Developing Writing Skills for IELTS A

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DEVELOPING WRITING
SKILLS FOR IELTS

An essential companion for IELTS writing instructors

and students, Developing Writing Skills for IELTS
provides IELTS test-takers with the necessary skills to
succeed in the two academic writing tasks in IELTS.
Adopting an original exemplar-based writing
instructional approach, this text offers an in-depth
and reader-friendly analysis of the assessment
standards of the two academic writing tasks in IELTS.
Authentic exemplars written by EFL university
students are included to illustrate high (Bands 8–9),
average (Bands 6–7), and low (Bands 4–5)
performances in IELTS writing.
Key Features:

Diagrammatical representation of assessment

standards of the two academic writing tasks by
 experienced IELTS writing examiners and
instructors.
100 writing questions modelled after the IELTS
format, designed by the authors, and categorised
according to question types and topics that
emerge from an analysis of over 400 IELTS
writing questions.
Over 100 writing exemplars by EFL university
students, accompanied by guided activities and
suggested answers.

Designed as a classroom text, a resource for

workshops and consultations, or a self-study
material, Developing Writing Skills for IELTS: A
Research-based Approach will support IELTS writing
instructors and test-takers with a variety of writing
proficiencies.

Sin Wang Chong is Lecturer (Assistant Professor)

in TESOL in the School of Social Sciences, Education
and Social Work at Queen’s University Belfast in the
UK. His research interests include language and
educational assessment, research synthesis, and
computer-assisted language learning. He is Associate
Editor of two journals, Higher Education Research &
Development (T&F) and Innovation in Language
Learning and Teaching (T&F).
Xuejun Ye is a doctoral candidate in Applied
Language Sciences at the Hong Kong Polytechnic
University and a former research assistant at the
Education University of Hong Kong.
DEVELOPING WRITING
SKILLS FOR IELTS

A Research-Based Approach

Sin Wang Chong and Xuejun Ye

First published 2021
by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business

© 2021 Taylor & Francis

The right of Sin Wang Chong and Xuejun Ye to be identified as

authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks

or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this title has been requested

ISBN: 978-0-367-25839-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-25837-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-29016-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Interstate
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9780367258375

CONTENTS

Support Material
Acknowledgements

Part I

Chapter 1: Introduction to IELTS and IELTS

Writing

Chapter 2: Use of Exemplars: Q&A on Theory

and Research

Chapter 3: Task 1: Task Achievement

Chapter 4: Task 1: Coherence and Cohesion

Chapter 5: Task 1: Lexical Resource

Chapter 6: Task 1: Grammatical Range and
Accuracy

Chapter 7: Task 2: Task Achievement

Chapter 8: Task 2: Coherence and Cohesion

Chapter 9: Task 2: Lexical Resource

Chapter 10: Task 2: Grammatical Range and

Accuracy

Chapter 11: Task 1: Exemplar Analysis by

Question Types

Chapter 12: Task 2: Exemplar Analysis by

Question Types

Chapter 13: Question Bank

Part II

Answers to chapter 3: Task 1: Task

Achievement

Answers to chapter 4: Task 1: Coherence and

Cohesion
Answers to chapter 5: Task 1: Lexical
Resource

Answers to chapter 6: Task 1: Grammatical

Range and Accuracy

Answers to Chapter 7: Task 2: Task

Achievement

Answers to Chapter 8: Task 2: Coherence and

Cohesion

Answers to Chapter 9: Task 2: Lexical

Resource

Answers to Chapter 10: Task 2: Grammatical

Range and Accuracy

Index
SUPPORT MATERIAL

The answer chapters in Part II can be downloaded

for personal use. You can access these downloads by
visiting the book product page on our website:
http://www.routledge.com/9780367258375. Then
click on the tab that says “Support Material” and
select the files. They will begin downloading to your
computer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the support

of the Education University of Hong Kong who
funded the project Developing an Exemplar
Anthology and Online Exemplar Platform for IELTS
Writing through the Teaching Development Grant
(T0203).
We would like to express our gratitude to the
scholars, researchers, teachers, and students whose
contributions have made this textbook a more useful
resource to IELTS teachers and test-takers. First, we
would like to thank the two external reviewers of this
project, Prof Hayo Reinders, TESOL Professor at
Anaheim University and Dr Jessica To, Post-doctoral
Fellow at the Faculty of Education, the University of
Hong Kong, for their valuable comments on this
textbook. Our heartfelt appreciation also goes to
former colleagues of the first author at the Centre for
Language in Education, the Education University of
Hong Kong, for sharing their expert knowledge in
teaching and assessing IELTS Writing. In particular,
we would like to thank Miss Blanche Chu, Mr David
Brown, and Mr Stephen Holyoak for participating in
lengthy individual interviews which consolidated our
understanding of the assessment standards of IELTS
Writing. Last but not least, we would like to thank all
the undergraduate and postgraduate students at the
Education University of Hong Kong who participated
in this project and provided their written consent for
us to use their writing as textbook materials.
The first author would like to acknowledge that
Chapter 2 is written based on an article published in
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education (Taylor
& Francis):
Chong, S. W. (2019). The use of exemplars in
English writing classrooms: From theory to practice.
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(5),
748–763.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge that a
version of the materials presented in this textbook is
stored on the Intranet of the Education University of
Hong Kong for free usage by the university’s staff
and students. A note was added to this electronic
version of the materials indicating that its final
version will be published in the form of a textbook by
Routledge. This arrangement was an agreement
made between the publisher and the authors.

Sin Wang Chong

School of Social Sciences, Education and Social Work
Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Xuejun Ye
Faculty of Humanities
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Part I
1 Introduction to IELTS and
IELTS Writing
What is IELTS?
IELTS, the International English Language Testing
System, managed by the University of Cambridge
Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), the British
Council, and the Australian International
Development Programme (IDP), is designed to
measure the language proficiency of candidates who
need entry to study or work in the United Kingdom
and other English-speaking countries.
What are the Two IELTS Test Types?
The IELTS test consists of two forms: the Academic
test (or module) and the General Training test (or
module). Test-takers choose the module according to
the purpose of taking the test. Generally speaking,
people take the Academic module in order to satisfy
the language entrance requirement of academic
programmes offered by post-secondary institutions
and universities which use English as the medium of
instruction or fulfil the professional requirements in
their workplace. For people who expect to join
professional associations in nursing, medicine, law,
or engineering, they may also be required to take
this academic version of IELTS to become a member
of a professional body in an English-speaking
country. However, for people who aspire to enrol in
vocational courses, secondary schools or, for
immigration purposes, these individuals are required
to take the General Training module. The
government authorities of English-speaking
countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand,
the United States, and the United Kingdom, often
demand and accept an IELTS score of the General
Training certificate to prove the language
competence of the applicants.
 Diverse levels of English are required by different
bodies such as governments, tertiary education
institutions, and companies around the globe,
depending on their specific objectives. Candidates
can get a score between 1 and 9. Half scores such as
5.5 can be given. University applicants often need an
IELTS score of 6 or above to guarantee a successful
admission to a tertiary programme. Some university
programmes may also require a minimum score in
each of the four parts, especially in speaking and
writing. It is therefore very significant to make full
preparations before taking the Academic IELTS
exam. The IELTS test scores of both Academic and
General Training modules are valid for two years
from the day the results are released to the
candidates.
What are the Four Parts of an IELTS Test?
The IELTS test (both Academic and General Training
modules) is divided into four parts: reading, writing,
listening, and speaking. The Academic and General
Training modules have both similarities and
differences: the format and content of listening and
speaking tests are precisely the same but the reading
and writing tests are different. The total test time is
approximately 2 hours and 45 minutes. Test-takers
need to complete Listening, Reading, and Writing on
one day, while they can choose to take the Speaking
test on the same day or a few days before or after
the other tests. For detailed information regarding
IELTS test format, you can refer to the official IELTS
website: https://www.ielts.org/about-the-test/test-
format.
What is the Academic Writing Test?
The Academic Writing test, which comprises two
separate tasks, is 60 minutes long in total.
Candidates are expected to write at least 150 words
for Task 1 within around 20 minutes and at least 250
words for Task 2 within about 40 minutes. In IELTS
Academic Task 1, candidates are normally asked to
employ their own words to describe stages of a
process, describe and explain data, describe a
mechanism (e.g., a manufacturing process), or write
about an object or event, according to the materials
presented. In IELTS Academic Task 2, test-takers are
usually required to discuss a point of view, an
argument or a problem. Candidates may sometimes
be asked to give solutions to a problem, present and
justify an opinion, compare and contrast opinions,
and evaluate arguments depending on the question
type.
Introduction to IELTS Rubrics
The IELTS writing rubrics for Academic module Tasks
1 and 2 are made freely available on the internet.1
According to the rubrics, there are four domains:
task achievement, coherence and cohesion, lexical
resource, and grammatical range and accuracy.
Comparing the descriptors of the four domains of the
two tasks, descriptors of two of the domains are
identical, namely ‘lexical resource’ and ‘grammatical
range and accuracy’, while slight differences are
noted in the domains ‘task achievement’ and
‘coherence and cohesion’.
In this section, a brief introduction to each of the
four domains will be given in accordance with the
key words generated from a word cloud website. A
more detailed explanation of the descriptors of each
domain will be provided from Chapter 3 to Chapter
10.

1 Task Achievement (Task 1)

 In Task 1, candidates are required to report
information presented in a graph or diagram by
highlighting and comparing the key features.
Candidates are required to start their data
report by providing an overview, which
includes an introduction of what the graph or
diagram is about (usually by paraphrasing the
question) and a description of the most salient
piece of information2 presented in the graph or
diagram. In terms of format, candidates are
reminded to refrain from writing in bullet points
but in paragraph(s) and complete sentences.
The content presented in Task 1 will be
evaluated according to its accuracy, clarity,
appropriacy, and relevance.
2 Task Achievement (Task 2)
In Task 2, the requirements in this domain are
largely identical to those of Task 1.
Nevertheless, given the more argumentative
nature of the task, candidates are expected to
present their position (i.e. their standpoint)
clearly at the beginning of the essay (e.g., to
what extent do they agree or disagree with a
statement). In addition, the arguments
included in the body paragraphs should fully
address the task (e.g., if there are two parts in
the question, the essay should respond to both
parts). Moreover, sufficient elaboration and
examples should be provided to support and
develop the main ideas. Extended and relevant
response to the task should be accompanied
 by an appropriate essay format with an
introduction paragraph, at least one body
paragraph, and a conclusion.
3 Coherence and Cohesion (Task 1)

When attempting Task 1, another area of

concern of the examiners is coherence and
cohesion of candidates’ writing. Coherence is
defined as the logical progression of ideas and
information, while cohesion refers to
connection of ideas and relationships between
sentences. Coherence is achieved through
effective paragraphing. To improve cohesion of
writing, candidates are expected to utilise a
range of cohesive devices and strategies (e.g.,
 connectives, conjunctions, referencing)
accurately.
4 Coherence and Cohesion (Task 2)

In Task 2, there are similar requirements to

develop arguments coherently and cohesively.
In addition to the above, there is a strong
emphasis on the importance of managing
paragraphing skillfully and appropriately. This
implies test-takers should be able to construct
well-structured paragraphs with a clearly
identified central idea and supporting details.
In terms of inter-paragraph relationship, the
order of the paragraphs should demonstrate a
logical development of thought.
5 Lexical Resource (Tasks 1 and 2)
 ‘Lexical resource’ refers to the effective and
accurate use of vocabulary. In terms of
effectiveness, candidates are required to have
a sophisticated control over the range of lexical
items (vocabulary) used in their writing. A
more competent candidate in this domain
demonstrates the ability to use a wide range of
common and rare words. Regarding accuracy
of vocabulary use, candidates should be able
to demonstrate accurate use of collocation,
word formation, and spelling.
6 Grammatical Range and Accuracy (Tasks
1 and 2)
In the IELTS writing descriptors, the word
‘grammar’ concerns two aspects of candidates’
use of sentence structures, which are range of
sentence structures and accuracy of sentence
structures. As far as the range of sentence
structures is concerned, there is an expectation
for candidates to use both simple and complex
sentence structures. Regarding accuracy of
sentence structures, examiners are looking for
accurate use of punctuations (e.g., avoid
comma splices) and error-free sentences.
IELTS Writing Question Analysis
Sample units of 25 IELTS writing textbooks available
at the Centre for Language in Education, the
Education University of Hong Kong were analysed
and writing questions included in the textbooks were
collated in a Word file. In total, 231 Task 1 questions
and 222 Task 2 questions were collected. These 453
questions were inputted into NVivo 12, a qualitative
research software, for inductive coding to identify the
common question types and themes of IELTS writing
tasks. In total, four types of questions and 29
themes were identified for Task 1; as for Task 2, five
question types and 22 themes were identified.
Informed by the data analysis above, 50 IELTS
writing questions for Tasks 1 and 50 IELTS writing
questions for Task 2 were developed by the authors.
The 100 IELTS writing questions can be found in
Chapter 13.
1. Question analysis of Task 1
In total, four question types and 29 question
themes were identified based on the analysis of the
231 Task 1 writing questions. The four question
types include:

chart/graph
table
 charts/graphs
map/diagram/infographics

An example of a chart/graph question

T1-01
You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.
The graph below gives information about the
number of academic jobs in some humanities
and social sciences disciplines between 2012
and 2014.
Summarise the information by selecting and
reporting the main features, and make
comparisons where relevant.
Write at least 150 words.
An example of a table question

T1-35
You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.
The table below gives information about
languages which can be learned through
participating in online courses.
Summarise the information by selecting and
reporting the main features, and make
comparisons where relevant.
Write at least 150 words.

Number of Number of Total

courses on courses on number of
Language Online Platform A Online Platform B courses
English 92 21 113
Chinese 34 61 95
French 37 12 49
Italian 35 7 42
Korean 21 2 23
French 20 1 21

An example of a charts/graphs question

T1-26
 You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.
The charts below show information about
different types of social welfare benefits
between 1995 and 2015.
Summarise the information by selecting and
reporting the main features, and make
comparisons where relevant.
Write at least 150 words.

An example of a map/diagram/infographics question

T1-09
You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.
The diagram below gives information about
the process of making soap and detergent.
 Summarise the information by selecting and
reporting the main features, and make
comparisons where relevant.
Write at least 150 words.

Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Soap_a
nd_Detergent_manufacturing_process_03.png
Table 1.1 presents the 29 themes identified from the
question analysis according to their number of
instances.

Table 1.1 Question themes, example topics, and number of instances

of Task 1 questions3

Number of
Question Theme Example Topic Instances
1 Economy global sale of hybrid vehicles 36
2 Age and gender male and female workers in 25
several employment
sectors
3 Manufacturing manufacture frozen fish pies 22
4 Education overseas and local students 18
in Australian universities
5 Science and the number of people using 13
technology the internet
6 City development development plan of a town 11
centre
7 Environment the consequences of 11
deforestation
8 Tourism Japanese tourists travelling 11
abroad
9 Work unemployment rates in the 11
US and Japan
10 Socio-cultural marriage and divorce rates 10
issues
11 Resources the sources of generated 9
electricity
12 Population changes in world population 8
13 Traffic underground railway systems 8
14 Health overweight rates 7
15 Language foreign languages learning 7
16 Climate average monthly rainfall and 5
temperature
17 Public’s opinions survey results about visitors’ 5
satisfactory rates
18 Sales sales at a small restaurant 4
19 Crime injuries resulted from gun 3
and knife crimes
20 Leisure concert, cinema, and theatre 3
tickets
21 Media social media businesses 3
22 Agriculture grain harvested 2
23 Communication total number of minutes of 2
telephone calls
24 Food fast food consumption of 2
men and women
25 Social giving money to charity 2
responsibility
26 Airline Business airlines and aspects of air 1
travel
27 Animals life cycle of salmon 1
28 Art art museum before and after 1
renovation
29 Location location of a village 1

2. Question analysis of Task 2

Based on the question analysis of Task 2, five
question types and 22 themes were identified. The
five question types are presented in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Question types and example questions of Task 2

Question Type Example Question

Opinion (agree Family friendly measures (e.g., flexible working
or disagree) hours) should be adopted by companies to
 ensure the work-life balance of their employees.
To what extent do you agree or disagree with
this opinion? (T2-06)
Discuss views Some people argue that heredity exerts a greater
influence on an individual’s development than a
person’s later experiences. Discuss the view and
give your opinion. (T2-16)
Two-part Women’s status has improved dramatically both in
question the society and in the family as a result of the
development of the society. However, they are
still faced with inequalities. What are some of
the inequalities? What measures should be
adopted to solve the problems? (T2-21)
Advantages Some people favor the use of private cars as they
and bring people much convenience. However, some
disadvantage people think that private cars cause air pollution
s which is harmful to the environment. Do the
advantages of using private cars outweigh the
disadvantages? (T2-30)
Problem and It seems that traffic congestion is becoming more
solutions serious than ever. Some people think that the
problem can be solved by raising the price of
petrol to discourage people from using private
cars. Others believe that the government should
provide more public transportation to ease the
situation. Are the above suggestions feasible in
solving traffic jams? What are other possible
measures to solve the problem? (T2-34)

Table 1.3 presents the 22 themes identified from

the question analysis according to their number of
instances.
Table 1.3 Question themes, example topics, and number of instances
of Task 2 questions3

Number of
Question Theme Example Topic Instances
1 Education universities should accept 36
equal numbers of male and
female students
2 Work an appropriate retirement 25
age
3 Food and health junk food advertising 23
contributes to the problem
of obesity
4 Socio-cultural and raising animals for human 23
global issues consumption is cruel
5 Age, generation, insufficient respect shown to 21
and gender older people
6 Science, modern technology has made 18
technology, and it easier to download
innovation copyrighted music and
books without charge
7 Media and mass media have great 15
communication influence on shaping
people’s ideas
8 Government, many governments think that 14
politics, and economic progress is their
diplomacy most important goal
9 Environment recycle household waste 12
10 Lifestyle modern lifestyle makes 11
parents spend little time
with their children
11 Traffic the use of private motor 11
vehicles
12 Economy, money, money spent on space 10
and trade research
13 Crime, capital punishment is 9
punishment, and necessary
law
14 Leisure, sports, popular events like the Word 9
and hobbies Cup are essential
15 Language learn foreign languages in 8
order to travel or work
16 Travelling and eco-tourism is expanding 7
tourism
17 Population population living in cities has 4
increased substantially
18 Art and museums creative artists should be 2
given the freedom to
express their ideas
19 City development migration from rural areas to 2
cities
20 Climate the government’s 2
responsibility to deal with
climate change
21 Ethics testing drugs and new 2
products on animals
22 Animals many people keep dogs and 1
cats as companions
Why This Book?
Unlike a wide range of published IELTS writing
textbooks on the market, which largely focus on the
development of students’ writing skills (especially
grammatical accuracy), this book is intended to
foster students’ understanding and evaluative
judgment of IELTS writing assessment standards,
which serves as a complement to the existing IELTS
writing resources. It is the authors’ belief that test-
takers can achieve a more satisfactory score in IELTS
writing if they have internalised IELTS writing
assessment standards (in addition to a firm language
foundation). Therefore, it is suggested that both
teachers and students combine the two types of
writing resources when preparing for IELTS.
Specifically, readers can benefit tremendously from
the book’s clear categorisation of question types and
its inclusion of authentic exemplars written by
university students. Through incorporating more and
less successful writing samples, readers can sharpen
their understanding of what good quality writing
looks like. Moreover, they are expected to make
targeted improvements by referring to the comments
provided by the authors (e.g., in Chapters 11–12).
Notes
1 Assessment standards of IELTS writing Tasks 1 and 2
(Academic module) can be retrieved at
https://www.britishcouncil.it/sites/default/files/ielts_guide_for
_teachers_italy.pdf.
2 The same question may be coded under more than one
theme.
3 The same question may be coded under more than one
theme.
2 Use of Exemplars
Q&A on Theory and Research

Q: What is an ‘exemplar’ and ‘exemplar-based

instruction’?
Exemplars are examples of work produced by students (and
sometimes teachers) which are used to ‘illustrate dimensions
of quality’ (Carless et al, 2018, p 108).
‘Exemplar-based instruction’ means the use of exemplars by
teachers to illustrate ‘a “quality continuum” of authentic
student work [or sometimes student work modified by the
teacher] to help them make judgements about what
constitutes quality’ (Scoles et al, 2013, p 632; words in
brackets are by authors).
The use of exemplars is regarded as one of the promising
ways to develop students’ understanding of the ambiguous
criteria of ‘good work’. Recent literature on the use of
exemplars in the context of higher education has shown that
exemplar-based instruction is implemented in various
disciplines, including life sciences, teacher education, design
education, animal science, and English for Academic Purposes
(EAP).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Genera Plantarum in 1737; his Classes Plantarum in 1738; his
Species Plantarum was not published till 1753; and all these works
appeared in many successive editions, materially modified.
87 Ibid. 234.

This circulation of his works showed that his labors were

producing their effect. His reputation grew; and he was soon enabled
to exert a personal, as well as a literary, influence, on students of
natural history. He became Botanist Royal, President of the
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and Professor in the University
of Upsal; and this office he held for thirty-six years with unrivalled
credit; exercising, by means of his lectures, his constant
publications, and his conversation, an extraordinary power over a
multitude of zealous naturalists, belonging to every part of the world.

In order to understand more clearly the nature and effect of the

reforms introduced by Linnæus into botany, I shall consider them
under the four following heads;—Terminology, Nomenclature,
Artificial System, and Natural System.

Sect. 2.—Linnæan Reform of Botanical Terminology.

It must be recollected that I designate as Terminology, the system of

terms employed in the description of objects of natural history; while
by Nomenclature, I mean the collection of the names of species. The
reform of the descriptive part of botany was one of the tasks first
attempted by Linnæus; and his terminology was the instrument by
which his other improvements were effected.

Though most readers, probably, entertain, at first, a persuasion

that a writer ought to content himself with the use of common words
in their common sense, and feel a repugnance to technical terms
and arbitrary rules of phraseology, as pedantic and troublesome; it is
soon found, by the student of any branch of science that, without
technical terms and fixed rules, there can be no certain or
progressive knowledge. The loose and infantine grasp of common
language cannot hold objects steadily enough for scientific
examination, or lift them from one stage of generalization to another.
They must be secured by the rigid mechanism of a scientific
phraseology. This necessity had been felt in all the sciences, from
the earliest periods of their progress. But the 390 conviction had
never been acted upon so as to produce a distinct and adequate
descriptive botanical language. Jung, indeed, 88 had already
attempted to give rules and precepts which should answer this
purpose; but it was not till the Fundamenta Botanica appeared, that
the science could be said to possess a fixed and complete
terminology.
88 Isagoge Phytoscopica, 1679.

To give an account of such a terminology, is, in fact, to give a

description of a dictionary and grammar, and is therefore what
cannot here be done in detail. Linnæus’s work contains about a
thousand terms of which the meaning and application are distinctly
explained; and rules are given, by which, in the use of such terms,
the botanist may avoid all obscurity, ambiguity, unnecessary prolixity
and complexity, and even inelegance and barbarism. Of course the
greater part of the words which Linnæus thus recognized had
previously existed in botanical writers; and many of them had been
defined with technical precision. Thus Jung 89 had already explained
what was a composite, what a pinnate leaf; what kind of a bunch of
flowers is a spike, a panicle, an umbel, a corymb, respectively.
Linnæus extended such distinctions, retaining complete clearness in
their separation. Thus, with him, composite leaves are further
distinguished as digitate, pinnate, bipinnate, pedate, and so on;
pinnate leaves are abruptly so, or with an odd one, or with a tendril;
they are pinnate oppositely, alternately, interruptedly, articulately,
decursively. Again, the inflorescence, as the mode of assemblage of
the flowers is called, may be a tuft (fasciculus), a head (capitulum), a
cluster (racemus), a bunch (thyrsus), a panicle, a spike, a catkin
(amentum), a corymb, an umbel, a cyme, a whorl (verticillus). And
the rules which he gives, though often apparently arbitrary and
needless, are found, in practice, to be of great service by their fixity
and connexion. By the good fortune of having had a teacher with so
much delicacy of taste as Linnæus, in a situation of so much
influence, Botany possesses a descriptive language which will long
stand as a model for all other subjects.
89 Sprengel, ii. 28.

It may, perhaps, appear to some persons, that such a terminology

as we have here described must be enormously cumbrous; and that,
since the terms are arbitrarily invested with their meaning, the
invention of them requires no knowledge of nature. With respect to
the former doubt, we may observe, that technical description is, in
reality, the only description which is clearly intelligible; but that
technical language cannot be understood without being learnt as any
other 391 language is learnt; that is, the reader must connect the
terms immediately with his own sensations and notions, and not
mediately, through a verbal explanation; he must not have to guess
their meaning, or to discover it by a separate act of interpretation into
more familiar language as often as they occur. The language of
botany must be the botanist’s most familiar tongue. When the
student has thus learnt to think in botanical language, it is no idle
distinction to tell him that a bunch of grapes is not a cluster; that is, a
thyrsus not a raceme. And the terminology of botany is then felt to be
a useful implement, not an oppressive burden. It is only the
schoolboy that complains of the irksomeness of his grammar and
vocabulary. The accomplished student possesses them without effort
or inconvenience.

As to the other question, whether the construction of such a

botanical grammar and vocabulary implies an extensive and
accurate acquaintance with the facts of nature, no one can doubt
who is familiar with any descriptive science. It is true, that a person
might construct an arbitrary scheme of distinctions and appellations,
with no attention to natural objects; and this is what shallow and self-
confident persons often set about doing, in some branch of
knowledge with which they are imperfectly acquainted. But the
slightest attempt to use such a phraseology leads to confusion; and
any continued use of it leads to its demolition. Like a garment which
does not fit us, if we attempt to work in it we tear it in pieces.

The formation of a good descriptive language is, in fact, an

inductive process of the same kind as those which we have already
noticed in the progress of natural history. It requires the discovery of
fixed characters, which discovery is to be marked and fixed, like
other inductive steps, by appropriate technical terms. The characters
must be so far fixed, that the things which they connect must have a
more permanent and real association than the things which they
leave unconnected. If one bunch of grapes were really a racemus,
and another a thyrsus, according to the definition of these terms, this
part of the Linnæan language would lose its value; because it would
no longer enable us to assert a general proposition with respect to
one kind of plants.

Sect. 3.—Linnæan Reform of Botanical Nomenclature.

In the ancient writers each recognized kind of plants had a distinct

name. The establishment of Genera led to the practice of
designating 392 Species by the name of the genus, with the addition
of a “phrase” to distinguish the species. These phrases, (expressed
in Latin in the ablative case,) were such as not only to mark, but to
describe the species, and were intended to contain such features of
the plant as were sufficient to distinguish it from others of the same
genus. But in this way the designation of a plant often became a long
and inconvenient assemblage of words. Thus different kinds of Rose
were described as,

Rosa campestris, spinis carens, biflora (Rosa alpina.)

Rosa aculeata, foliis odoratis subtus rubiginosis (R. eglanteria.)
Rosa carolina fragrans, foliis medio tenus serratis (R. carolina.)
Rosa sylvestris vulgaris, flore odorato incarnato (R. canina.)

And several others. The prolixity of these appellations, their variety in

every different author, the insufficiency and confusion of the
distinctions which they contained, were felt as extreme
inconveniences. The attempt of Bauhin to remedy this evil by a
Synonymy, had, as we have seen, failed at the time, for want of any
directing principle; and was become still more defective by the lapse
of years and the accumulation of fresh knowledge and new books.
Haller had proposed to distinguish the species of each genus by the
numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on; but botanists found that their memory
could not deal with such arbitrary abstractions. The need of some
better nomenclature was severely felt.
 The remedy which Linnæus finally introduced was the use of trivial
names; that is, the designation of each species by the name of the
genus along with a single conventional word, imposed without any
general rule. Such names are added above in parentheses, to the
specimens of the names previously in use. But though this remedy
was found to be complete and satisfactory, and is now universally
adopted in every branch of natural history, it was not one of the
reforms which Linnæus at first proposed. Perhaps he did not at first
see its full value; or, if he did, we may suppose that it required more
self-confidence than he possessed, to set himself to introduce and
establish ten thousand new names in the botanical world.
Accordingly, the first attempts of Linnæus at the improvement of the
nomenclature of botany were, the proposal of fixed and careful rules
for the generic name, and for the descriptive phrase. Thus, in his
Critica Botanica, he gives many precepts concerning the selection of
the names of 393 genera, intended to secure convenience or
elegance. For instance, that they are to be single words; 90 he
substitutes atropa for bella donna, and leontodon for dens leonis;
that they are not to depend upon the name of another genus, 91 as
acriviola, agrimonoides; that they are not 92 to be “sesquipedalia;”
and, says he, any word is sesquipedalian to me, which has more
than twelve letters, as kalophyllodendron, for which he substitutes
calophyllon. Though some of these rules may seem pedantic, there
is no doubt that, taken altogether, they tend exceedingly, like the
labors of purists in other languages, to exclude extravagance,
caprice, and barbarism in botanical speech.
90 Phil. Bot. 224.

91 Ib. 228, 229.

92 Ib. 252.
 The precepts which he gives for the matter of the “descriptive
phrase,” or, as it is termed in the language of the Aristotelian
logicians, the “differentia,” are, for the most part, results of the
general rule, that the most fixed characters which can be found are
to be used; this rule being interpreted according to all the knowledge
of plants which had then been acquired. The language of the rules
was, of course, to be regulated by the terminology, of which we have
already spoken.

Thus, in the Critica Botanica, the name of a plant is considered as

consisting of a generic word and a specific phrase; and these are, he
says, 93 the right and left hands of the plant. But he then speaks of
another kind of name; the trivial name, which is opposed to the
scientific. Such names were, he says, 94 those of his predecessors,
and especially of the most ancient of them. Hitherto 95 no rules had
been given for their use. He manifestly, at this period, has small
regard for them. “Yet,” he says, “trivial names may, perhaps, be used
on this account,—that the differentia often turns out too long to be
convenient in common use, and may require change as new species
are discovered. However,” he continues, “in this work we set such
names aside altogether, and attend only to the differentiæ.”
93 Ib. 266.

94 Ib. 261.

95 Ib. 260.

Even in the Species Plantarum, the work which gave general

currency to these trivial names, he does not seem to have yet dared
to propose so great a novelty. They only stand in the margin of the
work. “I have placed them there,” he says in his Preface, “that,
without circumlocution, we may call every herb by a single name; I
have done this without selection, which would require more time.
And I beseech all sane botanists to avoid most religiously ever 394
proposing a trivial name without a sufficient specific distinction, lest
the science should fall into its former barbarism.”

It cannot be doubted, that the general reception of these trivial

names of Linnæus, as the current language among botanists, was
due, in a very great degree, to the knowledge, care, and skill with
which his characters, both of genera and of species, were
constructed. The rigorous rules of selection and expression which
are proposed in the Fundamenta Botanica and Critica Botanica, he
himself conformed to; and this scrupulosity was employed upon the
results of immense labor. “In order that I might make myself
acquainted with the species of plants,” he says, in the preface to his
work upon them, “I have explored the Alps of Lapland, the whole of
Sweden, a part of Norway, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, England,
France: I have examined the Botanical Gardens of Paris, Oxford,
Chelsea, Hartecamp, Leyden, Utrecht, Amsterdam, Upsal, and
others: I have turned over the Herbals of Burser, Hermann, Clifford,
Burmann, Oldenland, Gronovius, Royer, Sloane, Sherard, Bobart,
Miller, Tournefort, Vaillant, Jussieu, Surian, Beck, Brown, &c.: my
dear disciples have gone to distant lands, and sent me plants from
thence; Kalm to Canada, Hasselquist to Egypt, Osbeck to China,
Toren to Surat, Solander to England, Alstrœmer to Southern Europe,
Martin to Spitzbergen, Pontin to Malabar, Kœhler to Italy, Forskähl to
the East, Lœfling to Spain, Montin to Lapland: my botanical friends
have sent me many seeds and dried plants from various countries:
Lagerström many from the East Indies; Gronovius most of the
Virginian; Gmelin all the Siberian; Burmann those of the Cape.” And
in consistency with this habit of immense collection of materials, is
his maxim, 96 that “a person is a better botanist in proportion as he
knows more species.” It will easily be seen that this maxim, like
Newton’s declaration that discovery requires patient thought alone,
refers only to the exertions of which the man of genius is conscious;
and leaves out of sight his peculiar endowments, which he does not
see because they are part of his power of vision. With the taste for
symmetry which dictated the Critica Botanica, and the talent for
classification which appears in the Genera Plantarum, and the
Systema Naturæ, a person must undoubtedly rise to higher steps of
classificatory knowledge and skill, as he became acquainted with a
greater number of facts.
96 Phil. Bot. 259.

The acknowledged superiority of Linnæus in the knowledge of the

395 matter of his science, induced other persons to defer to him in
what concerned its form; especially when his precepts were, for the
most part, recommended strongly both by convenience and
elegance. The trivial names of the Species Plantarum were generally
received; and though some of the details may have been altered, the
immense advantage of the scheme ensures its permanence.

Sect. 4.—Linnæus’s Artificial System.

We have already seen, that, from the time of Cæsalpinus, botanists

had been endeavoring to frame a systematic arrangement of plants.
All such arrangements were necessarily both artificial and natural:
they were artificial, inasmuch as they depended upon assumed
principles, the number, form, and position of certain parts, by the
application of which the whole vegetable kingdom was imperatively
subdivided; they were natural, inasmuch as the justification of this
division was, that it brought together those plants which were
naturally related. No system of arrangement, for instance, would
have been tolerated which, in a great proportion of cases, separated
into distant parts of the plan the different species of the same genus.
As far as the main body of the genera, at least, all systems are
natural.

But beginning from this line, we may construct our systems with
two opposite purposes, according as we endeavor to carry our
assumed principle of division rigorously and consistently through the
system, or as we wish to associate natural families of a wider kind
than genera. The former propensity leads to an artificial, the latter to
a natural method. Each is a System of Plants; but in the first, the
emphasis is thrown on the former word of the title, in the other, on
the latter.

The strongest recommendation of an artificial system, (besides its

approaching to a natural method,) is, that it shall be capable of easy
use; for which purpose, the facts on which it depends must be
apparent in their relations, and universal in their occurrence. The
system of Linnæus, founded upon the number, position, and other
circumstances of the stamina and pistils, the reproductive organs of
the plants, possessed this merit in an eminent degree, as far as
these characters are concerned; that is, as far as the classes and
orders. In its further subdivision into genera, its superiority was
mainly due to the exact observation and description, which we have
already had to notice as talents which Linnæus peculiarly
possessed.

The Linnæan system of plants was more definite than that of 396
Tournefort, which was governed by the corolla; for number is more
definite than irregular form. It was more readily employed than any of
those which depend on the fruit, for the flower is a more obvious
object, and more easily examined. Still, it can hardly be doubted, that
the circumstance which gave the main currency to the system of
Linnæus was its physiological signification: it was the Sexual
System. The relation of the parts to which it directed the attention,
interested both the philosophical faculty and the imagination. And
when, soon after the system had become familiar in our own country,
the poet of The Botanic Garden peopled the bell of every flower with
“Nymphs” and “Swains,” his imagery was felt to be by no means
forced and far-fetched.

The history of the doctrine of the sexes of plants, as a point of

physiology, does not belong to this place; and the Linnæan system
of classification need not be longer dwelt upon for our present
purpose. I will only explain a little further what has been said, that it
is, up to a certain point, a natural system. Several of Linnæus’s
classes are, in a great measure, natural associations, kept together
in violation of his own artificial rules. Thus the class Diadelphia, in
which, by the system, the filaments of the stamina should be bound
together in two parcels, does, in fact, contain many genera which are
monadelphous, the filaments of the stamina all cohering so as to
form one bundle only; as in Genista, Spartium, Anthyllis, Lupinus,
&c. And why is this violation of rule? Precisely because these genera
all belong to the natural tribe of Papilionaceous plants, which the
author of the system could not prevail upon himself to tear asunder.
Yet in other cases Linnæus was true to his system, to the injury of
natural alliances, as he was, for instance, in another portion of this
very tribe of Papilionaceæ; for there are plants which undoubtedly
belong to the tribe, but which have ten separate stamens; and these
he placed in the order Decandria. Upon the whole, however, he
inclines rather to admit transgression of art than of nature.
 The reason of this inclination was, that he rightly considered an
artificial method as instrumental to the investigation of a natural one;
and to this part of his views we now proceed.

Sect. 5.—Linnæus’s Views on a Natural Method.

The admirers of Linnæus, the English especially, were for some time
in the habit of putting his Sexual System in opposition to the Natural
Method, which about the same time was attempted in France. And
397 as they often appear to have imagined that the ultimate object of
botanical methods was to know the name of plants, they naturally
preferred the Swedish method, which is excellent as a finder. No
person, however, who wishes to know botany as a science, that is,
as a body of general truths, can be content with making names his
ultimate object. Such a person will be constantly and irresistibly led
on to attempt to catch sight of the natural arrangement of plants,
even before he discovers, as he will discover by pursuing such a
course of study, that the knowledge of the natural arrangement is the
knowledge of the essential construction and vital mechanism of
plants. He will consider an artificial method as a means of arriving at
a natural method. Accordingly, however much some of his followers
may have overlooked this, it is what Linnæus himself always held
and taught. And though what he executed with regard to this object
was but little, 97 the distinct manner in which he presented the
relations of an artificial and natural method, may justly be looked
upon as one of the great improvements which he introduced into the
study of his science.
97 The natural orders which he proposed are a bare enumeration
of genera, and have not been generally followed.
 Thus in the Classes Plantarum (1747), he speaks of the difficulty
of the task of discovering the natural orders, and of the attempts
made by others. “Yet,” he adds, “I too have labored at this, have
done something, have much still to do, and shall labor at the object
as long as I live.” He afterwards proposed sixty-seven orders, as the
fragments of a natural method, always professing their
imperfection. 98 And in others of his works 99 he lays down some
antitheses on the subject after his manner. “The natural orders teach
us the nature of plants; the artificial orders enable us to recognize
plants. The natural orders, without a key, do not constitute a Method;
the Method ought to be available without a master.”
98 Phil. Bot. p. 80.
 99 Genera Plantarum, 1764. See Prælect. in Ord. Nat. p. xlviii.

That extreme difficulty must attend the formation of a Natural

Method, may be seen from the very indefinite nature of the
Aphorisms upon this subject which Linnæus has delivered, and
which the best botanists of succeeding times have assented to. Such
are these;—the Natural Orders must be formed by attention, not to
one or two, but to all the parts of plants;—the same organs are of
great importance in regulating the divisions of one part of the
system, and 398 of small importance in another part; 100 —the
Character does not constitute the Genus, but the Genus the
Character;—the Character is necessary, not to make the Genus, but
to recognize it. The vagueness of these maxims is easily seen; the
rule of attending to all the parts, implies, that we are to estimate their
relative importance, either by physiological considerations (and
these again lead to arbitrary rules, as, for instance, the superiority of
the function of nutrition to that of reproduction), or by a sort of latent
naturalist instinct, which Linnæus in some passages seems to
recognize. “The Habit of a plant,” he says, 101 “must be secretly
consulted. A practised botanist will distinguish, at the first glance, the
plants of different quarters of the globe, and yet will be at a loss to
tell by what mark he detects them. There is, I know not what look,—
sinister, dry, obscure in African plants; superb and elevated, in the
Asiatic; smooth and cheerful, in the American; stunted and indurated,
in the Alpine.”
100 Phil. Bot. p. 172.

101 Ib. p. 171.

Again, the rule that the same parts are of very different value in
different Orders, not only leaves us in want of rules or reasons which
may enable us to compare the marks of different Orders, but
destroys the systematic completeness of the natural arrangement. If
some of the Orders be regulated by the flower and others by the
fruit, we may have plants, of which the flower would place them in
one Order, and the fruit in another. The answer to this difficulty is the
maxim already stated;—that no Character makes the Order; and that
if a Character do not enable us to recognize the Order, it does not
answer its purpose, and ought to be changed for another.

This doctrine, that the Character is to be employed as a servant

and not as a master, was a stumbling-block in the way of those
disciples who looked only for dogmatical and universal rules. One of
Linnæus’s pupils, Paul Dietrich Giseke, has given us a very lively
account of his own perplexity on having this view propounded to him,
and of the way in which he struggled with it. He had complained of
the want of intelligible grounds, in the collection of natural orders
given by Linnæus. Linnæus 102 wrote in answer, “You ask me for the
characters of the Natural Orders: I confess I cannot give them.” Such
a reply naturally increased Giseke’s difficulties. But afterwards, in
1771, he had the good fortune to spend some time at Upsal; and he
narrates a conversation which he held with the great 399 teacher on
this subject, and which I think may serve to show the nature of the
difficulty;—one by no means easily removed, and by the general
reader, not even readily comprehended with distinctness. Giseke
began by conceiving that an Order must have that attribute from
which its name is derived;—that the Umbellatæ must have their
flower disposed in an umbel. The “mighty master” smiled, 103 and told
him not to look at names, but at nature. “But” (said the pupil) “what is
the use of the name, if it does not mean what it professes to mean?”
“It is of small import” (replied Linnæus) “what you call the Order, if
you take a proper series of plants and give it some name, which is
clearly understood to apply to the plants which you have associated.
In such cases as you refer to, I followed the logical rule, of borrowing
a name a potiori, from the principal member. Can you” (he added)
“give me the character of any single Order?” Giseke. “Surely, the
character of the Umbellatæ is, that they have an umbel?” Linnæus.
“Good; but there are plants which have an umbel, and are not of the
Umbellatæ.” G. “I remember. We must therefore add, that they have
two naked seeds.” L. “Then, Echinophora, which has only one seed,
and Eryngium, which has not an umbel, will not be Umbellatæ; and
yet they are of the Order.” G. “I would place Eryngium among the
Aggregatæ. L. “No; both are beyond dispute Umbellatæ. Eryngium
has an involucrum, five stamina, two pistils, &c. Try again for your
Character.” G. “I would transfer such plants to the end of the Order,
and make them form the transition to the next Order. Eryngium
would connect the Umbellatæ with the Aggregatæ.” L. “Ah! my good
friend, the Transition from Order to Order is one thing; the Character
of an Order is another. The Transitions I could indicate; but a
Character of a Natural Order is impossible. I will not give my reasons
for the distribution of Natural Orders which I have published. You or
some other person, after twenty or after fifty years, will discover
them, and see I was in the right.”
102 Linnæi Prælectiones, Pref. p. xv.

103 “Subrisit ὁ πανυ.”

I have given a portion of this curious conversation in order to show

that the attempt to establish Natural Orders leads to convictions
which are out of the domain of the systematic grounds on which they
profess to proceed. I believe the real state of the case to be that the
systematist, in such instances, is guided by an unformed and
undeveloped apprehension of physiological functions. The ideas of
the form, 400 number, and figure of parts are, in some measure,
overshadowed and superseded by the rising perception of organic
and vital relations; and the philosopher who aims at a Natural
Method, while he is endeavoring merely to explore the apartment in
which he had placed himself, that of Arrangement, is led beyond it,
to a point where another light begins, though dimly, to be seen; he is
brought within the influence of the ideas of Organization and Life.

The sciences which depend on these ideas will be the subject of

our consideration hereafter. But what has been said may perhaps
serve to explain the acknowledged and inevitable imperfection of the
unphysiological Linnæan attempts towards a natural method.
“Artificial Glasses are,” Linnæus says, “a substitute for Natural, till
Natural are detected.” But we have not yet a Natural Method. “Nor,”
he says, in the conversation above cited, “can we have a Natural
Method; for a Natural Method implies Natural Classes and Orders;
and these Orders must have Characters.” “And they,” he adds in
another place, 104 “who, though they cannot obtain a complete
Natural Method, arrange plants according to the fragments of such a
method, to the rejection of the Artificial, seem to me like persons who
pull down a convenient vaulted room, and set about building another,
though they cannot turn the vault which is to cover it.”
104 Gen. Plant. in Prælect. p. xii.

How far these considerations deterred other persons from turning

their main attention to a natural method, we shall shortly see; but in
the mean time, we must complete the history of the Linnæan
Reform.

Sect. 6.—Reception and Diffusion of the Linnæan Reform.

We have already seen that Linnæus received, from his own country,
honors and emoluments which mark his reputation as established,
as early as 1740; and by his publications, his lectures, and his
personal communications, he soon drew round him many disciples,
whom he impressed strongly with his own doctrines and methods. It
would seem that the sciences of classification tend, at least in
modern times more than other sciences, to collect about the chair of
the teacher a large body of zealous and obedient pupils; Linnæus
and Werner were by far the most powerful heads of schools of any
men who appeared in the course of the last century. Perhaps one
reason of this is, that in these sciences, consisting of such an
enormous multitude of species, of descriptive 401 particulars, and of
previous classifications, the learner is dependent upon the teacher
more completely, and for a longer time than in other subjects of
speculation: he cannot so soon or so easily cast off the aid and
influence of the master, to pursue reasonings and hypotheses of his
own. Whatever the cause may be, the fact is, that the reputation and
authority of Linnæus, in the latter part of his life, were immense. He
enjoyed also royal favor, for the King and Queen of Sweden were
both fond of natural history. In 1753, Linnæus received from the
hand of his sovereign the knighthood of the Polar Star, an honor
which had never before been conferred for literary merit; and in
1756, was raised to the rank of Swedish nobility by the title of Von
Linné; and this distinction was confirmed by the Diet in 1762. He
lived, honored and courted, to the age of seventy-one; and in 1778
was buried in the cathedral of Upsal, with many testimonials of public
respect and veneration.

De Candolle 105 assigns, as the causes of the successes of the

Linnæan system,—the specific names,—the characteristic phrase,—
the fixation of descriptive language,—the distinction of varieties and
species,—the extension of the method to all the kingdoms of nature,
—and the practice of introducing into it the species most recently
discovered. This last course Linnæus constantly pursued; thus
making his works the most valuable for matter, as they were the
most convenient in form. The general diffusion of his methods over
Europe may be dated, perhaps, a few years after 1760, when the
tenth and the succeeding editions of the Systema Naturæ were in
circulation, professing to include every species of organized beings.
But his pupils and correspondents effected no less than his books, in
giving currency to his system. In Germany, 106 it was defended by
Ludwig, Gesner, Fabricius. But Haller, whose reputation in
physiology was as great as that of Linnæus in methodology, rejected
it as too merely artificial. In France, it did not make any rapid or
extensive progress: the best French botanists were at this time
occupied with the solution of the great problem of the construction of
a Natural Method. And though the rhetorician Rousseau charmed,
we may suppose, with the elegant precision of the Philosophia
Botanica, declared it to be the most philosophical work he had ever
read in his life, Buffon and Andanson, describers and philosophers of
a more ambitious school, felt a repugnance to the rigorous rules, and
limited, but finished, undertakings of the Swedish naturalist. To resist
his 402 criticism and his influence, they armed themselves with
dislike and contempt.
105 Théor. Elém. p. 40.

106 Sprengel, ii. 244.

In England the Linnæan system was very favorably received:—

perhaps the more favorably, for being a strictly artificial system. For
the indefinite and unfinished form which almost inevitably clings to a
natural method, appears to be peculiarly distasteful to our
countrymen. It might seem as if the suspense and craving which
comes with knowledge confessedly incomplete were so disagreeable
to them, that they were willing to avoid it, at any rate whatever; either
by rejecting system altogether, or by accepting a dogmatical system
without reserve. The former has been their course in recent times
with regard to Mineralogy; the latter was their proceeding with
respect to the Linnæan Botany. It is in this country alone, I believe,
that Wernerian and Linnæan Societies have been instituted. Such
appellations somewhat remind us of the Aristotelian and Platonic
schools of ancient Greece. In the same spirit it was, that the Artificial
System was at one time here considered, not as subsidiary and
preparatory to the Natural Orders, but as opposed to them. This was
much as if the disposition of an army in a review should be
considered as inconsistent with another arrangement of it in a battle.

When Linnæus visited England in 1736, Sloane, then the patron of

natural history in this country, is said to have given him a cool
reception, such as was perhaps most natural from an old man to a
young innovator; and Dillenius, the Professor at Oxford, did not
accept the sexual system. But as Pulteney, the historian of English
Botany, says, when his works became known, “the simplicity of the
classical characters, the uniformity of the generic notes, all confined
to the parts of the fructification, and the precision which marked the
specific distinctions, merits so new, soon commanded the assent of
the unprejudiced.”

Perhaps the progress of the introduction of the Linnæan System

into England will be best understood from the statement of T. Martyn,
who was Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge, from
1761 to 1825. “About the year 1750,” he says, 107 “I was a pupil of
the school of our great countryman Ray; but the rich vein of