain assumptions and limitations that should be considered.
Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism:
 Meaning-Making: Symbolic interactionism assumes that individuals actively engage in
meaning-making processes. It emphasizes that people interpret and attach meaning to
symbols, gestures, language, and other forms of communication. Meaning is not inherent
in objects or actions but is derived through social interaction and shared understandings.
 Social Construction of Reality: This perspective views reality as a socially constructed
phenomenon. It suggests that the meanings individuals attribute to symbols and
interactions shape their perception of reality. Reality is not fixed or objective but is
continuously negotiated and constructed through social processes.
 Agency and Free Will: Symbolic interactionism recognizes the agency of individuals. It
emphasizes that individuals have the capacity to act and make choices based on their
interpretations of symbols and social interactions. It highlights the role of human agency
in shaping social reality.
 Micro-Level Analysis: Symbolic interactionism focuses on the micro-level of social
interaction. It emphasizes the immediate social context and the face-to-face interactions
between individuals. It examines how individuals interact, interpret symbols, and
negotiate meanings in specific social situations.
Limitations of Symbolic Interactionism:
 Lack of Macro-Level Analysis: Symbolic interactionism tends to focus on the micro-
level of social interaction and may neglect broader social structures and systems. It may
not adequately address how larger social forces, such as institutions, power dynamics,
and social inequalities, shape individual interactions and meaning-making processes.
  Limited Scope: Symbolic interactionism primarily focuses on the social construction of
reality in small-scale, face-to-face interactions. It may not fully address social phenomena
that extend beyond immediate interactions, such as macro-level social issues or societal
transformations.
 Subjectivity and Relativism: Symbolic interactionism acknowledges the subjectivity of
meaning and the interpretive nature of social interactions. While this perspective
highlights the importance of individual perspectives, it can be challenging to establish
shared understandings and objective knowledge. It may lead to a relativistic view of
reality, where multiple interpretations are considered equally valid, potentially
overlooking broader social patterns or power dynamics.
 Neglect of Structural Factors: Symbolic interactionism may not sufficiently address how
structural factors, such as social class, race, gender, and institutions, influence social
interactions and shape individual meanings. It may not fully account for how these
structural factors constrain or enable individuals' agency and meaning-making processes.
 Limited Predictive Power: Symbolic interactionism focuses on understanding social
processes and meanings in specific contexts. It may not have strong predictive power in
explaining social phenomena or making generalizable claims about society as a whole.

10. Ethnomethodology is a sociological perspective that focuses on the study of how people
create and maintain social order through everyday interactions. It seeks to uncover the methods
and practices individuals use to make sense of their social world. Ethnomethodology challenges
traditional sociological theories by emphasizing the active role of individuals in constructing
social reality. While ethnomethodology shares some assumptions, it also has different strains
within the field.
 Assumptions of Ethnomethodology:
 Social Order is Achieved: Ethnomethodology assumes that social order is not a given but
is actively achieved and maintained through the ongoing, situated interactions of
individuals. It focuses on how individuals use practical methods and routines to create
order within their everyday lives.
 Indexicality of Meaning: Ethnomethodology emphasizes that the meanings individuals
attribute to social actions and symbols are context-specific and indexical. Meaning is not
fixed but emerges from the immediate social situation and the specific social context in
which interactions occur.
 Accountability and Common Sense: Ethnomethodology suggests that individuals rely on
common sense and taken-for-granted assumptions to navigate social interactions. People
use shared understandings and background knowledge to make sense of situations and to
hold each other accountable for their actions.
 Reflexivity and Breaching Experiments: Ethnomethodology encourages reflexivity,
whereby individuals are aware of and reflect upon the social practices and assumptions
that underlie their everyday interactions. Ethnomethodologists use breaching
 experiments, intentionally violating social norms, to expose the hidden rules and
expectations that govern social interactions.
Strains within Ethnomethodology:
 Classic Ethnomethodology: This strain, associated with Harold Garfinkel, focuses on the
study of everyday interactions and the methods individuals employ to create and maintain
social order. It examines the practical accomplishments individuals achieve through their
ethno methods and explores the underlying social norms and assumptions that guide their
actions.
 Conversation Analysis: Conversation analysis, influenced by ethnomethodology, focuses
on the detailed analysis of naturally occurring talk and interaction. It examines the
sequential organization, turn-taking, and other interactional features to uncover the
systematic organization of conversations and the methods individuals use to make sense
of each other's actions.
 Membership Categorization Analysis: Membership categorization analysis, derived from
ethnomethodology, explores how individuals use membership categories (e.g., gender,
race, occupation) to make sense of social situations and interactions. It investigates how
individuals categorize themselves and others, and how these categorizations shape their
social interactions and identities.
 Ethno methodological Experimentation: This strain focuses on conducting ethno
methodological experiments to study social phenomena. Researchers intentionally
introduce disruptions or changes to social interactions to examine how individuals
respond, adapt, and restore social order. These experiments provide insights into the
practical methods individuals employ to manage and repair disruptions to social order.
 Ethnomethodology's emphasis on the active role of individuals in creating social order
and its focus on the practical methods people use to make sense of their social world
contribute to our understanding of everyday interactions. However, ethnomethodology
has been criticized for its limited attention to broader social structures, power dynamics,
and historical context. Critics argue that it may overlook the ways in which societal
factors shape individual practices and meanings.