Final Book Chapter Part 2

Agriculture
Development and
Economic
Transformation in
Global Scenario
Ratnesh Kumar Rao
Published by
Mahima Research Foundation and Social Welfare
194, Karaundi, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
Reg. # 643/2007-2008, www.mrfsw.org
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Reg. # 643/2007-2008, www.mrfsw.org
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ISBN: 978-81-943375-3-9
Year – 2020
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
1. Ram Prawesh Prasad 2. D. Shekhar
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga
(Bihar)-847302 (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central (Bihar)-847302 (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur,
Bihar) E-mail: rpprasad79@gmail.com Bihar) 848125,
3. M.S. Kundu 4. Amba Kumari
Director Extension Education (Dr.Rajendra Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga (Bihar)-
Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, 847302 (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Samastipur, Bihar) 848125 Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur,
Bihar) E-mail: ambakumari16@gmail.com
5. Chandan Kumar 6. R.K. Mandal
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bhagwanpur Hat,
(Bihar)-847302 (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Siwan, (Bihar)-841408
Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur,
Bihar) 84812z
7. Brajesh Shahi 8. R. Oviya
Nadal Officer KVKs (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Department of Plant Pathology, Agriculture
Central Agricultural University, Pusa, College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Samastipur (Bihar) 848125 Agriculture University, Coimbatore-641003
(Tamil Nadu)
9. Divyanshu Shekhar 10. P. Anbazhagan
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Jale Darbhang-847302, Department of Plant Pathology, Agriculture
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
University, Pusa, Samastipur–Bihar-848125 Agriculture University, Coimbatore-641003
(Tamil Nadu),E-mail: anbupatho17@gmail.com
11. S. Shanmathi 12. Deepika Sud
Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary SMS Plant Pathology
Science, Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture, DEE, CSKHPKV, Palampur (H.P) 176001
Nachimuthupuram, Erode-638315 E-mail: deepika_agri@rediffmail.com
13. Reeta Mishra 14. Y.P. Singh
RVSKVV- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morena RVSKVV- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morena
(M.P.) and RVSKVV-ZARS, Morena (M.P.) (M.P.) and RVSKVV-ZARS, Morena (M.P.)
15. B.P.S. Raghubanshi 16. R. Suresh Kumar
RVSKVV- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morena Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy,
(M.P.) and RVSKVV-ZARS, Morena (M.P.) Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture,
Nachimuthupuram, Erode–638 315,
E-mail: suresh2k589@gmail.com
17. R. Narmadha 18. Barun
M.Sc., Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bhagwanpur Hat,
AC&RI, TNAU, Coimbatore–641 003 Siwan, (Bihar)-841408
19. Sapana Saini 20. Britan Rahman
Department of Agricultural Economics, Assistant Professors, Department of Soil
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Science, SCS College of Agriculture, Assam
Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Agricultural University, Rangamati, Dhubri,
E-mail: sapanabhu177@gmail.com Assam, E-mail: britan.rahman@aau.ac.in
21. Mrinal Choudhury 22. Bhaskarjyoti Sarma
Department of Soil Science, SCS College of SCS College of Agriculture, Assam
Agriculture, Assam Agricultural University, Agricultural University, Rangamati, Dhubri,
Rangamati, Dhubri, Assam Assam, E-mail: bhaskarjyoti.sarma@aau.ac.in
23. Mrinal Choudhury 24. P. Gunasekaran
SCS College of Agriculture, Assam Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,
Agricultural University, Rangamati, Dhubri, Sivaganga-630553
Assam
25. O. P. Singh 26. Utpal Kant
Assistant Professor, Department of Department of Extension Education,
Agricultural Economics, IAS, Banaras Hindu Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural
University, Varanasi-221005 University, Pusa, Samastipur-848125
E-mail: ompsingh@gmail.com
27. Raj Jaiswal 28. Prashant Joshi
Division of Dairy Economics, Statistics and Scientist, College of Horticulture, Dr. PDKV,
Management, ICAR-National Dairy Research Akola, Maharashtra-444001
Institute, Karnal-132001 (Haryana) E-mail: psjoshihort@gmail.com
29. Parshant Bakshi 30. O. P. Singh
Senior Scientist, Division of Horticulture, Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Sciences and Technology of Jammu Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi–221005
E-mail: ompsingh@gmail.com
31. P. K. Singh 32. Gyanprakash Bishi
Assistant Professor, Department of Department of Agricultural Economics,
Agricultural Economics, Institute of Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Hindu University, Varanasi – 221005
University, Varanasi–221005
33. Tarun Chandra Kalita 34. G.K. Upamanya
Assistant professor, Department of Assistant professor (S-2), Department of Plant
Nematology, SCS College of Agriculture, Pathology, SCS College of Agriculture, Assam
Assam Agricultural University, Dhubri, E- Agricultural University, Dhubri
mail: arunch.kalita@ymail.com
35. P. K. Singh 36. Abhiram Dash
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural
Agricultural Economics, Institute of Statistics, College of Agriculture, Bhubaneswar
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Odisha University of Agriculture and
University, Varanasi – 221005 Technology, E-mail: abhidash2stat@gmail.com
37. Rupak Kumar Nath 38. Perves Ahmed
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy,
Entomology SCS College of Agriculture, SCS College of Agriculture, Assam
Assam Agricultural University, Rangamati, Agricultural University, Rangamati, Dhubri,
Dhubri, Assam, India, Assam, India,
E-mail: pervesahmed@gmail.com
39. Jyoti Sinha 40. Kiran Bains
Scientist, KVK, Nalanda (BAU, Professor, Food Sc and Nutrition, (PAU,
Sabour, Bihar), Ludhiana, Punjab)
E-mail: jyotisinha.2009@rediffmail.com
41. Ram Prawesh Prasad 42. Kumari Vibha Rani
Scientist, KVK, Darbhanga (DR.RPCAU, Scientist, KVK, Nalanda (BAU, Sabour, Bihar)
Pusa, Bihar)
43. Safeena S.A 44. M. Rajesh
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, Centre of Excellence in Millets,
Pune- 411005, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
E-mail: safeenasandeep@gmail.com Athiyandal, Tamil Nadu, India-606603
E-mail: mrajeshpath@yahoo.co.in
45. A. Nirmalakumari 46. A. Sudha
Centre of Excellence in Millets, Tamil Nadu Centre of Excellence in Millets, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Athiyandal, Tamil Agricultural University, Athiyandal, Tamil
Nadu, India-606603 Nadu, India-606603
47. Dipak Nath 48. Rupak Kr. Nath
Dy. Director of Extension Education, CAU, Assistant Professor, SCS College of
Imphal, Manipur Agriculture, AAU, Dhubri, Assam
49. Muqsitur Rahman Choudhury 50. Abhilash Singh Maurya,
Jr. Scientist, Regional Agricultural Research Department of Extension Education, CCS
Station, AAU, Karimganj, Assam Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125004
E-mail: mr_choudhury@rediffmail.com (Haryana) India
E-mail: 483agabhilash@gmail.com and
51. Joginder Singh Malik 52. R. N. Yadav
Department of Extension Education, CCS Department of Agricultural Extension &
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- Communication, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
125004 (Haryana) India, University of Agriculture and Technology,
Meerut (U.P.)
53. Sushmita T.H. 54. Swarupa Y.
Department of Entomology, Assam Research Associate, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, Periyavaram,
E-mail: pipithockchom@gmail.com and
55. Shahroon Khan 56. P.L. Ambulkar
Assistant Professor, Department of JNKVV Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chhindwara
Agriculture, Maharishi Markandeshwar (M.P.), Department of Entomology, JNKVV
University, Sadopur, Ambala, E-mail: College of Agriculture, Jabalpur (M.P.)
shahroonkhan25@gmail.com E-mail- plambulkar_2007@rediffmail.com
57. Amit Kumar Sharma 58. R. N. Yadav
JNKVV Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chhindwara Department of Agricultural Extension &
(M.P.), Department of Entomology, JNKVV Communication, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
College of Agriculture, Jabalpur (M.P.) University of Agriculture and Technology,
Meerut (U.P.)
59. Lochan Sharma 60. Gurpreet Singh
Department of Nematology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Assistant Professor, PDM, University,
CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Bahadurgarh, Jhajjar, CCS, Haryana
125004, E-mail: lochan1941996@gmail.com Agricultural University, Hisar, 125004
61. Vishal Gandhi 62. Parvesh Kumar
Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU,
Hisar, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar, 125004 Hisar, 125004
63. P. Ahmed 64. M. Choudhury
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Soil
Agronomy, SCS College of Agriculture, Science, SCS College of Agriculture, Assam
Assam Agricultural University, Agricultural University,
Rangamati, Dhubri, Assam, India Rangamati, Dhubri, Assam, India
E-mail: pervesahmed@gmail.com
65. R. K. Nath 66. Manjulapur Sampath Reddy
Assistant Professor, Department of Department of Vegetable Science, College of
Entomology, SCS College of Agriculture, Agriculture, Govind Ballabh Pant University of
Assam Agricultural University, Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar-263145
Rangamati, Dhubri, Assam, India E-mail: manjulapursampathreddy@gmail.com
67. Thatipelli Manvitha 68. Prananath Barman
Department of Fruit Science, College of Scientist (Horticulture-Fruit Science), Division
Horticulture, Sri Konda Laxman Telangana of Crop Production, ICAR - CISH, Lucknow,
State Horticultural University, Hyderabad E-mail: prananath.india@gmail.com
69. D. Kavithamani 70. S. Bharathkumar
Assistant Professor (Plant Breeding and PG & Research Department of Botany,
Genetics), Tamil Nadu Agricultural Kandaswami Kandar’s College, P.Velur,
University, Coimbatore Namakkal-638 182, Tamilnadu, INDIA,
E-mail: bharathkumar76@gmail.com
71. R. Salomi 72. Pramod Prabhakar
Department of Botany, Arignar Anna College Assistant Professor -cum- Jr. Scientist, Animal
(Arts and Science), Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, Husbandry, MBAC, Agwanpur, Saharsa, Email:
INDIA ppmbac@gmail.com
73. Uma Kant Singh 74. Deepak Kumar
RRS, Agwanpur, Saharsa, (BAU, Sabour, Department of Nematology, CCS Haryana
Bhagalpur) Agricultural University, Hisar (125004)
E-mail: bhankhardeep@gmail.com
75. Harjot Singh Sidhu 76. Vijaya
Department of Nematology, CCS Haryana Department of Entomology, CCSHAU, Hisar,
Agricultural University, Hisar (125004) CCSHAU, Hisar, CCS, Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, 125004
77. Mamta Rathore 78. Rajeev Singh
Directorate of Research, C.S. Azad University ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application
of Agriculture &Technology, U.P. India Research Institute-208002
79. H.G. Prakash 80. P. K. Ray
Directorate of Research, C.S. Azad University Horticulture, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Saharsa,
of Agriculture &Technology, U.P. India Bihar, India, E-mail: pankajveg@gmail.com
81. R. N. Singh 82. Anjani Kumar
Asoociate Director Extension Education, Director, ICAR-ATARI, Zone-IV, Patna,
B.A.U., Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India. Bihar, India,
83. Munish Leharwan 84. Kamlesh Kr. Gautam
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR-National Dairy Department of Botany
Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, U.P. College, Varanasi-221002,
E-mail: munishleharwan7@gmail.com E-mail: kamleshgautam254@gmail.com
85. Swatantra Pratap Singh 86. Shashi Bala
ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture,
Research Institute-208002, E-mail: U.P. College, Varanasi
carsp7300@gmail.com E-mail: shashicsa@gmail.com
87. S. K. Dubey 88. Abhishek Mishra
ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application
Research Institute-208002 Research Institute-208002
89. Nikhil Vikram Singh 90. Umesh Singh
ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application Associate Dean cum Principal, MBAC, Saharsa,
Research Institute-208002 Bihar, India
91. Shiv Poojan Yadav 92. Deepak Kumar Yadav
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Department of Agronomy, Institute of
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi-221005 University, Varanasi-221005
93. Harsita Nayak 94. Ajay Ku. Srivastava
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Department of Agricultural Economics,
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
University, Varanasi-221005, Hindu University, Varanasi;
E-mail: harsita095@gmail.com E-mail: ajaysrivastava9335@gmail.com
95. Sanjeev Leharwan 96. Vishal Kumar
Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Department of Agricultural Sciences,
Hisar, Haryana Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab
97. Rakesh Singh 98. Smita Tiwari
Professor, Department of Agricultural Regional Agricultural Research Station, Sagar-
Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, 470002, M.P., E-mail: smitapatho@gmail.com,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
99. I.K. Tiwari 100. A.P. Rakesh
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga,
Sagar-470002, M.P., Bihar-847302
101. S. Romen Singh 102. Swathi Rekha Nandigam,
College of Horticulture & Forestry, Central Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
Agricultural University, Pasighat-791 102, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi,
Arunachal Pradesh, India, Jharkhand,
E-mail: romensenjam@yahoo.com, E-mail: swathikoundinya.1995@gmail.com
103. Bidyarani Devi Senjam 104. S.S. Dhaka
Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Associate Professor, Entomology, Krishi
Pundibari, Cooch Behar-763165, West Vigyan Kendra, Pilibhit
Bengal, India
105. Afreen Mohsin 106. Pushparani Senjam
Forest Research Institute Dehra Dun, Sardar AICRP on Rapeseed-Mustard, Directorate of
Vallabhai Patel University of Agric. & Tech. Research, Central Agricultural University,
Meerut, Imphal-795004, Manipur, India
107. Elumle Priyanka 108. Yandava Swarupa
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural Research Associate, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
University, Jorhat, Assam Periyavaram, Andhra Pradesh
109. Barkha Rani 110. Bhawani Singh Prajapat
Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Department of Agronomy, MPUAT, Udaipur-
Chemistry, MPUAT, Udaipur-313001, 313001, Rajathan,
Rajathan. E-mail: aryaamaira24@gmail.com
111. Deen Dayal Bairwa 112. Shankar Lal Sunda
Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Department of Soil Science and Agriculture
Chemistry, MPUAT, Udaipur-313001, Chemistry, MPUAT, Udaipur-313001,
Rajathan. Rajathan.
113. Dhrampal Singh 114. Sushmita Thokchom
Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Department of Entomology, Assam Agricultural
Chemistry, MPUAT, Udaipur-313001, University, Jorhat, Assam,
Rajathan. E-mail: pipithockchom@gmail.com
115. Yandava Swarupa 116. Y.K. Shukla
Research Associate, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra Khandwa
Periyavaram (M.P.), E-mail: ykskvk@gmail.com, and
117. Rashmi Shukla 118. B.P.S. Raghuvansi
Sr.Tech.Officer, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sr.Tech.Officer, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Khandwa (M.P.) Morena (M.P.),
119 Sharani Choudhury, 120. Ashakiran Loitongbam
National Institute of Plant Biotechnology, National Institute of Plant Biotechnology,
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
Pusa campus, New Delhi-110012, India. Pusa campus, New Delhi-110012, India
E-mail: sharani.choudhury1108@gmail.com
121. Parul Chauhan 122. T. L. Dharsenda,
National Institute of Plant Biotechnology, Department of Processing and Food
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Engineering, College of Agricultural
Pusa campus, New Delhi-110012, India Engineering and Technology, Junagadh
Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001,
E-mail: tldharsenda@jau.in
123. M. N. Dabhi 124. M. H. Jethva
Department of Processing and Food Department of Processing and Food
Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, College of Agricultural
Engineering and Technology, Junagadh Engineering and Technology, Junagadh
Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001,
125. Shashi Bala 126. Mamta Sahu
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of
Horticulture, U.P. College, Varanasi, Biotechnology and Microbiology, Saaii College
E-mail: shashicsa@gmail.com of Medical Science & Technology, Kanpur
127. S.K Verma 128. Ankit Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture,
Horticulture, U.P. College, Varanasi, U.P. College, Varanasi,
129. K.K. Gautam 130. Thombre Santosh Vitthalrao
Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Department of Agronomy, VNMKV, Parbhani
U.P. College, Varanasi
131. Yandava Swarupa 132. Ashwini bhosale
Research Associate, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Badnapur,
Periyavaram VNMKV, Parbhani
133. Swathi Rekha Nandigam 134. Elumle Priyanka
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural
Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, University, Jorhat, Assam,
Jharkhand, E-mail: priyankaelumle@gmail.com
135. J.K. Singh, 136. Swathy Ullas
University, Varanasi-221 005, University, Varanasi-221 005,
E-mail: jksinghbhu3@gmail.com E-mail: swathy1611@gmail.com,
137. Shivraj Singh 138. Jami Naveen
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Department of Agronomy, Assam Agriculture
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Jorhat-785013,
University, Varanasi-221 005, E-mail: jaminaveen17@gmail.com
139. Damble Ashok Sambhaji 140. Balaga Mohan Ganesh
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agriculture Department of Entomology, Assam Agriculture
University, Jorhat-785013 University, Jorhat-85013
141. Pittala Manoj Kumar 142. Kandapu Sai Teja
Department of Agronomy, RPCAU, Department of Agronomy, Assam Agriculture
Bihar-848125 University, Jorhat-785013
143. A. K. Singh 144. Sana Aisha
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry,
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural
University, Varanasi (UP) 221005, University, Jhanshi (UP) 284003,
E-mail: alokkj63@gmail.com E-mail: aishasana122@gmail.com
145. B. K. Singh 146. S. D. Minz
University, Varanasi (UP) 221005 University, Varanasi (UP) 221005,
E-mail: singhbipin9832@gmail.com E-mail: minz.srishti17@gmail.com
147. Navnit Kumar 148. Geeta Kumari
Assistant Professor-cum-Scientist, Department Assistant Professor -cum- Scientist,
of Agronomy, Sugarcane Research Institute, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Basic
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural Science & Humanities, Dr. Rajendra Prasad
University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125, Central Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa
Email: navnitsripusa@gmail.com, (Samastipur)-848 125,
149. Rajan Kumar 150. Shiva Pujan Singh
Assistant Professor -cum- Scientist, Assistant Professor -cum- Scientist,
Department of Agronomy, Center for Department of Agril. Economics, Sugarcane
Excellence on Water Management, Dr. Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa
University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125 (Samastipur)-848 125
151. Surajit Kalita 152. Sangita Mahanta
Directorate of Research (Agri), Assam Department of Horticulture, Assam Agricultural
Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, University, Jorhat-785013, Assam, India,
Assam, India Email: sangita.mahanta@aau.ac.in,
153. Rumjhum Phukan 154. Sundar Barman
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Department of Extension Education, Assam
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat- Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam,
785013, Assam, India India
155. Diwakar Verma 156. Alok Singh
Subject Matter Specialist (Veterinary Assistant Professor Department of Veterinary
Sciences) KVK, Bankhedi, Bhau Sahab Medicine, Apollo College of Veterinary
Muskute Lok Nyas, Gobind Nagar, Bankhedi, Medicine, Jaipur,
Madhya Pradesh. Email:aloksinghvet.87@gmail.com
157. Raktim Bhagawati 158. Shantonu Paul
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural
University, Jorhat-785013 University, Jorhat-785013
159. Ashok Dambale 160. Deen Dayal Bairwa
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agriculture Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College of
University, Jorhat, Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur
E-mail:dambaleashok@gmail.com, E-mail: deendayalbairwa2014@gmail.com
161. Jyoti Rani 161. Parveen Kumar
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Botany, Govt. SMS (Ag. Extension and Veg. Science), KVK-
College for Women, Tosham, Bhiwani, Leh, SKUAST-Kashmir,
Haryana. E-mail: pkumar6674@gmail.com
162. Sunita Sangwan 163. Bhawani Singh Prajapat
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Botany, Govt. Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College of
College for Women, Tosham, Bhiwani, Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur
Haryana E-mail: k.sunitasangwan@gmail.com
164. D. Namgyal 165. Kunzang Lamo
Professor and Head, KVK-Leh, SKUAST-K SMS (Ag. Extension and Veg. Science), KVK-
Leh, SKUAST-Kashmir
166. Sunita Kumari 167. Geeta Kumari
SMS (Agronomy), KVK, Vaishali, Assistant Professor, Department of
Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, Microbiology, FBS&H, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa
E-mail: sunita2009kvk@gmail.com
168. Ragini Kumari 169. K. K. Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Soil SMS(Soil Science), KVK, Muzaffarpur, Dr.
Science, BAU, Sabour, RPCAU, Pusa
170. Prem Prakash Gautam 171. Rashmi Shukla
SMS (Plant Protection), KVK, Vaishali, Dr. Senior Technical Officer, Krishi Vigyan
RPCAU, Pusa Kendra, Khandwa (M.P.),
E-mail: rashmishukla_khw@rediffmail.com,
172. Y.K. Shukla 173. D. K. Vani
Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Khandwa Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Khandwa (M.P.),
(M.P.)
174. M. Kumar 175. L. Pugalendhi
Teaching Assistant (Hort.), Horticultural Dean (Horticulture), Horticultural College and
College and Research Institute, TNAU, Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore-03
Coimbatore-03,
E-mail: kumshorts@gmail.com,
176. K.Vanitha 177. Jyoti Rani
Assistant Professor (Crop Physiology), Assistant Professor, Department of Botany,
Department of Crop Physiology, TNAU, Govt. College for Women, Tosham,
Coimbatore-03, Bhiwani, Haryana.
E-mail: jyoti.sangwan@yahoo.com
178. G. Prabakar 179. K. Antony Prajwala
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Agricultural Fruit Science, College of Horticulture,
Sciences, SRM institute of science and Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari
Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, E-mail: District, A.P.,
prabavet@gmail.com E-mail: kaprajwala1994@gmail.com
180. J. Aresh 181. N. Deepa
Post Harvest Technology, UBKV, Pundibari, Assistant Professor (ARM), Department of
West Bengal, Agricultural and Rural Management, CARDS,
TNAU, Coimbatore,
E-mail: ndeepa@tnau.ac.in
182. Bhawani Singh Prajapat 183. Barkha Rani
Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College Department of Soil Science and Agriculture
of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Chemistry, Rajasthan College of Agriculture,
Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and
Rajasthan, E-mail: bspagro1992@gmail.com, Technology, Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan
184. Deen Dayal Bairwa 185. M. K. Kaushik
Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College of
of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of
Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001, Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001,
Rajasthan, Rajasthan,
186. S.K. Yadav 187. R. Ajaykumar
Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agronomy,
of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi,
Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001, E-mail: ajaykumar.tnau@gmail.com
Rajasthan,
188. P. Balasubramanian 189. Sakunthalai, A.
Teaching Assistant, Dept. of Agronomy, Professor (Agrl. Extension), Department of
Agromet Project, HRS, Ooty, Tamil Nadu BE&AS, AEC&RI, Kumulur, Trichy,
E-mail: drasextn@gmail.com
190. Geeta Kumari 191. Navnit Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy,
Microbiology, FBS&H, RPCAU, Pusa, SRI, RPCAU, Pusa,
E-mail:geetasri.kumari5@gmail.com,
192. Sunita Kumari 193. Khushbupriya
SMS, Department of Agronomy, KVK, Research Scholar, Department of Molecular and
Vaishali, RPCAU, Pusa Human Genetics, BHU, UP.,
194. G. Vijayalakshmi, 195. R. Sureshkumar
Assistant Professor (Agricultural Assistant Professor (Agronomy), Kumaraguru
Entomology), Imayam Institute of Agriculture Institute of Agriculture, Erode–638 315
and Technology, Thuraiyur, Trichy–621 206,
E-mail: vijaya.vijitha18@gmail.com
196. K. Elango 197. S. Sanbagavalli
Teaching Assistant (Agricultural Associate Professor (Agronomy), Tamil Nadu
Entomology), Horticultural Research Station, Agricultural University, Coimbatore–641 003
Kodaikanal–624 103
198. Diana Shamurailatpam 199. Pushparani Senjam
AICRP on Rapeseed-Mustard, Directorate of AICRP on Rapeseed-Mustard, Directorate of
Research, Central Agricultural University, Research, Central Agricultural University,
Imphal-795004, Manipur, India, Imphal-795004, Manipur, India,
E-mail: dia_bie@yahoo.com
200. P. Balasubramanian 201. D. Keisar Lourdusamy
Teaching Assistant, Horticultural Research Associate Professor and Head, Horticultural
Station, TNAU, Ooty, Research Station,
The Nilgiris Dist., TNAU, Ooty, The Nilgiris Dist.
E-mail: agribalatnau1991@gmail.com
202. P. Raja 203. R. Ajaykumar
Assistant Professor, Horticultural Research Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy,
Station, TNAU, Ooty, The Nilgiris Dist., Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi,
India.
204. Mandhata Singh 205. P. Senthilkumar
Scientist (Agronomy), KVK, Buxar, ICAR Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri- 636
Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, 453, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal
E-mail: Mandhata.Singh@icar.gov.in Sciences University, Tamil Nadu, India,
E-mail: drpskumar2003@gmail.com
206. V. Sankar 207. N. Sri Balaji
Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri- Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri- 636
636 453, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal 453, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal
Sciences University, Tamil Nadu, India, Sciences University, Tamil Nadu, India,
208. L. Arun 209. P. Naliniand J. Muralidharan
Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri- Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri- 636
636 453, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal 453, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal
Sciences University, Tamil Nadu, India, Sciences University, Tamil Nadu, India,
210. P. Sujithra 211. E. Sobhana
Department of Agronomy, Agricultural Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College
College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
Agricultural University, Madurai–625 104, University, Madurai–625 104
E-mail: sujiagri290@gmail.com
212. Shudh Kirti Dolma 213. B. Sreedevi
Entomology Laboratory, Agrotechnology Principal Scientist (Agronomy), ICAR-Indian
Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Institute of Rice Research, Rajendranagar,
Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Hyderabad–500 030, E-mail:
Pradesh, INDIA, Mob: +91 94180 20738 Sreedevi.B@icar.gov.in,
sreedevi.palakolanu@gmail.com
214. Sanchita Brahma 215. Nayanmoni Buragohain
Assistant Professor, SCSCA, AAU, Dhubri Assistant Professor, BNCA, AAU, Bishwanath
(Assam),E-mail: brahma.sanchita@gmail.com Chariali (Assam)
216. K. Elango 217. S.G. Eswara Reddy
Horticultural Research Station, Tamil Nadu CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource
Agricultural University, Kodaikanal-624103 Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh,
INDIA, Mob: +91 94180 20738,
E-mail: ereddy2001@yahoo.com
218. Sarita 219. Ishwar Singh
Agriculture University, Jodhpur (Raj.) Agriculture University, Jodhpur (Raj.)
E-mail: saritachoudhary739@gmail.com
220. M.L. Mehriya 221. U.N. Shukla
Agriculture University, Jodhpur (Raj.) Agriculture University, Jodhpur (Raj.)
222. M. L. Jat 223. B. C. Dhayal
Technical Assistant, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Collage of Agriculture, AU, Jodhpur (Raj.),
Karauli, AU, Kota (Raj.), India, India
E-mail: mldhayal@gmail.com
224. U.N. Shukla 225. S.N. Meena
Assistant Professor, Collage of Agriculture, Assistant Professor, ARS, Kota, AU, Kota
AU, Jodhpur (RAj.), India (Raj.), India
226. B. C. Dhayal 227. Koushal Kishor Bijarnia
Ph.D Scholar, Collage of Agriculture, AU, Agronomy Collage of Agriculture, AU, Jodhpur
Jodhpur (RAj.), India, E-mail: (RAj.), India
dhayalbhagchand45@gmail.com
228. N. V. Lavhe 229. V. K. Biradar
Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture,
Nagpur, E-mail: nlavhe@gmail.com Nagpur
230. N.S. Gupta 231. S.L. Borkar
Associate professor, Department of Associate Professor, College of Agriculture,
Horticulture, Akola Nagpur
232. V.J. Tambe 233. A. Anjaneyulu
Associate Professor, College of Agriculture, Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal
Nagpur and Aromatic Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West
Bengal 741252.
E-mail: anjaneyulu9705753099@gmail.com
234. G. Chandrashekhar 235. P. Pravalika
Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal
and Aromatic Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi and Aromatic Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West
Bengal 741252. Bengal 741252.
236. Vamshi Krishna. S. 237. Dangore
Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture,
and Aromatic Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Nagpur
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia,
West Bengal 741252.
238. P.R. Pancbhai 239. Femi G. Vala
Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Senior Research Fellow, Office of the Director,
Nagpur Students’ Welfare, JAU, Junagadh (Guj).
E-mail: femivala20@gmail.com,
240. B. P. Talavia 241. Sonali B. Chaudhari
Assistant Professor, Office of the Director, Ex. PG. student (Soil Science), JAU, Junagadh
Students’ Welfare, JAU, Junagadh (Guj). E- (Bhadkua, Post: Lavet, Pin: 394430 Ta:
mail: bptalavia@jau.in Mangrol, Dist: Surat (Guj),
E-mail:bsonalichaudhari@gmail.com
242. A. K. Singh 243. Pankaj Kumar
University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh, University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh
E-mail:alokkj63@gmail.com
244. Komal Kiran 245. A. Rohini
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Department of Agricultural and Rural
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh University, Coimbatore,
E-mail: rohinihariprakash@gmail.com
246. D. Murugananthi 247. Ramesh, H.S.
Department of Agricultural and Rural Veterinary College, Hebbal, Banaglore,
Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural E-mial: ramamabhi@gmail.com,
University, Coimbatore
248. Sampath, B. 249. Tripathi, S.K.
Veterinary College, Hebbal, Banaglore Jain University, Bangalore and 3ICAR-National
institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology,
Bangalore
250. Nandi, S. 251. Gupta, P.S.P.
ICAR-National institute of Animal Nutrition ICAR-National institute of Animal Nutrition
and Physiology, Bangalore and Physiology, Bangalore
252. Girish Kumar, V. 253. M. Raghuraman
Veterinary College, Hebbal, Banaglore Department of Entomology & Agricultural
Zoology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
BHU, Varanasi, E-mail: raghu_iari@yahoo.com
254. Vinod Bhateshwar 255. S. K. Choudhary
Department of Animal Husbandry and Department of Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra
Dairying, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005 (Rajasthan), India
(Uttar Pradesh), India,
E-mail: vinodbhu0883@gmail.com
256. Hanuman Lal Nehra 257. Sandeep Kumar Choudhary
Department of Livestock Production Department of Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra
Management, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329
University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329 (Rajasthan), India
(Rajasthan), India
258. Vinod Bhateshwar 259. Sanju Piploda
Department of Animal Husbandry and Department of Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra
Dairying, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005 (Rajasthan), India
(Uttar Pradesh), India,
E-mail: bhateshwarv@gmail.com
260. K. Anvesh 261. M.P. Dubey
Department of Entomology, Sri Karan JNKVV, Regional Agricultural Research
Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Station, Bhopal Road, Sagar- 470001 (M.P.),
Jaipur - 303329 (Rajasthan), India INDIA
262. Manisha Kachari 263. Aradhana Barooah
Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor, College of Horticulture,
College of Horticulture, AAU, Jorhat, AAU, Jorhat
E-mail: manisha.kachari@aau.ac.in
264. Himadri Shekhar Dutta 265. Riya Mandal
Assistant Professor, College of Horticulture, ICAR-SRF, Department of Food, Nutrition and
AAU, Jorhat Public Health; Ethelind College of Home
Science; Sam Higginbottom University of
Agriculture, Technology & Sciences Naini,
Prayagraj, PIN-211007, U.P., India,
E-mail: riyafan14@gmail.com
266. K. Damayanthi 267. Soundararajan, R.P. and
Scientist ‘E’, ICMR-National Institute of Horticultural College and Research Institute for
Nutrition, MoHFW, Government of India, Women, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
E-mail: damayanthik@yahoo.com Navalur Kuttapattu, Trichy- 620 027,
Tamil Nadu, India,
E-mail: sound73insect@gmail.com,
268. Chandrasekaran, M. 269. K. Anvesh,
Horticultural College and Research Institute Department o Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra
for Women, Tamil Nadu Agricultural Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur–303329
University, Navalur Kuttapattu, (Rajasthan), India,
Trichy- 620 027, Tamil Nadu, India E-mail: anvesh.kantegari@gmail.com
270. Sandeep Kumar Choudhary 271. Sanju Piploda
Department o Entomology, Sri Karan Department o Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra
Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur–303329
Jaipur–303329 (Rajasthan), India, (Rajasthan), India,
272. Anamika Singh 273. B.N. Singh
Dr.Anamika Singh, Assistant professor Dr. B.N. Singh, Retired Professor, Department
(cont.), Department of Geography, Vasanta of Geography, Banaras Hindu University,
College for Women, Rajghat, Varanasi Varanasi-221005,
E-mail: as.vns02@gmail.com
274. Kondareddy, A. N.1, 275. Dambale, A. S.
Department of Soil Science, Assam Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural
Agricultural University, Jorhat-13, University, Jorhat-13
E-mail: kondareddyank37@gmail.com
276. Lekhika, B. 277. Prarthana, P. H.
Department of Soil Science, Assam Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural
Agricultural University, Jorhat-13, University, Jorhat-13,
278. Shweta 279. Anjana Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Geography,
Geography, Vasanta College for Women, Vasanta College for Women, Rajghat, Varanasi
Rajghat, Varanasi E-mail: anjanasingh.smart@gmail.com
E-mail: shewtavrs@gmail.com
280. Neetu 281. Brijesh Kumar Maurya
Department of Vegetable Science, College of Department of Vegetable Science, College of
Horticulture, Banda University of Agriculture Horticulture, Banda University of Agriculture
and Technology, Banda, and Technology, Banda
E-mail: nitubhu2009@gmail.com
282. Ajay Kumar 283. Rohit Kumar
ICAR-Krishi Bhawan, Ministry of Agriculture ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural
and Farmers Welfare, New Delhi Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi
E-mail: ajayk9820@gmail.com
284. Prashant B. Kardile 285 N. S. Chavan
Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Physiology), Assistant Professor, MGM College of
Department of Agricultural Botany, College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Gandheli,
Agriculture, VNMKV, Parbhani-431602 Aurangabad, M.S.- 431001
(M.S.),
E-mail: kardile24@gmail.com
286. Mahesh V. Ugale 287. Tushar B. Jagtap
PG Scholar, Department of Agricultural Assistant Professor, Department of Agril.
Entomology, COA, Badnapur, Dist- Jalna, Entomology, Dadasaheb Patil College of
(VNMKV, Parbhani) (M.S.), Agriculture, Dahegaon, Tal-Vaijapur, District-
Aurangabad, (Affiliated to VNMKV, Parbhani-
431602, M.S.),
288. G. S. Pawar 289. Ram M. More
Seed Research Officer, Seed technology Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil & Water
Research Unit & Breeder Seed Production Conservation Engineering, College of
Unit, VNMKV, Parbhani-431602 (M.S.) Agricultural Engineering & Technology,
VNMKV, Parbhani-431602 (M.S.)
290. Vinayak B. Shinde 291. Zade S.P.
Assistant Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science
Horticulture, Dadasaheb Patil College of and Agricultural Chemistry, VNMKV,
Agriculture, Dahegaon, Tal-Vaijapur, District- Parbhani, Maharashtra
Aurangabad, (Affiliated to VNMKV,
Parbhani-431602, M.S.)
292. Gourkhede P.H. 293. Vaidya P. H.
Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Professor, Department of Soil Science and
Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural Chemistry, VNMKV, Parbhani,
VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra Maharashtra
E-mail: pathrikar2012@gmail.com
294 Shilewant S. S. 295. Sarika S. Wandre
Agriculture Assistant Department of Soil Assistant Professor, Section of Agricultural
Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Engineering, Dadasaheb Patil College of
VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra, Agriculture, Dahegaon, Tal. Vaijapur, Dist.
Aurangabad, Maharashtra State
Content
A. PREFACE i
B. AGROFORESTRY
1. Nutrient Dynamics under Short-Rotation Trees, Intercropped with Aromatic 1
Grasses in Terai of Uttar Pradesh
Faiz Mohsin, S.S. Dhaka and Afreen Mohsin
2. Studies on Intercroppping and Rooting Pattern in Populus Deltoides Plantation 7
Faiz Mohsin, S.S. Dhaka and Afreen Mohsin
3. Economic Transformation Through Agroforestry in Global Scenario 19
Alok K. Singh, Sana Aisha, Bipin K. Singh and Srishti Dipriya Minz
C. AGRONOMY
4. Yield Gap Analysis of Rapeseed-Mustard through Cluster Front Line 27
Demonstrations in Darbhanga District of Bihar
Ram Prawesh Prasad, D. Shekhar, M.S. Kundu, Amba Kumari and
Chandan Kumar
5. Yield Gap Analysis of Rapeseed-Mustard through Cluster Front Line 31
Demonstrations in Siwan District of Bihar
R.P. Prasad, R.K. Mandal, Brajesh Shahi and Barun
6. Effect of Tissue Culture in Vegetable Improvement 35
Amba Kumari, Dibyanshu Shekhar, M.S. Kundu, Ram Prawesh Prasad,
A.P. Rakesh and Chandan Kumar
7. Different Types of Agricultural Systems of India 41
Elumle Priyanka, Yandava Swarupa, Thombre Santosh Vitthalrao and
Swathi Rekha Nandigam
8. Modern Irrigation Technology-An Evergreen Revolution for Future Generation 45
R. Ajaykumar and P. Balasubramanian
9. Aonla as a Potential Fruit for Health and Entrepreneurship Development of Farm 51
Women
Reeta Mishra, Y.P. Singh and B.P.S. Raghubanshi
10. Coloured Sweet Potato-A Functional Food with Antioxidants for Health and 54
Immunity Benefits
Jyoti Sinha, Kiran Bains, Ram Prawesh Prasad and Kumari Vibha Rani
11. Drought Proofing Techniques for South India 61
J.K. Singh, Swathy Ullas and Shivraj Singh
12. Climate Resilient Agronomy of Rice 68
Jami Naveen, Damble Ashok Sambhaji, Balaga Mohan Ganesh,
Pittala Manoj Kumar and Kandapu Sai Teja
13. Management of Sugarcane Planted under Bud Chip Raised Settlings 77
Navnit Kumar, Geeta Kumari, Rajan Kumar and Shiva Pujan Singh
14. Recent Advances for Enhancing Nutrient Use Efficiency in Crop Production 84
Sunita Kumari, Geeta Kumari, Ragini Kumari, K. K. Singh and
Prem Prakash Gautam
15. Organic Farming is a Boon for Soil Health 91
Bhawani Singh Prajapat, Barkha Rani, Deen Dayal Bairwa, M. K. Kaushik and
S.K. Yadav
16. Organic Farming-Problems and Perspectives 98
Geeta Kumari, Navnit Kumar, Sunita Kumari and Khushbupriya
D. AGRICULTURE ECONOMICS
17. Economic Analysis of Production and Marketing of Onion in Deogarh District of 105
Odisha, India
O. P. Singh, P. K. Singh and Gyanprakash Bishi
18. Growth Performance of Production and Export of Major Vegetable Crops in India 113
O. P. Singh and P. K. Singh
19. Study of Key Issues of Cattles and Dairy Farmers in Eastern Uttar Pradesh 120
P.K. Singh and O.P. Singh
20. Socio-economic Characteristics and Problem Face by Vegetable Growers in 125
Varanasi District of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India
Ajay Ku. Srivastava, Rakesh Singh and O.P. Singh
E. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS
21. Nursery Management in Vegetable Crops under Polyhouse, Shade House and 130
Open Field Condition
Neetu and Brijesh Kumar Maurya
22. Organic Agriculture in India-Challenges and Opportunities 134
Surajit Kalita, Sangita Mahanta, Rumjhum Phukan and Sundar Barman
23. Horticultural Sector Towards Doubling Farm Income: KVK Interventions 146
Manisha Kachari, Aradhana Barooah and Himadri Shekhar Dutta
F. ANIMAL SCIENCE
24. Role of Animal Husbandry in Double Income of Indian Farmer’s by 2022 153
Vinod Bhateshwar, S. K. Choudhary and Hanuman Lal Nehra
25. Influence of Ewe Weight at Mating and Parity on Reproductive Performance, 159
Lamb Growth and Survivability in Mecheri Sheep
P. Senthilkumar, V. Sankar, N. Sri Balaji, L. Arun and
P. Naliniand J. Muralidharan
G. BOTANY
26. Rice Landraces with Positive and Negative Impact under Combined Abiotic Stress 162
Condition
S. Bharathkumar and R. Salomi
27. Sustainable Production of Button Mushroom 170
Kamlesh Kr. Gautam and Shashi Bala
28. Organic Farming: As Sustainable Agriculture in India, Issues and Constraints in its 173
Progress
Jyoti Rani and Sunita Sangwan
H. CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
29. Rapeseed-Mustard Cultivation in Rice Fallow of Manipur: Challenges and 180
Opportunities
Diana Shamurailatpam and Pushparani Senjam
I. ENTOMOLOGY
30. Role of Women in Increasing the Economy of Agriculture 184
Sushmita T.H. and Swarupa Y.
31. Biological Control in Insect Pest Management 186
M. Raghuraman
32. Integrated Pest Management in Vegetable Crops 192
Sandeep Kumar Choudhary, Vinod Bhateshwar, Sanju Piploda, K. Anvesh and
Sushila Bhathesar
33. Insects of Economic Importance 196
K. Anvesh, Sandeep Kumar Choudhary and Sanju Piploda
34. Processing of Lac 199
N. V. Lavhe, V. K. Biradar, S.T. Dangore and P.R. Pancbhai
J. EXTENSION EDUCATION
35. Agricultural Interventions for Women Empowerment–A Critical Analysis 206
Sakunthalai, A.
36. Organic Farming-Safe Farming for Nature 210
Swatantra Pratap Singh, Abhishek Mishra, and Rajeev Singh
37. Pulse Production in India: Issues and Strategies 217
Parveen Kumar, Kunzang Lamo and D. Namgyal
K. FOOD SCIENCE
38. Different Type of Food Packaging Materials 226
A. Anjaneyulu, G. Chandrashekhar, P.Pravalika and Vamshi Krishna. S.
39. Food Supplementation Towards Disadvantaged Pregnant Women: An Effectuality 236
Study of the National Programme in a Remotest Island of the Sundarbans
Riya Mandal and K. Damayanthi
L. GEOGRAPHY
40. Spatial Disparities in Level of Agricultural Development in Eastern Uttar Pradesh 244
Anamika Singh and B.N. Singh
41. Water Quality and its Effects on Child Health 252
Shweta and Anjana Singh
M. HORTICULTURE
42. Influences of Canopy Architecture for the High Density Orchard in Tropical Fruits 256
M. Kumar, L. Pugalendhi and K.Vanitha
43. Recent Trends in Host Plant Resistance to Yellow Stem Borer, Scirpophaga 266
incertulas W. in Rice, Oryza sativa L.
Soundararajan, R.P. and Chandrasekaran, M.
44. Biofortification in Fruit Crops–Potential Solution for Nutritional Security 274
Vinayak B. Shinde, Prashant B. Kardile and Sarika S. Wandre
45. Novel Technologies in Fruit Preservation 280
K. Antony Prajwala and J. Aresh
46. Dragon Fruit-A Potential High Value Crop of Future 287
Sanchita Brahma and Nayanmoni Buragohain
47. New Age Modern Technologies for Sustainable Vegetable Production 294
Prashant. B. Kardile and Vinayak B. Shinde and G.S. Pawar
N. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
48. Remote Sensing Technology for Agriculture & Food Security 301
Prashant. B. Kardile and Ram M. More
O. PLANT PATHOLOGY
49. Strategies for the Management of Diseases of Alliums 310
Smita Tiwari and I.K. Tiwari
50. Eco-friendly Management of Finger Millet Blast in Current Scenario Towards 314
Food Security
M. Rajesh, A. Nirmalakumari and A. Sudha
51. The Biology, Management and Impacts of Sorghum Ergot Disease 323
A. Sudha, D. Kavithamani and M. Rajesh
P. SOIL SCIENCE
52. Chemistry of Cadmium in Soils and its Impact on Plant Growth 328
Kondareddy, A. N., Dambale, A. S., Lekhika, B. and Prarthana, P. H.
53. Crystal System and Clay Minerals in Soil Environment 334
Zade S.P., Gourkhede P.H., Vaidya P. H. and Shilewant S. S.
54. Effects of Silicon Sources and Levels on Growth Parameters of Rice (Oryzasativa 346
L.) under Lateritic Soil of Jharkhand
Neeraj Kumar Vaishya, Sanjay Kumar Shahi, and Pramod Kumar Sharma
Q. VETERINARY SCIENCE
55. Ovarian Follicle Transition: Underlying Molecular Mechanisms 351
Ramesh, H.S., Sampath, B., Tripathi, S.K., Nandi, S., Gupta, P.S.P. and
Girish Kumar, V.
56. Nutritive Enrichment and Benefits of Designer Eggs: A Way to Improve Human 363
Health
S. Shanmathi and P. Gunasekaran
57. Mastitis a Havoc to the Dairy Industry: an Introduction 365
Diwakar Verma and Alok Singh
58. Livestock Production: Recent Trends and Future Prospects 373
Pramod Prabhakar and Uma Kant Singh
59. Artificial Insemination in Poultry 380
G. Prabakar
PREFACE
Development of agriculture in India and its contribution to general economic growth has
rightly received much attention. The object of the present book is to throw additional light on two
aspects of the Indian experience that are of particular interest in relation to the problems of other late
developing countries: first, the means by which substantial gains in agricultural productivity and
output were achieved at very moderate cost, and secondly, the interrelationships between
development of the agricultural sector and the expansion of manufacturing and other nonagricultural
sectors leading to a transformation of the structure of the economy.
Agricultural and food policy lies at the heart of many pressing societal issues today and
economic analysis occupies a privileged place in contemporary policy debates. The global food price
crisis of 2008 and 2010 underscored the mounting challenge of meeting rapidly increasing food
demand in the face of increasingly scarce land and water resources. The twin scourges of poverty and
hunger quickly resurfaced as high-level policy concerns, partly because of food price riots and
mounting insurgencies fomented by contestation over rural resources. Meanwhile, agriculture’s heavy
footprint on natural resources motivates heated environmental debates about climate change, water
and land use, biodiversity conservation and chemical pollution. Agricultural technological change,
especially associated with the introduction of genetically modified organisms, also introduces
unprecedented questions surrounding intellectual property rights and consumer preferences regarding
credence (i.e., unobservable by consumers) characteristics. Similar new agricultural commodity
consumer behavior issues have emerged around issues such as local foods, organic agriculture and fair
trade, even motivating broader social movements.
Meanwhile, the agricultural and food economy is changing rapidly throughout the world,
marked by continued consolidation at both farm production and retail distribution levels, elongating
value chains, expanding international trade, and growing reliance on immigrant labor and information
and communications technologies. In summary, a vast range of topics of widespread popular and
scholarly interest revolve around agricultural and food policy and economics. The extensive list of
prospective authors, titles and topics offers a partial, illustrative listing. Thus a series of topical
volumes, featuring cutting-edge economic analysis by leading scholars has considerable prospect for
both attracting attention and garnering sales. This series will feature leading global experts writing
accessible summaries of the best current economics and related research on topics of widespread
interest to both scholarly and lay audiences.
The most prominent stylized fact of modern development is a secular decline in the share of
agriculture in both output and gross domestic product (GDP), with the consequent increase in the
combined shares of industry and services. The experience of developing Asia is no exception.
However in Asia, five aspects of agriculture and structural transformation stand out. First,
agriculture’s output share is declining faster than that of employment. Today, agriculture is the largest
employer in developing Asia but not the largest sector in any Asian country by GDP. Second,
agricultural labor productivity in Asia has grown faster than in other developing regions. Third, land
productivity in Asia has grown faster than in other developing regions. Fourth, technological change
in agriculture since the 1960s led to significant improvements in yields of traditional crops. Fifth, the
composition of agricultural output of developing Asia has shifted from traditional to high-value
products.
Given that agriculture remains the largest employer in many large Asian countries like India,
discussion of structural transformation cannot neglect this sector. Agricultural transformation in Asia
will likely proceed according to past trends, though the pace and direction of change will be
punctuated by emerging challenges and opportunities related to environmental stress (e.g., climate
change), market instability, future technological breakthroughs, and the rise of global value chains.
Over the next 2 decades many countries of developing Asia will move on to the next phase of
agricultural development. However, the reduction in agriculture’s employment share will continue to
lag, relative to the decline in its output share. By 2040, if current trends continue, agriculture’s
employment share will remain sizable (over 20% for most of Asia), compared to the output share
(under 20% for most countries, and under 5% for majority of these). Even 30 years hence, the
ii Agriculture Development and Economic Transformation in Global Scenario
transformation of employment structure of the economy in many Asian countries will remain
incomplete.
For some, agricultural transformation has not advanced as planned or has stalled. Navigating
the complexity of a transformation is invariably tough for governments, even though they may
prioritize agricultural investment and recognize how important it is to get right. This is especially true
in an era in which governments are seeking agricultural transformations that meet multiple goals
simultaneously. In addition to traditional economic development and poverty reduction goals,
governments are also focusing their agricultural transformation plans on Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) by considering, for example, climate-smart strategies, women’s economic
empowerment, and biodiversity.
The drivers of agricultural transformation are multidimensional, interrelated, and change over
time, but they can be organized into categories to provide a better opportunity for pragmatic
diagnostics and decision making on national priorities. After running more than 30 country
diagnostics, we found that the drivers fall into three main categories. First, there are elements of
“transformation readiness.” Changes to a country’s institutional framework, governing mechanisms,
and political environment can significantly influence the likelihood of accelerating an agricultural
transformation. Second, the quality of the national agricultural plan or strategy is critical. Last, there
are drivers related to delivery mechanisms. This category focuses on what is needed to translate the
national agricultural plan into on-the-ground impact. This includes the ways in which countries
manage decision making and progress against targets as well as how they use change agents to
support the large-scale behavior change among smallholder farmers that underpins a successful
agricultural development and economic transformation.
Even if biotechnology contributes to increased harvests poverty will not necessarily decline.
Many poor farmers in developing countries do not have access to cash, credit, technical assistance, or
markets. The so-called Green Revolution of the 1950s and 1960s bypassed such farmers because
planting the new high-yield crops, and maintaining them through the use of pesticides and fertilizers,
was too costly for impoverished landowners. Data show that in both Asia and Latin America wealthy
farmers with larger and better-endowed lands profited from the Green Revolution, whereas farmers
with fewer resources often gained little. The depth of coverage of each topic of the book represents
the author’s judgment of the amount of material appropriate to the beginning level as compared to that
appropriate to a more advanced level. Thanks to all of the authors who have meticulously contributed
for various chapters of this book.
(Ratnesh Kumar Rao)

Secretary
194, Karaundi, BHU, Varanasi-221005
Website: www.mrfsw.org
E-mail: mrfsw_kvns@yahoo.com, mahimafound@gmail.com
AGROFORESTRY
NUTRIENT DYNAMICS UNDER SHORT-ROTATION TREES,
INTERCROPPED WITH AROMATIC GRASSES IN TERAI OF UTTAR
PRADESH
Faiz Mohsin1, S.S. Dhaka2 and Afreen Mohsin3
1
Professor, Agroforestry, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rampur, Mob.: 8077653565 / 9719244864,
E-mail: drfaizmohsin@gmail.com, 2Associate Professor, Entomology, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pilibhit and 3M.Sc. Forestry.
Forest Research Institute Dehra Dun, Sardar Vallabhai Patel University of Agric. & Tech. Meerut,
Corresponding Author: Faiz Mohsin
T he litter of the forest is an important stage in the cycle of habitat conservation. It

provides the return of nutrients and the replenishment of organic matter and supports a
wide variety of riches for fauna and micro-organisms. These species are covering the
largest area in India among the exotics. There is an immediate need to explore the possibilities of
growing commercial tree species with high value cash crops such as medicinal herbs on farm land
without compromising quality of the product. Being fast growing, poplar depletes soil more than the
slow growing and long rotation trees (Prasad et al., 1985). But at the same time, it is a winter
deciduous tree species and produces a considerable quantity of litterfall in the winter season.
In North India, Eucalyptus plantation is again picking up under agrisilvicultural system due to
introduction of clonal Eucalyptus having fast rate of growth, small canopy, uniform stem girth and 30
to 40 percent higher wood production (Bhardwaj et al., 2001). The amount and pattern of litterfall
varies with the type of species, growth and age, tree density, canopy characteristics, intercrops,
season, etc.(Bhardwaj et al., 2001; Mohsin et al., 1996; and Singh, 1998). The addition of litterfall
and return of nutrients through litterfall, especially N. P. K have been quantified in many studies
(Mohsin, 2005; Mohsin and Singh, 2007 and Mohsin and Singh, 2008), but a meager information is
available regarding return of nutrients through litterfall at farmers field.
Therefore, the study was carried out to assess the dynamic pattern and quantity of litterfall
and to estimate the amount of nutrients return to soil during different months in Poplar and Eucalyptus
plantation as sole and intercropped with aromatic grasses along with their fresh herb and oil yield.
Figure 1 & 2. Poplar intercropped with Palmarosa

Materials and Methods
Field experiment was conducted at farmers field in Distt. Pilibhit, U.P. for 72 - Months.
Maximum and minimum temperature ranges from 18 to 47 C and 5.2 to 29.10 C, respectively. The
agroforestry systems were Poplus deltoides(S7C15) and Eucalyptus hybrid with improved varieties of
aromatic grasses viz., Cymbopogon winterianus (Bio-13), Cymbopogon flexouses(Krishna) and
Cymbopogon martini (PRC- 1). There were seven treatments, in both the tree component; viz; three
were with intercrops, three were of pure crop component of each aromatic grasses and one of pure
Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid. Pure aromatic grasses were taken in a RBD with three
replications. The soil of experimental fields was typic Hapludoll derived from alluvium. It was silty
clay loam having pH of 7.0, organic carbon 1.0%, available N,P and K were 272.5, 12.8 and 245.4
kg/ha, respectively. Planting of Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid was done at the spacing of 5m
x 4m and 2.5m x 2.5m, respectively. All the above aromatic grasses were planted both as pure and
intercropped with Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid, during first week of February at spacing of
60 x 60cm by slips in the first year of the study . A suitable fertilizer dose of 180 kg N, 80 kg Pand 60
kg K per hectare was applied to Cymbopogon winterianus. One third dose of N and total P and K was
2 Agriculture Development and Economic Transformation in Global Scenario
applied at the time of planting and rest amount of N was applied in two equal doses after every
harvest in Cymbopogon winterianus. In the second year, full dose of P and K was given and three
equal doses of N applied after each harvest. In third and fourth year same doses of fertilizer were
applied as in the second year. Cymbopogon winterianus continued for four years. In Cymbopogon
flexouses and Cymbopogon martini same fertilizer dose was applied except N, i.e., 150 kg/ha.
Figure 3 & 4. Aromatic Grasses (Citronella & Palmarosa) in Open Field
Figure – 5. Lemon grass at Farmer’s Field

From second to sixth year same fertilizer application was done as in Cymbopogon winterianus
, Cymbopogon flexouses and Cymbopogon martini continued upto end of the study period i.e., 72–
months ,in pure as well as intercropped system. First weeding was done after 45 days of planting and
second weeding was done after 90 days of planting. After each harvest of grasses, hoeing was done.
Fifteen irrigation were given to these crops per year. First harvests of aromatic grasses were done in
June and second harvest was done in October. From second to sixth year of study, three harvests were
taken in the month of February, June and October each year, except Cymbopogon winterianus, in
which only from second to fourth year of study three harvest were taken. Fresh herbage yield of
aromatic grasses were recorded in each harvest by quadrat method. A 100 gm sample of each crop at
both harvest was collected and oil content was measured with the help of Clevenger’s apparatus. Oil
yield was also calculated.
The annual litter production of the trees in intercropping stands was recorded by collecting all
the leaves and twigs, falling to the soil surface in litter traps made by demarcating 100 x 100 cm areas
at six places. The litter samples collected were pooled together to represent annual fall. A represented
sample of each annual litterfall were taken, oven dried at 80 C for 36 hrs. and subjected to further
chemical analysis for N, P and K, using the modified microkjeldahl Vanadomolybdo phosphoric acid
yellow colour method and flame photometry, respectively (5). On the basis of nutrient concentration
in the litter, the quantity of nutrient elements released and their periodical addition to the soil was
calculated.
Nutrient Dynamics under Short-Rotation Trees, Intercropped with Aromatic Grasses in Terai……….. 3
Figure–6. Palmarosa intercropped with Eucalyptus

Results and Discussion
Herbage and Oil Yield: The data recorded on the fresh herbage and oil yield has been given in
Table–1. It is revealed from the table that higher herbage and oil yield was recorded in all the
aromatic grasses, in pure fields and than with intercropped with Populus deltoides and Eucalyptus
hybrid. In Cymbopogon winterianus, the fresh herb yield (q/ha) and oil yield (kg/ha) increased upto
third year but in fourth year the herb yield decreased. In Cymbopogon flexouses and Cymbopogon
martini remained for 72- months in the field, but Cymbopogon winterianus remained only for 48
months. The fresh herbage and oil yield was recorded higher inpure crops than intercropped crops
with trees. The herbage and oil yield recorded under trees was less due to increased amount of shade,
in comparison to pure fields of aromatic grasses. Upto the age of 48- months of trees the yield of
intercrops did not decreased but as the age increased to 60 and 72- months the yield was also
decreased. This was due to canopy effect of trees.
Table–1. Total herb (fresh weight) and oil yield of aromatic grasses as affected by age and treatments in Populus
deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid plantations
Age (Months) Herb Yield(q/ha) Oil Yield(kg/ha)
Treatments 12 24 36 48 60 72 12 24 36 48 60 72
C.winterianus (Pure) 160.4 250.5 265.1 200.0 - - 128.3 200.4 212.1 160.0 - -
C.martinii (Pure) 200.5 300.1 310.0 315.6 280.5 280.2 100.3 150.1 155.0 157.8 140.3 140.1
C.flexouses (Pure) 200.2 280.4 300.1 300.5 250.2 210.2 180.2 252.4 270.1 270.5 225.2 189.2
Poplar+C.winterianus 145.1 200.5 185.2 130.0 - - 116.1 160.4 148.2 104.0 - -
Poplar+C.martinii 180.4 240.5 217.2 158.2 140.1 140.6 90.2 120.3 108.6 79.1 70.1 70.3
Poplar+C.flexouses 180.5 238.6 240.5 240.0 175.4 147.8 162.5 214.7 216.5 216.0 157.9 133.0
Eucalyptus+C.winterianus 130.5 188.4 159.2 101.0 - - 104.4 150.7 127.6 80.8 - -
Eucalyptus+C.martinii 172.5 211.6 211.8 180.9 150.4 149.5 86.2 115.8 105.9 90.5 75.2 74.8
Eucalyptus+C.flexouses 170.7 210.2 186.8 142.5 118.9 114.7 153.5 189.2 168.1 128.3 107.0 103.2
For Fresh herb yield For Oil yield

Poplar Eucalyptus Poplar Eucalyptus
CD at 5% for stand age(a) 0.089 0.082 0.078 0.074
CD at 5% for species mixture(b) NS NS NS NS
CD at 5% for interaction (axb) 0.0281 0.245 0.362 0.391
In the study, it was recorded that herb yield was recorded highest in rainy season harvest
continuing by winters and summers harvest. Similarly oil percentage of all the aromatic grasses was
low in rainy and winter season than by summer season harvest. This could be explained on the basis
of spectral composition and light intensity on cell structures which are the site of terpene formation.
Light favours the formation of oil and stimulates the bio-chemical and physiological reactions during
the bio-synthesis of oil. Thus, shorter period of sunshine due to clouds and more shade under trees,
resulted in reduction of oil contents. These findings are in conformity with those of (Dutt and Thakur,
2004; Karikalan et al., 2002 and Thakur and Dutt, 2007).
Figure–7. Lemon grass intercropped with Poplar

Litter Production: The total annual litter production (t/ha/yr) was lower in the juveline stands but it
increased significantly (P<0.05) over time. The higher litter productivity in the intercropped stands of
trees in the present study was expected due to cultural operations given to aromatic grasses, which
have ultimately helped the trees in producing more number of twigs and leaves and thus increased
litter production. The maximum litter production in intercropped trees than their pure stands was also
found (Mohsin and Baburam, 2002 and Mohsin, 2005). Highest litter production by trees with
Cymbopogon martini and lowest with Cymbopogon winterianus, among the intercropped trees (Table-
2). But it is also revealed that Poplar and Eucalyptus intercropped with Cymbopogon winterianus did
not produce much litter, due to no intercrop in the age of 60 and 72- months of trees. It indicates that
trees with Cymbopogon martini have big and fully developed canopy. Similar studies were also
reported by (Issac et al., 2004).
Table – 2. Total litter production (t/ha/yr) in Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid as affected by age and treatments
Age (Months) Treatments 12 24 36 48 60 72
Poplar+C.winterianus 1.52 2.32 3.24 4.92 5.14 5.66
Poplar+C.martinii 1.85 2.91 3.97 6.18 7.41 8.22
Poplar+C.flexouses 1.63 2.64 3.45 5.21 7.26 7.71
Poplar (pure) 1.36 2.16 3.14 4.61 5.12 5.55
Eucalyptus+C.winterianus 0.52 0.69 2.38 4.21 6.11 7.68
Eucalyptus+C.martinii 0.66 0.77 2.76 4.46 6.81 7.89
Eucalyptus+C.flexouses 0.61 0.74 2.49 4.35 6.32 7.75
Eucalyptus (pure) 0.43 0.58 2.14 4.09 5.92 7.49
Poplar Eucalyptus
CD at 5% for stand age(a) 0.091 0.075
CD at 5% for species mixture(b) NS NS
CD at 5% for interaction (axb) 0.282 0.261
Nutrient Concentration in Litter: The concentration(mg/g) of NPK in the litter was found to be
higher in the intercropped than that of pure stands at all the ages. The values remained higher in the
stands intercropped with Cymbopogon, being maximum in the Cymbopogon martini and minimum in
Cymbopogon winterianus, intercropped stands of all the ages in comparison to pure plantation of
Poplar and Eucalyptus(Table-3 a,b). The concentration of nutrients in the litter decreased significantly
(P<0.01) with increasing age of the stands. Concentration of N,P and K in leaf litter is related to stand
age and decline with successive growth of the tree (Mohsin et al., 1996 and Mohsin and Singh, 2008).
The proportion of mature leaves in plant increases with the advancement of its age and the litter
produced by the older trees therefore contain comparatively lower nutrient concentration on N and K
in the intercropped stands at various ages was found.
Table–3 (a). Nutrient Concentration (mg/g) in litterfall of Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid as affected by age
and treatments.
Age (Months) 12 24 36
Treatments N P K N P K N P K
Poplar+C.winterianus 1.08 0.11 0.76 0.93 0.09 0.68 0.66 0.08 0.54
Poplar+C.martinii 1.17 0.11 0.82 1.07 0.10 0.77 0.78 0.09 0.68
Poplar+C.flexouses 1.10 0.11 0.79 0.96 0.09 0.73 0.69 0.09 0.62
Poplar (pure) 0.96 0.10 0.71 0.84 0.08 0.63 0.51 0.08 0.49
Eucalyptus+C.winterianus 8.9 0.53 7.1 7.4 0.46 6.2 6.7 0.42 5.6
Eucalyptus+C.martinii 9.3 0.55 7.3 7.7 0.48 6.4 7.1 0.46 6.1
Eucalyptus+C.flexouses 9.2 0.54 7.2 7.6 0.47 6.3 6.8 0.44 5.9
Eucalyptus (pure) 8.4 0.48 6.8 7.0 0.41 5.9 6.4 0.38 5.4
Table–3 (b). Nutrient Concentration (mg/g) in litterfall of Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid as affected by age
and treatments.
Age (Months) 48 60 72
Treatments N P K N P K N P K
Poplar (pure) 0.42 0.07 0.42 0.36 0.06 0.35 0.29 0.05 0.36
Eucalyptus+C.winterianus 6.1 0.38 5.2 5.5 0.36 4.8 4.5 .45 4.3
Eucalyptus+C.martinii 6.4 0.43 5.8 5.8 0.41 5.2 4.8 .48 4.5
Eucalyptus (pure) 5.8 0.35 4.9 5.1 0.34 4.5 4.3 0.43 3.9
Nutrient Dynamics under Short-Rotation Trees, Intercropped with Aromatic Grasses in Terai……….. 5
Poplar Eucalyptus
N P K N P K
CD at 5% for stand age(a) 0.351 NS NS 0.481 0.522 0.589
CD at 5% for species mixture(b) 0.582 NS 0.575 0.612 NS 0.591
CD at 5% for interaction (axb) NS NS NS NS 0.489 NS
Addition of Nutrients into the Soil: Though the concentration of nutrients decreased with increasing
age of the stands but their addition to the the soil through litterfall was increased significantly with
increasing age (Table-4 a,b). This was due to significant increase in the total litter production and
advancement of the age of the trees in the stands (Mohsin and Baburam, 2002; Mohsin and Singh,
2008 and Singh et al., 2007). Agroforestry practices increase the soil organic matter through litter
production which is responsible to enhance the population of beneficial microorganisms. The soil
biological attributes are also responsible for determination and maintenance of physical properties of
soil.
Table–4 (a). Total addition of nutrients through litterfall (kg/ha/yr) of Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid as
affected by age and treatments
Age (Months) Treatments 12 24 36
N P K N P K N P K
Poplar (pure) 14.25 1.22 11.23 18.66 2.07 16.86 24.25 2.41 21.32
Eucalyptus (pure) 5.71 0.32 4.60 16.17 0.94 13.62 22.42 1.16 19.47
Table–4 (b). Total addition of nutrients through litterfall (kg/ha/yr) of Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid as
affected by age and treatments
Age (Months) Treatments 48 60 72
N P K N P K N P K
Poplar (pure) 29.78 2.69 27.92 35.89 3.69 31.55 30.91 4.11 35.21
Eucalyptus (pure) 27.56 1.85 22.31 31.21 2.08 27.54 32.89 2.37 29.83
Poplar Eucalyptus
N P K N P K
CD at 5% for stand age(a) 0.812 0.816 0.831 0.749 0.942 0.712
CD at 5% for species mixture(b) 1.012 1.012 1.118 1.031 1.071 1.214
CD at 5% for interaction(axb) 2.234 2.149 2.349 2.142 2.246 2.546
Conclusion
An Experiment was conducted in District Pilibhit. U.P., to study the yields of aromatic
grasses in pure fields as well as intercrops under Populus deltoids and Eucalyptus hybrid. Quantity of
litterfall, its chemical composition, nutrient addition, changes in chemical constituents of soil and herb
and oil yield of Cymbopogon spp. were studied under agroforestry systems involving Populus deltoids
and Eucalyptus hybrid with intercrop of Aromatic grasses (C.winterianus, C.martinii, C.flexouses).
Trees were intercropped with grasses have significantly more diameter and height in comparison to
trees planted without intercrops. High herbage and oil yield was recorded in pure fields of grasses
than their crops intercropped with trees. Maximum yield was produced by Palmarosa and minimum
by Citronella in poplar plantation intercropped. In Eucalyptus hybrid intercropped grasses, maximum
oil yield was produced by Lemon grass and minimum by Palmarosa. Higher quantity of litter was
produced in Palmarosa and lower was produced in Citronella intercropped trees. The litter produced
by the intercropped stands had higher NPK contents than pure stands. The concentration of nutrients
in the litter decreased with increasing age of the stands. Similarly, the total addition of nutrients
(NPK) through litterfall to the soil increased as the age of trees increased. The maximum addition of
nutrients was recorded in the field of trees intercropped with Palmarosa grass while minimum was in
trees intercropped with Citronella. The available NPK content of soil under the pure stands of trees
was higher than the soil of the intercropped stands. Maximum amount of N and K was found in
superficial layer of the soil, which decreased with increasing depth. Most of the phosphorus was
accumulated in the soil at the depth of 15-30cm in all the stands.
References
Prasad, K.G., Singh, S.B., Gupta, G.N. and George, M. (1985). Studies on changes in soil properties under
different vegetation. Ind. Forester. 111(10):794-801.
Bhardwaj, S.D., Panwar, P. and Gautam, S. (2001). Biomass potential and nutrient dynamics of Populus deltoids
under high density plantations. Ind. Forester,127: 144-153.
Mohsin, F., Singh, RP. And Singh, K. (1996). Nutrient cycling of Poplar plantation in relation to stand age in
agroforestry system. Ind.J.of AgroForestry.19(4):302-310.
Singh, B.(1998). Biomass production and nutrient dynamics in three clones of Populus deltoids planted on Indo-
Gangetic plains. Plant and Soil,203:15-26.
Mohsin, F. (2005). Effect of litterfall of short –rotation trees on herbage and oil yield of aromatic plants under
agroforestry system. Ind.J.of AgroForestry. 7(1): 25-31.
Mohsin, F., Singh,J .P. (2007). Nutrient cycling through litterfall production of short – rotation trees and its
effect on herbage and oil yield of aromatic plants under agroforestry system. Ind. Forester, 133(6):794-804.
Mohsin, F., Singh, Omveer .(2008). Litter production and soil productivity under poplar intercropped with
Mentha. Annals of Plant and Soil Research. 10(2):164-168.
Dutt, Vaishnu and Thakur, P.S.(2004). Bio-economics of cropping systems combining medicinal and aromatic
herbs with commercialtimber tree species. Ind.J.of AgroForestry.6(1):1-7.
Karikalan, T.V., Yasin, M.M., Divya, M.P. and Gopi, D. (2002). Effect of intercropping and nitrogen
management on growth and yield of medicinal plants under kapok. Ind.J.of AgroForestry.4(2):88-93.
Thakur, P.S. and Dutt, Vaishnu. (2007). Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic herbs in agroforestry for
diversification under submontane conditions of western Himalayas. Ind.J.of AgroForestry. 9(2): 67- 76.
Mohsin, F. and Baburam. (2002). Sixty month study on litter production, changes in soil-chemical properties
and productivity under Poplar (Populus deltoids) intercropped with wheat. Ind.J.of AgroForestry.4(2): 81-
87.
Issac, Sheeba Rebbeca and Achutan Nair, M. (2004). Litter production and nutrients accretions in soil through
Ailanthus leaf litter. Ind.J.of AgroForestry. 6(1):81-84.
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
STUDIES ON INTERCROPPPING AND ROOTING PATTERN IN
POPULUS DELTOIDES PLANTATION
Faiz Mohsin1, S.S. Dhaka2 and Afreen Mohsin3
1
Professor, Agroforestry, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rampur, Mob.: 8077653565 / 9719244864,
E-mail: drfaizmohsin@gmail.com, 2Associate Professor, Entomology, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pilibhit, Sardar Vallabhai
Patel University of Agric. & Tech. Meerut and 3M.Sc. Forestry. Forest Research Institute Dehra Dun,
Corresponding Author: Faiz Mohsin
A
groforestry can improve the economy of the farmers, besides taking care of the
natural resources (soil, water and air). But the component plant species in
agroforestry system depends on the same reserve of growth resources such as light,
water and nutrients and hence there will be influence of one component of a system on the
performance of the other components as well as of the system as a whole (Gill, 2002). Some farmers
are putting their agricultural land under poplar plantation either in row plantation or block plantation.
The farmers have adopted poplar due to its short duration, ease of regeneration, and its compatibility
with agricultural crops. Growing of cash crops in poplar will not only meet the demand of these crops
but will also increase the area under forest. Growing of intercrops under poplar plantations has been
widely advocated so that the growers can ensure regular and enhanced income from such plantations
(Singh et.al.1985). Natural forests alone can not meet the demand of fuelwood, timber and other wood
products and has to be supplemented by plantations in farm lands( Evans,1976).
Agroforestry is an integrated land use system approach, different from the sum of its two
major components, viz., agriculture and forestry. The specific advantages from this system are early
financial returns, increased cash flow and improved ecology. Due to over exploitation, unscientific
collection and illegal export, the genetic resources of valuable crops are getting exhausted very fast.
To overcome this situation, the crops are being cultivated along with the trees under agroforestry
systems. Growing trees on agricultural fields, combined with agricultural crops for augmenting
biomass production per unit area is now becoming popular among the farmers. In return the farmers’
get the cash crop benefits as also the returns in the form of timber, fuelwood and fodder, etc. With the
high cost of land, growing trees for 20-60 years has now become unduely expensive and needs to be
replaced by quick growing trees. Poplar can make an important contribution to this end owing to its
rapid growth rate and multiple exploitation. Its importance as an agroforestry tree has been realised
(Chaturvedi, 1982).
Agroforestry, is one of the best option to increase the tree cover outside the forest. The need
of agroforestry has been necessitated in many parts of the country, which face several agricultural and
ecological problems. Intercropping, especially during the gestation period, could be economically
profitable and is environmentally sound indeed. Trees on farm can be made popular, especially fast
growing like Poplar, which also provide fodder, fuel and timber. Thus, keeping in view multipurpose
uses and role in bio-drainage Populus deltoids is fast growing short rotation trees, which deplete the
soil more as compared to slow growing and long rotation ones (Prasad,et.al.,1985).This tree is very
much suitable for growing in agroforestry. The potential benefit from growing Poplar combination
with annual or perennial crops has been suggested by (Nair,1984).
Mustard is important oilseed crop of family cruciferae and occupies a prominent place among
oilseed crops being next to groundnut in importance. The present area, production and yield of nine
oilseeds in India is around 26.48 mha,30.94 mt and 1168 kg/ha respectively. The average productivity
of rapeseed mustard in India is only 1145 kg/ha, which needs to be enhanced upto 2562 kg/ha by 2030
for ensuring edible oil self-reliance (DRMR,2011).The country shares about 23% of the world
production of rapeseed and mustard. The oil content of the mustard seeds ranges from 35-48% and
37-42% protein in cake (NIIR, Board and Nagraj,1995). The intensity of light and temperature
influenced the oil content in Mustard more than any other factor like humidity and rainfall (Russel,
1925). The root system supply connecting link between the plants and the soil, and studies of tree
roots are especially pertinent to forest soil configuration. Roots provide anchorage for the tree and
serve the vital functions of absorption and translocation of water and nutrients. They exert a
significant influence on soil profile development, and upon dying, roots contribute to soil organic
matter content (McClaugherty et.al.,1982).
The paucity of information on roots is particularly acute for trees,because of the great
difficulties in extracting these large underground organs without destroying and modifying them. The
extent and gross morphology of soil grown root systems of a number of other studies have dealt with
growth responses to variations in soil and site properties (Kaufman,1968 ; Lyford and Wilson,1966).
It should not be surprising that growth and distribution of roots are influenced essentially by
the same environmental factors that effect growth of the above ground parts of the tree. The study of
the rooting system of the trees will be of a special importance for agroforestry systems where trees are
deliberately integrated with the annual field crops in some temporal or spatial arrangements. The
competition for water and nutrients between the trees and crops will largely depend on the rooting
pattern of trees and crops. Therefore, the present study was conducted to assess the performance of
Poplar, based agri-silviculture system and the effects of litter, canopy shade and influence of soil on
the growth of crop plants and rooting patterns of Populus deltoids .
Figure–1, 2, 3 & 4. Wheat Intercropped with Populus delltoides
Figure–5 & 6. Mustard Intercropped with Populus deltoides

Field experiments was conducted for 60–months (January- 2014 to January 2019) at farmers
field in Distt. Pilibhit,U.P. The agroforestry systems were poplar intercropped with improved varieties
of Mentha arvensis (shivalik), Wheat (PBW-373), Sugarcane (Co Pant 84212) and Mustard (Pant pili
Sarson-1).S7C15 clone of Poplar were selected to conduct this study. There were nine treatments;
four intercrops with trees, four treatments of pure crop components (control) and one treatment of
pure tree component. Pure crop (control) were taken in a randomized block design with three
replications. The soil of experimental fields was typic Hapludoll derived from alluvium. It is a silty
Studies on Intercroppping and Rooting Pattern in Populus Deltoides Plantation 9
clay loam having pH of 7.0, organic carbon 1.0%, available N,P and K are 272.5,12.8 and 245.4
kg/ha, respectively. Planting of poplar was done at 5m x 4m spacing, adopted by growers of the area.
All the above mentioned crops were cultivated both as pure and intercropped with poplar. Height and
diameter were measured after 60 months. Sample of intercrops were also taken from both the fields to
quantify the yields. The annual litter production of the trees in intercropping stands was recorded by
collecting all the leaves and twigs, falling to the soil surface in litter traps made by demarcating 100 x
100 cm areas at six places. The litter samples collected were pooled together to represent annual fall.
A represented sample of each annual litterfall were taken, oven dried at 80 c for 36 hrs. and subjected
to further chemical analysis for N,P and K, using the modified microkjeldahl Vanadomolybdo-
phosphoric acid yellow colour method and flame photometry, respectively (Jackson, 1967). Soil
samples were taken from the site upto a depth of 45 cm, and pits were divided into three horizons,
viz.,(a) 0-15cm, (b) 15-30cm and (c) 30-45 cm. Available nitrogen in soil was determined by alkaline
permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija,1956), available phosphorus by Olsen method (Jackson,
1967) and available potassium was extracted from the soil by neutral normal ammonium acetate as
described by Jackson (1967). On the basis of nutrient concentration in the litter, expected quantity of
nutrient elements released and periodical addition to the soil was calculated. Mentha arvensis were
transplanted during the third week of January each year at a row spacing of 60 cm by suckers, during
60 months of study. First harvest of Mentha was taken after 120 days of planting and second after 60-
65 days of first harvest.Sugarcane was planted in the month of March at a spacing of 75 cm. The crop
remained for two years. Mustard was sown during the second week of October.Weeding was done
manually twice during the crop period.
The recommended practices were adopted for all the intercrops.
Figure–7. Sugarcane Intercropped with Populus deltoids Figure–8. Sugarcane Intercropped with Populus deltoides
Two winter season crops viz.; Wheat (HD-2967) Triticumaestivum L. and Mustard ( Pant
pilisarson–1) Brassica junceaL.were sown in the interspaces of 2,3,4 and 5 years old Populus deltoids
plantation. Wheat was sown during the last week of November and Mustard was sown during the
second week of October. Half dose of N and full dose of P and K and Sulphur as basal application
was given to Mustard crop and half N was applied to the crop as top dressing [ N-90;P-40;K-20 and
S-30 kg/ha ]. Half dose of N and full dose of P and K was applied to wheat crop as basal application;
And 1/4th of N after 1st irrigation, and 1/4th after 2nd irrigation [ N-150,P-60,K-40 and Zn-25 kg/ha ].
Wheat crop was irrigated after every 22 days, whereas two irrigations were applied in Mustard.
Weeding was done manually twice during the crop period. Both the crops (wheat and mustard) were
also sown under control conditions (without trees ) in the adjacent plot. The observation was recorded
for trees as diameter at breast height (cm) and height (met). Total litter production (t/ha/yr),total
addition of nutrients to the soil through litterfall (kg/ha/yr) and available N.P.K (kg/ha) content of soil
under trees as pure and intercropped with Mentha, Sugarcane, wheat and Mustard at various ages
were also calculated.
The observations were recorded on plant height(cm) at 30,60,90 and 120 DAS(days after
sowing), of intercrops as well as pure crops; tillers per plant at 40-DAS and effective tillers per plant,
spike length,grains per spike,test weight(1000 seed weight), grain yield (q/ha) and straw yield in
wheat were recorded at harvest time, of wheat crop. In Mustard, plant height at 30,60,90 and 120
DAS and Primary branches per plant, secondary branches per plant, pods per plant, seeds per siliqua,
test weight, grain and stover yields were recorded at harvest time. Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (PAR) reaching the crop surface under the canopy of Eucalyptus and Poplar; and control
were measured at three spots 9:30 a.m.;11:30 a.m.; and 4:30 p.m. with Lux Meter and average was
taken as PAR value. Two general precautions were taken in sampling light intensities in vegetation
with this device ;1. The face of the photo conducter must be approximately horizontal and facing up,
2. Reading must be taken when sun is well up in the sky. The data was analysed by the paired t-test
(Fisher, 1948 and Mohsin,1994). Diameter of trees was measured at breast height (1.37met.) and
height was measured by Ravi Altimeter,each year during the period of study. The annual litterfall
production of the trees in intercropping stands was recorded by collecting all the leaves and twigs,
falling to the soil surface in litter traps made by demarcating 100cm x 100cm areas at 6 places ( two
places each at South, North and Central position of line ).
The litter samples collected were pooled together to represent annual fall and oven dried at 80
C for 36 hrs and subjected to further chemical analysis for N,P,K, using the modified microkjeldahl
Vanadomolybdate phosphoric acid yellow colour method and flame photometry, respectively
(Jackson, 1967). Total addition of nutrients to the soil through litterfall (kg/ha/yr) was also calculated.
The available nitrogen in soil was estimated by the method by Subbiah and Asija (1956) using 0.32%
KmNo4 and 2.5% boric acid having a mixed indicator. The available phosphorus in the soil was
determined by Olsen’s bicarbonate method and the available potassium was extracted from the soil by
neutral normal ammonium acetate as described by Jackson (1967).On the basis of nutrient
concentration in the litter the quantity of nutrients released and periodical addition to the soil was
calculated. For economic evaluation of the system, the cost items include the cost of field preparation
and cultivation of crops, material inputs such as seed and fertilizer, labour cost for different field
operations, interest on working capital and rental value of land was calculated on the basis of
prevailing market prices in Mandi Samiti. For net returns Mandi rates of grain were taken as
Rs.1735=00 and Rs.1840=00 and straw rates was Rs.300=00 and Rs.350=00per quintal of wheat;
And grains of Mustard was Rs.4160=00(2018) and Rs.4025=00 (2019); and stover rates was found
Rs.200=00(2018) and Rs.150=00(2019) per quintal for Mustard.
The pattern of root distribution of the Poplar trees was studied by excavation method as
reported by Ghosh and Chattopadhyay (1972) and Chandra et.al. (1979). A circle of 150cm radius
was marked around the tree trunk and further sub-divided into three radial distances, of 0-50, 50-100
and 100-150 cm. from the center of the tree base. Each of the radial distances was further sub-divided
into various soil depths, of 0-15,15-45,45-75 and 75-105 cm. Roots of the selected trees were dug out
manually with the help of a spade from each of the radial distances and soil depths separately. The
roots thus excavated were thoroughly washed under tap water, dried in shade for few hours and
weighed. The roots were graded into following four classes (Aiyappa and Srivastava, 1965), on the
basis of their diameter measured with the help of vernier calipers.
1. g1 (Fibrous) = < 0.2cm
2. g2 (Thin) = 0.2- 0.5cm
3. g3 (Medium) = 0.5 – 1.5cm
4. g4 (Thick) = > 1.5 cm.
1. Performance of Tree and Crop: Intercrop yields in terms of oil yield (kg/ha) and grain yield
(q/ha) and the growth of the trees from a 5 years study indicated that dbh and height of the trees were
slightly affected by intercrops. The dbh and height were observed maximum in sugarcane intercrop
trees. The variation in dbh and height may be due to higher doses of fertilizers and cultural operations
in sugarcane.(Table–1a). Rapid growth of the trees under agroforestry conditions is suggestive of the
fact that trees under this system are able to utilize cultural and nutritional status given to intercrop
under them. Trees grown as sole obviously could not receive proper tillage and manure requirement
resulting thereby in poor performance. (Mohsin and BabuRam,2002 and Gill et. al. 2008). The yield
of intercropped Mentha arvensis, sugarcane, Mustard and wheat declines as the age of trees increases
(Table 1 b).This was due to canopy effect of trees. The yield of crops was higher in sole field than
intercropped with trees. (Mohsin and Omveer, 2009, Gill et.al., 2004 and Nandal et.al.,1999).
Table–1(a): Performance of trees of agroforestry system in 60–month duration
Treatments Diameter(cm) Height (m)
Duration (Months)
12 24 36 48 60 12 24 36 48 60
Poplar S7C15(pure) 4.4 7.7 11.5 15.6 22.6 7.2 9.8 11.5 15.5 21.8
Poplar+ M.arvensis(Shivalik) 5.2 8.4 11.9 16.6 23.8 8.1 10.4 12.4 16.9 22.6
Poplar+Sugarcane (Co Pant 84212) 6.2 9.4 13.9 18.7 25.7 9.2 12.4 14.5 18.9 24.7
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 5.6 8.9 12.8 17.5 24.6 8.6 11.2 13.7 17.6 23.3
Poplar+Mustard(Pant pili sarson-1) 4.8 8.2 14.1 19.4 22.8 8.8 11.9 14.6 19.1 21.6
Table–1(b): Performance of crop components of agroforestry system in 60 – month duration
Treatments Yield ( Kg/ha and q/ha
Duration ( Months )
12 24 36 48 60
Poplar+ M.arvensis(Shivalik) 145.91 135.42 128.55 112.64 131.51
(179.22) (172.51) (165.62) (157.51) (152.64)
Poplar+S.cane(Co Pant 84212) 631.42 646.44 628.21 635.51 615.25
(635.64) (665.15) (621.25) (644.55) (585.25)
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 47.5 45.2 41.2 38.6 37.2
(49.6) (47.1) (46.4) (45.2) (43.2)
Poplar+Mustard(Pant pili sarson-1) 15.12 14.11 11.25 9.62 7.56
(16.25) (15.48) (15.05) (14.65) (14.12)
Values in paranthesis indicate the yield values of crops without trees.
CD (a) at 5% for stand age = 0.082
CD (b) at 5% for species mixture = NS
CD ( a x b ) at 5% = 0.395
Figure-9. Block Plantation of Populus deltoides

Litter Production: The total annual litter production (t/ha/yr) was lower in the pure plantation in
comparison to intercropped stands. The maximum litter was produced by trees, intercropped with
sugarcane. This was due higher growth of trees in sugarcane, hence more number of branches in these
trees. The litter production is increased as the age of tree increases (Table–2).
Table–2 Periodical litterfall of Populus deltoids as affected by age and treatments
Litterfall ( Dry weight/ha )
Treatments Duration ( months )
12 24 36 48 60
Poplar S7C15(pure) 0.98 1.44 2.65 3.36 4.35
Poplar+ Sugarcane(Co Pant 84212) 2.14 2.55 3.79 4.67 7.21
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 1.79 2.43 3.62 4.55 6.82
CD (a) 5% for stand age = 0.077
CD (b) 5% for species mixture= NS
CD (a x b) 5% = 0.269
Nutrient Concentration in Litter: The concentration (mg/g) of NPK in the litter was found to be
higher in the intercropped than that of pure stands at all the ages. The values remained higher in the
stands intercropped with sugarcane and minimum in the stands intercropped with Mentha of all the
ages in comparison to pure plantation of poplar plantation (Table–3). Concentration of N,P and K in
leaf litter is related to stand age and declines with successive growth of the tree.
Table–3 Nutrient Concentration (mg/g) in litterfall of Populus deltoids as affected by age and treatments
Treatments Duration (months )
12 24 36 48 60
N
Poplar S7C15(pure) 1.92 1.62 1.35 0.91 0.62
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 3.52 3.46 3.29 2.79 2.16
CD (b) 5% for species mixture = 0.08

CD (axb) 5% = NS
P
Poplar S7C15(pure) 0.36 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.12
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 0.57 0.47 0.35 0.26 0.19
CD (b) 5% for species mixture = NS
CD (axb) 5% = NS
K
Poplar S7C15(pure) 0.72 0.64 0.49 0.42 0.35
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 1.12 1.12 0.84 0.78 0.65
CD (axb) 5% = NS
Addition of Nutrients into the Soil: Though the concentration of nutrients decreased with increasing
age of the stands but their addition to the soil through litterfall was increased significantly (Table– 4).
This was due to significant increase in the total litter production with advancement of the age of the
trees in intercropped as well as in pure stands. Variation among stands intercropped with crops is also
noticed.
Available Nutrient Contents of the Soil: The available NPK contents (kg/ha) of soil under the pure
stands was found to be higher than the soil of the intercropped stands, at various horizons of the soil
under the stand (Table -5). It might be due to higher biomass production under agroforestry system
than pure stands. Nutrient contents were high in 0-15 cm horizon and decreased with increasing depth
of the soil positively due to nutrient cycling and surface enrichment biomass. Trees removed the
nutrients from the deeper horizon and considerable amount of nutrients was returned to the soil
through litterfall. Most of the N and K contents were found to be maximum in the upper strata (0-
15cm) which decreased slowly with increasing depth of the soil.
However, most of the P was accumulated in the soil at the depth of 15-30cm. This was due to
washing effect of the phosphorus already available in the upper strata (0-15cm) of the soil and the
phosphorus added through litterfall. Nye and Greenland (1964), Hazra and Tripathi (1986), Singh
et.al. (1989), Mohsin et.al. (1996) and Mohsin and BabuRam (2002) have also reported enrichment of
the soil nutrients under the tree canopy.
Table–4 Total addition of nutrients through litterfall (kg/ha/yr) of Populus deltoids as affected by age and treatments
Treatments Duration (months )
12 24 36 48 60
N
Poplar S7C15(pure) 32.4 39.5 44.2 47.4 39.4
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 34.5 41.2 46.6 49.9 40.6
CD (axb) 5% = 2.425
P
Poplar S7C15(pure) 3.5 4.8 5.3 6.4 7.7
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 3.9 5.2 6.5 7.6 8.5
CD (axb) 5% = 2.056
K
Poplar S7C15(pure) 20.6 25.7 33.6 42.2 48.4
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 21.4 26.4 34.9 43.7 49.5
CD (axb) 5% = 2.592
Table – 5 Nutrient Contents of Soil (Kg/ha) under Poplar after 60- month duration
Depth of Soil (cm)
N P K
Treatment 0-15 15-30 30-45 0-15 15-30 30-45 0-15 15-30 30-45
Poplar S7C15(pure) 469 252 214 39.6 46.7 34.6 316.1 234.4 202.5
Poplar+ M.arvensis(Shivalik) 446 235 202 36.4 42.5 31.9 292.1 278.5 261.6
Poplar+ Sugarcane(Co Pant 439 227 195 34.2 39.7 29.6 278.6 249.9 225.5
84212)
Poplar + Wheat(PBW-373) 451 243 208 37.2 44.2 33.5 305.4 209.6 185.5
Poplar+Mustard(Pant pili sarson- 412.6 236.8 198.2 27.2 33.2 23.8 296.2 228.2 191.4
1)
The plant height of wheat at 30 and 60 DAS did not differ significantly Poplar and in open
(pure wheat). However, at later stages (90 and 120 DAS) it was significantly less under trees as
compared to pure cropping. This might be due to advanced germination under trees. Maximum plant
height (96.5 cm) was recorded in pure cropping (Table–6). Significantly less plant height of mustard
was recorded under trees as compared to pure cropping. Less height of crops under trees may be
primarily due to reduced light intensity under trees. The data recorded during the experiment in the
month of December has clearly shown that PAR available to crops under Poplar at the age of 3 Years
it was 41.26,45.24 and 53.26% at 10:00 AM,12:30 PM and 4:00PM, respectively of light available to
crops in open. Thus more light intensity in sole cropping increased the photosynthetic efficiency of
crops resulting in better growth as reported by Mohsin(1994).
Light distribution can be improved by adjusting the tree shape. More height of wheat under
Eucalyptus after 90 and 120 DAS has also been reported by Deswal and Nandal (2008). Non
significant results were obtained for tillers per plant and effective tillers per plants in wheat,however,
more tillers were found in pure cropping. The other parameters such as plants per running meter row
length, spike length , grains per spike and test weight were significantly less under Poplar than in sole
cropping at the age of 2 years. These values were on higher side , intercropped with poplar at 2 years.
Similar patterns were observed in intercrops with 3,4 and 5 years of trees.
However, in Mustard primary branches per plant and seeds per siqua were at par under ,
Poplar and pure cropping. Yield parameters such as secondary branches per plant, siliqua per plant
and test weight were significantly higher in pure cropping. The numbers of secondary branches
recorded in pure cropping were 18.6 as compared to 11.4 under Poplar under the 2 years of age.
Similar patterns were also seen with 3,4 and 5 Years trees. The corresponding values of
siliqua per plant and test weight were 382.0, 10.8gm in pure cropping and in Poplar (2 year) it was
found 108.6 and 8.6 gm, respectively. Under the age of 3,4 and 5 years of Poplar it was 97.2,7.1 gm;
and 82.2,3.2gm and 89.4,5.6 gm, respectively.(Table–7). Reduced value of yield parameters of wheat
and Mustard may be ascribed to competition for light,moisture and nutrients in addition to
allelopethic effect of Poplar (Deswal and Nandal,2008, Prasad,et.al.2011).
The grain and straw/stover yields of both the crops Poplar decreased significantly as
compared to open fields ( crops without Poplar) and 9.16 to 38.7% and 7.06 to 32.82% grain yield
reduction was observed in wheat ( Table-8). The decrease in the straw yield of wheat was in the order
of 16.45 to 37.38% (Poplar),respectively ; while of Mustard (Table-9), it was 13.16 to 53.47% grain
yield reduction was observed. The decrease in stover yield of Mustard was in the order of 9.12 to
47.20% (Poplar). Yield reduction in wheat and Mustard indicated that higher tree density (833
trees/ha) had more suppressing effect on crops, reduced solar radiation on crop canopy and lower
availability of moisture and nutrients. Light intensity in Wheat and Mustard under Poplar reduced, as
compared to pure crops. Reduced yield of groundnut under Teak due to reduced PAR availability has
also been recorded by Venkatarao et.al,2006.Similar studies was in conformity to Mohsin,1994.
The moisture content under Poplar(3.89%) and in open (9.66%) was also recorded and the
data indicated that Poplar trees had severe competition for moisture with wheat and mustard. Similar
reduction in yield of wheat in association with Poplar due to moisture competition has also been
reported by Deswal and Nandal (2006).Similar studies are in confirmation with the study of Aromatic
plants with Poplar and Eucalyptus at various ages in the Terai of U.P. (Mohsin,1994). Net returns
from crop grown with Poplar and sole cropping revealed that maximum income (Rs.82819=00/ha
)was recorded in pure cropping (monoculture) of wheat, whereas net returns from Mustard grown
Poplar and sole cropping revealed that maximum income ( Rs.67275=00/ha.) and whereas also
negative net returns Rs.8731=00/ha( under 5 years Poplar) was recorded in Mustard oil.
Table 6 . Effect of Poplar on Monthly Plant Height of Wheat and Mustard
DAS Plant Height ( cm )
WHEAT MUSTARD
With With Poplar Paired Without With Poplar Paired
out Age (months) t-test Poplar Age (months) t- test
Poplar 24 36 48 60 value 24 36 48 60 value
30 9.9 9.2 7.3 5.8 4.6 2.58 68.7 24.4± 21.1± 16.2± 14.2 16.38*
±1.48 ±1.48 ±1.52 ±1.68 ±1.46 ±2.81 2.84 2.81 2.81 ±2.82
60 37.7 36.6±0. 28.2±0. 21.7 16.4 1.94 140.7 48.0± 45.4± 30.6± 14.5 11.35*
±0.48 48 68 ±0.72 ±0.46 ±8.10 8.16 8.12 8.10 ±8.14
90 65.4 55.6±2. 50.4±2. 41.2 37.4 4.43* 168.6 71.4± 67.3± 59.3± 42.2 31.81*
±2.02 02 06 ±2.08 ±2.04 ±3.31 3.34 3.31 3.32 ±3.32
120 96.5 79.2±0. 68.1±0. 64.4 62.1 27.67* 175.5 79.6± 67.7± 62.4± 53.2 91.80*
±0.96 96 98 ±0.92 ±0.86 ±1.15 1.19 1.17 1.16 ±1.16
*P ≤ 0.05 *P≤ 0.05
Table 7. Effect of Poplar on Yield parameters of Wheat and Mustard, with age of 2,3,4,5 years
Without With Paired Without With Paired t- Without With Paire Without With Paire
Yield Pop Pop t-test Pop Pop test Pop Pop d t- Pop Pop d t-
parameters value value test test
value value
Age (months)
WHEAT 24 36 48 60
Plants/
running 190.0 183.6 5.6* 190.0 171.6 5.6* 190.0 165.4 6.2* 190.0 141.4 5.4*
met.row length ±2.06 ±2.08 ±2.06 ±2.07 ±2.06 ±2.04 ±2.06 ±2.10
at
15 DAS
Tillers/plant at 7.6 6.9 1.6 7.6 6.2 1.8 7.6 4.9 1.9 7.6 3.2 1.4
40 DAS ±0.89 ±0.79 ±0.89 ±0.92 ±0.89 ±0.82 ±0.89 ±0.63
Effective 5.9 5.1 1.4 5.9 4.3 1.6*
tillers/plant at ±1.09 ±1.07 ±1.09 ±1.04 5.9 3.1 1.5 5.9 2.7 1.3
harvesting ±1.09 ±1.04 ±1.09 ±1.06
Spike length 10.2 9.3 13.4* 10.2 8.3 13.2* 10.2 6.9 13.2* 10.2 4.2 15.2*
cm ±0.38 ±0.36 ±0.38 ±0.42 ±0.38 ±1.88 ±0.38 ±1.87
Grains/spike 53.4 42.8 6.7* 53.4 38.4 6.5* 53.4 35.2 6.8* 53.4 29.7 6.8*
±6.75 ±6.55 ±6.75 ±6.36 ±6.75 ±7.76 ±6.75 ±7.81
Total weight 33.6 29.6 3.6* 33.6 26.7 3.4* 33.6 24.7 3.4* 33.6 21.2 4.4*
gm ±2.7 ±2.9 ±2.7 ±2.9 ±2.7 ±3.5 ±2.7 ±3.5
*P≤ 0.05 *P≤ 0.05 *P≤ 0.05 *P ≤ 0.05
Age (months)
MUSTARD 24 36 48 60
Primary 8.8 7.6 1.49 8.8 7.1 1.47 8.8 5.2 1.51 8.8 3.2 1.81
branches/ ±2.30 ±2.40 ±2.30 ±2.47 ±2.30 ±2.04 ±2.30 ±2.09
plant
Secondary 18.6 11.4 7.92* 18.6 9.9 7.82* 18.6 8.1 8.42* 18.6 5.3 8.74*
branches/ ±1.87 ±1.93 ±1.87 ±1.99 ±1.87 ±0.61 ±1.87 ±0.51
plant
Siliqua/plant 382.0 108.6 35.78* 382.0 101.6 35.76* 382.0 97.2 35.66 382.0 89.4 37.56
±8.50 ±8.70 ±8.50 ±8.70 ±8.50 ±8.54 * ±8.50 ±8.44 *
Seeds/ 16.5 13.5 4.09 16.5 11.8 5.03 16.5 11.0 5.05 16.5 7.8 5.07
siliqua ±1.63 ±1.43 ±1.63 ±1.73 ±1.63 ±1.65 ±1.63 ±1.52
Test weight 10.8 8.6 12.84* 10.8 7.8 12.94* 10.8 7.1 14.84 10.8 5.6 14.82
gm ±0.03 ±0.05 ±0.03 ±0.07 ±0..03 ±0.07 * ±0..03 ±0.05 *
*P≤ 0.05 *P≤ 0.05 *P≤ 0.05 *P≤ 0.05
Table 8. Effect of Poplar at various ages on Grain,StrawYield,Cultivation Cost and Net Returns of Wheat
Para Without With Poplar
meters Pop. Age (months)
24 36 48 60
Wheat grain q/ha 52.4 48.7 45.6 39.7 35.2
Straw q/ha 62.6 52.3 49.4 41.0 39.2
Cost of cultivation Rs./ha. 26,875 26,875 26,875 26,875 26,875
Profit grains Rs./ha. 90,914 84,494.50 79,116 73,048 64,768
Profit straw Rs./ha. 18,780 15,690 14,820 14,350 13,720
Price-Grain Rs./q 1,735 1,735 1,735 1,840 1,840
Price-Straw Rs./q 300 300 300 350 350
Total Profit Rs./ha. 109694 100184.50 93,936 87,398 78,488
Net Profit Rs./ha. 82,819 73,309.50 67,061 60,523 51,613
Table-9 Effect of Poplar at various ages on Grain, Strover Yield, Cultivation Cost and Net Returns of Mustard
Para Without With Poplar
meters Pop. Age (months)
24 36 48 60
Mustard (grain q/ha) 16.25 14.11 11.25 9.62 7.56
Stover yield (q/ha) 59.93 54.46 44.10 37.75 31.64
Cost of cultivation (Rs./ha.) 19,580=00 19,580=00 19,580=00 19,580=00 19,580=00
Profit grains (Rs./ha.) 67,600=00 58,967=00 46,800=00 38,720=00 30,429=00
Profit strove (Rs./ha.) 11,986=00 10,892=00 8,820=00 5,662=50 4,746=00
Price-Grain (Rs./q) 4,160=00 4,160=00 4,160=00 4,025=00 4,025=00
Price-Strover (Rs./q) 200=00 200=00 200=00 150= 00 150=00
Oil Yield (Kg/ha) 747.50 33.35 383.62 275.13 176.90
Oil Content % 46% 37.8% 34.1% 28.6% 23.4%
Price of Oil (Rs/Kg) 90=00 90=00 90=00 91=00 91=00
Total Profit Oil (Rs) 67,275=00 48,001=50 34,525=80 25,036=80 16,097=90
Net Profit Grain (Rs./ha.) 48,020=00 39,117=00 27,220=00 19,140=00 10,849=00
Net Profit Oil (Rs./ha.) 47,695=00 28,421=50 14,945=80 5,456=80 - 8,731=00
The age of trees had a significant effect on its total root system. The total root biomass of 2
and 3 years old Poplar trees was about 2.11 Kg and 6.30 Kg, respectively; which increased to 21.98
Kg in 4 years and 28.36 Kg in 5 years old trees (Table-10). The increase in root biomass may be
attributed to variation of the growth rate of trees with age. Generally,the growth rate remained higher
during early stages,it became constant or decreased with the advancement in tree age. Similar results
have been reported by McMinu(1963) for Douglas Fir and Ruark and Bockheim(1987) for Populus
tremuloides. In 2 and 3 years old trees the total root biomass decreased continuously with increasing
radial distance from the base at all the soil depths. In case of 4 and 5 years old trees the total root
biomass increased in 50-100 cm than 0-50 cm distance and decreased further in 100-150 cm distance
(Table-10).
The results further indicated that in early stages,the roots of the trees were mostly
concentrated near the base of the trees while in the later stages (4 and 5 years), the root system tended
to distribute uniformly around the tree. Similar results on radial root distribution have been reported
in Citrus (Aiyappa and Srivastava,1965; Aiyappa et.al.,1968 and Chandra et.al.,1979); mango
(Bojappa and Singh, 1975) and Guava trees (Hedge,1980). It was also noticed that the total root
biomass decreased continuously with increasing soil depth at all the age groups.
Similar results on root distribution with vertical depths have been reported in Slash Pine
(Schultz,1972), Pinus sylvestris (Robert,1976) and Populus tremuloides (Ruark and Bockheim,1987).
Considering all the factors of root system together, the Poplar trees may be classified as shallow
rooted because more than 75 percent of the total root biomass was located in 75 cm soil depth within
100 cm radial distance. Poplar have well developed tap roots and is capable of surviving on deep and
relatively dry sites. However, this tree species, besides its well developed tap roots,also have
extensive lateral and sinker roots, that permit them to flourish on shallow soils and soil with
fluctuating water tables.
Figure–10. Rooting Pattern of Populus deltoides

Age : 2 Years Depth : 45cm
Age : 5 Years; Depth : 45cm Age : 5 Years; Depth : 85cm

Figure–11. Rooting Pattern of Populus deltoides
Table–10. Root Biomass (gm) of Populus deltoids trees under different age groups, radial distances, soil depths and
root grades
Variables Age of Populus deltoids (months)
24 36 48 60
Radial Distance (cm)
0-50 950.0 (45.09) 2884.6 (45.52) 8685.6 (39.50) 11056.0 (38.98)
50-100 685.5 (32.51) 2039.4 (32.18) 9042.1 (41.12) 11302.7 (39.85)
100-150 472.5 (22.41) 1413.7 (22.31) 4259.5 (19.37) 6001.5 (21.16)
Soil Depth(cm)
0-15 d1 1100.8 (52.20) 3303.8 (52.13) 14715.7 (66.93) 15447.2 (54.47)
15-45 d2 656.5 (31.13) 1960.9 (30.94) 5525.4 (25.13) 7781.9 (27.44)
45-75 d3 260.7 (12.36 795.8 (12.56) 1112.7 (5.08) 3086.4 (10.88)
75-105 d4 90.8 (4.31) 277.2 (4.37) 633.4 (2.88) 2044.7 (7.21)
Root Grades
Fibrous g1 57.4 (2.72) 173.4 (2.74) 728.1 (3.31) 1079.6 (3.81)
Thin g2 195.5 (9.27) 567.1 (8.95) 2291.1 (10.42) 3030.2 (10.69)
Medium g3 416.0 (19.73) 1282.6 (20.24) 2466.1 (11.22) 3831.2 (13.51)
Thick g4 1439.9 (66.28) 4314.6 (66.08) 16501.9 (75.05) 20418.8 (71.99)
Total (gm/tree) 2108.8 (100) 6337.7 (100) 21987.2 (100) 28360.2 (100)
Values in paranthesis indicate the percentage of total root biomass.
Conclusion
The experiment was conducted at farmers field in Distt. Pilibhit , U.P. to study the growth and
yields of trees and crops, respectively, in pure fields as well as in intercrops. Performance of Populus
deltoides trees (S7C15) grown as sole and intercropped with Mentha arvensis (shivalik), sugarcane
(CoPant 84212),Mustard (Pant pili Sarson-1) and wheat (PBW 373) had the similar pattern in growth,
i.e., diameter and height. Poplar intercropped with sugarcane attained the maximum growth in each
year during the study period. Results revealed that an increase in the age of Poplar decreased the yield
of sugarcane and wheat but in Mentha arvensis it decreased upto 48 months age trees but in 60
months age trees it increased. Yield of sole crops was higher than intercrops with trees. Poplar trees
intercropped with sugarcane produced highest quantity of litter with higher amount of NPK contents
and also showed that the total addition of nutrients (NPK) through litterfall to the soil followed the
same pattern. It was also increased with the age of trees. The available NPK contents of soil under
pure stands of poplar was higher than the soil of intercropped stands. Yield of intercrops is low in the
fields which are cultivated along with trees. Non significant results were obtained for tillers per plant
and effective tillers per plants in wheat, however, more tillers were found in pure cropping. Yield
parameters such as secondary branches per plant, siliqua per plant and test weight were significantly
higher in pure cropping. The grain and straw/stover yields of both the crops under Eucalyptus and
Poplar decreased significantly as compared to open fields ( crops without Eucalyptus and Poplar).
Net returns from crop grown with Poplar and sole cropping revealed that maximum income
(Rs.82819=00/ha )was recorded in pure cropping (monoculture) of wheat, whereas net returns from
Mustard grown Eucalyptus,& Poplar and sole cropping revealed that maximum income
(Rs.67275=00/ha.) and whereas negative net returns Rs. 8731=00/ha (under 5 years Poplar) was
recorded in Mustard oil. At early ages, the roots of the trees were mostly concentrated near the base of
the trees but in the later ages the root system tended to proliferates uniformly around the trees. The
total root biomass decreased continuously with increasing soil depth at all theradial distances and
under all the age groups. It is clear that there is no completion among the root system with roots of
intercrops grown along with Populus deltoids.
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
ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION THROUGH AGROFORESTRY IN
GLOBAL SCENARIO
Alok K. Singh1, Sana Aisha2, Bipin K. Singh3 and Srishti Dipriya Minz4
M.Sc. (Ag.) Agroforestry student, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi (UP) 221005, E-mail: alokkj63@gmail.com1, singhbipin9832@gmail.com3, minz.srishti17@gmail.com4 and
2
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhanshi (UP) 284003,
E-mail: aishasana122@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: S. D. Minz
T he culture of cultivation of trees and agricultural crops with intimate combination has been
used by the farmers since ancient times throughout the world. Different patterns of the
cultivation, without knowing the term agroforestry, were common in early days. The
example of some of the places around the world which used the system unknowingly is listed below:
Europe: The degraded forest were used to be felled as a general custom until the medieval times along
with the burning of leftovers, cultivation of food crops in the cleared area and plantation of tree seedlings
along with agricultural crops, before, along with or after.
Finland and Germany: The above farming system was widely practiced in Finland up to the end of last
century and was being practiced in the few areas of Germany by late 1920s, as stated by King (1979).
America: In order to protect forest ecosystem in tropical America people used to plant trees on the farm
lands. In Central America traditionally farmers use to plant trees, shrubs, herbs, coconut, papaya, banana
and even maize giving them different structure and imitated the layered configuration of mixed tropical
forest.
Philippines, Asia: In the Hanunoo of the Philippines, Asia practiced Shifting cultivation in a complex and
fairly modernised way. To forestall the extreme exposure to Sun they deliberately use to leave certain trees
while clearing the backwoods for rice development. Trees were a vital piece of the Hanunoo cultivating
framework and were either planted or safeguarded to give food, drugs, timber, and cosmetics (Conklin,
1957).
Nigeria: In southern Nigeria, sweet potatoes, maize, pumpkins, and beans were regularly become together
under a front of dissipated trees (Forde, 1937). These are some of the examples involving combined
production of trees and crops on the same piece of land and there are many more such examples existing in
the history of plantation around the world. Trees being the integral part of these farming systems were
deliberately retained on the farm lands to support agriculture.
Definition: It is clear from above that agroforestry is a new name for a set of old practices. We should
intend to define agroforestry as a fruitful type of land use framework which accomplishes expanded
creation and prudent dependability. But to have a successful result from the agroforestry we need to have
correct choice of species combination, motivation of the people, understanding and good management
practices otherwise it may indeed fail as a system just like other land use systems. A carefully logical
meaning of agroforestry should pressure two qualities regular to all types of agroforestry and separate them
from different types of land use, in particular:
● The conscious developing of woody perennials on a similar unit of land as horticultural harvests or
potentially creatures, either in some type of spatial blend or succession.
● There must be a noteworthy positive as well as negative interaction between the woody and non-
woody parts of the framework, either natural or potentially practical.
While advancing agroforestry one should then pressure its capability to accomplish certain points,
not just by offering hypothetical and subjective comments about the advantages of trees, yet additionally,
and all the more significantly, by giving quantitative data (Lundgren, 1982). The in-house discussion at
ICRAF, redefined the idea and then a new agroforestry definition was suggested:
Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials
(trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land-management units as
agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In
agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economical interactions between the different
components (Lundgren, 1982). Recently in 2014 National agroforestry policy of India suggested its view
to define agroforestry: "Agroforestry is defined as a land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on
farm lands and rural landscapes to enhance productivity profitability diversity and ecosystem sustainability
it is a dynamic ecologically based natural resource management system that true integration of Woody
perennials on farms and in the agricultural landscape diversifies and sustains production and builds social
institutions." (NAFPI, 2014)
Concept of Agroforestry: The concept of agroforestry is clear from the above definitions, as an interface,
which is feasible and multi bio-creation framework. Here the essential component is Woody perennial;
necessary for regulation of the environmental factors such as climate, soil and landform; with this the
following components such as shrubs, crops and livestock are included. In some specialized systems other
additional components for example bees, fish can be included. Though these components along with the
main component are necessary but there are two very important features that distinguish agroforestry from
other land use systems.
● There must be presence tree component deliberately grown in the same land use system in which crops
are grown.
● There must be presence of positive significant interaction between the Woody and non Woody
components of the system.
As it is known, Agroforestry is an assortment of blends in this way even the least difficult type of
Agroforestry system is more unpredictable than a system of mono cropping, both in terms of ecology and
economy. The objective to enhance the production based on interactions of components with their
surroundings has resulted in continued generation of products than that of monoculture of farming or
forestry alone.
Agroforestry Systems can be Advantageous Over Conventional Agricultural and Forest: It mitigates
the impact of water and wind on soil which otherwise can cause serious erosions; protect farmstead from
severe sun and wind and thus protect crops and livestock; expand landscapes of agriculture and give
natural life territory for wildlife. The outcome is, sustained farming from environment point of view. By
giving a more differing cluster of potential pay openings agroforestry can likewise make cultivating or
farming endeavor all the more monetarily supportable.
Potentials of Agroforestry: Agroforestry has been designated as one of the most efficient land use
technology by virtue of its multi-pronged role because of which it is gaining popularity among different
farming communities. This land use system benefits the farmers by combining the profits of agriculture
with tangible as well as intangible benefits of the tree farming. The entire potential role of Agroforestry
can be e categorized into group’si.e. productive potential and ameliorative potentials of Agroforestry.
Productive Potential: These roles are the tangible outcomes which we get from the trees and can be
grouped under following sub-headings: 1. Income enhancement, 2. Employment generation, 3. Optimum
use of resources, 4. Insurance against emergencies.
Ameliorative Potential: The following roles are the outcome of the intangible benefits from trees and are
sub-headed as following: 1. Environmental amelioration, 2. Watershed conservation, 3. Soil fertility
enhancement, and 4. Biodiversity conservation.
Objectives of Agroforestry: Beneficiary aspects of the Agroforestry have been given enough
deliberations; still efforts to outline its basic objectives need to be addressed seriously. From the efforts of
ICRAF some of the basic objectives of Agroforestry are deduced which can play a key role in achieving
the goal of development in areas of poverty, ecology, literacy and women empowerment.
a. To eradicate hunger by increasing soil fertility and land regeneration.
b. To reduce poverty by generating income and by building assets using market driven local tree
cultivation systems.
c. To conserve biodiversity.
d. To improve the health and nutrition of the rural poor.
e. To protect water shed and its services.
f. To make rural poor capable to adapt to climate change and to make them benefited from emerging
carbon markets.
Benefits and Limitations of Agroforestry: Though, Agroforestry has claimed the status of an outstanding
land use technology having the protective as well as productive functions which increases the potentials of
wood and non-wood forest products with recurrent short term economic returns. With this optimized
recurrent short term economic returns it also guarantees long term services. With all these positive factors
related to the Agroforestry system it is imperative to say that it does have some negative aspects. So here in
this section we will shortlist the limitations of Agroforestry along with the benefits it provides both to
nature and human beings.
Benefits of Agroforestry: On a broad term benefits of Agroforestry can be categorized as, social benefits,
ecological benefits and economic benefits.
Social Benefit
● Improvement of rural livelihoods due to increased employment;
Economic Transformation Through Agroforestry in Global Scenario 21
● Improvement in nutritional standards of food as agroforestry enhancer’s availability of nutritious food

at low cost or even free of cost which reduces hazards of malnutrition.
● Safeguard of the stakeholders from the risk of daily migrations of the workers because due to
agroforestry there is round the year activities.
Ecological Benefits: The unique property of the woody perennial components of the agroforestry system
is to restore the viability of the ecosystem which was lost due to deforestation on a large scale. Some of the
important ecological gains endeavored by trees as woody perennials are given below:
● Soil water conservation which ultimately facilitates the ground water recharge.
● Efficient nutrient cycling due to increased microbial activities in the soil enhancing the health status of
the farms.
● Carbon sequestration per unit area of the farm is increased due to involvement of the Woody
perennials.
● Overall climate recovery and formation of a moderate micro climatic condition of the area.
Economic Benefits
● Increase of the farmer’s net profit per unit area due to better condition of the land then before.
● Risks related to the mono-cropping agricultural system are completely eliminated because of the
introduction of multi cropping system.
● Sustained supply of multiple non-woody products both from trees and crops increases the profit on
sustained manner.
● The nitrogen fixing properties of leguminous trees reduces the cost on urea which further adds to the
farmer’s profits.
Limitations of Agroforestry: Through consultations and feedbacks from the farmers and some of the
stakeholders few limitations came forward which are listed below:
● The complex nature of the agroforestry system may result in faulty implementation.
● It's difficult to be e accepted by very small holding farmers.
● Due to competition of nutrients by the complex nature of tree crop the expected success rates are not
achieved during early years.
● Polyphagous pathogen and pest incidence impose one of the major disadvantages.
● More labour input requirement and round the year involvement with out almost no resting phase also
acts as a limiting factor for agroforestry.
● Due to harvest and transportation of timber there are incidents to damage for the crops.
● One of the most important limitations of agroforestry is the legal complications produced during
harvesting and sale of timber.
To overcome these limitations a regular R & D is needed to develop proper region-specific and farmer
friendly agroforestry models suitable for region-specific and farmer friendly
Agroforestry in India: In ancient India the raising of trees with food crops on the same land has been
traditionally practiced. Jhum cultivation of hilly areas in the north-eastern region of India can be
designated as the forerunner of agroforestry in the country. However during recent past, the sustainable
development including sustainable production from land has all necessitated adoption of scientifically
prescribed agroforestry systems in India.
The joined endeavors in agroforestry research in India, in a composed way started in 1983 by the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with the foundation of All-India Coordinated Research
Project on Agroforestry (AICRP-AF, 1983) and later with the foundation of (NRCAF, 1988), The National
Research Center for Agroforestry, which is now renamed as (CAFRI 2014), Central Agroforestry Research
Institute, Jhansi. Through these endeavors the germplasm of multipurpose tree species and area explicit
agroforestry innovation for various agro-climatic zones of the nation has been created.
Examples from Himalayan Zone: Grewiaoptiva and Morus alba-based system
Examples from Indo Gangetic Plains: Poplar-based system
Examples from Arid and Semi-arid Zone: Hardwickiabinata and Ailanthus excelsa-based system
Examples from Humid and Sub Humid Zone: Acacia mangium and Gmelinaarborea-based system
Examples from Tropical Zone: Tectonagrandis-based system
National Agricultural Policy, 2000: The National Agricultural Policy (2000), gives a vital place to
Agroforestry, wherein it is underlined that 'ranchers will be urged to take up farms for generation of higher
income by advancing innovation, expansion and credit bolster bundles and evacuating limitations to
improvement of agroforestry'.
National Agroforestry Policy 2014: On the eve of inaugural session of 3rd world agroforestry conference
in Vigyanbhawan New Delhi on 10th February 2014 the national agroforestry policy of India was released
by Shri Pranab Mukherjee the former president of India, to boost up the agroforestry adoption in the
country. This policy gives tribute to all those who used to practice this system traditionally from many
years along with all those researches and professionals who have spent their time in researching and
documenting, to make agroforestry and integrated science.
Schemes under GOI: The Government of India (GoI) has propelled a few schemes in which some of the
forestry components and parts has been incorporated, such schemes includes the National Bamboo Mission
(NBM), National Horticulture Mission (NHM), Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), National Biofuel
Policy, and so forth.
NABARD: The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) provides financial and
banking institutional support for social forestry, farm forestry and afforestation of wastelands.
NAEB: The NAEB (National Afforestation and Eco-advancement Board), under the Ministry of
Environment, Forests and Climate Change, GoI is likewise advancing agroforestry rehearses on both
wastelands as well as on farms.
NMPB: The NMPB (National Medicinal Plants Board) under AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yunani, Siddha and
Homeopathy), GoI has laid accentuation on incorporating restorative plants and trees alongside farming
yields within agriculture.
Wadi Program: An aqueduct program started by BAIF (Bharatiya Agro-ventures Foundation
Development) Research Foundation in south Gujarat during the 1980s, further extended to various
ancestral districts of India. It is an agri-horti-silvi model spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra. For instance, horti-culture harvests, for example, amla, mango (10 * 10 separating), and
cashew (7 * 7 dividing) with intercrops developed in these spaces and trees like gliricidia, subabul planted
in nearer dispersing in the fringe in a territory of 0.4–1.0 ha. Up until this point, BAIF has helped over 1.81
lakh families to set up 68,586 ha channel. (Source: www.baifwadi.org)
Physiographic Zone Wise Tree Green Cover under Agroforestry System: According to India State of
Forest Report (2013),the approximate total tree green cover in the agroforestry system in India is estimated
as 111,554 sq km i.e. 3.39 per cent of country's geographical area.
Table 1: Tree green Cover and estimated Growing and Carbon Stock, under Agroforestry, Physiographic Zone wise
Physiographic Zone Geographical Area Tree green Tree green cover Growing Stock Carbon
(sq. Km.) cover(sq. km.) (% to GA) vol. (m. cum) Stock (m.
tones)
Western Himalayas 329,255 7131 2.17 55.14 15.47
Eastern Himalayas 74,618 18 18 2.44 11.30 2.98
North East 13,39,90 7513 5.61 60.9 3 9.51
Northern Plains 295,780 8740 2.96 74.33 22.66
Eastern Plains 223,339 9872 4.42 77.6 8 19.8 6
Western Plains 319,098 7450 2.33 55.65 10.4 2
Central Highlands 373,675 9168 2.45 74.09 22.8 5
North Deccan 355,988 6949 1.95 57.67 14.9 1
East Deccan 336,289 12450 3.70 177.74 53.30
South Deccan 292,416 7771 2.66 96.0 1 23.7 4
Western Ghats 72,381 7465 10.3 1 69.21 22.5 7
Eastern Ghats 191,698 5102 2.66 54.3 9 9.64
West Coast 121,242 13523 11.15 91.00 33.33
East Coast 167,494 6602 3.94 67.7 3 18.60
Total 33,287,263 11 1554 3.39 102 2.8 5 279.8 3
Source: ISFR,2013
Species Wise Volume of trees under Agroforestry System in INDIA
Table 2: species wise volume of trees under Agroforestry System in India (vol. in m. cum)
Species Diameter class (cm) Percentage
10-30 30-50 50+ Total
Acacia nilotica 15.881 11.074 2.072 29.03 2.58
Acacia catechu 4.227 0.326 0.019 4.57 0.41
Acacia lenticularis 5.0 41 2.825 0.495 8.36 0.74
Albizia spp. 3.922 7.309 2.253 13.48 1.20
Anacardiumoccidentale 4.2 74 1.068 0.000 5.34 0.48
Areca catechu 7.18 2 0.140 0.000 7.32 0.65
Artocarpusheterophyllus 8.3 67 9.5 34 3.947 21.85 1.94
Azadirachtaindica 32.7 99 28.7 34 14.449 75.98 6.76
Bombaxceiba 2.923 3.0 86 3.986 10.00 0.89
Borassusflabelliformis 5.8 56 55.9 61 2.303 64.12 5.70
Buteamonosperma 12.0 95 12.0 16 4.380 28.49 2.53
Cocosnucifera 35.421 24.329 0.325 60.08 5.34
Dalbergiasissoo 10.9 42 5.672 1.394 18.01 1.60
Eucalyptus spp. 15.0 87 5.426 0.983 21.50 1.91

Ficusbengalensis 0.424 0.62 3 13.123 14.17 1.26
Ficusracemosa 0.5 95 2.700 4.659 7.95 0.71
Ficusreligiosa 0.4 70 1.322 5.787 7.58 0.67
Ficus spp. 1.895 1.555 5.111 8.56 0.76
Gmelinaarborea 3.5 84 1.119 0.603 5.31 0.47
Grevillearobusta 4.2 94 2.038 1.185 7.52 0.67
Grewiaoptiva 4.2 32 0.85 9 0.112 5.20 0.46
Holopteleaintegrifolia 1.878 1.89 4 0.933 4.71 0.42
Heveabrasiliensis 8.0 93 0.972 0.000 9.06 0.81
Madhucalongifolia 1.1 45 5.752 57.046 63.94 5.69
Mangiferaindica 18.2 80 35.5 85 95.484 149.35 13.29
Phoenix sylvestris 5.203 5.004 0.113 10.32 0.92
Pinuskesiya 6.6 84 0.458 0.000 7.14 0.64
Pinusroxburghii 11.9 83 14.9 24 7.488 34.40 3.06
Populus sp. 6.4 64 1.020 0.005 7.49 0.67
Prosopis cineraria 3.2 43 4.92 4 1.413 9.58 0.85
Quercusleucotrichophora 2.85 7 1.76 6 0.599 5.22 0.46
Shorearobusta 6.548 5.928 9.048 21.52 1.91
Syzygiumcumini 5.5 89 6.400 6.761 18.75 1.67
Tamarindusindica 1.551 2.88 7 8.799 13.24 1.18
Tectonagrandis 8.7 80 1.99 8 0.488 11.27 1.00
Terminaliaarjuna 1.60 6 2.755 1.633 5.99 0.53
Terminaliabellerica 0.5 80 1.1 45 3.508 5.23 0.47
Terminaliacrenulata 2.2 56 1.78 1 1.369 5.41 0.48
Toonaciliata 2.725 2.098 0.484 5.31 0.47
Ziziphusmauritiana 6.204 1.990 0.242 8.44 0.75
Rest of species 107.5 85 83.4 44 112.293 303.32 26.98
Total 38 8.7 66 360.439 374.892 1124.097 100.00
Source: ISFR,2013
From above table, it is clear that agroforestry contributes huge growing stock as well as carbon
stock, thus giving fuel and fodder security and improving local economy. The different tree products and
their diversified uses can reduce the inputs and improves the eco-efficiency of agroforestry system. The
continuous throughout year work , with involvement of varity of skills, makes this system more labour
intensive that of sole agriculture. Other than making the work openings, agroforestry diminishes the burden
on Natural Forest by giving different items to the residing family in rural households.
As per India State of Forest Report (2019): Examples of agroforestry described in recent report of ISFR,
2019 within some of the Indian states.
Harayana: In spite of the fact that, the most extreme bit of the topographical territory comprises of
horticultural fields, over a period, the State has accomplished a remarkable status in the field of
agroforestry which has empowered the woodland inadequate State to help countless wood-put together
enterprises subordinate with respect to cultivate developed lumber. Poplar and Eucalyptus trees are the
major agroforestry species which have become the primary asset for development of occupation of
ranchers in northern and focal pieces of the State.
Punjab: The department encourages farmers to take up agroforestry on their farm lands by providing
quality planting material and technical hand holding.
Puducherry: Union Territory of Puducherry does not have any natural forests inside its jurisdiction. As
per the Champion & Seth Classification of Forest Types (1968), the forests in Puducherry belong to Type
Group ‘Littoral & Swamp Forests’. The forest department is taking up plantations on Government lands
regularly and encourages agroforestry. The resident farmers of Puducherry are currently developing
species of Casuarina in the area of 1,600 hectares out 15,000 hectares of net cultivable area.
Agroforestry Systems Classification: So as to comprehend and build up the activity plans for the
improvement and to assess the current agroforestry framework it is expected to order them on some normal
rules. This work of classification was accomplished most efficiently by the organised effort by global
inventory of agroforestry systems and practices in developing countries between 1982 and 1987 by
ICRAF. Later this information was used by Nair (1985) to develop the classification scheme which is
described as under. Different existing agroforestry system needs different ways to develop strategies for
their improvement therefore a single classification scheme may not include the entire criterion needed for
development of any land use system. Nair classified the agroforestry system on following basis (1985): 1.
Structure, 2. Function, 3. Social economic and 4. Ecological. Further many Indian scientists and authors
like Dwivedi, 1992; Chundawat and Gautam, 1993; Tejwani, 1994 have attempted to classify agroforestry
systems in their books of agroforestry. These ways to deal with characterization of agroforestry
frameworks are summed up in Table 3.
Table 3: Classification of AFS as per overall comprehensive scheme.

A. Structural A1.Structure & nature of Components
A2.Structure of strata of the system
A2i.Vertical Stratification
A2ii.Horizontal Stratification
B. Functional B1. Productive
B2. Protective
B3. Multipurpose
C.Spatial & Temporal C1. Spatial
C1i. Mixed Dense e.g. Home garden
C1ii. Mixed Sparse e.g. low density agroforestry
C1iii. Strip Plantations e.g. Alley cropping
C2. Temporal
C2i. Coincident e.g. pasture under trees
C2ii. Intermittent e.g. paddy+coconut
C2iii. Interpolated e.g. home garden
C2iv. Separate e.g. shifting cultivation
D. Ecological D1. Based on climate & edaphic factor
D1i. Tropical
D1ii. Subtropical
D1iii. Temperate
D1iv. Subalpine
D1v. Alpine
D2. Based on moisture condition
D2i. Wet
D2ii. Moist
D2iii. Dry
E. Physiognomical E1. Xeromorphic
E2.Mesomorphic
E3. Hydromorphic
F. Socio-economical F1. Commercial
F2. Subsistence
F3. Intermediate
G. Floristical Based on floristic composition
Trees Associated in Agroforestry System
Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry: In agroforestry, particular attention is placed on multiple purpose
trees or perennial shrubs. In the context of agroforestry, multi-purpose trees are those, which are
deliberately kept and managed for more than one preferred use product and/or services. The most
significant of these trees are the leguminous trees on account of their capacity to fix nitrogen and
consequently make it accessible to different plants.
Desirable Characteristics of MPTs for Agroforestry: While selecting MPTs for agroforestry systems
the following desirable characteristics should considered. Though all the characters cannot be found in a
single species of tree, presence of 3 to 4 characters is considered good for the purpose of agroforestry. 1.
Should not interfere with soil moisture and should have deep tap root in order to avoid competition with
main agricultural crop for water. 2. Plant nutrients should not be a competitive factor between and it should
help in building soil richness for example most leguminous tree spp. furthermore, some non-leguminous,
for example, Casuarina spp. 3. Should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops so should be light
branched and thin crowned. 4. Should have fast growing habit, short rotation and easy management e.g.
Leucaenaleucocephala etc. 5. Should have high palatability as fodder purposes. 6. Should have soil
stabilization attributes to control soil erosion and have ability to grow in water logged soils e.g. Casuarina
equisetifolia. 7. Should play the important role in nutrient recycling and have nitrogen-fixing characters. 8.
Should be free from chemical acceleration to allelopathic effect. 9. The leaves should be easily
decomposable unlike leaves of Teak which contains more fibre matter. 10. They should follow 4F model
i.e. they should have more than one of the main produce like fuel, fodder, fruit and fibre.
Role in Economic Transformation: Economic transformation is the most important factor that
determines the ultimate value and feasibility of agroforestry with respect to the other land uses. Farmers’
main objective is to gain profit out of fixed land, that too short term profit, from the investment on fixed
capital i.e. land. Economic analysis of agroforestry will give a picture to farmers about its productivity,
farm income and improved social well-being, so that they can take decision wisely. Economic evaluation
to know viability of agroforestry is not only important for gaining trust of farmers but is also important in
diagnosis and design of agroforestry technologies and to rationalise the choice of technology to be
researched, for any developmental work. The agroforestry systems offer a number of benefits or
opportunities and cause and constraint, which have been nicely elaborate in by Chundawat and Gautam
(1993) as follows:
Benefits and Opportunities
1. At low capital and labour costs, Agroforestry maintains or increases productivity of sight through
nutrient recycling and soil protection;
2. Through special or temporal intercropping of trees and others species, the value of output from a given
area of land is increased;
3. Reduces risk of income from adverse climate, biological or market impacts on particularcrop;
4. There are no sharp peaks and troughs in the activity of labour, as the need for labour inputs is more
evenly distributed throughout the year;
5. Provides productive application for underutilized land, labour or capital;
6. To meet intermittent costs, capital stocks are available.
Costs and Constraints
1. Reduction in the output of staple food crops because of the competition through trees;
2. Agricultural practices such as free grazing, burning, make difficult to protect trees;
3. Trees can impede cultivation of mono crop and the introduction of mechanization;
4. The area where planting season is restricted the demand on available labour for crop establishment
may prevent tree plantation;
5. Due to the long production period of trees there is increase in the risk and insecurities forthe poor
farmers.
Development of Agriculture through Agroforestry: Intensive agriculture is the result of high demand
from market, which results in using excess pesticides and synthetic fertilizers to maintain productivity
which ultimately degrades soil. Due to high cost of input, cost of production rises, but not able to sell in
profitable selling price, ultimately farmers earnings shrink and trapped in debt. This farming system not
only effect farmers but also threaten food security and drive biodiversity loss and climate change.The
Indian agriculture is highly dependent on variations of weather and climate. The climate change
influenced the overall agriculture negatively. Expanding territory under agroforestry in the nation can help
to addresses some of significant difficulties emerging because of environmental change.
Regenerative Agroforestry: A Major Solution: Under regenerative agroforestry, there is holistic and
smart combination design including various components like crops, trees, plants and livestock, to form a
diverse, self-sustaining production system, mimicking the natural ecosystem. This method helps in
restoration of what lost from agriculture, puts agriculture back into the landscape and improves the
resilience of food production against the impacts of climate change. Regenerative agroforestry is a resilient
and sustainable agricultural method that could help solve the ecological and climatic crisis. This smart
farming system enables economically and ecologically viability and enhances food security for growing
populations. This systems can withstand droughts, pests and floods much better than only agriculture,
through following steps: 1. Boosting soil fertility and biodiversity; 2. Enhancing agricultural capacities; 3.
Improving farmer livelihoods; 4. Turning degraded land into carbon sinks.
Economic Evaluation: Considering Agroforestry as an enterprise, it consists of various production units,
here called as components such as trees, row crops, forages and/or livestocks with varying production
cycles, which give some unique economic evaluation problems. So there is need of strategic plan know as
planning horizon, so that one can move smoothly towards profit. Planning Horizon is essential for
Agroforestry, since all things here is considered of more prominent than one season. This Planning
Horizon is a timespan in which all expenses and incomes for a framework are percieved. Many of the
revenues and costs do not occur at regular intervals throughout the entire planning horison because of the
long planning horizon of Agroforestry practices so there is a need for specific finance method.
Agroforestry finance can be e characterized as a two step process: 1. Development of Agroforestry budgets
and 2. Turn the budget into a cash flow plan. Agroforestry budget contains details of all the costs and
revenues expected from each component and is related to profitability of each components, such as crop
livestock or trees. Cash flow combines details of the budget from different components in Agroforestry and
it adds a time dimension to it and helps to assess the economic feasibility of the Agroforestry practice
overtime.
Agroforestry can Start Another Monetary Insurgency for India: Around year's end 2019, Nirmala
Sitharaman, Minister of Finance, GoI, talking at Columbia University's School of International and Public
Affairs, said India was on target to turning into a $5 trillion economy by 2025. She additionally centered
around the job of agroforestry in advancing Indian economy. Agroforestry, a science that advanced
polyculture with an assortment of trees, bushes, spices, hedges, kept soil ripe and water ample and
permitted financial aspects and nature to profit by each other in corresponding ways. 'Sustainability' was a
lifestyle form, and if we bring back this practice to our farmers, we can spark a new revolution in the
agricultural sector and the Indian economy. She gave some examples from India, to inculcate the
importance of Agroforestry:
Rally of Rivers: Rally for Rivers, propelled by Sadhguru, organizer of Isha Foundation, in 2017, and
suggested by Niti Aayog for usage across India, offers an all around characterized guide for ranchers to
effectively switch mostly to agroforestry to address the numerous difficulties they face. These incorporate
breaking down soil quality, lacking water assets, indefensible water system rehearses, low quality harvest,
fluctuating markets and devastating debt. The agroforestry arrangement offered by Rally for Rivers
advances crop development considering territorial agro-climatic conditions, soil wellbeing, advertise
request and accessibility of elective water system rehearses. It advances polyculture so the rancher can
collect high-esteem crop with a sound benefit. What's more, there is a gigantic residential market for
agroforestry items, particularly lumber items. Different states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand and Odisha are actively executing this policy.
Alternative to Imported Timber: An investigation done by the International Union of Forest Research
Organizations in 2016 revealed that India is the third biggest shipper of illicitly logged timber on the
planet, sold in Indian market at significant expense. Somewhere in the range of 2010 and 2018, India
imported Rs 388 billion worth of wood and wood items from around the globe. World Bank study says this
market is required to develop at 20% consistently for the following hardly any years. If farmers are
allowed to grow them on their farms and buy from them, it will have huge positive impact both for farmers
and on foreign exchange. These trees will act as insurance during exigencies for the farmer, reducing their
dependence on high-interestloans that he is unable to repay driving him into debt and death.
Development in the Field of Agroforestry: Presently, agroforestry practices in India have been increased
to 25.32 million ha (Dhyani et al., 2013). Rizvi et al., (2014) assessed the zone under agroforestry through
utilizing the geo-spatial advancements and positioned Uttar Pradesh (1.86 m ha), Maharashtra (1.61 m ha)
and Rajasthan (1.55 m ha) as first, second and third, respectively. Though agroforestry is increasing in
India at a high pace still there are challenges for the full growth of the sector. The lack of uniform policies
and regulations related to the felling and transport of farm grown timber, over strenuous process for its
transportation has prevented small farmers from adoption of agroforestry system. Like agriculture, there is
no insurance scheme, loans facility or market support for agroforestry ventures. India adopted the
landmark National Agroforestry Policy 2014 that will mainly focus on the growing of trees on farms to
meet a wide range of developmental and environmental goals which is much needed to mitigate the climate
change. The national aim to bring 1/3rd of the Indian geographical area under green cover can be achieved
through agroforestry programme. Furthermore, agroforestry is likely to play important role in the National
Mission on Greening India, NM on Sustainable Agriculture, NM on Energy and NM for Sustaining the
Himalayan Ecosystem among the Prime minister’s eight National Missions (NM) under National Action
Plan on Climate Change.
References
Champion, H.G. and Seth S. K. (1968). A revised survey of forest type of India, Government of India Press, New Delhi, p.
404.
Chundawat, B.S., and Gautam, S.K. (1993).Textbook of Agroforestry, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Conklin, H.C. (1957). Hanunoo Agriculture. Rome: FAO cited by King, K.F.S. 1987. The history of agroforestry. In:
Agroforestry a decade of development. ICRAF, Edits by Howard A. Steppler and P.K. Ramachandran Nair, pp. 3-12
Dhyani, S.K., Handa, A.K. and Uma. (2013). Area under agroforestry in india: assessment for present status and future
perspective. Indian Journal of Agroforestry, 15(1): 01-11.
Dwivedi, A.P. (1992). Agroforestry: Principles and Practices. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Forde, D.C. (1937). Land and labour in a Cross River village. Geographical Journal. 90(1): 24-51.
ISFR. (2013). Chapter 7. India state of forest report, Forest Survey of India, ministry of environment & forest, GoI,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
ISFR. (2019). India state of forest report, Forest Survey of India, ministry of environment & forest, GoI, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand.
King, K.F.S. (1979). Agroforestry and utilization of fragile ecosystem. Forest Ecology &Managemet, 2:161-168.
Lundgren, B. (1982). Introduction. Agroforestry System, 1 (1): 3-6.
NAFPI. (2014). National Agroforestry policy, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
Nair P.K.R. (1985). Classification of Agroforestry Systems. Agroforestry System, 3:97-128.
Nair P.K.R. (1993). Agroforestry: an introduction to Agroforestry. ICRAF, Springer, India.
Regenerative Agroforestry: www.weforum.org
Rizvi, R.H., Dhyani, S.K., Newaj, R., Karmakar, P.S. and Saxena, A. (2014). Mapping agroforestry area in India through
remote sensing and preliminary estimates, Indian Farming 63(11): 62-64.
Tejwani, K.J. (1994). Agroforestry in India, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
WADI Programme source: www.baifwadi.org

AGRONOMY
YIELD GAP ANALYSIS OF RAPESEED-MUSTARD THROUGH
CLUSTER FRONT LINE DEMONSTRATIONS IN DARBHANGA
DISTRICT OF BIHAR
Ram Prawesh Prasad1, D. Shekhar1, M.S.Kundu2, Amba Kumari1 and Chandan Kumar1
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga (Bihar)-847302 (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa,
Samastipur, Bihar) 848125, E-mail: rpprasad79@gmail.com and 2Director Extension Education (Dr.Rajendra Prasad
Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar) 848125, Corresponding Author: Ram Prawesh Prasad
M ustard is among the oldest recorded spices as seen in Sanskrit records dating back
to about 3000 BC (Mehra, 1968) and was one of the first domesticated crops.
Originally it was the condiment that was known as mustard and the word was
derived from the Latin mustum. Must, the expressed juice of grapes or other fruits mixed with ground
mustard seeds to form mustumardens (‘hot or burning must’) was a Roman speciality condiment.
Romans’ love for mustard carried the same throughout Europe where it became popular for seasoning
meat and fish. Apart from its use as a condiment, its medicinal value also was recognized early, as it
was mentioned by Pythagoras in 530 BC as a remedy for scorpion bites. In India, the mustard-
rapeseed is the most important oil seed crop after groundnut accounting around 25 per cent of total
oilseed production. It is one of the important oilseed crop of the Indo-gangetic plains. Indian mustard
(Rai) cultivation has occupied about 85-90 per cent of total area under cultivation of mustard -
rapeseed. Besides, the utilities of oil obtained from mustard-rapeseed, the seeds, sprouts, leaves,
tender plants are also useful to human health, when they are consumed as spices and vegetables. They
contain selenium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, magnesium, manganeseetc .Several
biotic-abiotic and socio- economic constraints inhibits exploitation of the yield potential and these
need to be addressed. Darbhanga district has the sizeable area under mustard cultivation but the
productivity level is very low. The seasons for low productivity about newly released crop production
technologies and their management practices in the farmer fields. Keeping the above point in view,the
CFLDs on rapeseed-mustard using production improved technologies was conducted with the
objective of showing the productive potential of the new production technologies under actual farm
situation.
Methods and Materials
The present study was carried out the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale Darbhanga, Bihar during
rabi season from 2017-2018 to 2019-20(Three consecutive years) in the farmers field in fifteen village
viz. Jale, Jogiara, Garri, Sandohi, Belwara, Kamtaul, Ahiyari, Brahmpur, Sanahpur, Kolhanta,
Godaepatti, Kamalpur, Bhachhi and Kushiyam of Darbhanga District of Bihar. During the three year
of study, an area of covered 0.4 ha.(one acre) under Cluster Front Line Demonstration (CFLD) with
active participation of farmers of different villages were conducted. Before conducting CFLD a list of
farmers was prepared from group meeting and specific skill training was impaired to the selected
farmers regarding different aspect of cultivation etc., were followed as suggested by Chaudhary.1999
and Venkatta Kumar et.al, 2010. Materials for present study with respect to CFLDs and farmers
practices has been given in Table No.1.In case of local check plots, existing practices being used by
farmers were followed. In general soil of area under study are sandy loam and medium fertility status.
In demonstration plots use quality seed of improved variety, timely weeding, need based
application of pesticides used of balance fertilizers (using micro nutrient sulphur)and use of suitable
fungicides is Carbendaz in 35%WP for seed treatment as suggest by Chattopadhyay et. al.(2003) was
used as technical interventions. For the controlling of aphid (Lipaphidscrrysimi) Diamethoate 30 %EC
was used in demonstrated plots given in package and practices for the Zone I ,Bihar region were
emphasized and comparison has been made with the existing practices.
Table1.Comprison between demonstration package and existing farmers practices under Rapeseed- Mustard
practices.
Particulars Rapeseed-Mustard Demonstration package Farmers practices
Farming situation Irrigated medium land Irrigated medium land
Variety RajendraSuflam and Local
Time of sowing 15 October to Last November 15November to 05 December
Method of sowing Line sowing Broad casting
Seed rate 5 Kg/ ha. 6-7 Kg/ha.
Fertilizes dose (60kgN,40 kgP2O5,:40kgK2O,30 kg Sulphur, 20kg 120 kgN,80kgP2O5.

Boron and 20kg Zinc.(21%)
Plant protection Need based used of Carbendazim 12%+Mancozeb Nil.
63% WP(Saaf) for fungal disease and Imidachlopride
17.8 SL /Dimethoate 30 %EC to protect the crop
against aphid.
Weed management Pendamathilian @0.3 kg a.i/ha pre emergence Two hand weeding at 20 and 35DAS.
followed by one hand weeding at 20 DAS.
Visits of farmers, the district agriculture line department and extension functionaries was
organized at demonstration plots to disseminate the massage at large scale. The demonstrated farmers
were facilities by KVK scientists in performing field operation like sowing, spraying, weeding,
harvesting etc. during the course of training and visits. The necessary steps for selection of site and
farmers layout of demonstrations etc., were followed as suggested by Chaudhary (1999). Traditional
practices were mentioned in case of local checks. The data outputs were collected from both CFLD
plots as well as control plots (farmers practices) and finally the extension gap, technology gap,
technology index along with the benefit cast ratio(B:C:R) worked out (Sanui et.al., 2000) as given
below:
Technology gap = Potential Yield- Demonstration Yield.
Extension gap = demonstration Yield – Farmers yield.
Potential Yield- Demonstration Yield
Technology Index = ----------------------------------------------------- x100
Potential Yield
The result of 543 Cluster Front Line Demonstrations (CFLDs) conduct during 2017-18 to
2019-20 in 200ha area. On farmers field fifteen village of Darbhanga district indicated that the
cultivation practices comprised under-CFLD viz- used of improved variety (Rajendra Suflam & RH-
0749),line sowing ,balance used of fertilizers, sulphur, Zinc, weedicide, and control of mustard aphid
through insecticides at economic threshold level, production on an average 49.62% more yield of
mustard as compared to local practises(10.12 q/ha).The data of table 2.revwal that the yield of
rapeseed- mustard fluctuated successively over the field of demonstrated plots. The maximum yield
was recorded 15.67q/ha over local practices(10.25q/ha). The increase in percentage of yield was range
between37.64% to 55.61%during four year study. The similar results of yield enhancement in
rapeseed crop in front line demonstrations has been documented by Mitra and Samajdar(2010), in
tarai zone of west Bengal. The results are also in conformity with the findings of Tiwari and Saxena
(2001), Tiwari et. al.(2003) Tomer et. al(2003), Singh et.al (2007)and Katare et.al (2011).The results
indicated that the Front line demonstrations has given a good impact on the farming community of
this district as they were motivated by the improved agricultural technologies used in the Front line
demonstrations. The result clearly indicates the positive effect of CFLDs over the existing practices
toward in enhancing the yield of rapeseed- mustard in Dabhangaarea, with its positive effect on yield
attribute(Table 3). Benefit Cost ratio was recorded higher under demonstration against control of all
the year of study. These results were also supported by Singh et.al. (2008), who found that the
improvement technologies of mustard crop have significant effect in higher productivity of mustard.
The findings revealed that a gap exists between the actual farmer’s yield and realizable yield potential
of the variety. Use of improved variety carry potential to enhance the present level of mustard
productivity which is not percolating down at desired pace due to lack of confidence among the
farmers. Hence, to exploit the potential of improved production and protection technologies efforts
through CFLDs ought to be increased awareness among the farmers.
The extension gap showed an increasing trend. The extension gap ranging between 3.84-
5.75q/ha during the study period emphasizes the need to educate the farmers through various means
for adoption of improved agricultural technologies to reverse the trend. The trend of technology
gap(ranging between 5.33 to 8.38q/ha) reflects the farmers cooperation in carrying out such
demonstrations with encouraging results in subsequent years. The technology gap observed might be
attributing to the dissimilarity in soil fertility status and weather conditions. Mukharjee (2003), have
also opined that depending on identification and use of farming situation, specific interventions may
have greater implications in enhancing system productivity. Similar findings were also recorded by
Mitra et.al (2010).The technology index, showed the feasibility of the evolved technology at the
Yield Gap Analysis of Rapeseed-Mustard through Cluster Front Line Demonstrations in Darbhanga……. 29
farmer’s field. The lower the value of technology index, the more is the feasibility of technology. The
wider gap in technology index (ranging between 25.38-34.92%) during the study period in certain
region, may be attributed to the difference in soil fertility status, weather condition, non-availability of
irrigations water and insect- pests attack in the crop.
The benefit cost ratio of front line demonstrations have been presented in Table 2 clearly
showed higher BC ratio of recommended practices was than control plots i.e. farmers practices in all
the years of study. The benefit cost ratio of demonstrated and control plots were2.83and 1.52,2.75
and2.00,2.56 and2.1.74,2.49 and 1.74, during 2017-18,2018-19,2019-20 respectively. Hence,
favourable benefit cost ratios proved the economic viability of the interventions and convinced the
farmers on the utility of interventions. Similar findings were reported by Sharma(2003) in moth bean
and Gurumukhi and Mishra (2003) in sorghum.
The result of Cluster Front Line Demonstrations convincingly brought out that the yield of
rapeseed –mustard could be increased by 37.64% to55.61% with the intervention of balanced nutrient
coupled with the improved seed and disease management in the Darbhanga District of Bihar. From
the above finding, it can also be concluded that use of scientific methods of mustard cultivation can
reduced the technology gap to a considerable extent thus leading to increased productivity of the
district. Moreover, extension agencies in the district need to provide proper technology support to the
farmers through different educational and extension methods to reduce the extension gap for higher
oilseed production in the Darbhanga district of Bihar.
Table2: Productivity, technology gaps, extension gaps, technology index and benefit cost ratio of Rapeseed –Mustard
(Rajendra suflam& RH-0749 )grown under CFLDs and existing package of practices.
Year Area No.of Grain Yield(Q/ha) % Technol Extension Technolog B:C ratio
(ha) beneficiary Potential FLD Control increase ogy gap(q/ha) y index FLD Control
Over gap(q/h (%)
control a)
2017-18 30 75 21 15.25 9.8 55.61 5.75 5.75 27.38 2.83 1.52
2018-19 20 50 21 14.04 10.2 37.64 6.96 3.84 33.14 2.75 2.0
2019-20 20 50 21 15.67 10.25 52.87 5.33 5.42 25.38 2.56 1.74
2019-20 130 368 24 15.62 10.25 52.39 8.38 5.37 34.92 2.49 1.74
Average = 15.14 10.12 49.62 6.60 5.09 30.20 2.66 1.74
Table 3: Yield parameters under demonstration package and existing farmer’s practices.
Yield parameters Package of demonstration Existing farmers practices
No.ofsiliqua/plant 162.33-139.67 81.67-94.33
No.of seeds/ siliqua 9.33-11.67 7.67-8.00
Test weight (g) 4.14-5.27 3.60-4.22
References
Mehra, K.L. (1968).History and ethiobotany of mustardin India. Adv.Front.PlSci 19:57
Sen, Raja. (2003). Hyola PAC-401:Benefit at its Best www.commodity India.com September 2003,pp-6-7.
Choudhary, BN. (1999). Krishi Vigyan Kendra- A guide for KVK managers. Division of Agricultural
Extension, ICAR., pp 73-78.
Venkattakumar, R, Ramana Rao, S.V., Padmaiah, M and Madhuri, P. (2010). Production constraints and
information needs of growers in Andhra Pradesh. Agric Extn review, (April-June): 21-24.
Chattopadhyay, C, Meena, P.D., Sastry, R.K. and Meena, R.L. (2003). relationship among photological and
agronomic attributes for soil borne diseases of three oilseed crops. Indian j. Pl Protec, 31:127-128.
Samui, S.K., Maitra, S. Roy, D.K., Mandal, A.K. and Saha, D. (2000). Evaluation of Front Line Demonstration
on groundnut. J Indian Soc. Coastal Agric res, 18: 180-183
Mitra and Samajdar, T. (2010). Yield gap analysis of rapeseed –mustard through front line demonstration. Agri
Extension Review; 22: 16-17.
Tiwari, R.B., Singh, Vinay and Parihar, P. (2003). Role of FLD in transfer of gram production technology.
Maharastra J Ext. Edu, 22: 139.
Tomer, L.S., Sharma, B.P. and Joshi, K. (2003). Impact of Front Line Demonstration of soybean in transfer of
improved technology. J Ext Edu, 22 : 139.
Singh, S.N., Singh, V.K., Singh, R.K. and Singh, Rakesh, K. (2007). Evaluation of on –farm front line
demonstration on the yield mustard in Central Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh. Indian Res J Ext Edu, 7: 79-81.
Katare, Subhash, Pandey, S.K. and Mustafa, Mohd. (2011). Yield gap analysis of Rapeseed- mustard through
front line demonstration. Agric Update 6:5-6
Singh, G., Sirohi, A. and Malik, Y.P. (2008). Impact of improved technology on the productivity of Indian
mustard. J Oilseeds Res, 25: 125.
Mukharjee, N. (2003). Participatory Learning and Action. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi India, pp
63-65.
Mitra, Biplab and Samajdar, T. (2010). Yield gap analysis of rapeseed-mustard through Front Line
Demonstration. Agric Exten Reviev, (April-June):16-17
Sharma, O.P. (2003). Moth bean yield improvement through Front Line Demonstrations. Agric Ext Rev, 15 : 11-
13.
Gurumukhi, D.R. and Mishra Sumit. (2003). Sorghum front line demonstration-A success story. Agriculture
Extension Reviev, 15 : 22-23.

YIELD GAP ANALYSIS OF RAPESEED-MUSTARD THROUGH
CLUSTER FRONT LINE DEMONSTRATIONS IN SIWAN DISTRICT OF
BIHAR
R.P. Prasad1, R.K. Mandal1, Brajesh Shahi2 and Barun1
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bhagwanpur Hat, Siwan, (Bihar)-841408, E-mail: rpprasad79@gmail.com and 2Nadal
Officer KVKs (Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur (Bihar) 848125,
Corresponding Author: R.P. Prasad
I n India, the mustard - rapeseed is the most important oil seed crop after groundnut
accounting around 25 per cent of total oilseed production. It is one of the important
oilseed crop of the Indo-gangetic plains. Indian mustard (Rai) cultivation has occupied
about 85-90 per cent of total area under cultivation of mustard-rapeseed. India’s Agricultural
Production: Nine Oilseeds: Rapeseed & Mustard: Bihar data was reported at 0.100 Ton mn in Mar
2017. This records an increase from the previous number of 0.090 Ton mn for Mar 2016. India’s
Agricultural Production: Nine Oilseeds: Rapeseed & Mustard: Bihar data is updated yearly, averaging
0.090 Ton mn from Mar 2002 to 2017, with 16 observations. The data reached an all-time high of
0.110 Ton mn in 2014 and a record low of 0.060 Ton mn in 2003. India’s Agricultural Production:
Nine Oilseeds: Rapeseed & Mustard. Besides, the utilities of oil obtained from mustard-rapeseed, the
seeds, sprouts, leaves, tender plants are also useful to human health, when they are consumed as
spices and vegetables. They contain selenium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, zinc,
magnesium, manganeseetc. Several biotic-abiotic and socio- economic constraints inhibits
exploitation of the yield potential and these need to be addressed. Siwan district has the sizeable area
under mustard cultivation but the productivity level is very low. The seasons for low productivity
about newly released crop production technologies and their management practices in the farmers
fields. Keeping the above point in view, the CFLDs on rapeseed-mustard using production improved
technologies was conducted with the objective of showing the productive potential of the new
production technologies under actual farm situation.
Methods and Materials
The present study was carried out the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bhagwanpur Hat, Siwan,Bihar
during rabi season from 2015-2016 to 2018-19 (Four consecutive years) in the farmers field in twelve
adopted village viz. Rampur kothi, Mahamadpur, Saripatti, Bhikhampur, Bhopatpur, Nagauli,
Sondhani, Arua, Barkagaw, SihautaBangra, and Chorauli of Siwan district of Bihar. During the four
year of study, an area of covered 0.4 ha.(one acre) under Cluster Front Line Demonstration (CFLD)
with active participation of farmers of different villages were conducted. Before conducting CFLD a
list of farmers was prepared from group meeting and specific skill training was impaired to the
selected farmers regarding different aspect of cultivation etc., were followed as suggested by
Chaudhary.1999 and Venkatta Kumar et.al,2010. Materials for present study with respect to CFLDs
and farmers practices has been given in Table No.1.In case of local check plots, existing practices
being used by farmers were followed. In general soil of area under study are sandy loam and medium
fertility status.
In demonstration plots use quality seed of improved variety, timely weeding, need based
application of pesticides used of balance fertilizers (using micro nutrient sulphur)and use of suitable
fungicides is Bavistin 35%WP for seed treatment as suggest by Chattopadhyay et. al.(2003)was used
as technical interventions. For the controlling of aphid (Lipaphidscrrysimi )Diamethoate 30 EC was
used in demonstrated plots given in package and practices for the Zone I ,Bihar region were
emphasized and comparison has been made with the existing practices.
Table1.Comprison between demonstration package and existing farmers practices under Rapeseed- Mustard
practices.
Particulars Rapeseed-Mustard Demonstration package Farmers practices
Farming situation Irrigated medium land Irrigated medium land
Variety RajendraSuflam Local
Time of sowing 25 October to Last November 05November to 10 December
Method of sowing Line sowing Broad casting
Seed rate 5 Kg/ ha. 6-7 Kg/ha.
Fertilizes dose (60kgN,40 kgP2O5,:40kgK2O,30 kg Sulphur and 80 kgN,60kgP2O5

20kg Boron.
Plant protection Need based used of mancozeb 20% WP for Nil.
fungal disease and Dimethoate to protect the
crop against aphid.
Weed management Pendamathilian @0.3 kg a.i/ha pre emergence Two hand weeding at 22 and 35DAS.
followed by one hand weeding at 25DAS.
Visits of farmers, the district agriculture line department and extension functionaries was
organized at demonstration plots to disseminate the massage at large scale. The demonstrated farmers
were facilities by KVK scientists in performing field operation like sowing, spraying, weeding,
harvesting etc.during the course of training and visits. The necessary steps for selection of site and
farmers layout of demonstrations etc., were followed as suggested by Chaudhary (1999). Traditional
practices were mentioned in case of local checks. The data outputs were collected from both FLD
plots as well as control plots (farmers practices) and finally the extension gap, technology gap,
technology index along with the benefit cast ratio(B:C:R) worked out(Sanui et.al,2000)as given
below:
Technology gap = Potential Yield- Demonstration Yield.
Extension gap = Demonstration Yield – Farmers yield.
Potential Yield- Demonstration Yield
Technology Index = ----------------------------------------------------- x100
Potential Yield
Result and Discussion
The result of 399 Cluster Front Line Demonstrations (CFLDs) conduct during 2015-16 to
2018-19 in 110ha area. On farmers field twelve village of Siwan district indicated that the cultivation
practices comprised under-CFLD viz-used of improved variety (Rajendra Suflam),line sowing
,balance used of fertilizers, sulphur, weedicide, and control of mustard aphid through insecticides at
economic threshold level, production on an average 40.34% more yield of mustard as compared to
local practises(12.10 q/ha).The data of table 2.revwal that the yield of rapeseed- mustard fluctuated
successively over the field of demonstrated plots. The maximum yield was recorded 14.00q/ha over
local practices(7.5q/ha). The increase in percentage of yield was range between26.67% to
55.56%during four year study.The similar results of yield enhancement in rapeseed crop in front line
demonstrations has been documented by Mitra and Samajdar(2010), in tarai zone of west Bengal. The
results are also in conformity with the findings of Tiwari and Saxena (2001), Tiwari et. al.(2003)
Tomer et. al (2003),Singh et.a l(2007)and Katare et.al (2011).The results indicated that the Front line
demonstrations has given a good impact on the farming community of this district as they were
motivated by the improved agricultural technologies used in the Front line demonstrations. The result
clearly indicates the positive effect of CFLDs over the existing practices toward in enhancing the
yield of rapeseed- mustard in Siwan area, with its positive effect on yield attribute (Table 3). Benefit
Cost ratio was recorded higher under demonstration against control of all the year of study. These
results were also supported by Singh et.al.(2008), who found that the improvement technologies of
mustard crop have significant effect in higher productivity of mustard. The findings revealed that a
gap exists between the actual farmer’s yield and realizable yield potential of the variety. Use of
improved variety carry potential to enhance the present level of mustard productivity which is not
percolating down at desired pace due to lack of confidence among the farmers. Hence, to exploit the
potential of improved production and protection technologies efforts through CFLDs ought to be
increased awareness among the farmers.
The extension gap showed an increasing trend. Theextension gap ranging between 2.00-5.0
q/ha during the study period emphasizes the need to educate the farmers through various means for
adoption of improved agricultural technologies to reverse the trend. The trend of technology
gap(ranging between 7.0 to 11.5 q/ha) reflects the farmers cooperation in carrying out such
demonstrations with encouraging results in subsequent years. The technology gap observed might be
attributing to the dissimilarity in soil fertility status and weather conditions. Mukharjee (2003), have
also opined that depending on identification and use of farming situation ,specific interventions may
have greater implications in enhancing system productivity. Similar findings were also recorded by
Mitra et.a l(2010).The technology index, showed the feasibility of the evolved technology at the
farmer’s field. The lower the value of technology index, the more is the feasibility of technology. The
Yield Gap Analysis of Rapeseed-Mustard through Cluster Front Line Demonstrations in Siwan………….. 33
wider gap in technology index (ranging between 33.33-54.76%) during the study period in certain
region, may be attributed to the difference in soil fertility status, weather condition, non-availability of
irrigations water and insect- pests attack in the crop.
The benefit cost ratio of front line demonstrations have been presented in Table 2 clearly
showed higher BC ratio of recommended practices was than control plots i.e. farmers practices in all
the years of study. The benefit cost ratio of demonstrated and control plots were2.74 and 2.33,2.77
and2.23,2.73 and2.35,2.53 and 2.2.09, during 2015-16,2016-17,2017-18 and2018-19 respectively.
Hence, favourable benefit cost ratios proved the economic viability of the interventions and convinced
the farmers on the utility of interventions. Similar findings were reported by Sharma(2003) in moth
bean and Gurumukhi and Mishra(2003) in sorghum.
The result of Cluster Front Line Demonstrations convincingly brought out that the yield of
rapeseed –mustard could be increased by 26.67% to55.56% with the intervention of balanced nutrient
coupled with the improved seed and disease management in the Siwan district of Bihar. From the
above finding, it can also be concluded that use of scientific methods of mustard cultivation can
reduced the technology gap to a considerable extent thus leading to increased productivity of the
district. Moreover, extension agencies in the district need to provide proper technology support to the
farmers through different educational and extension methods to reduce the extension gap for higher
oilseed production in the district.
Table2: Productivity, technology gaps, extension gaps, technology index and benefit cost ratio of Rapeseed –Mustard
(Rajendra suflam )grown under CFLDs and existing package of practices.
Year Area No.of Grain Yield(Q/ha) % increase Technology Extension Technology B:C ratio
(ha) beneficiary Potential FLD Control Over gap(q/ha) gap(q/ha) index (%) FLD Control
control
2015-16 30 144 21 11.2 8.5 31.76 9.8 2.7 46.67 2.74 2.33
2016-17 30 100 21 14 09 55.56 7.0 5.0 33.33 2.77 2.23
2017-18 30 85 21 14 9.5 47.36 7.0 4.5 33.33 2.73 2.35
2018-19 20 70 21 9.5 7.5 26.67 11.5 2.0 54.76 2.53 2.09
Average = 12.10 8.62 40.34 8.82 3.55 42.02 2.69 2.25
Table 3: Yield parameters under demonstration package and existing farmer’s practices.
Yield parameters Demonstration package Existing farmers practices
No.ofsiliqua/plant 132.67-136.33 77.33-91.00
No.of seeds/ siliqua 9.67-12.67 7.67-9.00
Test weight (g) 4.34-5.15 3.70-4.10
References
Kumar, Arbid and Chauhan, J.S. (2003). Challenges in Rapeseed – Mustard Production. SAARC Oils and Fats
Today. 5(7): 32-33.
Bihar data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation.View India's Agricultural Production: Nine Oilseeds: Rapeseed & Mustard: West
Bengal from 2002 to 2017.pp.47-49.
Sen, Raja. (2003). Hyola PAC–401: Benefits at its Best, www.commodityIndia.com. September 2003, pp –6-7.
Choudhary, BN. (1999). KrishiVigyan Kendra- A guide for KVK managers. Division of Agricultural Extension,
ICAR., pp 73-78.
Venkattakumar, R., Ramana Rao, S.V., Padmaiah, M. and Madhuri, P. (2010). Production constraints and
information needs of growers in Andhra Pradesh. AgricExtn review, 21-24.
Chattopadhyay, C., Meena, P.D., Sastry, R.K. and Meena, R.L. (2003). Relationship among photological and
agronomic attributes for soil borne diseases of three oilseed crops. Indian j. Pl Protec, 31:127-128.
Samui, S.K., Maitra, S., Roy, D.K., Mandal, A.K. and Saha, D. (2000). Evaluation of Front Line Demonstration
on groundnut. J Indian Soc. Coastal Agric res, 18: 180-183
Mitra and Samajdar, T. (2010). Yield gap analysis of rapeseed –mustard through front line demonstration. Agri
Extension Review; 22: 16-17.
Tiwari, R.B., Singh Vinay and Parihar, P. (2003). Role of FLD in transfer of gram production technology.
Maharastra J Ext. Edu, 22: 139.
Tomer, L.S., Sharma, B.P. and Joshi, K. (2003). Impact of Front Line Demonstration of soybean in transfer of
improved technology. J Ext Edu, 22: 139.
Singh, S.N., Singh, V.K., Singh, R.K. and Singh, Rakesh, K. (2007). Evaluation of on –farm front line
demonstration on the yield mustard in Central Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh. Indian Res J Ext Edu, 7: 79-81.
Katare, Subhash, Pandey, S.K. and Mustafa, Mohd. (2011). Yield gap analysis of Rapeseed- mustard through
front line demonstration. Agric Update 6:5-6
Singh, G., Sirohi, A. and Malik, Y.P. (2008). Impact of improved technology on the productivity of Indian
mustard. J Oilseeds Res, 25: 125.
Mukharjee, N. (2003). Participatory Learning and Action. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi India,pp
63-65.
Mitra, Biplab and Samajdar, T. (2010). Yield gap analysis of rapeseed-mustard through Front Line
Demonstration. Agric Exten Reviev, 16-17
Sharma, O.P. (2003). moth bean yield improvement through Front Line Demonstrations. Agric Ext Rev, 15 :
11-13.
Gurumukhi, D.R. and Mishra Sumit. (2003). Sorghum front line demonstration-A success story. Agriculture
Extension Reviev, 15 : 22-23.

EFFECT OF TISSUE CULTURE IN VEGETABLE IMPROVEMENT
Amba Kumari1, Dibyanshu Shekhar1, M.S. Kundu2, Ram Prawesh Prasad1, A.P. Rakesh1 and
Chandan Kumar1
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jale, Darbhanga, Bihar-847302, E-mail: ambakumari16@gmail.com and 2Dr.Rajendra Prasad
Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar-848125, Corresponding Author: Amba Kumari
P roduction of improved crop varieties (tolerant to salinity, drought, and heat stresses.
Production of disease- free plants (virus) in potato, tomato, brinjal and tomato.
Genetic engineering can make possible a number of improved crop varieties with high
yield potential and resistance against pests. Genetic transformation technology relies on the technical
aspects of plant tissue culture and molecular biology for production of improved crop varieties,
production of disease-free plants (virus), genetic transformation, production of secondary metabolites,
production of varieties tolerant to salinity, drought and heat stresses.
Techniques of Tissue Culture

 Meristem culture
 Embryo Rescue
 Somatic Hybridization
 Cryopreservation
 Haploid and Double Haploid
Meristem Culture-In vitro culture of youngest leaf primordial most often excised from the shoot
apex. Meristem culture is the in vitro culture of a generally shiny special dome-like structure mea-
suring less than 0.1 mm in length and only one or two pairs of the youngest leaf primordia, most often
excised from the shoot apex. Importance of Meristem Culture– (i) Virus eradication, (ii) Micro-
propagation and (iii) Storage of genetic resources.
Case Study: I (Biniam and Tadesse, 2007): Potato viruses are the major causes of yield loss and
reduction in quality of seed tubers in Eritrea. A study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of
viruses in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) grown in Eritrea and to evaluate methods for their
elimination. Five of the most important potato viruses, PVX, PVY, PLRV, PVS and PVA, were
detected in single and multiple infections. Virus elimination techniques were tested using in vitro
plantlets of T. embaba established from field-grown tubers. Presence of PVX, PLRV and PVS was
confirmed by ELISA test. The treatment was successful in eliminating only PLRV but failed to
eliminate PVX and PVS. When meristem culture was combined with thermotherapy treatment for one
week all three viruses PVX, PLRV and PVS were eliminated with a success rate of 86, 83 and 100%,
respectively.
The proportion of meristem of "Tsaeda embaba" regenerated in the different thermotherapy

treatments.
Treatment No. of meristems No. of meristems % of meristems
excised regenerated regenerated
Untreated 20 7 35
Thermotherapy for one week 20 9 45
Thermotherapy for two weeks 11 4 36
Number of virus free Tsaeda embaba plants produced at different treatments for the various
viruses (number in brackets indicate percentage of virus free plants)
Treatment PVX PVS PLRV
1 week HT 0/15 (0%) 0/5 (0%) 8/15 (53%)
2 week HT 0/11 (0%) 0/3 (0%) 10/11 (91%)
1 week HT + MC 6/7 (86%) 2/2 (100%) 5/6 (83%)
2 week HT + MC 1/4 (25%) 1/1/ (100%) 4/4 (100%)
MC 0/5 (0%) 1/3 (33%) 6/6 (100 %)
HT= Heat treatment, MC= Meristem Culture
Sprouted tubers were taken as a source of explant in in vitro establishment. Mother plant for
sub culturing were tested for virus by ELISA and RT- PCR. Thermotherapy at the temperature 37°
and 16 hour photoperiod for two, three and four weeks. The surviving plants were sub cultured and
used for ELISA and RT-PCR test. Meristem excision by apical meristem with one or two leaf
primordial. Cultured in MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) medium, supplemented with PGRS. Kept
under controlled environment in growth chamber with 16 hour photoperiod, 27°/20° day/night
temperature. Rate of success of virus eradication is assayed by ELISA/ RT- PCR test.
Embryo Rescue: Used to promote the development of immature or weak embryo into a viable plants.
The embryos were extracted from immature fruit and cultured on artificial nutrient medium. It is
utilized to obtain seed from interspecific/wide hybridization. Embryo rescue is done to overcome
certain barriers to fertilization. The term “embryo rescue” refers to a number of in vitro techniques
whose purpose is to promote the development of an immature or weak embryo into a viable plant.
Embryo rescue has been widely used for producing plants from hybridizations in which failure of
endosperm to properly develop causes embryo abortion. In embryo rescue procedures, the artificial
nutrient medium serves as a substitute for the endosperm, thereby allowing the embryo to continue its
development. Embryo rescue techniques are among the oldest and most successful in vitro
procedures.
Case Study II: Tomato is highly prone to biotic stresses especially diseases, insects and nematodes.
Its aim is to transfer important traits from the wild species to the already cultivated species. Genes
against disease, insects and nematode resistant are present in wild species but it has not been easy to
transfer these genes in cultivated species due to problem in crossability. Seeds of three different
species are taken, it is grown in trays then transplanted in plot. Flowers are allowed to self - pollinate
and cross between the various genotype were made in all possible combinations. Factors involved in
Embryo rescue is media MS media (Murashige and Skoog, 1962). Temperature requirements is 25-
30° C. Culture to be initiated prior to embryo abortion.
Percent fruit set on selfing and inter-specific crosses of the four parents and three species of
Solanum lycopersicum used in experiments
Solanum lycopersicum (MT-3) x Solanum pimpinellifolium (35%) and S. lycopersicum (KA)

x Solanum pimpinellifolium (32%) have maximum fruit set percentage. S. lycopersicum, MT-3(45%)
Effect of Tissue Culture in Vegetable Improvement 37
and S. lycopersicum variety KA (41%) gave maximum fruit set. Fruit set on selfing of S.
lycopersicum was also good. The interspecific cross of Solanum lycopersicum variety MT-3 with
S. peruvianum, and the cross of Solanum lycopersicum var. KA with S. peruvianum gave 7% and
8% fruit set. S. peruvianum (wild species used as a female parent and S. lycopersicum as a pollen
donor resulted in zero fruit set). The crosses which yield low fruit set i.e. S. lycopersicum x S.
peruvianum were selected for embryo rescue. Crosses between the various genotypes were made in
all possible combinations. Crosses which yielded a low fruit set, i.e. S. lycopersicum x S. peruvianum
were used for embryo rescue. The best growth response was seen with the embryos which were taken
out from immature fruits, after 25 days of pollination. Cultured on MS medium supplemented with
1.0 mg/1 GA3, 0.1 mg/1NAA, 0.5 mg/1BAP. Photoperiod 16/8 h light/dark period, 25°C, 65% R.H.
Putative hybrids obtained.
Embryo rescued plantlets of S. lycopersicum (Megha Tomato-3 S. peruvianum)
Hardening of embryo rescued plants from S. lycopersicim x S. peruvianum inside the plant
growth chamber
Somatic Hybridization: Development of hybrid plants through the fusion of somatic protoplast of
two different plant species varieties is called somatic hybridization. Many sources of useful genes
cannot be included in crop improvement programme because of sexual incompatibilities. Genetic
transformation is expensive approach require isolation, Identification and cloning, while it can be
achieved through somatic hybridization. It enables a development of tetraploid somatic hybrid
between diploid wild species and dihaploid. In somatic hybridization techniques isolation of
protoplast, fusion of Protoplast of desired species/varieties, identification and selection of somatic
hybrid cells, regeneration of hybrid plants. Isolation of protoplast is done by mechanical and
enzymatic method. In mechanical method cutting of cell wall with knife. It is used for the vacuolated
cells like onion bulb scale, radish and beet root tissues. It is a laborious and tedious process. In
enzymatic method enzyme e.g. cellulase, pectinase is used. In enzymatic method leaf sterilization and
removal of epidermis is done. Protoplast fusion is done through spontaneous and induced fusion.
Spontaneous fusion is classified into two types intraspecific and intergeneric. Intraspecific produce
homokaryon. Intergeneric is of no importance. Induced fusion is classified into chemofusion,
mechanical fusion and electrofusion. In chemofusion polyethylene glycol and polyvinyl alcohol is
used. In mechanical fusion micromanipulator is used. In electrofusion electric stimulation is used.
Protoplast fuse spontaneously during isolation process mainly due to physical contact.
Case study III
Somatic Hybridization in Potato Improvement: Gene transfer is the basis for almost all crop
improvement including potato: conventionally it is achieved through sexual hybridization. This rather
limits the range of species from which gene flow can occur into a crop species. Wild species have
contributed remarkably to the success of latter, they allowed the crops to retain their commercial
status. As a result plant breeders have sought to utilized an increasing number of wild species as a
sources as a source of valuable genes ranging from disease resistance to yield and produce quality.
But many sources of useful genes cannot be included in crop improvement programme primarily
because of sexual incompatibilities. Genetic transformation, a focused and direct gene transfer
approach, require identification, isolation and cloning of the concerned genes. Further it is expensive
and technically most exacting. However some characters of interest may be govern by two or more
and yet unknown genes. Finally transfer of cytoplasmic organelle, viz, chloroplast and mitochondria
may often be desired objectives: this, however is not possible through genetic transformation, while it
can readily achieved by somatic hybridization. Utilization of the wild tuber-beearing diploid species
has been remained untapped potential source for transferring resistance trait into common potato.
Barrier between the cultivated potato and the many wild species has proved a difficult task, even
when unconventional crossing methods are use.
Cryopreservation: Germplasm conservation worldwide is increasingly becoming an essential
activity due to high rate of disappearance of plant species and the increased need for safeguarding the
floristic patrimony of the countries, to keep the genetic background of a crop and to avoid the loss of
the conserved patrimony due to natural disasters, whether biotic or abiotic stress. The plant species
which do not produce seeds (sterile plants) or which have recalcitrant seed that cannot be stored for
long period of time can successfully be preserved via in vitro techniques for the maintenance of gene
banks. Cryopreservation plays a vital role in the long-term in vitro conservation of essential biological
material and genetic resources. It involves the storage of in vitro cells or tissues in liquid nitrogen that
results in cryo -injury on the exposure of tissues to physical and chemical stresses. Successful
cryopreservation is often ascertained by cell and tissue survival and the ability to re-grow or
regenerate into complete plants or form new colonies. Storage of living tissues at ultra-low
temperature. Long term preservation/maintenance of important planting required for maintenance
through repeated sub-culturing under in vitro condition. Storage of living tissues at ultra-low
temperatures (-196°c). Used for propagated species (root and tubers, ornamental, fruit trees),
Recalcitrant seed species(coconut, coffee).Cryobiology is the effects of extremely low temperatures
on material/germplasm to minimize time and cost on manpower, chemicals and other consumable’s.
Usually rapid thawing to avoid damage from ice crystal. Putting the sample in a warm water bath (35-
45°c).Thawed cells must be washed of cryo- protectants and nursed back to normal. Shoot primordial
of melon by slow pre freezing (Ishikawa et al., 1996). Shoot tip of cassava by slow freezing (Escobar
et al., 1997). Shoot tip of sweet potato by Towill and Jarret, 1992). Shoot apices of yam by
(Onwueme and Zanga, 1996). Apical meristems of garlic by vetrification (Niwata et al., 1995).
Haploids and Doubled Haploids: Haploids are plants (sporophytes) that contain a gametic
chromosome number (n). They can originate spontaneously in nature or as a result of various
induction techniques. Spontaneous development of haploid plants has been known since 1922, when
Blakeslee first described this phenomenon in Datura stramonium (Blakeslee et al., 1922); this was
subsequently followed by similar reports in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), wheat (Triticum aestivum)
and several other species (Forster et al., 2007). However, spontaneous occurrence is a rare event and
therefore of limited practical value. The potential of haploidy for plant breeding arose in 1964 with
the achievement of haploid embryo formation from in vitro culture of Datura anthers (Guha and
Maheshwari, 1964, 1966), which was followed by successful in vitro haploid production in tobacco
(Nitsch and Nitsch, 1969). Many attempts have been made since then, resulting in published protocols
for over 250 plant species belonging to almost all families of the plant kingdom (reviewed in
Maluszynski et al., 2003).In fact, under optimal conditions, doubled haploids (DH) have been
routinely used inbreeding for several decades, although their common use is still limited to selected
species. There are several reasons for this. These might be categorized as biological, based on plant
Effect of Tissue Culture in Vegetable Improvement 39
status (annual, biannual, perennial, autogamous, allogamous, vegetatively propagated) and flower
morphology or technical, which are the result of the feasibility and efficiency of DH induction
protocol.
Production of Haploids and Doubled Haploids: Haploids produced from diploid species (2n=2x),
known as monoploids, contain only one set of chromosomes in the sporophytic phase (2n=x). They
are smaller and exhibit a lower plant vigor compared to donor plants and are sterile due to the
inability of their chromosomes to pair during meiosis. In order to propagate them through seed and to
include them in breeding programs, their fertility has to be restored with spontaneous or induced
chromosome doubling. The obtained DHs are homozygous at all loci and can represent a new variety
(self-pollinated crops) or parental inbred line for the production of hybrid varieties (cross-pollinated
crops). In fact, cross pollinated species often express a high degree of inbreeding depression. For
these species, the induction process per se can serve not only as a fast method for the production of
homozygous lines but also as a selection tool for the elimination of genotypes expressing strong
inbreeding depression. Selection can be expected for traits caused by recessive deleterious genes that
are associated with vegetative growth. Traits associated with flower fertility might not be related and
should be eliminated by recurrent selection among DH lines. The production of pure lines using
doubled haploids has several advantages over conventional methods. Using DH production systems,
homozygosity is achieved in one generation, eliminating the need for several generations of self-
pollination. The time saving is substantial, particularly in biennial crops and in crops with a long
juvenile period. For self-incompatible species, dioecious species and species that suffer from
inbreeding depression due to self-pollination, haploidy may be the only way to develop inbred lines.
The induction of DH lines in dioecious plants, in which sex is determined by a regulating gene, has an
additional advantage. Such a case is well studied in asparagus, in which sex dimorphism is determined
by a dominant gene M. Female plants are homozygous for the recessive alleles (mm), while male
plants are heterozygous (Mm). Androgenically produced DH lines are therefore female (mm) or
'supermale' (MM). An advantage of supermales is that, when Used as the pollinating line, all hybrid
progeny are male. Haploids from polyploid species have more than one set of chromosomes and are
polyhaploids; for example dihaploids (2n=2x) from tetraploid potato (Solanum tuberosum ssp.
tuberosum, 2n=4x), trihaploids (2n=3x) from heksaploid kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa, 2n=6x) etc.
Dihaploids and trihaploids are not homozygous like doubled haploids, because they contain more than
one set of chromosomes. They cannot be used as true-breeding lines but they enable the breeding of
polyploid species at the diploid level and crossings with related cultivated or wild diploid species
carrying genes of interest.
Double Haploid: Haploid derived from diploids are called monoploid, while haploids derived from
poly-haploid. Diploid produced from chromosome doubling of haploids are called doubled or double
haploid (DH).DHs can be produced via in vivo and in vitro systems. Haploid plants that underwent
spontaneous or induced chromosome doubling. The haploid embryos rescued, cultured and
chromosome doubling (using colchicine) for production of doubled haploid.
List of varieties released through DH in vegetable crops

Vegetable Crops Commercial varieties Released country
Asparagus Andreas (super male) France
Golia, Ringo, Argo Italy
Guelph (Super male) Canada

Chilli Tajo, pekin, Olmo Spain
Brinjal Cristal, Seven, Milar,Petra Spain
Conclusion: Tissue culture is a very fast technique. Thousands of plantlets can be produced in a few
weeks time from a small amount of plant tissue. The new plants produced by tissue culture are disease
free. Tissue culture can grow plants round the year, irrespective of weather or season. Very little space
is needed for developing new plants by tissue culture. It helps to speed up the production of new
varieties into the market place. In case of the seed potato industry, this technique helps in maintaining
and establishing virus free stock. So, we have to understand that this technique is important for
transforming plants with new genes.
References
Alan, A. R., Lim, W., Mutschler, M. A. and Earle, E.D. (2007). Complementary strategies for ploidy
manipulations in gynogenic onion (Allium cepa L.). Plant Science, 173 (1): 25-31.
Biniam, T. and Tadesse, M. (2007). A survey of viral status on potatoes grown in Eritrea and in vitro virus
elimination of a local variety ‘Tsaeda embaba’. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7 (4): 397-403.
Brown, D. C. W. and Thorpe, T. A. (1995). Crop improvement through tissue culture. World J. Microbiol and
Biotechnol. 11: 409-415.
Fabre, J. and Dereuddre, J. (1990). Encapsulation Dehydration–A new approach to cryopreservation of Solanum
shoot-tips. Cryo-Letters, 11 (5): 413-426.
Hirai, D. & Sakai, A. (2002). Simplified cryopreservation of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) By
optimizing conditions for osmo-protection. Plant Cell Reports, 21(10): 961-966, ISSN 0721-7714.
Hussain, A., Qarshi, I. A., Nazir, H. and Ullah, I. (2012). Plant tissue culture: Current status and opportunities.
Intech. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50568.
Ishikawa, M. P., Tandon, A. C., Yamaguishi and Miyazaki, S. (1996). Cryopreservation of bromegrass cells
with slow pre freezing and rapid pre freezing methods. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of Japanese
Plant Physiologists, p. 96.
Kharkongar, H. P., Khanna, V. K., Tyagi, W., Rai, M. and Meetei, N. T. (2013). Wide Hybridization and
Embryo-Rescue for Crop Improvement in Solanum lycopersicum. Agrotechnology doi:10.4172/2168-
9881.S11-004.
Niwata, E., Ito–Ogawa, R., Ishikawa, M., and Oosawa, K. (1995).Cryopreservation of apical meristems of
garlic and high subsequent plant regeneration. Cryo–Letters 16:102–107.
Tiwari, J. K., Poonam, Sarkar, D., Pandey, S. K., Gopal, J., Kumar, S. R. (2011). Molecular and morphological
characterization of somatic hybrids between Solanum tuberosum L. and S. etuberosum Lin. Plant Cell
Tissue Organ Culture, 103: 175-187.
Umamaheswai, A, Lalitha V (2007). In vitro effect of various growth hormones in Capsicum annuum L. on the
callus induction and production of Capsacium.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF INDIA
Elumle Priyanka1, Yandava Swarupa2, Thombre Santosh Vitthalrao3 and
Swathi Rekha Nandigam4
1
PhD scholar, Department of Agronomy, Assam agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam,
E-mail: priyankaelumle@gmail.com, 2Research Associate, Krishivigyan Kendra, Periyavaram, 3PhD Scholar, Department
of Agronomy, VNMKV, Parbhani and 4Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi,
Jharkhand, Corresponding Author: Elumle Priyanka
T he word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from

ager, “field”, which in its turn came from Greek αγρός, and cultūra, “cultivation” or
“growing”. To practice agriculture means to use natural resources to “produce
commodities which maintain life, including food, fibre forest products, horticultural crops, and their
related services. It means agriculture began slowly with just a handful of crops, with most foods
gathered in the wild. Changes in soil and weather could have supported farming and its continued
growth. Unlike hunting, farming can feed more people on the same area of land. Although agriculture
was mainly done for subsistence purposes in the early days, it has grown to including commercial
farming. Agriculture has also grown to include various techniques such as crop rotation, fencing, the
use of fertilizers, plantation, weeding, ranching and breeding, among others. The techniques are meant
to increase farm production and output for higher returns. Similarly, farming is now widespread
worldwide based on various factors Paul F. Donald. (2004).
Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock.
It includes the preparation of plant and animal products for people to use and their distribution to
markets. Agriculture provides most of the world’s food and fabrics. Cotton, wool, and leather are all
agricultural products. Agriculture also provides wood for construction and paper products. These
products, as well as the agricultural methods used, may vary from one part of the world to another.
Agricultural System: An agricultural system is an assemblage of components which are united by
some form of interaction and interdependence and which operate within a prescribed boundary to
achieve a specified agricultural objective on behalf of the beneficiaries of the system. Agriculture is
the most fundamental form of human activity. It includes not only the cultivation of crops, but also the
domestication of animals. It is practised in different regions of the world, particularly, in river valleys
and where irrigation is possible; it is also practiced under multiple combinations of physical and
socio-economic conditions, which gives rise to different types of agricultural system. The important
agricultural systems which are practiced around the world are discussed below:
Shifting or Swidden or Jhum Cultivation: It is the first step in transition from food gathering and
hunting to food production,is a nearly 9000years old practice. Jhum cultivation, also known as the
slash and burn agriculture, is the process of growing crops by first clearing the land of trees and
vegetation and burning them thereafter. (Raintree et al., 1986). The burnt soil contains potash which
increases the nutrient content of the soil. The plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned
and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to another plot Shifting
cultivation was banned in India because, as the trees were being cut down, it would lead to
deforestation. It could also lead to forest fires as the trees were being burnt. That's why they decided
to ban shifting cultivation in India.
Zabo Production System: The term Zabo is derived from the word zabö, which is used for
“impounding runoff water” in Chakhesang dialect. Zabo is also known as Dzüdü or Ruza system in
other parts of the region. It has a combination of forest, horticulture, agriculture, fishery and
animal husbandry with well-founded soil and water conservation base (Sharma, 2004). Water
resource development, water management and protection of environment are inherent aspects of the
system. The rain falls on a patch of protected forest on the hilltop; as the water runs off along the
slope, it passes through various terraces (fig1). The water is collected in pond-like structures in the
middle terraces; below are cattle yards, and towards the foot of the hill are paddy fields, where the
run-off ultimately meanders into.
Fig-1: Babo production system

Nomadic Herding: Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism when livestock are herded in order
to find fresh pastures on which to graze. True nomads follow an irregular pattern of movement, in
contrast with transhumance where seasonal pastures are fixed. Nomad herding is the people who
travel from one place to another during seasonal changes with their livestock in search of
grass. Nomadic herders wander in small groups and have no permanent home. They are found in
the region of Africa, Asia, and Europe, along with the tundra regions of Asia and Europe
Commercial Dairy Farming: Breeding dairy cow farming is “Raising highly milk productive cows
commercially for the purposes of milk production”. It is part of agriculture or livestock producing
long-term milk from cows. Commercial dairy farming has followed from many years. People have
been raising dairy cows for milk production since ancient times. This business is a profitable
commercial business worldwide. There are lots of new and established dairy farms available
worldwide. It had its origin in Europe from where it spread to other areas. Close proximity to the
market and temperate climate are the two favourable factors. Countries like Denmark and
Sweden have witnessed the maximum development of this type of farming.
Wet Rice Cultivation of Asia: Wet-rice cultivation supports a majority of the rural population of the
Far East. It is the dominant mode of farming in China, South Korea, Japan, Tonkin delta and the
Annamite coastlands in North Vietnam. The Ganges–Brahmaputra delta, the lower Ganges plain, the
deltas of the eastern coast of India, and in Kerala Sri Lanka (Ceylon) it is important in both the Dry
and Wet Zones. Although wet-rice cultivation supports much of the rural population of the Far East, it
occupies but a small part of the total area. Rice is tolerant of a wide range of soils. It requires high
temperatures in the growing season, with mean monthly temperatures of at least 20C for three or four
months, but this does not greatly restrict its range, the minimum moisture requirements excessive,
although ideally it requires at least 1200 mm during the growing season (Okushima, 1999).
Mediterranean Agriculture: The term ‘Mediterranean agriculture’ applies to the agriculture done in
those regions which are having Mediterranean type of climate. The natural setting that lends itself to
Mediterranean agriculture is distinguished by erratic rainfall, mild temperatures, irregular topography,
and nearness to large water bodies. In this type, farming is intensive, highly specialised and varied in
the kinds of crops raised. Subsistence agriculture occurs side by side with commercial farming. Many
crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables are raised for domestic consumption, while others like
citrus fruits, olives, and grapes are mainly for export. The Mediterranean lands are also known as
‘orchard lands of the world’. it is the heart of the world's wine industry. This region is famous for
world for the production of citrus fruits and grapes in the world.
Commercial Plantation: This type of farming has developed in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin
America, where the influence of the Europeans have been important during the colonial period.
Different Types of Agricultural Systems of India 43
Though, practiced over a rather small area, this type of farming is quite important in terms of its
commercial value. Most of the plantations were developed to provide some of the important tropical
crops to the European markets. This is a highly capital intensive farming and most of the crops are
tree crops. It is a mix of agriculture and industry and is practised across a vast area ofland. Plantation
owners usually grow a single crop like banana, coffee, tea etc. in a plantation and use technological
support to process the crop on the farm itself or a factory attached to it. The end product also works as
a raw material for industries. For example, the rubber industry uses the rubber produced from its
plantation as raw material. Tea, coffee, rubber and oil palm are the major products of this type of
farming.
Subsistence Agriculture: Subsistence agriculture is the type of farming in which crops grown are
consumed by the grower and his family. Subsistence agriculture may be of different types. It may be
shifting or settled agriculture, it may be primitive or non-primitive in character, it may be both inten-
sive and extensive in nature (fig2).
Fig-2: Flowchart showing types of agriculture systems

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: In this type of farming system, crops are grown mainly for local
consumption. If there is a surplus, then it is sold in the market. This type of farming is largely found in
densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming are: Tonking
Delta (Vietnam), lower Menem (Thailand); lower Irrawaddy (Myanmar); and the Ganga-Brahmaputra
Delta, Eastern Coastal Plains (India). It had its origin in Europe from where it spread to other areas.
Sedentary Cultivation or Permanent Agriculture: It is also known as settled cultivation. In this
farmers get settled at the place and practice continued use of land year after year with the variation of
crops. In this permanent settlement of farmers exists. It is the normal system of agricultural practice
found in almost every part of India.
Terrace Cultivation: Where lands are of sloping nature, this type of cultivation is practiced specially
in hilly areas. The hill and mountain slopes are cut to form terrace sand the land is used in the same
way as in permanent agriculture. Since the availability of flat land is limited terraces are made to
provide small patch of level land. Soil erosion is also checked due to terrace formation on hill slops.
Conclusion: Agricultural farming systems come when necessary. Over the years many factors have
changed farming systems. These factors include; Available water, land, grazing areas, arable lands,
forest; climate, landscape etc. The dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods.
These include field crops, livestock, trees and aquaculture. Also, hunting and gathering, processing
and off-farm activities. The main technologies and types of production systems we use. This
determines the intensity of production and integration of crops, livestock and other activities.
References
Paul F. Donald. (2004). Biodiversity Impacts of Some Agricultural Commodity Production Systems.
Conservation Biology. 18(1): 17-37.
Bourke, R.M., D'Souza, E.J. (1982). Intensification of subsistence agriculture on the Nembi Plateau: preliminary
results202-207, Presented at: Papua New Guinea Food Crops Conference (2nd, 1980, Goroka, Papua New
Guinea), Department of Primary Industry.
Emma, C. Stephens, Andrew D. Jones, Davdi D. Parson. (2015). Agricultural systems research and global food
security in the 21st century: An overview and roadmap for future opportunities.
Okushima Mika. (1999). Wet rice cultivation and the Kayanic peoples of East Kalimantan: some possible
factors explaining their preference for dry rice cultivation (1). (Research Notes). Borneo Research Bulletin,
Raintree, J.B., Warner, K. (1986). Agroforestry pathways for the intensification of shifting cultivation.
Agroforest Syst 4: 39–54.
Sharma, U. C. (2004). Centre for Natural Resources Management, VPO Tarore 181133, District Jammu,
Jamtmt & Kashmir, India The "Zabo" soil and water management and conservation system in northeast
India. The Basis of Civilization - Water Science? (Proceedings ol'lhe UNESCO/IAIIS/IWIIA symposium
held in Rome. December 2003). IAHS Publ. 286.

MODERN IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY-AN EVERGREEN
REVOLUTION FOR FUTURE GENERATION
R. Ajaykumar1 and P. Balasubramanian2
1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agronomy, Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi,
E-mail: ajaykumar.tnau@gmail.com and 2Teaching Assistant, Dept. of Agronomy, Agromet Project, HRS, Ooty,
Tamil Nadu, Corresponding Author: R. Ajaykumar
I ndia with a geographical area of 329 million ha receives about 1170 mm rainfall with a
runoff of 400 M ha m. The surface flow is evaluated to be 187 M ha m. Out of the total
runoff only 69 M ha m from surface water and about 45 M ha m from ground water is
estimated to be utilizable. To achieve the projected food grain production of 245 million tons by the
end of the year 2010 Government of India constituted a National Task Force on Micro Irrigation in
2004 with an objective to emphasize on all aspects of water conservation and to improve the water use
efficiency to achieve More Crop Per Drop. Water is a renewable resource, its availability in
appropriate quality and quantity is under severe stress due to increasing demand from various sectors.
Agriculture is the largest user of water, which consumes more than 80% of the country's exploitable
water resources. The over all development of the agriculture sector and the intended growth rate in
GDP is largely dependent on the judicious use of the available water resources. While the irrigation
projects (major and medium) have contributed to the development of water resources, the
conventional methods of water conveyance and irrigation, being highly inefficient, has led not only to
wastage of water but also to several ecological problems like water logging, salinization and soil
degradation making productive agricultural lands unproductive. It has been recognized that use of
modern irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler irrigation is the only alternative for efficient use of
surface as well as ground water resources.
Status of Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation: Drip and sprinkler irrigation are followed many developed
countries like USA, Austria, Germany, Israel, Great Britain etc. In World the drip and sprinkler
irrigated area is about2.7 m.ha, representing 16% of the World's total irrigated area (Table 1). In
India, the Govt of India is promoting drip and sprinkler irrigation system by launching Centrally
Sponsored Scheme on National Mission on Micro irrigation (NMMI) and providing financial
assistance of 60% of project cost for small and marginal farmers and 50% for general farmers
including 10% State share since 2005-06. An area of 14.3 lakh ha and 24.5 lakh ha have been covered
under drip and sprinkler irrigation respectively. Among the States, Maharashtra is the leading State
covering nearly 33.7% of the area under drip irrigation followed by Andhra Pradesh with 25.4%,
Karnataka with 12.4%, Gujarat with (11.9%) and Tamil Nadu with 9.2% of the total drip irrigated
area in India (Indiastat.com 2018, Table.2).
Table.1. Drip and sprinkler irrigated area–World scenario (area in ‘000ha)
Country Irrigated area Area under drip & sprinkler Irrigated area (%)
World 173277 27065 16
Great Britain 150 150 100
Finland 86 86 100
Germany 532 530 100
Israel 231 230 100
Czech Rep. 155 154 99
Austria 80 79 99
France 1575 1483 94
Italy 2535 1414 56
Spain 3315 1819 55
USA 25050 13145 52
South Africa 1300 475 37
Australia 2384 715 30
India 57000 2760 5
China 53300 1467 3
(www.icid.org, 2018)
Table.2. Selected state-wise area covered under micro irrigation in India
States Drip Sprinkler Total(ha)
Rajasthan 17002 706813 723815
Maharashtra 482341 214674 697015
Haryana 7136 518367 525502

Andhra Pradesh 363073 200950 564023
Karnataka 177326 228621 405947
Gujarat 169689 136284 305973
Tamil Nadu 131335 27186 158521
West Bengal 146 150031 150177
Madhya Pradesh 20432 117685 138117
Chhattisgarh 3648 59270 62919
Orissa 3629 23466 27095
Uttar Pradesh 10675 10589 21264
Punjab 11730 10511 22241
Kerala 14119 2516 16635
Sikkim 80 10030 10110
Nagaland NA 3962 3962
Goa 762 332 1094
Himachal Pradesh 116 581 696
Arunachal Pradesh 613 NA 613
Jharkhand 133 365 498
Bihar 163 206 369
Others 15000 30000 45000
India 1429404 2452680 3882084
(Indiastat.com, 2018)
Micro irrigation is suitable for all row crops and especially for wide spaced high value crops.
The required quantity of water is provided to each plant at the root zone through a pipe net work.
Hence there is little loss of water from the soil surface. Micro irrigation is well adapted for undulating
terrain, shallow soils, porus soils and water scarce areas.
Micro irrigation, which includes drip and micro sprinklers, is an effective tool for conserving
water resources and studies have revealed significant water saving ranging between 40 and 70% by
drip irrigation compared with surface irrigation, with yield increases as high as 100% in some crops in
specific locations (Table.3). Micro irrigation is very popular in wide spaced horticultural crops like
coconut, mango, guava, sapota, pomegranate, lime, oranges, grapes, banana, tapioca, turmeric and
close spaced crops like vegetables, potato and flowers like jasmine, rose etc.
Table.3. Water used and yield of crops in micro irrigation and conventional methods
Methods of Water require- % water Yield % increase Water use efficiency
Crop
irrigation ment (cm) saving kg ha-1 in yield (kg ha mm-1)
Drip 97.00 45.00 87500 52.00 90.20
Banana
Surface 176.00 - 57500 - 32.67
Drip 94.00 56.00 170000 33.00 180.85
Sugarcane
Furrow 215.00 - 128000 - 59.53
Drip 27.80 48.00 32500 23.00 116.90
Grapes
Surface 53.20 - 26400 - 49.62
Drip 28.00 66.27 3250 25.00 116.10
Cotton
Furrow 83.00 - 2600 - 31.33
Drip 37.10 25.05 48990 17.09 1320.00
Sugar beet
Furrow 49.50 - 41840 - 850.00
Sweet Drip 48.00 2.04 11952 0.80 249.00
pepper Furrow 49.00 - 11858 - 242.00
Sweet Drip 25.20 60.06 5888 38.73 233.65
potato Surface 63.10 - 4244 - 67.26
Drip 17.70 79.34 887 55.34 50.11
Beetroot
Surface 85.70 - 571 - 6.66
Drip 10.80 75.72 1186 13.49 109.80
Radish
Surface 46.40 - 1045 - 22.52
Drip 73.88 67.89 23490 69.47 0.32
Papaya
Surface 225.80 - 13860 - 0.06
Drip 20.00 60.00 71400 3.03 3570
Mulberry
Surface 50.00 - 69300 - 1386
Tomato Drip 18.40 39.00 48000 50.00 260.86
Surface 30.00 - 32000 - 106.66
(WTC Annual Reports, 2000-2018)
Modern Irrigation Technology-An Evergreen Revolution for Future Generation 47
Types of Drip Irrigation System

Surface System: It is the system in which drippers and laterals are laid on the soil surface. The
commonly used drippers in this system are non-pressure-compensating, pressure compensating
drippers, inline drippers, adjustable discharge drippers and microtubings. The choice of these drippers
depends on the type of crop, topography and soil type.
Subsurface System: In this system water is applied slowly below the soil surface through drippers.
This includes twin wall type systems. The most commonly used systems are biwall, turbo tape and
typhon systems. Subsurface system is mostly used for row crops.
Overhead System: Here the laterals taken off from sub main are laid overhead and drippers drip
water from above the soil surface. This system is mostly used in grape fields, which also produces
conducive microclimate.
On Line Drip Irrigation Systems: In which the drippers or emitters are fixed on the Lateral Pipes by
punching suitable holes on the drip lateral pipes at the locations specific to the crop being irrigated.
These drippers are hence also called Point Source Drippers. The point source mode is suited to
wider-spaced plants such as fruit trees and in vineyard.So that only the root zone beneath them is
watered Small fruits like strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, juneberries and raspberries respond
well to micro-irrigation.
In Line Drip Irrigation Systems: In which the drippers are factory installed within or on the drip
lateral at regular intervals and are suitable for closely spaced field crops in order to achieve a continuous
strip of wetting along the crop rows. Line source drip systems are generally used for row crops such
as squash, melons, asparagus, tomatoes, onions and peppers. More durable subsurface drip lines and
above ground retrievable hoses are now availableWith the help of Pressure Compensated Drippers,
water can be applied uniformly on long rows and on uneven slopes. A flexible internal diaphragm or
disc inside the emitter changes shape at higher pressures to create greater restriction to flow as the
pressure rises.
Micro Tubing: The technique involves the application of water through small tubes of internal diameters
ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.2 mm. The longer the Micro tube, the lower will be the discharge from it.
The discharges of micro tubes vary from 1 Iph for a length of 6' micro tube to 10 Iph from a micro tube
of length 6 inches.
Micro Jets or Micro Spray: The main advantages of the Micro Jets or Micro Sprays are low
operating pressure requirements of from 0.8 to 1.5 kg/cm2, low water application ratesand suitability
for stony or very coarse sandy soils. These Jets/Sprays can meet the requirements of under-tree frost
protection as well. In windy conditions the jets/sprays with low angle of emission need to be installed.
Porous Pipe Irrigation: Recycle rubber tubes are e made in to porous pipes and used for sub surface
irrigation in many horticultural crops.
Micro & Mini Sprinklers : The spinners rotate with water pressure and sprinkle the water. Due to the
impact created by the rotating spinners the water can be sprinkled on a larger area than jets/sprays.
These are useful for high discharge requirements in case of orchards and also where the crop canopy
as well as the root zone spread is wider.
Foggers / Misters: The foggers and misters are designed to produce very fine droplets cr eating
a uniform cloud of miniature droplets, for applications such as cooling, humidification and
misting as well as for irrigating plants in greenhouses and nurseries. The fine mist and fog create
suitable microclimate necessary for germination and plant propagation requirements.
Bubbler Systems: These are low-pressure emitters designed to bubble-out water with rapid
discharge rates. The bubbling patterns will be either in the form of sheet of water like an
umbrella or in the form of streams. The typical flow rate from bubbler is between 8 and 80
liters per hour. The irrigation water delivered by each bubbler is distributed uniformly by
filling small basins, surrounded by low ridges. These are suitable in situations where large
amounts of water need to be applied in a short period of time and suitable for irrigating trees
with wide root zones and high water requirements. Despite many advantages, bubbler systems
have not been widely used.
Irrigation Automation: The micro irrigation systems are designed to be operated in a given sequence
of opening and closing of valves as per the irrigation schedules. However, in order to automate the
irrigation scheduling, electronic programmable controllers as well as host of sensors along with
Irrigation Management software, are available. Use of such automation equipment will further enhance
the efficiency of the Ml systems, as water and fertilizers can be applied with better control.
Types of Automation systems available are:
1. Time based automation
2. Sensor based automation
In Time based automation systems, the operation of valves is based on pre-fixed irrigation
start times and end times and the sequence of valve operations required. In Sensor based automation
systems sensors either individually or in combination can be attached to the controller for activating and
deactivating the low voltage electric solenoid valves and pumps so that the irrigation system can be
operated automatically based on the sensor readings.
Sprinkler Irrigation: A sprinkler "throws" water through the air in an effort to simulate rainfall
whereas the other irrigation methods apply water directly to the soil or root zone, either on or below the
surface. When many sprinklers are used,they are attached to a pipeline at a predetermined spacing
in order to achieve a uniform water application.
Types of Sprinkler Systems: Sprinkler systems are classified in the following two major types on the
basis of the arrangement for spraying or sprinkling water:
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.
2. Perforated pipe system.
Rotating Head or Revolving Sprinkler System: This can again be divided into three categories
namely:
1. Conventional system/small rotary sprinklers.
2. Boom type and self propelled sprinkler system.
3. Mobile raingun/large rotary sprinklers.
Conventional Rotary Sprinkler/ Conventional System: The sprinklers operate at low to medium
pressure of 2 to 4 kg/cm2 and can wet an area of 9-24 m wide and up to 300 m long at one setting.
Application rates vary from 5 to 35 mm per hour.
Boom Type/Self-propelled Sprinkler Systems: This system employs one boom sprinkler on each
lateral. Boom sprinklers are moved by towing the towers to the next position along the laterals with a
tractor or winch. The large sprinkler irrigates a width of 75 to 100 m depending on nozzle sizes and
pressure and is particularly useful for tall crops such as Maize and sugar cane, where space at regular
intervals is available for maneuvering the portable towers.
Centre Pivot System: This self-propelled sprinkler system rotates around the pivot point and has the
lowest labor requirements of all the sprinkler systems. It is constructed using a span of pipe
connected to moveable towers. It can irrigate approximately 130 acres out of a square quarter section.
Sprinkler packages are available for low to high operating pressures (2.0 kg/cm2 to 6 kg/cm2 at
the pivot point). Center pivots are adaptable for any crop- h ei g h t a n d a r e particularly suited
to lighter soils. They are generally not recommended for heavy soils with low infiltration rates.
Raingun/Large Rotary Sprinklers: This system operates at high pressure to irrigate large areas.
They can irrigate areas up to 4 ha at one setting with an application rate varying from 5 to 35 mm per
hour. There are two main types of the system: (i) hose pull system; and (ii) hose reel system.
Fertigation: An approach for efficient utilization of water and fertilizers is necessary for agriculture
in the 21st Century. In other words, fertigation is addition of fertilizers to irrigation water and
application via drip or similar micro irrigation system. Fertigation provides Nitrogen, Phosphorous
and Potassium as well as the essential trace elements (Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Mn) directly to the active
root zone, thus minimizing the loss of expensive nutrients which ultimately helps in improving
productivity and quality of farm produce.
Status of Fertigation: Fertigation is by far the most common, and in some cases the only method of
fertilizing the green houses, orchard, vegetables and drip irrigated field crops such as cotton, maize,
jujube etc.
Table 4. Fertilizer efficiencies by various application methods
Nutrient Fertilizer use efficiency (%)
Soil application Fertigation
Nitrogen 30-50 95
Phosphorous 20 45
Potassium 50 80
(Satisha,2017)
Modern Irrigation Technology-An Evergreen Revolution for Future Generation 49
Precision Farming Technologies

1. Remote sensing technology
2. Chisel plough
3. High-tech community nursery
4. Drip and fertigation system
5. Growing crops and growing with a crops
6. Market support
Technical Aspects of Fertigation
N Fertigation: Nitrogen is the nutrient mostly commonly used in fertigation with MIS, flood
irrigation, moving laterals and overhead sprinkling systems. In general, all N fertilizers cause few
clogging and precipitation problems with the exception of Ammonium Sulphate which may cause
precipitation of CaSO4 in hard, calcium-rich water. Urea is well suited for injection in micro
irrigation system. It is highly soluble and dissolves in non-ionic form so that it does not react with
other substances in the water. Also urea does not cause precipitation problems.
P Fertigation: Application of Phosphorous to irrigation water may cause precipitation of phosphate
salts. The precipitation of insoluble dicalcium phosphate and di-magnesium phosphate and Fe-P
compound in irrigation pipes and water emitters is likely in water with a high pH and low pH
respectively. Reducing the pH of irrigation water will significantly reduce the risk of Ca-P
compounds precipitation. Thus Phosphoric acid appears to be more suitable for fertigation.
K Fertigation: Application of K fertilizers does not cause any precipitation of salts, except when
using K2SO4 with irrigation water containing high concentrations of Ca. Potassium ion is adsorbed at
the cation exchange sites of soil colloids, but researchers have shown lateral and downward mobility
of potassium when applied via drip irrigation (Bar-Yosef, 1980). Rao (2003) showed that the
distribution of potassium was more uniform than that of either nitrate or phosphate.
Fertilizers for Fertigation: Water in which fertilizers are to be dissolved should have pH levels
between 5.8 and 7.8. Most of the specialty water soluble fertilizers are imported in India and
marketed by Irrigation system and Fertilizer Dealers (Table.5)
Table.5. Specialty water soluble fertilizers available in market
Name N P2O5 K2O Micro nutrients*
Polyfeed (All 19) 19 19 19 1000 ppm Fe
Polyfeed (All 20) 20 20 20 500 ppm Mn
Polyfeed 11 42 11 75 ppm Zn
Polyfeed 16 8 24 200 ppm B
Polyfeed 19 19 19 35 ppm Mo
Polyfeed 15 15 30 55 ppm Cu
MAP- Mono Ammonium Phosphate 12 61 0
Potassium Nitrate (Multi-K) 13 0 46
MKP- (Mono Potassium Phosphate) 0 52 34
SOP- Sulphate of Potash 0 0 50
*All Poly feed fertilizers contain all of the 6 micro nutrients at specified concentration.
Fertigation Devices
1. Ventury Type: It delivers the fertilizers at a concentration which depends on the water flow. Thus,
the injection method is inaccurate because the pressure and flow rates vary in drip irrigation system.
2. Fertilizer Tank: A tank containing fertilizer solution is connected to the irrigation pipe at the
supply point. Part of the irrigation water is diverted through the tank diluting the nutrient solution and
returning to the main supply pipe. The concentration of fertilizer in the tank thus becomes gradually
reduced.
3. Hydraulic Dosing Pumps or Non-electric Proportional Injectors: The injection rate is factory
preset or may be chosen by an adjustable setting and injector body. This means they achieve an
injection rate proportional to the flow of water passing through. The resulting solution strength is
therefore constant, even if the water flow varies.
Benefits of Micro Irrigation
1. Improved Plant Response: With micro irrigation crop can be irrigated frequently, enabling the
soil moisture to be maintained at optimum levels for plant growth. Crop yield increased by 50 to 100
per cent are realized mainly because plants are conditioned with proper air water balance and are free
from low and high water stresses and shocks. The plant growth is faster and vigorous resulting in
early yield. Purity and sucrose content in juice also improves.
2. Increased Irrigation Efficiency: Micro irrigation systems make irrigation more efficient and
therefore, require less applied water. Improved irrigation efficiency is achieved due to the following
factors and conditions: (a) Reduced soil evaporation losses due to a smaller portion of the soil surface
area being wetted, (b) Reduced or eliminated run off, (c) Minimized deep percolation due to more
precise water control, (d) Enhanced uniformity of water application.
3. Improved Chemical Application: The consumption of fertilizers and chemicals can be reduced by
up to 30 per cent, by using micro irrigation system since these are applied through water directly at
the root zone of the plant in a uniform and effective way.
4. Reduced Weed Growth: Since water is applied directly to the base of the plant, weed germination
between plants and plant rows is less to the extent of 50%.
5. Decreased Energy Requirements: Since less water is pumped for micro irrigation, energy
requirements are reduced. By irrigating one-hectare sugarcane crop with micro irrigation, 1059 kwh
energy is saved when compared to flood method.
6. Adaptability: Micro irrigation can be used on steep or undulating topography and on soils that
have low infiltration rates or low water holding characteristics. Saline soils and saline water can also
be used for irrigation.
Micro irrigation systems also facilitate application of water-soluble fertilizers through the
same piping network simultaneously. Fertigation is picking up its momentum particularly under
precision farming and controlled cultivation like in green houses. Micro irrigation in combination
with fertigation is the only feasible solution to bring back greenery in our country if the parallel
development in rain water harvesting and harnessing ground water resources are also accomplished.
Merits of Fertigation
 Fertigation ensures uniform and regular flow of both water and nutrients, resulting in increased
growth, yield and quality of crops.
 Though fertigation the three major nutrients are supplied in one solution to the active root zone
resulting greater absorption.
 Small quantities of fertilizers can be applied at close interval.
 The system enables accurate and uniform distribution of nutrients in the root zone.
 Each irrigated plant receives the same proportion of nutrients.
 When combined with proper management, fertigation can reduce nutrient losses from leaching,
volatilization and / or fixation.
 Large saving of labour and energy in nutrient application.
 Increase the availability and uptake of nutrients.
 Maximize water and nutrient productivity
 Micronutrients can be effectively applied by fertigation.
References
Asokaraja, N. (2002). Maximizing the productivity and quality of banana and sugarcane with water soluble
fertilizers through drip fertigation. Annual Report. 2001-2002 WTC, TNAU, Coimbatore.
Bar-Yosef, B. (1999). Advances in fertigation. In Advances in Agronomy, Vol.65.
Icid.org. (2018). International Committee on Irrigation and Drainage. Annual Report 2009-10.
Indiastat.com. (2018). Selected State-wise Area Covered under Micro Irrigation in India.
Manickasundaram, P., Pandian, B. J., Chandrasekaran, R., Jayakumar, M. and Chellamuthu, S. (2010). Effect
of drip fertigation on weed intensity and yield of onion. National conference on “Challenges in weed
management in agro-ecosystems-present status and future strategies”, Nov. 30 and Dec. 1 - 2010 held at
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641 003. P. 143-144.
Rao, C.S. (2003). Field maintenance of drip irrigation system. All India seminar onengineering trends in micro-
irrigation for efficient water management, Bangalore.
Satisha, G.C. (2017). Fertigation–New concept in Indian Agriculture, Kissan World p 30. June 2017.
Vadivel, E., Ranghaswami, M.V. and Manian, R. (2006). Tamil Nadu Precision Farming Project, Paper
presented in the 7th International Micro Irrigation Congress held at 13-15 September 2006, Kuala Lumpur.
WTC. (2000-2018). Annual reports of water Technology center, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.

AONLA AS A POTENTIAL FRUIT FOR HEALTH AND
ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT OF FARM WOMEN
Reeta Mishra, Y.P. Singh and B.P.S. Raghubanshi
RVSKVV- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morena (M.P.) and RVSKVV-ZARS, Morena (M.P.), E-mail: drreetamishra@gmail.com,
Corresponding Author: Reeta Mishra
I ndia ranks first in the world in area and production of aonla crop (Priya and Khatkar,
2013). It is one of the oldest Indian fruits and considered as “Wonder fruit for health”. It
is also known as Indian gooseberry, Amalaki, Amla, Amlet, Amolphal, Aovla, Aurna,
Chukna, Dhatriphala, Emblic myrobalan, Nelli and Sobju in different parts of world (Agarwal and
Chopra, 2004).
Aonla (Emblica officinalis G.) is among the plant materials that rich in many nutraceutical
compounds and being used in Ayurveda and Unani system of medicines since ancient time. Being a
very rich source of vitamin C and other nutrients like polyphenols, pectin, iron, calcium and
phosphorus (Khopde et.al., 2001).
Varieties of Aonla: The main cultivated varieties of aonla are Banarasi (Drying), Bansi Red,
Chakaiya (Pickle, Candy and Syrup), Desi, Krishna (Candy and Jam), Kanchan/NA-4 (Candy and
Jam), Francis (Hathijool), NA-6, NA-7 (Candy and Jam), NA-8, NA-9, NA-10, Anand-7 (Pickle) and
Pink tinged (Rakesh et al., 2004). Aonla varieties are divided into 3 categories (Table1) on the basis
of maturity status. (Pathak, 2002).
Table 1: Classification of aonla based on maturity status
Variety Season Group
Banarasi, NA-9, NA-10 and Krishna Mid October - Mid November Early maturing
Francis, NA-7, Kanchan and NA-6 Mid November - Mid December Midian maturing
Chakaiya, Bhawanisagar Mid December – Mid January Late maturing
Nutritional Properties of Aonla: Aonla is a small sized, minor sub- tropical fruit and grows widely
along the hillsides and submountainous areas of North India. A fully grown aonla tree with good
bearing habit yields from 187 to 299 kg fruit per year. Owing to hardy nature, suitability to various
waste lands, high productivity/unit area (15-20tons/ha), nutritive and therapeutic value, amla is
becoming more and more commercially important with every passing year. Aonla is one of the richest
sources of ascorbic acid (500–1,500 mg/100 g) and used as a strong rejuvenator herb in Indian
pharmacopoea (Pathak and Ram, 2007). The ascorbic acid content of aonla fruit is next to only that of
Barbados cherry.
Various workers reported the chemical composition of fresh fruit (Table 1) in respect to
moisture, protein, fat, crude fibre, starch, sugars, minerals and vitamins. The fruits are rich in ascorbic
acid and tannins. The chemical composition of aonla fruits is influenced by environmental factors.
The total sugars content in aonla fruit varies from 7 to 9.6%, reducing sugars from 1.04 to 4.09 per
cent and non-reducing sugars from 3.05 to 7.23 per cent, among the various varieties. Aonla is
particularly rich in vitamin C. The pulp of fresh fruit contains 200 to 900 mg of vitamin C, as reported
by (Tripathi Godara et. al., 2004; Singh and Singh 2004, Chauhan et. al., 2005) (Table 2).
Table 2: Chemical composition of fresh aonla fruit
Characters Composition
Moisture (%) 80.22 to 89.36
TSS (°B) 10.32 to 16.00
Acidity (% citric acid) 1.25 to 3.24
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 200 to 1500
Reducing sugar (%) 1.04 to 4.09
Non-reducing sugar (%) 3.05 to 7.23
Total sugar (%) 2.11 to 8.68
pH 2.20 to 3.21
Tannin (% gallotannic acid) 0.35 to 0.64
Protein (%) 0.65 to 0.98
Pectin (% Ca pactate) 0.44 to 0.78
Medicinal Properties of Aonla: Aonla fruit is highly nutritive and the richest source of vitamin ‘C’
and stabilizing tannin, is frequently recommended in both Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine
(Prajapathi et. al. 2010), hence used for treating common cold, gastric troubles, acidity and scurvy
(Tandon et. al., 2003), dysentery and bronchitis, diabetes, diarrhea, jaundice and dyspepsia (Bhosale
et. al., 2000).
Aonla has been reported to be hepatoprotective and possesses expectorant, purgative,
spasmolytic, antibacterial, hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities (Mishra et. al., 2010). It is also
rich in anti-oxidants, poly phenols, tannins, minerals (Jain et. al., 2000). It is very effective in
shedding weight when supplemented by good diet, nutritional supplements and a healthy lifestyle. It
stimulates the liver and helps it to flush out accumulated toxins efficiently; this is particularly useful
in patients whose symptoms are side-effects of long-term use of birth-control pills and other hormonal
drugs (Thankitsunthorn et. al., 2009). It is also used for treating chronic dysentery, bronchitis,
diabetes, fever, diarrhea, jaundice, dyspepsia, & coughs etc (Shekhawat et. al., 2014).
Preservation/ Processing of Aonla: Aonla fruits have complex taste: sweet, sour, bitter, astringent
and pungent and thus are not particularly liked as fresh fruit by the consumers. It is a seasonal fruit
and thus, various preservation techniques have been developed such as freezing, and pickling with
salt, oil and spices and drying (Thankitsunthorn et al., 2009). Preservation of foodstuffs through
dehydration is an ancient practice.
Processing of aonla, not only results in curtailing the spoilage of fresh fruits but also results in
value addition through new products with better nutritional properties. Product characteristics are
product packed in glass jar, product can be stored under ambient temperature, the product is
microbiologically stable and product can be consumed as jam for bread spread. Aonla fruits are not
popular as table fruit because of its astringent taste. However, excellent nutritive and therapeutic
values of the fruit have great potentiality for processing into several quality products.
Fresh aonla is so sour that most people fid it intolerable, and hence is preferred in
the form of preserves, dried aonla, trifala, jam, juice, pickle and chavyanprash, toffees and fruit bar
(Singh and Kumar, 2000). It is therefore necessary to develop improved methods for processing
Aonla products such as Jam, Jelly, Squash, Juice, Candy, Supari, Powder, Biscuit, Chutney,
Chyavanprash, Instant Juice and Soup mixes, Ladoo, Mouth freshener, Nectars, Oil, Pickle, Preserve,
Sauce, Shred, Sweet Aonla Flakes, Syrup, Toffee, Triphala (Shekhawat et. al., 2014). Consumer
preference is strongly desired for successful promotion of any food product in market (Mudgil et. al.,
2011).
Conclusion: The growing popularity for alternate medicines, health foods and herbal products are
enhancing the requirement for aonla fruit. The fruits are rich in vitamin C, Protein, Fat, Crude fibre,
Starch, Sugars and Minerals. Because of its highly acidic and astringent nature, the consumers do not
relish this fruit in fresh form.
Hence, it is necessary to process this fruit and develop novel innovative products of high
value. By using improved scientific techniques, judicious processing of aonla fruit will not only open
new dimensions for generating income to farm women in the form of value added products, but will
also provide health benefits to the adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women. Inclusion of these
products in diet defiantly helps in improving the nutritional value of vulnerable groups especially in
the rural areas. Nutritional qualities of the aonla and its various value added products can be used for
reducing malnutrition.
References
Agarwal, S. and Chopra, C. S. (2004). Studies on changes in ascorbic acid and total phenol in making aonla
products. Beverage & Food World; 31(5): 32- 34.
Bhosale, V. I., Kutte L. S., Kadam, S S. (2000). Studies on preparation of ready to serve beverage from aonla:
mango juice blend. Beverage Food World 27(2): 24-27.
Chauhan, O.P., Srivastava, S., Pandey, P., Rai, G.K. (2005). A study on development of aonla blended sauce.
Beverage and Food World; 32(5):31–32.
Godara, R. K., Sharma, R. K., Goyal, R. K. and Kumar, J. (2004). Physicochemical composition of different
cultivars of aonla as influenced by time of harvesting. Indian J. Hill Farm; 17(1/2): 56-58.
Jain, S.K., Akhurdiya, D.S. (2000). Anola: potential fruit for processing. Delhi Garden Mega, 38:50–51.
Khopde, S.H., Priyadarshani, K.I., Mohan, H., Gawandi, V.B., Satav, J.G., Yakshmi, J.V., Banavalikar, M.M.,
Biyani, M.K. and Mittel, J.P. (2001). Characterizing the antioxidant activity of aonla (Phyllanthus emblica)
extract. Current Sci.; 81(2): 185.
Mishra, V. P., Mishra and Rai, G. K. (2010). Process and product standardization for the development of amla
bar. Beverage & Food World; 34(6): 58-60.
Aonla as a Potential Fruit for Health and Entrepreneurship Development of Farm Women 53
Mudgil, D., Barak, S. and Khatkar, B. S. (2011). Effect of hydrocolloids on the quality characteristics of tomato
ketchup. Carpathian Journal of Food Science and Technology; 3 (1): 39-43.
Pathak, R.K. (2002). Emblica officinalis. IACR (Indian council of Agricultural Research). Food and Agriculture
Organisation.
Pathak, R.K. and Ram, R.A. (2007). Organic production of aonla. In: National seminar on Recent advances in
production, protection and post harvest management of grape, mandarin and arid fruits.. College of
Horticulture, Mandsaur, 133–136, March 17–18.
Prajapati, V.K., Prabhat, K., Nema, Rathore, S.S. (2010). Effect of pretreatment and drying methods on quality
of value-added dried aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) shreds. Journal of Food Science and Technology;
48(1):45–52.
Priya M. D. and Khatkar. B. S. (2013). Effect of processing methods on keeping quality of aonla (Emblica
officinalis Gaertn.) preserve. International Food Research J.; 20 (2): 617-622.
Rakesh, Arya S.S., Moond, S.K. (2004). Processing products of aonla. Processed Food Industry, 7(4): 20-23.
Shekhawat, S., Rathore, N.S., Kaushik, R.A. (2014). Advances in processing and product development of aonla
(emblica officinalis) in Indian context- a review. International Journal of food and nutritional sciences,
3(6): e-ISSN 2320 –7876.
Singh, R. and Kumar, S. (2000). Studies on the effect of post-harvest treatments on decay loss and biochemical
changes during storage of aonla (Emblica offiinalis G.) fruit cv. Chakaiya. Haryana Journal of
Horticultural Sciences; 29 (3): 178-179.
Singh, V. and Singh, P. (2004). A review on physico-chemical characteristics of aonla (Emblica officinalis
Gaertn) cultivars. Journal of Eco Physiology 7: 73-76.
Tandon, D.K., Yadav, R.C., Sood S., Kumar S., Dikshit, A. (2003). Effect of blanching and lye peeling on the
quality of aonla candy. Indian Food Packag. 57(6): 147–149.
Thankitsunthorn, S., Thawornphiphatdit, C., Laohaprasit, N., Srzednicki, G. (2009). Effects of drying
temperature on quality of dried Indian Gooseberry powder. International Food Research Journal; 16: 355-
36.

COLOURED SWEET POTATO-A FUNCTIONAL FOOD WITH
ANTIOXIDANTS FOR HEALTH AND IMMUNITY BENEFITS
Jyoti Sinha1, Kiran Bains2, Ram Prawesh Prasad3 and Kumari Vibha Rani1
1
Scientist, KVK, Nalanda (BAU, Sabour, Bihar), 2Professor, Food Sc and Nutrition, (PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab) and 3Scientist,
KVK, Darbhanga (DR.RPCAU, Pusa, Bihar), E-mail: jyotisinha.2009@rediffmail.com,
Corresponding Author: Jyoti Sinha
V
itamins and minerals as micronutrients play a vital role to develop strong immune
system. Other than vitamins, plant sourced food antioxidants like phenolic acids,
carotenoids, flavonoids and phytoestrogens have been recognized as having the
potential as immune boosters. Food rich in natural colours and pigments offers an effective means of
control on net stress of the normal body functions, gradual loss of vital physiology including ageing
and damage of cell or tissue. They act as protective nutrients and also work with endocrine glands to
develop self defence mechanism. It is the immune system which has an amazing network of cellular
circuits composed of white cells, molecules, enzymes and vital organs, all working in tandem. It is
important to note that strength and power of immune system is developed from one’s lifestyle, intake
of balanced and nutritious food, perfect rest and relaxation with physical exercise.
Oxidative stress is resulting from an imbalance between the excessive formation of reactive
oxygen species ROS and/or reactive nitrogen species RNS and limited antioxidant defenses. Most
ROS come from the endogenous sources as by-products of normal and essential metabolic reactions,
such as energy generation or the detoxification reactions. Exogenous sources include exposure to
environmental pollutants, consumption of alcohol in excess, stress, exposure to UV radiation and
bacterial, fungal or viral infections. If these ROS are not destroyed, they will quickly destroy the cells
that produced them. This damage can affect a specific molecule or the entire organism which may
lead to Cancer, Alzheimer's, arteriosclerosis, diabetes, kidney diseases, destroy body’s natural
immune system and endocrine functions. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in growth,
differentiation, progression and death of the cell. They can react with membrane lipids ,nucleic acids,
proteins, enzymes and other small molecules.
Antioxidants act as safeguard against the accumulation of ROS and their elimination from the
system. Recent clinical trials have found that antioxidant rich in dietary supplements such as vitamins
C, E, and A or β-carotene can significantly improve certain immune responses in individuals exposed
to certain environmental sources of free radicals. Supplementation with vitamin A, a relatively weak
antioxidant, decreases morbidity and mortality associated with measles infections in children. Results
showed that anti-inflammatory property of antioxidants could shift the Th1-Th2-type immune balance
towards Th2-type immunity that is of utmost importance in allergic responses (Gostner et al, 2014).
In our food system fruits, vegetables and minimally refined cereals is associated with lower
risk for chronic degenerative diseases. Colored sweet potatoes are also one of the significant source
of antioxidants like polyphenols, carotenoids and ascorbic acid. Orange fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP)
varieties are considered as the first biofortified varieties among major food crops. β-carotene has
potential antioxidant biological properties due to its chemical structure and interaction with biological
membranes. A study on various genotype of sweet potato revealed that purple fleshed sweet potato
(PFSP) had the highest total phenolic content, followed by orange, yellow and white-fleshed clones,
respectively. Most of the antioxidant compounds in a typical diet are derived from plant sources and
belong to various classes of compounds with a wide variety of physical and chemical properties.
Fruits and vegetables contribute to the prevention of several diseases including cancer and
cardiovascular diseases (Nakamura et al., 2008, Dauchet et al.,2006). The free radicals are generated
in the human body through aerobic respiration and exist in different forms, including superoxide,
hydroxyl, hydroperoxyl, peroxyl and alkoxyl radicals. Generally, natural antioxidant enzymes in
healthy individuals remove these free radicals. However, dietary antioxidants are helpful in assisting
the body to neutralize free radicals. These antioxidant compounds including carotenoids and phenolics
reduce the oxidative stress produced by free radicals and thus protect cells and body tissues (Mujić et
al., 2011). Therefore, it is important to consume diet high in antioxidants, such as fruits and
vegetables, to reduce the harmful effects of oxidative stress. Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas L.) are
rich in dietary fibre, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants, such as phenolic acids, anthocyanins,
Coloured Sweet Potato-A Functional Food with Antioxidants for Health and Immunity Benefits 55
tocopherol and β-carotene. In recent years, several reports have indicated that the phytochemical in
sweet potatoes displayed antioxidative or radical-scavenging activity and exerted several health-
promoting functions in humans.
A study conducted on sweet potato tubers ST 13 ,Purple fleshed sweet potato (PFSP) and
ST14 Orange flehed sweetpotato (OFSP) in Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Both sweet
potatoes were subjected to several pre-treatment operations such as sorting and grading, washing and
cutting .The samples of sweet potato tubers were cooked by steaming, frying and dehydration.
Preparation of sweet potato flour was made ready to eat (RTE) by steaming and then dehydrated to
flour. The tubers size approximate 30g were steamed in Pressure cooker at 15 psi for 2-3 minutes then
dried using a convection drying oven at temperatures 600 C for 12 hour till the weight became
constant. The flour (moisture content 6–7%) was obtained by grinding the dried pieces using a
grinder. For frying, tubers were cut in to 2-3 mm slices and deep fried in refined oil for 3-4 minutes.
Analysis of samples were done by using standard methods from AOAC for ascorbic acid and β
carotene (Rangana, 1995) in Food and Nutrition lab, PAU Ludhiana. Total phenolic content was
measured using the modified Folin–Ciocalteu method and antioxidants by DPPH method.
The study (Sinha, 2015) done on antioxidant rich products of two cultivars of sweet potato
and effect of supplementation on nutritional status of elderly males and females revealed that
antioxidant content, β carotene in OFSP and anthocyanin in PFSP were significantly affected by
method of cooking. It was also studied that β carotene and anthocyanin that are present in cultivar
ST-14 (OFSP) and ST-13 (PFSP) have been recognized as having potential to reduce the blood
pressure and LDL, VLDL and cholesterol level whereas serum retinol and glutathione peroxide level
increased. Which showed that nutrient content ,fibre and antioxidants has beneficial effect on
oxidative stress produced by free radicals and thus protect cells and body tissues.
Orange flesh sweet potato is a rich source of β-carotene (provitamin A), a very good source of
vitamin C and a good source of copper, dietary fibre, vitamin B6, manganese, potassium and iron,
while purple-fleshed varieties are rich source of anthocyanins (Teow et al., 2007). The purple and
orange fleshed sweet potatoes contain large amounts of anthocyanin and β-carotene, respectively.
Color and variety can influence levels and profiles of phenolics as well as of anthocyanins and
carotenoids (Van den Berg et al., 2000; Steed and Truong, 2008)). It has been reported a high content
of anthocyanin pigments in the tuber of purple sweet potato are more stable than those of other plants
which are purple-red color (Bolívar and Louis, 2004).
Sweet potato can be used to substitute part of the various flour and starchy vegetables such as
potato to make chapathis, snacks and other baked goods. In additionto serving as a source of energy
and nutrients like, sweet potato flour can add natural sweetness, color and flavor to the processed food
products. Recipies can be made with higher proportions (10-100%) of sweet potato by various
cooking methods. It can be used as a substitute for wheat flour to lower (bakery) costs and as such
decrease imports of wheat flour, and as an alternative market outlet for those selling the roots as raw
material as well as add to the nutrient content. Each cooking methods lead to different changes in the
quality attributes of sweet potato (Takenaka, 2006). Study done to investigate the effect of common
heat-processing methods on composition of the β carotene, anthocyanin and antioxidant capacity of
two cultivars of sweet potato i.e. orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) ST-14 and purple fleshed sweet
potato (PFSP) ST-13 has beneficial effect.
Nutritional analysis of OFSP and PFSP revealed that significantly more protein (4.9%) and
iron (5.17mg) was noticed in OFSP than PFSP while fibre (4.03%), calcium and vitamin C (108.30
and 21.23mg) was significantly high in PFSP. Raw sample of OFSP contained β-carotene 10.38mg
whereas PFSP showed 106.03 mg of anthocyanin. The DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl 1-1-picryl hydrayl)
percent inhibition in PFSP (73.09) was significantly more than 61.48 in OFSP. In steaming β-carotene
(8.30mg) was recorded in OFSP and anthocyanin was 290.6mg in PFSP. In OFSP, DPPH per cent
inhibition was 69.48 while in PFSP it was 82.56 and was highly significant (Sinha, 2015).
Products developed from OFSP and PFSP like soup, chaat, french fries ,porridge and mixed
vegetable also studied by Sinha 2015.v According to her vitamin C content was maximum in PFSP
(28.8) followed by (27.57) in OFSP in soup. In mixed vegetable, vitamin C was more (29.68) in
OFSP while it was 23.37mg/100g in PFSP. Fried and steamed product made from sweet potato
showed higher phenolic content as compared to dehydrated samples. Chaat and French fries showed
highest, 621.3 and 638.6 mg/100g phenols in developed PFSP products as compared to raw samples.
DPPH per cent in soup of PFSP was 41.54 while in OFSP it was 33.61. In porridge, maximum DPPH
per cent inhibition was noticed in PFSP (31.79) followed by 24.47 in OFSP. Among the mixed
vegetable, PFSP showed 53.30 DPPH per cent inhibition, while it was 46.50 in OFSP. Chaat,
prepared from PFSP showed 73.00 DPPH per cent inhibitions while in OFSP, it was 59.36. In french
fries, DPPH per cent inhibition was 51.21 while in OFSP, it was 47.49. In chips also, inhibition was
44.55 in PFSP while in OFSP it was 43.45 per cent.
β-Carotene: Burgos et al (2001) opined that the β-carotene content varied in the intensity of
coloration of the sweet potatoes. They further indicated that the β-carotene content ranged from 0.0 to
0.4 mg/100g in cream colored sweet potatoes to 4.29 mg / 100g to 18.55mg/ 100g in deep orange
colored sweet potatoes. The results of the present study Table 1 on ST-14 revealed 8.83, 8.14 and 8.27
mg /100g β carotene in steamed, fried and dehydrated flour as compared to 10.38mg/g in fresh tubers,
which falls in the range of β-carotene content of the tubers varied from 2.58 to 9.74 mg/100 g among
the cultivars and higher values were recorded in ST-14, Kamala Sundari, CIP SWA-2, 440038 and S-
1281(Mitra ,2012). Study done by Emmanuel et al http://www.asareca.org also showed that boiling
and steaming of roots seemed to result in better retention of all-trans-β-carotene than roasting and
dehydration. His study revealed that β-carotene content in fresh OFSP was 8.75 mg/100g and dried
sweet potato chips had 8.04mg/100 g and this remained the same after flour processing. Results of the
present study revealed that different methods of cooking like steaming, frying and dehydration to
flour that retention of β carotene content in OFSP var. ST-14 was maximum 85% by steaming
followed by drying 79.67% and frying 78.42% , which follow almost similar results indicated by
Vimala et al., (2011) that the OFSP varieties varied significantly in their carotenoids content and
retention capabilities. Highest retention of total β-carotene (89%–96%) was observed in the oven
drying method followed by boiling 84%–90%. In the frying method, the retention of β-carotene was
72%–86%. High retention of ά and β-carotene during processing and storage could be attributed to the
facts that cooking makes it easy for the complete elution of β-carotene in processed foods than in
fresh (Vimala et al, 2011). In methods like boiling and frying, the comparatively low retention in
these processed samples may be due to the dripping off of the pigment. However, according to Carlos
et al., (2012) among the heat-processing methods, flour presented the greatest losses of major
carotenoids, likely because of the longer exposure to heat and to air circulation, which promote the
degradation and oxidation of carotenoids. Bengtssona et al. (2008) had observed low retention values
to the fresh unprocessed samples while K’osambo et al., (1998) could find decreased carotene content
in boiled samples. Recipies developed by CTCRI, Bhubaneswar with OFSP showed that high amount
of β-carotene (92%) is retained in the processed product compared to the fresh tubers (Attaluri, 2010).
Anthocyanin: The composition in anthocyanins and total phenolics is dependent on various factors
such as, cultivar, climatic conditions and altitude, as well as the storage conditions of the tubers
(Lachman et al., 2012).The purple color of the sweet potatoes varied with different PSP cultivar.
Steed and Truong (2008) found total anthocyanin content in var ‘Stokes Purple’ varied from 57.5mg
/100g in puree to 174.4 mg /100g fw in raw potato peel. Anthocyanin level of sweet potato cultivar
Hatay Kirmizi indicated a mean around 120 mg/g. Anthocyanins were detected 13767 ± 8.94
mg/100g; 38734 ± 6.70 mg/100g; 6755 ± 10.22 mg/100g in boiled, steamed and fried sweet potatoes,
respectively as studied by Tokusoglu and Yildirimz (2012). In the current study the total anthocyanin
content reported in revealed that fresh sample was 106.03mg/100g fw (Table 1). Anthocyanin showed
increase of 174 10% (2.74 folds) by steaming but decrease by 78.53% (1.39 folds) and 71.71% (1.20
folds) by dehydration and frying respectively (Table 2) which follow the same trend as studied by
Tokusoglu and Yildirimz (2012). They studied that total anthocyanins increased as 1.14 fold after
boiling process and increased 3.22 fold after steaming process and decreased 1.78 fold after
fryingprocess (p≤0.05). It was determined that steaming process was the most effective among the
heat-treated sweet potatoes (HTSPs). Yang and Gadi (2008) studied that PFSP powder processed by
hot air-drying without steaming lost 65% of anthocyanin content, 35% of antioxidant activity and
40% of total phenols where as steaming of PFSP roots at atmosphere pressure for 0.5 h increased 40%
of anthocyanin content and enhanced the purple color of PFSP. Dehydration at 60°C for 24 hours
retained anthocyanin content and purple color of steamed PFSP. Both steaming and dehydration
increased the percentage of polymeric anthocyanins in PFSP. In a study done by Lemos et al (2013),
the cooking techniques (boiling, steaming and microwave) were responsible for a statistically
significant (p<0.05) increase in the amount of anthocyanins when compared with the raw potatoes.
Leong and Oey (2012) found effects of processing on anthocyanin, carotenoids and vitamin C in
summer fruits and vegetables that the heated fruits contained more anthocyanins than the fresh fruits.
Heating results in enzyme inactivation, texture changes of fruits and vegetables and unavoidable
leaching of water-soluble compounds which could alter the entire phytochemical profile and content
of fruit and vegetables.
Vitamin C: Each cooking methods lead to different changes in the quality attributes of sweet potato
(Wang and Kays, 2001). According to study done by Takenaka (2006) Vitamin C content in raw
sweet potato slices was 63.38 mg /100 g. Vitamin C content in fried sweet potato chips ranged
between 9.23 to 44.93 mg /100 g. Generally, ascorbic acid content decreased gradually with the
increase in pre-drying time. The results obtained in this study (Table 1) showed that the ascorbic acid
content found in ST-13 was 21.23% in fresh followed by 15.85%, 20.05% and 18% in steamed, fried
and dehydrated samples. Vitamin C content in fresh ST-14 was 19%. Steaming showed 17.9%
followed by 15.13% and15.26% in frying and dehydration which approximately meet the values with
different OFSP by Mitra,( 2012) that the tubers of SV-98, Kamala Sundari, 90/101 and ST-14
recorded higher values of vitamin C content ranging from 18.66 to 26.82 mg/100 g. Babalola (2010)
studied the effect of some processing methods (cooking, frying and baking) on the Vitamin C content
of sweet and Irish potatoes that raw sweet and Irish potatoes contained 160 and 79.3 mg/ 100 g of
Vitamin C, respectively. The highest loss of 71.25% was observed in cooking followed by frying
61.93 while baking produced a loss of 51.50%. The treatment by blanching resulted in a decrease in
the levels of vitamin C by as much as 85% Begum et al (2009).The reasons for losses in the content of
the vitamin C are the solubility in water, thermic destruction and enzymatic oxidation during the
technological process, Selman (1994). However, Chukuwu et al 2012 found that Vitamin A and C
retained in cooked than in fried sweet potato. Study by Leong and Oey, 2012 revealed an interesting
discovery that heating increased the content of the total vitamin C content, due to protection from
enzymatic oxidation .
Antioxidant: The main characteristic of an antioxidant is its ability to trap free radicals. Antioxidant
compounds like phenolic acids, polyphenols and flavonoids scavenge free radicals. Especially
anthocyanin phenolics and carotenoids provide sweet potatoes with their distinctive flesh colours
containing cream, deep yellow, orange and purple and they act as antioxidants (Bengtssona et al.,
2008; Van Jaarsveld et al., 2006). Results showed by Hwang et al., (2012) that the proximate
composition, ascorbic acid content, total carotenoids content, total polyphenol and antioxidant
activities were significantly affected by the cooking procedure. Phenolic contents, including free and
bound, and antioxidant activity during processing also depend on the type of crop). In general,
antioxidant contents were preserved fairly well during most types of processing. Interestingly, the
antioxidant content increased in products such as carrots, spinach, mushrooms, asparagus, broccoli,
cabbage, red cabbage, green and red peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes during microwave cooking,
steaming, or boiling (Bente et al., 2006). Whereas, according to Truong and Avula (2010) found
processing such as peeling, boiling, roasting and steaming can also reduce the antioxidant capacity by
the polyphenol oxidase enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative polymerization of phenolic acids during
peeling and size reduction of sweet potatoes and promotes discoloration of the peeled and cooked
sweet potatoes Study done by Carlos et al., 2012 on the heat-processing methods also revealed
decreased carotenoids, total phenolic compounds content and antioxidant activity. The production of
flour resulted in the greatest loss of phytochemicals evaluated. According to Teow et al 2007, total
phenolic components can be used as an indicator in assessing the antioxidant activity of fruits and
vegetables, including sweet potatoes.
Results of the coloured sweet potato study showed that antioxidant activity measured (Table
2) in fresh samples of ST-14 and ST-13 showed 61.48% and 73.09% inhibition. Steaming showed
highest inhibition i.e. 69.28% and 82.67% whereas, dehydration showed lowest viz 43.93% and 50.25
% in OFSP and PFSP respectively. Fried samples of ST-14 and in ST-13 showed 44.69% and 52.11%
inhibition, which follow the high content of anthocyanin and β carotene content with antioxidant
activity. Retention of β carotene content inST-14 was 85% by steaming followed by drying 79% and
frying 78% whereas anthocyanin in ST-13 showed increase of 2.74 folds by steaming but decrease by
1.39 folds and 1.20 folds by dehydration and frying respectively with increase in antioxidant activity.
There were good and positive correlations (Table 2) between the β carotene(R2 = 0.97 -0.99, p
level≤0.01) and anthocyanin with DPPH capacity (R2 = 0.99, p level≤0.01) indicating that this may
be used as an indicator for the antioxidant activity of sweet potato roots which showed maximum
increase by steaming process. Lachman and Hamouz (2005) found that total antioxidant activity
depends on the amount of phenolic acid, carotenoids and anthocyanins in the tuber. The antioxidant
capacity may be associated with the ability of carotenoids to quench oxygen. According to Bellail et
al 2012, thermal processing significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased the total phenolic content, as well as
individual phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity. However, he found that deep-frying exhibited the
highest increment. Study done by Teow et al., (2007) on different cultivars of sweet potato Hernandez
and clone 11-20, which are both dark orange-colored, had the highest β carotene content, with 167
and 226 l g/g fw, respectively and concluded that high antioxidant activities of clone 11-20 can be
attributed to its phenolic and β-carotene contents.
DPPH per cent inhibition activity was significantly more (52.25) in PFSP than 43.93 in
OFSP. Retention percent of anthocyanin in steaming was maximum 174.1 followed by dehydration
78.53 and 71.71mg/100g in frying in PFSP. DPPH per cent inhibition of OFSP in steaming was 82.56
followed by 52.25 and 52.11 in frying and dehydration respectively. Retention of β carotene, in OFSP
was maximum in steaming 85.06mg/100g while in dehydration, it was 79.67 and 78.42 in frying.
Polyphenols found in OFSP and PFSP were 768.6 and 955.4 mg/100g. The phenolic content showed
decrease with heat treatment upto 37.5 and 45.28% reduction with steaming and frying. Steaming was
found best for the highest retention of -carotene as well as on anthocyanin followed by frying and
dehydration. There was linear and positive correlation noticed between β-carotene and anthocyanin
and antioxidant activity of DPPH.
Conclusion
The desirable nutritional value of Ipomoea batatas is gaining recognition as the understanding
between diet and health increases. Study revealed that steaming of sweet potatoes was the most
effective cooking method. The processing may increase the chemical extractability of carotenoids and
this may be a factor that increases the bioavailability of carotenoids for humans. It was found that the
antioxidant properties of SPF were enhanced under gastrointestinal pH conditions, suggesting that it
might possess a considerable amount of bound phenolic and other antioxidative compounds. (Chan et
al., 2012). High retention of carotene, anthocyanin and vitamin C in colored sweet potatoes showed
that these bioactive compounds have good antioxidant activity. Thus, adequate implementation of
cooking method can be effective in controlling oxidative stress and for the improvement of health.
The processing of sweet potatoes into ready-to-eat products maximizes the uses of sweet potatoes and
creates nutritional benefits as well as new economical and employment opportunities for farmers and
health food industry.
The finding indicates The sweet potato could be considered as an excellent novel source of
natural health-promoting compounds, such as β-carotene and anthocyanins and vit c with high fibre
content for the functional food market and its potential for value-added products as flour ,thickener,
antioxidant enhancer and color source in industrial powder soups, gravy, extruder snacks and some
bakery products which will contribute substantially to utilize its benefits and many uses in human
food systems.
Table-1: Effect of different cooking methods on anthocyanin, β carotene, vitamin c and antioxidant activity
Fresh Steamed Fried Dehydrated
ST-13
Anthocyanin (mg/100g) 106.03 ± 4.92 290.63 ± 3.35 76.03 ± 0.41 83.27 ± 0.79
Vit C (mg/100g) 21.23 ± 1.22 15.85 ±0.35 20.05 ±0.22 18.30 ±0.16
DPPH(%inhibition) 73.09 ± 0.70 82.56 ±1.99 52.11 ±0.23 52.25 ±0.67
ST 14
β Carotene (mg/100g) 10.38 ± 1.39 8.83 ± 0.39 8.14 ± 0.71 8.27 ± 0.40
Vit C (mg/100g) 19 ± 1.21 17.91 ± 1.36 15.13 ± 0.06 15.26 ± 0.23
DPPH(%inhibition) 61.48 ± 0.50 69.48±0.50 44.69 ± 0.53 43.93±0.44
Values represent n=3, mean ±SD
Table-2 - Retention in (%) of Anthocyanin and β Carotene and corelation with antioxidant activity
ST-14 Β-Carotene
Fresh 100 61.48 0.97**
Steamed 85.06 69.28 0.99**
Fried 78.42 44.69 0.98
Dehydrated 79.67 43.93 0.99

ST-13
ST 13 Anthocyanin
Fresh 100 73.09 0.98**
Steamed 174.10 82.56 0.998*
Fried 71.71 52.11 0.99**
Dehydrated 78.53 52.25 0.99**
** Significant at 1% level of significance (p level≤0.01)
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
DROUGHT PROOFING TECHNIQUES FOR SOUTH INDIA
J.K. Singh, Swathy Ullas and Shivraj Singh
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005,
E-mail: swathy1611@gmail.com, jksinghbhu3@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Swathy Ullas
R ainfed ecosystems are always prone climatic aberrations and extremities such as flood
or drought. Drought being a common occurrence now in the rainfed tracts of our
country. To manage droughts, the Central and State governments have implemented
several measures like construction of larger reservoirs, water harvesting, institutional arrangements
for drought monitoring, early warning, relief measures and so on. Drought proofing becomes a
solution to lessen the severity of drought conditions. There are essentially two drought proofing
measures on a long term basis: 1) harness water through further spread of irrigation, groundwater and
watershed development; and 2) evolve and spread drought resistant and short duration high yielding
varieties (Ahluwalia, 1991). Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) extends technical and financial
assistance to irrigation projects through Schemes like Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme,
Command area Development and Water Management programme and Repair, Renovation and
Restoration of water bodies such as dams. In recent years, augmenting groundwater through artificial
recharge and effective moisture conservation and utilization at field level is gaining importance.
1. Drought: A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric
(below-average precipitation), surface water or ground water. Drought is a problem of insufficient
water supply, relative to normal demand. Drought is defined as a temporary harmful and widespread
lack of available water with respect to specificneeds. The drought damage to crops is induced by the
loss of water balance within the body ofthe plant. When effective moisture in the soil decreases to a
certain degree, plant roots arehindered from absorbing moisture and the plant begins to wilt. Drought
brings about disastersthrough damaging the moisture balance in the soil-plant atmospheric system.
1.1. Types of Drought: Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry in respect of monitoring and
managing drought conditions in India and droughts are classified into meteorological droughts,
hydrological droughts and agricultural droughts.
Meteorological drought is classified based on rainfall deficiency with respect to long term
average - 25% or less is normal, 26-50% is moderate and more than 50% is severe.
Hydrological drought is best defined as deficiencies in surface and sub-surface water supplies
leading to a lack of water for normal and specific needs. Such conditions arise even in times of
average (or above average) precipitation when increased usage of water diminishes the reserves.
Agricultural drought is identified by 4 consecutive weeks of meteorological drought, weekly
rainfall is 50 mm from 15/5/ to 15/10, 6 such consecutive weeks rest of the year and crop planted is
80% in kharif season.
In India, around 68% of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees. 35% which
receives rainfall between 750 mm and 1125 mm is considered drought prone while 33% receiving less
than 750 mm is chronically drought prone (Ministry of Water Resources).
1.2. Causes of Drought: Drought in India has resulted in tens of millions of deaths over the 18th,
19th, and 20th centuries. Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the climate: a favorable southwest
summer monsoon is critical to securing water for irrigating India's crops. In parts of India, failure of
the monsoons causes water shortages, resulting in below-average crop yields. This is particularly true
of major drought-prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra,northern Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Telangana, and Rajasthan. The causes of drought can be:
1. Meteorological: They are related to climatic conditions and deficiency in rainfall. The deficiency is
measured as a deviation from the mean rainfall over a particular region. The severe drought like
conditions are the result of climatic imbalances caused by the failure of the monsoon and the
meteorologist’s link this failure to a phenomenon known as El-Nino Southern Oscillation abbreviated
as ENSO.
2. Hydrological: Surface and ground water depletion and drying up of fresh water bodies such as
rivers, lakes and ponds
3. Agricultural: The moisture content of the soil decreases and causes great stress to the crops and
eventual failure results in lowering of agricultural productivity.
4. Human Factors: Human factors such as over farming; leading to depletion of soil moisture and
fertility, excessive irrigation; causing loss of water and a falling water table and deforestation also
contribute towards occurrence of drought.
1.3. Consequences of Drought: Droughts in India are responsible for agricultural, social and
economic consequences.
1. Agricultural Consequences: Subsistence farmers are the worst hit their plots of land turn into dust
bowls, lower carrying capacity of land results in low crop yield and inability to sustain livestock.
Water contamination results from the reduced flow of water.
2. Economic Consequences: Thousands of farmers in India have committed suicide because they
have taken huge loans to fund their operations from private moneylenders and are unable to
discharge their debt. Power supplies to farms also get affected because of paucity of water.
Shortage of food causes malnutrition
3. Social Consequences: In India there have been cases of social unrest amongst the farming
community leading to family disputes. Mass migration to urban areas in search of alternative
occupation, particularly by the small and marginal farmers.
2. Drought Proofing: Drought proofing means the capacity to meet the basic material and physical
needs of the local population - human and animal - in a drought period so that there is minimal
distress (Chopra et al., 1995). Drought proofing an area then implies that the local natural and human
production resource base can provide a certain desirable amount of food, fuel, fodder, drinking water
and livelihood resources during a drought. Drought proofing cannot totally protect the normal water
supply patterns in a year during the lean periods. In a drought year the production system operates at a
lower level, irrespective of the drought-proofing efforts. Drought proofing aim at enhancing water
availability during a drought so that the fall in production can be minimized. Drought proofing
techniques common in the states of south India are as follows:
2.1. Additional (New) Bore Well: A bore well is a deep, narrow hole drilled into the ground from
which water is drawn through a pipe and pump. Bore wells are typically small in diameter- ranging
from 4.5 inches (low-capacity bore well) to 12 inches (high-capacity bore well).Varghese et al.(2013)
showed a negative causal association between farm level water scarcity and ground water use
efficiency, indicating the existence of competitive appropriation behaviour in the face of scarcity. In
this aspect bore well will be an appropriate option to utilize available ground water.
2.2. Bore Well Recharging: Bore well recharging technically focuses on the use of harvested surface
water (obtained via rainfall or nearby water bodies) where runoff water begins to pass through a
natural filter made up of large and small stones. There is another layer of sand through which water
passes and finally, it perforates in the bore well pipe via a fine mesh which is wrapped around the
drilled casing pipe. The fine mesh ensures the removal of big and tiny impurities before the water
enters the bore well. There are two borewell recharge methods followed across India
2.2.1. Direct Recharge: It is recommended only if the bore well has run dried or is yielding a
negligible amount of water. Even a running bore well can practice direct recharging in case of surplus
surface water which otherwise would go down the drains and get wasted. It is the most preferred type
since: 1) it can recharge even during high dry times; 2)simple method of filtration; 3) environment
friendly; 4) rain water harvesting; 5)no loss of agricultural land and 6) no evaporation losses. Direct
recharge consists of:
 A percolation pit, usually 10*10 feet, is dug around the tube well’s casing pipe
 This casing pipe is then perforated with a drill machine and the holes are covered by a nylon
mesh.
 The pre-casted RCC (Cement) rings are placed around the bore well casing through which the
harvested water would seep to reach the nylon mesh of casing pipe and proliferates into it through
its holes.
 The empty area between the walls of well and rings is then filled with filtering materials like sand,
gravel, crushed stone, jelly and such others.
 The rain water from adjacent water body such as a catchment pond is diverted into this well, it
gets filtered and then continue to seep into the casing pipe, thus refilling the bore well.
Drought Proofing Techniques for South India 63
(Credit: bengaluru.urbanwaters.in)
2.2.2. Indirect Recharge: Indirect recharging works best for well-functioning bore wells which
haven’t gone dry yet.
 Instead of digging the pit around the casing pipe, it is dug within a 20 feet radius, maintaining a
minimum distance of 3 feet between the recharge well and the borewell.
 Just like the direct borewell recharge method, the casing pipe too has holes covered with nylon
mesh and the well is filled with filtering materials.
 In indirect borewell recharge, the water flows through the ground, reaches the pipe and then seeps
in though nylon mesh and casing pipe holes.
(Credits to rainwaterclub.org)
2.2.3. Points to be Considered while Recharging Bore Well
Local Legal Framework: One must read and understand the legal regulations laid by central or state
authorities for the area where recharging is intended to be done.
Aquifer Management: An approach called aquifer mapping is a scientific method determining the
quantity and quality of groundwater in a particular area. It can be done via GIS and remote sensing.
Rajasekhar et al. (2020) used geospatial technology to identify recharge sites in semiarid region of
south India.
Stream Pollution: Due to unchecked effluents from urban and industrial areas, stream pollution has
become a matter of high priority. Measures must be implemented to ensure that the harvested water
which is used for recharging the borwells must be free from water pollutants, especially in case of
using a direct borewell recharge method. This is necessary to take care so that groundwater does not
pose any harm to health and environment. Buvaneswari et al. (2017) found monitoring of > 200 tube
wells revealed nitrate concentrations from 1 to 360 mg/litre in the Berambadi catchment in Southern
India.
2.3. Percolation Ponds: Percolation ponds (also called infiltration basins) are large open water ponds
that are either excavated or in an area of land surrounded by a bank, and normally will not exceed
15,000 m3. They store rainwater but with the main aim of infiltrating the water to aquifers where it
can be extracted using boreholes, hand-dug wells, or nearby springs. Venkateswaran et al. (2015)
indicated percolation pond as water recharge structure for Vaniyar sub basin of south India (Table 1).
Table 1. Impact assessment of water table fluctuations in and around Artificial Recharge Structures (ARS) in
Vaniyar sub basin of the Ponnaiyar River, South India
Observation well (OW) locations OW from ARS (m) Rise in groundwater table (m)
Vallimadurai 200 3.5
Papppiredipatti 430 1.4
Kadattur 230 3.5
Mampatti 100 3.7
Harur old 187 2.8
Peddur 288 3.7
Harur 480 1.8
Harur dass 400 2.2
Mukkaredipatti 230 1.02
(Venkateswaran et al., 2015)
2.3.1. Suitable Conditions: The aquifer to be recharged needs to be at or near the surface. The base
of the pond needs to be permeable. The typical amount of water going into the ground is 30 m/year
for fine texture soils, 100 m/year for loamy soils and 300 m/year for coarse clean sands. Ideally
infiltration rates should exceed evaporation rates. Ponds are generally 1-4 m deep, deep enough to
prevent excessive algae or water plant growth, and shallow enough to prevent anaerobic conditions
developing at the bottom. But pond size should be decided according to catchment area and number of
fillings possible per year.
2.3.2. Desilting of Percolation Ponds: Silting is the main issue to be addressed in the maintenance of
percolation ponds. Sedimentation basins can reduce silt load before water enters infiltration pond.
Contour lines with trees or grasses in the runoff area also can be a good option. A rotational system of
ponds can allow some to dry while others are used. These methods can delay the process of silting but
desilting should be done when found necessary
2.4. Drip Irrigation: Irrigation has proved to be the most effective drought proofing mechanism and
single biggest factor in bringing about the large measure of stability in agriculture production. Drip
irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very low
rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the
roots grow is wetted. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3
days) than with other methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in
which plants can flourish. Kumar and Palanisami (2010) in their study conducted in Coimbatore
district (Tamil Nadu) concluded that drip irrigation system increased gross cropped area and gross
irrigated area and was common among farmers (big farmers especially) as an effective water saving
technology. Economic analysis found the drip irrigation system to be significantly profitable in
comparison with control (Table 2).
Table 2. Economics of crop production for banana in sample farms in Tamil Nadu (per hectare)
Particulars Drip villages Control villages
Quantity of water applied (m3) 8979 12669
Quantity of energy consumed 2219 8294
Cost of labour (Rs.) 9761 31487
Capital (Rs.) 80369 104351
Yield (tonnes) 60.34 57.79
Gross income (Rs.) 280602 267400
Gross margin (Rs.) 200232 163048
Yield per unit of water (kg/m3) 7.4 4.9
Yield per unit of energy (kg/kWh) 28.6 7.2
Returns per unit of water (Rs./m3) 23.8 13.3
Returns per unit of energy (Rs./kWh) 92.3 19.8
(Kumar and Palanisami, 2010)
2.4.1. Drip System Layout

 Pump unit
 Control head
 Main and submain lines
 Laterals
 Emitters or drippers
 Filters (screen and graded sand filters)
 Fertilizer tank
2.5. Farm Pond: Farm ponds have a significant role in rainfed farming system where annual rainfall
is more than 500 mm. It helps in mitigating the ill effect of rainfall variability as it stores water from
rainfall excess and provides for utilization during prolonged dry spells by means of supplemental
irrigation. It also helps in pre sowing irrigation of rabi crops. It can also be used for fish culture or
duck farming integrated with poultry. Meter et al. (2014) addressed these ponds as centuries old rain
water harvesting systems of south India.
2.5.1. Types of Farm Ponds: Broadly farm ponds can be categorized into two types: 1) embankment
type and 2) excavated or dugout type.
Embankment Type: These type farm ponds are constructed across the stream or water course and
consist of an earthen dam. Dimension of embankment are determined based on the required storage.
These ponds are suitable for areas having gentle to moderately steep slope. It requires substantial land
under submergence thus it is constructed as a common land resource in India.
Excavated or Dugout Type: These types of farm ponds are small dug out structures with well-
defined shape and size. These structures have provision for inlet and outlet. Farm ponds are
constructed at lower portion of the farm and generally stored water is used for irrigation. Dugout
ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground and the excavated soil is used to make
embankment around the pond. The pond could either be fed by surface runoff or groundwater
wherever aquifers are available. The depth and size of pond depend upon the volume of water to be
stored. This type of pond is more featured in individual farm. Dug-out ponds can be grouped into the
following four categories:
1. Excavated or Dugout Ponds: Excavated pond site should be chosen based on general slope of the
field. If slope is towards left bottom corner of the field, a form pond must be constructed in the left
corner of the plot and similarly for slope towards right bottom corner. If the slope is towards the
bottom of the field, pond can be constructed at either side corner with proper field channel at the
bottom of the field connecting to the inlet of the structure. If the farm area has multiple slopes in
different direction, pond should be located in a portion of the area where maximum water can be
drained into the structure.
2. Surface Ponds: When the surface runoff from a farm area is collected into a local depression or the
lowest portion of the farm such that the excavation is minimum, this type of pond is called surface
pond. Surface pond is possible in the farm area with undulating topography. This type of pond does
not require a formal inlet provision but it should have formal outlet provision.
3. Spring or Creek Fed Ponds: This type of pond is generally constructed at the foothills of the hilly
catchments. After the soil saturation occurred due to excess rainfall, the subsurface flow of the
catchment oozes up to the surface at the foothills as base flow.
4. Off Stream Storage Ponds: This type of pond should be adopted where construction of
embankment across the natural channel is not feasible or economically viable say hilly catchments.
Off-stream storage ponds collect water from the stream using diversion.
2.6. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. Reasons for applying mulch
include conservation of soil moisture, improving fertility and health of the soil, reducing weed growth
etc. Both organic and inorganic mulches are in use but generally organic mulch is preferred. It may be
permanent (Eg. plastic sheeting) or temporary (Eg. Crop residues). It may be applied to bare soil or
around existing plants. Mulches of manure or compost will be incorporated naturally into the soil by
the activity of worms and other organisms. Beena& Anil (2011) showed the possibilities of using coir
geo textiles (rubberized coir) for bhindi and pineapple as an eco-friendly mulch in Kerala (Table 3).
Table 3. Soil moisture content (%) v/s different mulching treatments
Treatments Soil moisture content (%)
Rubberized coir 22.31
Black needled felt 21.06
Natural needled felt 20.76
Black polythene 17.07
Transparent polythene 18.65
Control 16.52
CD (P=0.05) 0.2705
(Beena and Anil, 2011)
2.7. Farm Trenches: This technique involves digging the deep, narrow trenches along contours
encapturing water as it flows downhill and keeping it around the agricultural land.
Field trenches increase precipitation harvesting by breaking the slope of the ground and therefore
reducing the velocity of water runoff facilitating in-situ water conservation for establishment of crops.
3. Conclusion: Droughts are a natural disaster that nobody can stop from coming, but we can prepare
for the effects of this natural disaster to make it less difficult. There are many human and natural
system impacts that this force of nature costs that we should be aware of. Drought proofing is an
important strategy to support agricultural and human needs of water during droughts. Thus these
techniques should be popularized and further research and development should be done to improve
the efficiency of drought proofing techniques.
References
Ahluwalia, D. (1991). Drought proofing in the Indian foodgrain economy. Indian journal of Agricultural
Economics, 46(2): 111-120.
Beena, K. S. and Anil, K. R. (2011). Effectiveness of coir geotextiles in soil moisture conservation.
International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 3 (3): 200-207.
Buvaneshwari, S., Riotte, J., Sekhar, M., Kumar, M. M., Sharma, A. K., Duprey, J. L. and Durand, P. (2017).
Groundwater resource vulnerability and spatial variability of nitrate contamination: Insights from high
density tubewell monitoring in a hard rock aquifer. Science of the Total Environment, 579: 838-847.
Kumar, D. S. and Palanisami, K. (2010). Impact of drip irrigation on farming system: Evidence from southern
India. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 23: 265-272.
Meter, K. J. V., Basu, N. B., Tate, E. and Wyckoff, J. (2014). Monsoon harvests: The living legacies of
rainwater harvesting systems in South India. Environmental Science and Technology, 48 (8): 4217-4225.
Ministry of Water Recources. (n.d.). Drought. Retrieved from http://mowr.gov.in/brief-drought
Rajasekhar, M., Gadhiraju, S. R., Kadam, A. and Bhagat, V. (2020). Identification of groundwater recharge-
based potential rainwater harvesting sites for sustainable development of a semiarid region of southern
India using geospatial, AHP, and SCS-CN approach. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 13(2): 24.
Reddy, K. S., Kumar M., Rao, K.V., Maruthi, V., Reddy, B.M.K., Umesh B., Ganesh Babu R., Srinivasa Reddy
K., Vijayalakshmi and Venkateswarlu, B. (2012). Farm Ponds: A Climate Resilient Technology for
Rainfed Agriculture; Planning, Design and Construction. Central Research Institute for Dryland
Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Saidabad, Hyderabad- 500059, Andhra Pradesh, India. 60p.
Chopra, R., Ravindra, A. and Das, S. (1995). Drought Proofing Palamu. People’s Science Institute, Dehra Dun.
Varghese, S. K., Veettil, P. C., Speelman, S., Buysse, J. and Van Huylenbroeck, G. (2013). Estimating the
causal effect of water scarcity on the groundwater use efficiency of rice farming in South India. Ecological
Economics, 86: 55-64.
Venkateswaran, S., Satheeshkumar, S and Kannan, R. (2015). Impact assessment of water table fluctuations in
and around artificial recharge structures in Vaniyar sub-basin of the Ponnaiyar River, South
India. International Journal Recent Sciences, 6(7): 5480-5486.

CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRONOMY OF RICE
Jami Naveen1, Damble Ashok Sambhaji2, Balaga Mohan Ganesh3, Pittala Manoj Kumar4 and
Kandapu Sai Teja5
1&2
Ph.D. Scholar,5M.Sc. Student, Department of Agronomy, Assam Agriculture University, Jorhat-785013,
E-mail: jaminaveen17@gmail.com, 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, Assam Agriculture University, Jorhat-
85013 and 4M.Sc. Student, Department of Agronomy, RPCAU, Bihar-848125, Corresponding Author: Jami Naveen
limate change is considered as one of the major environmental problems of the 21st
C century and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over
periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average
weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions i.e. more or fewer
extreme weather events. Currently, the world emits about 50 billion tons CO2 eq., in which
contribution of India was of about 5%. The energy sector in India contributes to the highest amount of
GHGs (65%) followed by agriculture (18%) and industry (16%). Within the agricultural sector,
enteric fermentation i.e., emission from ruminant animals contributed the highest (56%) followed by
soil (23%) and rice fields (18%). Burning of crop residues on-farmland manure management
contributed 2% and 1% of the emission. It was estimated that methane emission from Indian rice
fields is about 3.5 million tons. Among the various rice ecosystems, the highest emission was from the
irrigated continuously flooded rice (34%), followed by rainfed flood-prone rice (18%) and irrigated
single aeration (18%). Rain-fed drought-prone, deep water and irrigated multiple aerations rice
ecosystems contributed 16%, 8% and 6% of methane, respectively. The emission of nitrous oxide
ranged from 0.5–2.0 kg ha-1. Fertilizer was the largest source contributing about 75-80% to the total
nitrous oxide emission from Indian agriculture (NICRA, 2017).
So, there is a need to develop suitable agricultural practices that maintain or enhance soil
carbon pools, improve the nutrient use efficiency to minimize N2O and CH4 emissions from the rice
production systems and enhance the resilience of agriculture to adopt future climate (Bhattacharyya et
al., 2013). Climate resilient agriculture can be defined as “Agriculture that reduces poverty and
hunger in the face of climate change, improving the resources it depends on for future”. Creating
resilience in agriculture needs a holistic approach from various agricultural disciplines in which
agronomical practices also place a crucial role. Climate-resilient agronomy may be understood as“All
the agronomic practices that either directly or indirectly contribute to achieving climate-resilient
agriculture at an agricultural landscape-level” (Venkateswarlu et al., 2016). Modifications in
traditional crop management regimes possess a huge potential to overcome GHG emissions. The main
rice resilient agronomic practices were mentioned as below:
1. Irrigation Management: Water management during rice production is one of the key factors
controlling GHG emission. Several water management options like distinct drainage periods in mid-
season, alternate wetting and drying of the soil, intermittent irrigation, and controlled irrigation have
been reported to minimize GHG emissions as compared with traditional flooded rice and can be opted
as a practice under varying soil and climatic conditions without lowering crop yields.
a. Alternate Wetting and Drying: Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is a management practice in
irrigated lowland rice that saves water and reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while
maintaining yields. The practice of AWD is defined by the periodic drying and re-flooding of the rice
field. CH4 in puddled rice soil is produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic material after
the flooding of rice fields. Allowing the field to drain removes the anaerobic condition for a time and
halts the production of CH4, thus reducing the total quantity of CH4 released during the growing
season. The production of N2O is also regulated by the presence of oxygen. In contrast to CH4
however, the recurring shift between aerobic and anaerobic conditions favours bacterial conversion of
other nitrogen compounds to N2O and its release from the soil. The production of N2O is also strongly
influenced by the availability of nitrogen in the soil. Thus, N2O emissions increase with the amount of
nitrogen fertilizer applied to rice paddies. A practical way to implement AWD safely is by using a
‘field water tube’ to monitor the water depth on the field. After irrigation, the water depth will
gradually decrease. When the water level has dropped to about 15 cm below the surface of the soil,
irrigation should be applied to re-flood the field to a depth of about 5 cm. From one week before to a
week after flowering, the field should be kept flooded, topping up to a depth of 5 cm as needed. After
Climate Resilient Agronomy of Rice 69
flowering, during grain filling and ripening, the water level can be allowed to drop again to 15 cm
below the soil surface before re-irrigation. AWD can be started a few weeks (1−2 weeks) after
transplanting. When many weeds are present, AWD should be postponed for 2−3 weeks to assist
suppression of the weeds by the ponded water and improve the efficacy of herbicide. Local fertilizer
recommendations for flooded rice can be used. Apply fertilizer N preferably on the dry soil just before
irrigation.
Fig.1. AWD irrigation method and IRRI developed Field water tube
b. Drainage Practices: Where farmers have limited technical ability to drain their fields on a regular
basis and face uncertainty in water availability, too much wet season water or uneven fields, the full-
scale practice of AWD is not feasible. Simple alternate drainage regimes such might be an effective
low-tech option for those small-scale farmers to reduce GHG emissions and save water.
2. Establishment Methods: Emissions of GHGs from rice fields is highly sensitive to rice
management practices, and thereby the shift in rice cropping system systems (aerobic rice system,
direct-seeded rice, ground cover rice production system and system of rice intensification) has become
an important concern in this context.
a. Aerobic Rice System (ARS): It is a new production system in which rice is grown under
nonpuddled, nonflooded, and non saturated soil condition. Thus in ARS, soils are kept aerobic almost
throughout the rice-growing season. In addition to lesser water availability, other factors in ARS
include soil mechanical impedance increased oxygen supply to roots, accumulation of ethylene and
carbon dioxide in root tissue and availability of nitrogen as nitrate in place of ammonium (the
dominant N ion under flooded conditions), and changed soil fauna. Aerobic rice production aims at a
separate target environment (TE) as compared to traditional upland rice environment, where yields are
substantially low due to shortage of water on critical growth stages. Since most upland rice is rainfed
(without irrigation), the emphasis in breeding programs is on traits that protect the crop from drought.
Most conventional cultivars developed for upland TE are tall, have fewer tillers, and often produce
low but stable yields under low fertility conditions. They tend to have low harvest indices and tend to
lodge under high fertility. Breeding programs for aerobic rice focus on traits related to (a) drought
tolerance as well as (b) response to inputs like fertilizers. Most aerobic rice cultivars have been
developed through crosses of traditional upland cultivars for traits for drought tolerance and improved
lowland varieties for traits on high yields. Aerobic rice cultivars may yield lesser than lowland
cultivars under continuous flooding but higher than them under aerobic (near saturation) conditions.
The work on developing varieties suitable for ARS started only recently and is generally restricted to
screening available varieties. At the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, APO,
IR55419-04, IR7437-46-1-1 (IRRI varieties), Pusa 834, Pusa RH 10 (IARI varieties), and Pro-Agro
6111 (a commercial variety) yielded above 4 t/ha under aerobic conditions(Prasad, 2011).Aerobic rice
can be found, or can be a suitable technology, in the following major rice-growing environments:
favourable uplands, rain-fed lowlands, water-short irrigated lowlands.CH4 production by
methanogenicarchaea only occurs under strictly anaerobic conditions, while aerated soil conditions
favour CH4 oxidation by methanotrophic bacteria. Therefore, water management is one of the most
important factors influencing the magnitude of CH4 emissions in rice production systems. Soil water
content under aerobic rice cultivation was kept at field capacity but allowed to fall dry in the upper
soil layer between flush-flooding events, inducing cycles of soil aeration. The resulting oxidized soil
conditions inhibitedCH4productionandlikelyenhancedCH4oxidation, keeping CH4 emissions at much
lower levels as compared to the flooded system (Weller et al., 2015).
b. Direct Seeded Rice: Recently, rice production is undergoing a shift from traditional TPR to DSR
rice cropping regimes in Southeast Asia. This conversion was principally induced by the increasing
cost of production mainly due to labour and water resources shortage. The TPR rice cropping regime
has high labour and water demands for uprooting nursery seedlings, pudding fields and seedling
transplanting. Therefore, DSR instead of the conventional TPR rice cropping practice would
significantly decrease the water use and costs of rice production. Clearly, the emission of GHGs from
rice paddies is highly sensitive to agricultural management practices. In the present study, higher
grain yield, comparable GWP, and lower GHGI derived from CH4 and N2O emissions in rice
production were simultaneously achieved under the DSR rice cropping regime. Compared with DSR
cropping regime, CH4 emissions were significantly increased under the conventional TPR rice
cultivation practice. Several reasons may account for the higher CH4 emissions. Firstly, continuous
water logging mostly dominated over the whole TPR rice-growing season would benefit CH4
production. Moist irrigation in the DSR cropping systems would create anaerobic soil environment
favourable for CH4 oxidization, in contrast to anaerobic soil conditions aiding CH 4 production in the
TPR cropping systems. Secondly, the rice plant serves as the main pathway of CH4 emission,
especially when fields are waterlogged, and the dependence of CH4 emission on crop growth in rice
paddies has been well documented. The difference in linear slope of the relationship between seasonal
CH4 emission and rice biomass suggest that CH4 emissions were more closely associated with rice
crop growth in the TPR cropping system than in the DSR cropping system. In addition, the
differences in CH4 emissions between the two cropping systems might be influenced by some other
biotic and abiotic factors characteristic another rice cropping regime in this study, such as rice growth
status, temperature, and soil characteristics, which are involved in the entire process of CH4 emission,
including production, oxidation and transport to the atmosphere. Primarily, N2O is produced as a by-
product during soil microbial nitrification and denitrification processes, which are highly dependent
on soil water status and fertilizer application. Consistent with previous studies, N2O emissions from
the TPR cropping systems were negligible when the fields were waterlogged, but midseason drainage
and dry-wet alteration episodes induced substantial N2O emission in rice production. Relative to the
conventional TPR rice cropping systems, the DSR rice cropping regime significantly increased N2O
emissions from rice paddies.
Several explanations may be given for the higher N2O emissions from DSR rice cropping
systems. Firstly, the water regime of moist irrigation instead of flood irrigation over the DSR rice
cropping season would create soil moisture more beneficial for N2O production. Indeed, N2O
emissions have been proved to be significantly higher from aerobic rice paddies as compared to
anaerobic paddy fields. Secondly, the relatively higher crop biomass in the DSR cropping system may
improve the interaction of the soil-plant system and in turn, facilitate N2O emissions. Besides, shifts in
rice production from conventionally anaerobic TPR to aerobic DSR rice cropping practice would alter
a series of key soil factors involved in the processes of N2O production, such as increased soil redox
potential and changes in soil pH, which may give rise to the differences in seasonal total N2O
emissions under the two rice cultivation practices.
Shifts in the current rice cropping regime from the conventional TPR to the increasingly
adopted water-saving DSR rice cropping system play a vital role in mitigating CH4 and N2O
emissions from rice paddies. The DSR rice cropping practice relative to TPR cropping regime
significantly decreased CH4 emissions, although slightly increased N2O emissions. Chemical N
application significantly increased N2O emissions under both rice cropping systems. The fertilizer N-
induced emission factor for N2O tended to be higher in the DSR than in the TPR cultivation system.
Overall, higher grain yield, comparable GWP, and lower GHGI suggest that the DSR instead of the
conventional TPR rice cropping regime would lower the radiative forcing derived from CH4
andN2Oemissions. Selection of a suitable cultivar with less CH4 emission and higher resource use
efficiency also depicts a huge scope in this regard. Furthermore, DSR has appeared to be the most
promising cropping regime and the best alternative to TPR in terms of less GWP (Liu et al., 2014).
c. Ground Cover Rice Production System: One of the water-saving techniques is ground cover rice
production system (GCRPS), which was developed in the late 20th century to cope with seasonal
drought and low temperature during rice growth, especially in mountainous areas. For the GCRPS
practice, the soil surface is covered with a thin plastic film to reduce evaporation and increase soil
temperature. The technology allows growing traditional lowland rice cultivars at nearly saturated soil
conditions with no standing water. This practice has been proven to reduce irrigation water demand
by 40–60 % and increasing rice yields at long-term experimental sites by on average 10 %. The
combined application of inorganic and organic fertilizer was the most practical and economical N
management practice to continuously supply N for rice growth when the soil surface is covered. The
proposed advantages provided this technique are numerous and include the following: (i) The
adoption of GCRPS in water deficit and cool mountainous regions could preserve heat and effectively
alleviate low-temperature stress on early growth stage after transplantation (ii) GCRPS can save water
through improved water use efficiency by means of reduced evaporation and seepage during the
growing season.
d. System of Rice Intensification (SRI): The SRI was introduced in irrigated lowland rice in order to
reduce the amount of water used for irrigation, which includes transplanting of young seedlings (8–14
days) singly in square pattern keeping paddy field moist by intermittent drying and wetting. It leads to
better plant growth, less use of chemicals and fertilizer increases the productivity of land and
economizes the use of water, which helps in maintaining the system productivity as well as
sustainability. Unflooded paddies develop intensive roots that help in better absorption of water,
increased grain yield, grain-filling rate, and remobilization of carbon reserves from vegetative tissues
to grains. Although methane emission will reduce due to prevailing aerobic conditions, considerable
amounts of nitrous oxide emission could occur because of alternate wetting and drying of rice fields,
resulting in the repetition of nitrification and denitrification processes. This effect will be small when
nitrogen fertilizer is not used. As GHG mitigation practices can affect more than one GHG, it is
important to consider the impact of mitigation options in a holistic way and assess the tradeoff
relationship between both N2O and CH4. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of
SRI on methane and nitrous oxide emission and to evaluate the carbon efficiency ratio (CER) and
global warming mitigation potential of SRI.
Irrigation was given on every alternate day (5-cm depth) in conventional rice plots to keep
saturated condition and in SRI plots twice a week to keep the soil just moist (3.5 cm). In TPR 2–3
seedlings of 30 days age per hill were transplanted in the plots. The distance between row to row and
the hill to the hill was 15x 20 cm. In SRI and MSRI plots, one seedling per hill was transplanted with
a spacing of 25x 25 cm in a square pattern (Jain et al., 2014).
3. Tillage Practices
Zero Tillage: Agricultural field management practices such as tillage and no-tillage farming mainly
control the rate of soil carbon losses through CO2, CH4, etc. gases and the content of soil carbon. It
has been reported that tillage accelerates the decomposition of organic matter by soil microorganisms
and stimulates the emission of global warming gases. CH4 production and oxidation in flooded rice
soils are regulated by various microorganisms, which are controlled by physical, chemical and
biological factors of the soil environment. Recently, it has been recognized that no-till farming could
be an effective mitigation strategy in global warming gas emissions as well as to sustain crop
productivity maintaining long-term soil quality. Tillage has a pronounced bearing on GHG emissions
in rice fields originating primarily to alteration in soil properties (soil porosity, soil temperature, soil
moisture, etc.)and biochemical processes. Soil disturbance caused by tillage can increase emissions by
aerating the soil and mechanically breaking down soil aggregates, causing the release of protected
organic C fractions. When soils are tilled, it accelerates oxidation of soil C pool to CO 2 by improving
soil aeration, increasing contact between crop residues and soil, and exposing aggregate-protected
SOM to microbial attack.
CH4 emission rates were significantly higher in all treatments under the tillage system as
compared to that of the no-tillage system. This is likely due to the increased availability of labile
organic carbon and root exudates around the rice rhizosphere under tillage system. The higher root
volume and porosity in the rice plant grown in the tilled plot as compared to that of no-tillage plot
might have stimulated the conductivity of CH4 gas from the root rhizosphere to the atmosphere. The
sharp fall in CH4 emission rates at grain maturation stage in both cultivation systems may be due to
the ageing of the rice plant, decreased photosynthetic capacity and less conductivity of CH4 gas
through the rice plant (Ali et al., 2009).
4. Nitrogen Management
a. Urea Deep Placement: Urea deep placement (UDP) technology is a relatively simple, field-proven
technology developed and validated by the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC). It is a
soil nutrient management technology ideally suited for smallholder farmer agriculture production
systems. With UDP, rice farmers consistently achieve yield gains1 of 15%-20% while using one-third
less fertilizer. UDP technology involves “point placement” of large fertilizer granules (1 to 3 grams) 7
to 10 cm below the soil surface in close proximity to the root zone of the plant. Urea briquettes are
applied only once during the crop growing season, compared with two to three fertilizer applications
needed for surface-applied prilled or granular urea. UDP technology makes nitrogen available to the
crop throughout its growth cycle. Plants are able to absorb more of the applied nutrients, resulting in
higher crop yields and lower production costs for farmers. The submerged soil environment at the
UDP placement depth can play a marked role in influencing transport and transformations of N in
UDP. The physical, chemical and microbiological properties of the submerged rice soil at the
placement depth are highly complex, heterogeneous and dynamic. The field soil-water regime varies
from near saturation to submergence because the floodwater overlying puddled soil varies in-depth
and time periods. The soil at the placement depth is characterized by anaerobic conditions with nearly
stabilized pH~7 and generally decreased soil redox (Eh) potentials (reduced conditions). Considerable
spatial variations in soil bulk density and volumetric water content are common in a submerged soil
profile. For one to three weeks after rice transplanting, the soil at the placement depth is generally
reduced, but as roots develop, the rice rhizosphere may become somewhat oxidized because of
diffusion of oxygen from rice roots. However, conditions favourable to denitrification may also
develop in some parts of the same rhizosphere, presumably due to root exudates containing soluble
organic substances and dead cells of roots. In other words, the rice rhizosphere is considered another
site for simultaneous nitrification-denitrification.
Urea briquettes generally dissolve gradually after their placement, producing very high
localized concentrations of urea at or very near their placement sites. Most of the urea in this reaction
zone stays in solution, but some of it may be weakly sorbed by the reduced soil complex (IFDC). The
ammonium, formed as a product of urea hydrolysis and stable in a reduced soil environment, tends to
accumulate at the placement sites. With submergence time, the ammonium is transported mainly
through diffusion and interacts with more soil. Eventually, its fixation by clays and microbial
immobilization with time may increase. Thus, a steep concentration of gradients of ammonium exists
in the proximity of the placement sites. This unique N transformation occurs at the placement site, and
thus minimizes N losses from the applied briquettes and increases plant uptake. The reduction of N
losses from applied briquettes is depicted schematically.
b. Real-time N Management
i. Leaf Colour Chart: The leaf colour chart (LCC) is an easy-to-use and inexpensive diagnostic tool
for monitoring the relative greenness of a rice leaf as an indicator of the plant N status. Leaf N status
of rice is closely related to photosynthetic rate and biomass production, and it is a sensitive indicator
of changes in crop N demand within a growing season. A tool to rapidly assess leaf N status and
thereby guide the application of fertilizer N to maintain an optimal leaf N content can consequently be
vital for achieving high rice yield with effective N management. A chlorophyll meter provides a rapid
and non-destructive method for estimating leaf N content, but its high cost prevents its use by farmers.
The LCC is an inexpensive and easy-to-use alternative. The standardized LCC is five inches long,
made of high-quality plastic, consisting of four-colour shades from yellowish-green (No. 2) to dark
green (No. 5). The colour strips are fabricated with veins resembling rice leaves. One of the reasons
for low N-use efficiency could be inefficient timing of N application and the use of N in excess to
crop requirement. The commonly practised split application of N at specified growth stages of rice
and wheat does not offer a very good match of the N supply from applied fertilizer with crop demand
because of large variations in crop N requirements and soil N supply with N supply. The site-specific
nutrient management approach for rice has been evaluated at numerous locations in Asia and has been
found to be more efficient than conventional methods. Soil receiving chemical fertilizer N contributes
to not only the emission of N2O but may also impact the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH4), the two other major greenhouse gases (GHGs) contributing towards enhanced global
warming. Improved N fertilizer application techniques, therefore, are required to reduce N 2O emission
and increase crop yield. The LCC-based N application may be helpful in reducing GHG emission,
particularly N2O emission from the soil and also improve crop yields. There are, however, no studies
on the use of LCC on soil N content and its impact on the emission of GHGs from fertilized soil.
ii. SPAD Meter: It measures the chlorophyll content of the leaf. It is a non-invasive, non-destructive
measurement. With the help of this instrument, the indexed chlorophyll content reading can be
collected in <2 seconds. Research shows a strong correlation between SPAD measurements and leaf
N content. The SPAD Value for relative chlorophyll content ranges from -9.9 to 199.9.
iii. Green Seeker: The Green Seeker handheld crop sensor is an affordable, easy-to-use measurement
device that can be used to assess the health—or vigour—of a crop. readings taken by the Green
Seeker handheld can be used to make non-subjective decisions regarding the amount of fertiliser to be
applied to a crop, resulting in more efficient use of fertiliser—a benefit to both a farmer’s bottom line
and the environment. The sensor works on the principle of NDVI and displays NDVI value ranging
from 0.00 to 0.99. The Trimble Ag Software scout app on a smartphone should be used to calculate
fertilizer application rates.
c. Neem Coated Urea (NCU): It is a fertilizer and an agriculture scheme initiated by the Government
of India to boost the growth of wheat and paddy, and curb the black marketeering and hoarding or
urea. Urea which is coated with neem tree seed oil is called neem-coated urea. In January 2015, the
urea manufacturers were mandated by the government to increase their neem coated urea production
from 35 percent to 75 percent.
d. Nitrification Inhibitors: Nitrous oxide is emitted from the soil during the processes of nitrification
and denitrification. Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonium (NH4+) to nitrate (NO3+ ) via
nitrite intermediate and nitrous oxide is a byproduct formed during this conversion, following
ammonium fertilizer or ammonia forming fertilizer addition in aerobic soil. Nitrification inhibitors,
which slow down the breakdown of NH4+–N, retard the subsequent formation of NO2 and NO3+pools,
thus limiting the substrate pools available for N2O production. During denitrification process when the
soil NO3-N is reduced to dinitrogen (N2), N2O is emitted. Thus nitrification inhibitors reduce the
emission of N2O, directly by reducing nitrification, and indirectly by reducing the availability of NO3-
for denitrification. Urease inhibitors, on the other hand, slow down the hydrolysis of urea to
ammonium, resulting in less availability of substrate for nitrification.
Nitrification inhibitors also have a considerable impact on CH4 emission through their
inhibitory effect on CH4 oxidation due to higher conservation of ammonium in soil. It has been
suggested that exposure of soil to NH4+ leads to an increase in the population of nitrifiers relative to
methanotrophs and thus the overall CH4 oxidation reduces, as nitrifiers oxidize CH4 less efficiently
than methanotrophs. Application of nitrification inhibitor is advocated as a strategy to minimize
fertilizer N losses and increase nitrogen use efficiency. However, they can also have a significant
influence on N2O and CH4 emissions from soil.
5. Others
a. K-nutrition: Addition of K has a well-known effect on plant growth and yield, and deficiency in
available K content can adversely affect crop growth and yield. Potassium application is known to
alleviate the extreme reducing conditions and associated imbalances in rice plants including iron
toxicity. Several reports have shown that adequate K nutrition is very important in maintaining
oxidizing power of rice roots, inducing iron oxidation and pH change in the rhizosphere, and thereby
preventing excess uptake of Fe2+ by the rice plants. The development of aerenchyma in rice is
particularly sensitive to the K status of the plant. The development of aerenchyma in rice is
particularly sensitive to the K status of the plant. Oxygen deficiency and reducing conditions are
characteristics of flooded rice soils. Such reducing conditions often provide a congenial environment
for CH4 production. As K amendment is known to decrease the reduction reactions and affect the
general redox status of flooded soil, it was deemed worthwhile to investigate the effect of K nutrition
on CH4 emission. In the present study, we investigated the effect of K added as muriate of potash
(commercial formulation of K as KCl) on CH4 emission from a flooded field planted to rice and
grown under irrigated condition. In addition, the effect of added K on other soil processes and plant
parameters were also investigated.
Several reports have shown that adequate K nutrition is very important in maintaining
oxidizing power of rice roots, inducing iron oxidation, and maintaining suitable pH in the rice
rhizosphere, thereby preventing the uptake of excess Fe2+ by rice plants. The development of
aerenchyma in rice is also particularly sensitive to the status of potassium in rice plants. Thus, the
application of K might have induced higher oxidizing conditions in the rhizosphere of the rice plants,
thereby adversely affecting the methanogenic environment and inhibiting CH4 formation and its
subsequent release through rice plants.Addition of K has well-known effects on plant growth and
yield, and a deficiency in available K content can adversely affect the growth and yield. In the study
site, where K is not limiting and does not exhibit any symptom of K deficiency in the growing rice
crop, application of K resulted in a decrease in CH4 emission as well as an increase in grain yield. The
results indicate that, apart from producing higher plant biomass (both above- and belowground) and
grain yield, K amendment effectively reduced CH4 emission by preventing a drop in soil redox
potential and inhibiting methanogenic bacteria and simultaneously stimulating methanotrophic
bacterial population (Babu et al., 2006).
b. Silicon Nutrition: Silicate fertilizer, which is a by-product of the steel industry and contains a high
amount of active iron oxide, could be used as an oxidizing agent in rice farming. Moreover, it
provides adequate silica that is necessary for healthy rice growth, increasing yield potential and
developing resistance to pathogens.
c. Selection of Cultivar: Selection of suitable cultivar has been known as a promising strategy to
minimize GHG emissions particularly CH4 in paddy soils. Differences among cultivars in CH4
emission have been attributed to the variation in CH4 production, oxidation, and transport capacities.
SoilEhhasbeenknowntomainlycontroltheCH4 production rate of rice soils, with a threshold level
of−150 mV. Soil Eh is reported to be influenced by root respiration and exudation, aboveground
biomass, and status of rice plant development over the entire rice-growing season. All these factors
have often been used as promising traits to extrapolate the CH4 budget in rice fields. Variations in
these factors and dynamic changes insoilEh are well linked with CH4 production potential and
emission from rice soils. Rice plants exhibit different CH4 oxidation with variable O2 diffusion
through the aerenchyma into the rhizosphere mainly because they (cultivars) differ in gas conductance
which is related to O2 release in the rhizosphere. The flux rates of gases through the aerenchyma are
influenced by the concentration gradient, diffusivity and internal structure of the aerenchyma, tiller
density, root biomass, rooting patterns, total biomass, and metabolic activity. A well-developed aer
enchyma system ensures the oxygen availability to the rhizosphere for maintaining aerobic
metabolisms restricting the movement of potentially toxic substances into plant roots by oxidation,
enhancing the CH4 oxidation and hence, mitigating its emission into the atmosphere. Furthermore, it
also serves as conduits for CH4 from the rhizosphere into the air driven by concentration and/or
pressure gradients. lower CH4 emission in super rice than that in a traditional rice and argued
oxidation as the main contributor to the lower CH4 emission rather than production. Rice varieties
with a stronger root system can release more oxygen into the soil, enhance resistance to
environmental stresses, and increase crop yield. Root oxidation activity was significantly greater in
super rice than traditional varieties before and at heading time.
C4 Rice: It is a joint project by IRRI and the European Union (EU). The aim of this project is
toConvert rice to a two-celled NADP-dependent malic enzyme (NADP-ME)-type C4 photosynthesis
with classical Kranz anatomy. At present, IRRI has successfully introduced 10 out of the 13 genes
needed for C4 rice.
Advantages of C4 Rice
 Up to 50% higher production
 Equivalent to a second green revolution
 50% improve the nitrogen use efficiency
 Double water use efficiency
Low Methane GM Rice: To develop a low methane GM rice, a gene Sugar signalling in barley 2
(SUSIBA2) was introduced in Rice. Introducing this gene favours the allocation of photosynthates to
aboveground biomass in rice. The over expression of SUSIBA2 increases sink strength in
aboveground tissues and generate a high-starch low-methane-emission rice variety.
d. Herbicide: Potential effects of many agrochemicals on N2O and CH4 production in agricultural
fields are not clearly known. Dead and decaying weed biomass and altered chemical composition of
the root exudates as a result of herbicide application could result in a synergistic increase in
rhizospheric microbial activity and influence GHG production and their emission. Application of the
herbicide prosulfuron and the fungicides mancozeb and chlorothalonil decreased N2O emission,
possibly due to inhibition of nitrification and denitrification. The potential of the herbicides
glyphosate and propanil to suppress N2O production.
Bensulfuron methyl (methyl 2-[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2yl) carbamoylsulfamoyl methyl]
benzoate) is a sulfonylurea herbicide selective for pre- or early post-emergence broadleaf weeds and
sedges in rice crops. The active ingredient is formulated as a dispersible wettable powder containing
10% of the active ingredient. Pretilachlor (2-chloro-N-(2,6-diethylphenyl)-N-(2-propoxyethyl)
acetamide) is 2-chloro-acetanilide herbicide used in the rice paddy to control annual grasses, sedges
and many broad-leaved weeds. The mixture of bensulfuron methyl and pretilachlor has a good
selectivity of commonly occurring weeds in rice fields. Biodegradability and the short half-life period
(t1/2) of these herbicides argue for its increased use inintensive rice cultivation. The present
investigation deals withthe influence of the separate and combined application of the herbicides
bensulfuron methyl and pretilachlor on N2O and CH4 emission,and other microbially mediated
processes in a tropical soilplanted to rice under flooded condition.
Conclusion: Agriculture is one of the key sectors of GHG emissions, in which rice cultivation alone
contributes 18 % of the agricultural emissions. There is a need to develop suitable practices that
maintain or enhance soil carbon pools, improve NUE to minimize N2O and CH4 emissions from rice
production systems. By following less water demanding rice production systems, nutrient
management techniques(urea deep placement, real-time nitrogen management, slow-release nitrogen
fertilizer such neem coated urea, adequate potassium and silicon nutrition, use of nitrification
inhibitors, application of biochar) and cultivation of newly developed low methane rice varieties can
decrease GHG emissions from the rice and enhance the resilience of rice to adopt future climate.
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
MANAGEMENT OF SUGARCANE PLANTED UNDER BUD CHIP
RAISED SETTLINGS
Navnit Kumar1, Geeta Kumari2, Rajan Kumar3 and Shiva Pujan Singh4
1
Assistant Professor-cum-Scientist, Department of Agronomy, Sugarcane Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125, Email: navnitsripusa@gmail.com, 2Assistant Professor -cum-
Scientist, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Basic Science & Humanities, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural
University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125, 3Assistant Professor -cum- Scientist, Department of Agronomy, Center for
Excellence on Water Management, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125
and 4Assistant Professor -cum- Scientist, Department of Agril. Economics, Sugarcane Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra
Prasad Central Agricultural University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125, Corresponding Author: Navnit Kumar
S
ugarcane is an important cash crop of India and as such most of the sugarcane farmers
depend upon it for their economic and livelihood security. Recently sugarcane has
emerged as the versatile crop providing many valuable products like ethanol, animal
feed, biofertilizers, vinegar, fresh cane juice and raw material for generating electricity in addition to
sugar and jaggery production. About 75% of the world’s sugar is produced from sugarcane and the
other 25% from sugar beet. The extraction of sugar from sugar beet is mainly concentrated in
temperate country of the world. In India, sugarcane is cultivated in an area of 4.95 million ha with
total production of 303.6 million tonnes of cane with average productivity of 61.3 t/ha (ISMA, 2018).
Sugarcane mostly propagated through 2 to 3 bud setts. Though, type of planting material, method of
planting, planting geometry, nutrient management and water management plays important role for
enhancing sugarcane productivity and minimizing the cost of sugarcane production. Cultivation of
sugarcane from 2–3 bud setts pose serious problem during transportation and handling. As seed rate
of sugarcane is very high (50-60 q/ha). On other hand seeds of recently released variety is also not
available in initial period if 3 bud setts used as planting material. The bud chip raised settlings can be
a good source of planting material to ensure optimum crop stand in the field (Kumar, 2020). These
buds are less in weight (8-10 q/ha) as compared to 50 -60 q/ ha under conventional method of planting
(3 bud setts).
Management of Bud Chips under Nursery Condition
1. To select a healthy seed cane, free from all types of insect, pest and diseases from approved
sources/ standard agency.
2. Seed cane must be obtained from adequate nutrient and irrigation supplied field.
3. Age of seed canes should be less than 10 months.
4. Bud chips should be scoop out from healthy stem using bud chipper machine.
5. Prepare a solution of carbendazim @ 1 gram/ liter of water and dip the bud chips in fungicide
solution for 10 minutes.
6. Prepare a homogenous mixture with equal quantity of soil, sand and compost and fill in protrays
or polythene bags (15 × 10 cm).
7. Plant the bud chips in upright position and make small hole at the base of poly bags to facilitate
drainage.
8. Ensure regular sprinkling of water with rose cane or through overhead sprinkler system under
poly house condition.
9. Spray 1% urea solution on 15th days of propagation in nursery.
10. Take effective control measures against insect, pest, diseases and nutrient deficiency symptoms.
11. 25 – 30 days old settlings along with the intact mass of soil should be transplanted in main field
in small pits with appropriate planting geometry.
Transplanting of Bud Chips to Main Field
Field Preparation: Well prepared field is pre-requisite for better establishment of crop in the field.
Sugarcane is a deep rooted crop needs at least one deep ploughing with MB plough or disc plough +
twice harrowing followed by planking for better establishment of crop in main field. Kumar et al.
(2011) evaluated various tillage practices and concluded that conventional tillage i.e disc ploughing
once + twice harrowing + leveler produced maximum cane yield, sugar yield and net monetary returns
and thus proved to be essential for higher productivity and profitability of sugarcane in calciorthents
soils of Bihar. Well rotten farm yard manure or pressmud @ 200 q/ha should be apply at the time of
last ploughing.
Fig. 1 Bud Scooping out from Bud Fig. 2Treatment of Bud chips & Fig. 3Bud chips ready for transplanting
chipper machine Placing in portray
Planting Time / Season: In sub-tropics, sugarcane is planted twice a year in October–November
(autumn) and February–March (spring). About75 to 80 % of sugarcane in sub-tropical region is
planted during spring season and rest 20 to 25 % cane is planted during autumn season. The autumn
planted cane gives about 20% higher cane yield and 0.5 unit higher sucrose content, even though area
under autumn crop is less due to late vacation of land after harvest of rice crop.
Method of Planting: Suitable method of planting helps in increasing the land utilization efficiency,
reducing the production cost, economizing the use of market purchased costly inputs and making
sugarcane production system more sustainable.
Furrow Method: In subtropics, furrow method of planting is most common. In this method, 10- 15
cm deep furrows (70- 90 cm apart) opened by bullock or tractor drawn ridger. This is conventional
method of sugarcane planting.
Trench Method: It is an important method of sugarcane planting. As trench planted canes are
resistant to lodging and more water efficient. It has good ratooning ability and ratoons are initiated
from deeper layer as compared to furrow and paired row planting. Depth and width of trenches should
be 30 cm. Care should be taken to drop the soil in trenches phase wise during interculturing operation.
Leveling of field before onset of monsoon is essential to check the stagnation of water in trenches.
Singh et al. (2012) observed significantly higher number of shoots at maximum tillering stage under
deep planting as compared to conventional planting. Kumar (2018) noticed that the trench method of
sugarcane planting registered 13.7, 18.9 and 19.2% higher cane diameter, millable canes and cane
yield over conventional method.
Paired Row Method: In the paired row system, two can rows, two cane rows are brought together
followed by a wide gap before the next set of two rows. The wide spacing is available between the
any two sets of paired row which can be utilized for growing profitable intercrops. This method
prevents lodging of cane due to good earthing up. Paired row method also permits better light
interception by the crop and thus can give higher yields. In this method of planting seed rate is 1.5
times higher than conventional method of planting and yield is also 1.5 times higher than
conventional method. Drip irrigation is most suited in paired row planting of sugarcane. Devi et al.,
(2005) and Kannan et al., (2007) observed significantly higher cane yield under paired row planting at
30: 120 cm as compared to normal planting method
Source of Seed: The seed should be obtained from disease and pest free fields of around 8 to 10
months age. If the seed cane is older than 10 months, it is desirable to take only the one third or two –
thirds of the stalk for bud scooping. Seed must be obtained from reputed sources and avoid to drawn
from a ratoon crop or a crop grown under stress conditions.
Spacing/ Planting Geometry: Optimum planting density plays an important role in maximizing the
yield of sugarcane. It has been well established that row to row and plant to plant spacing is an
important factor in adjustment of optimum plant population and performing various cultural
operations like weeding, interculturing, spraying of pesticides, irrigation, propping and other field
operations. It has been observed that under wider row spacing, tillering/ clump is more and cane are
thick, while in closer spacing tillering/ clump is less and canes are thin (Chakrawal and Kumar, 2013).
In sub-tropical India, tillering phase starts from 60 days after planting and may last upto 120 days
after planting. Roodagi et al. (2001) reported that tillering phase largely determine the productivity of
Management of Sugarcane Planted under Bud Chip Raised Settlings 79
sugarcane crop and tillers had positive association with millable canes at harvest. Planting geometry
can influence the plant population and other growth parameters to a greater extent. It has been well
established that row to row spacing is an important factor in adjustment of seed rate and also in
performing cultural operations including plant protection measures and irrigations. Kumar (2020)
noticed that 90 cm row to row spacing and 45 cm plant to plant spacing is optimum for plant and
ratoon crop of sugarcane planted with bud chip raised settlings.
Variety: Among the various technologies of increasing cane and sugar yield, variety plays very
important role. The selection of high yielding and high sugared variety is the cheapest technology that
the common cane growers can afford easily. The problem in sub-tropical region is not only poor
productivity, but poor recovery too and that was mainly due to improper varietal selection.
Some of the desirable varietal characters need to be considered during varietal selection are
good field appearance, moderate tillering habits, medium thick to thick, long stalks, long internode,
non- lodging, non- flowering with high yield potential and sugar recovery. Ratooning ability of
variety and resistance against prevailing local problems are also important factor for selection of
sugarcane variety.
Nutrient Management: Nutrient is an essential input for crop productivity. Integration of inorganic
fertilizers with organic manures and biofertilizers will not only help to sustain the crop productivity
but also will be effective in improving soil soil health and hastening the nutrient use efficiency
(Kumar, 2012 and Verma et al., 2005). Sugarcane is an input- intensive crop needs high quantities of
N, P and K during the period of its efficient utilization (Kumar et al., 2012 and Kumar et al., 2014).
Among major nutrients, nitrogen plays an important role in improving the growth and yield of
sugarcane planted with bud chip raised settlings. Kumar and Kumar (2020) conducted an experiment
on different planting materials of sugarcane under varied nitrogen levels and found that the increasing
nitrogen level from 0–125% recommended dose significantly increased cane yield of plant and ratoon
canes. Further, they reported that the magnitude of increase in cane yield by 150, 125, 100 and 75%
recommended dose of nitrogen over control was 65.3, 58.7, 43.8 and 24.9% in plant crop and 70.5,
64.0, 49.3 and 30.7% in ratoon crop, respectively. The higher yield with increasing levels of nitrogen
to budchip transplanted sugarcane was mainly due to its beneficial effect on growth and yield
attributing characters. As we know that food material in bud chips is very less. Bhawani Shankar
(2015) found highest tillers, millable canes, single cane weight and cane yield at higher level of NPK.
Furthermore the desired NPK level created better nutritional environment in soil system resulting in
significant variation in millable canes and single cane weight. Well rotten FYM/ compost/ pressmud
should be applied at the time of last ploughing. Fertilizer requirement for commercial cultivation of
sugarcane in Bihar is given in Tabe 1.
Table 1. Fertilizer requirement for sugarcane in Bihar
A. Furrow Method
Time of application N (kg/ ha) P2O5 (kg/ ha) K2O (kg/ ha)
At the time of planting 70 85 60
After first irrigation 40 - -
At the time of earthing up 40 - -
Total 150 85 60
B. Paired Row and Trench Method
1. At the time of planting
a. Castor/ mustard cake @ 8 quintal/ ha 40 - -
b. Chemical fertilizer 45 85 60
After first irrigation 45 - -
Total 175 85 60
C. Ratoon crop
3 weeks after stubble shaving 80 50 60
7- 8 weeks after stubble shaving 45 - -
Total 170 50 60
Water Management: Water management is one of the crucial factors for crop production, its
economic and efficient utilization is necessary for higher productivity and sustainability. Sugarcane
requires considerable quantity of water. The annual water requirement in sub-tropics is 1400 – 1600
mm. The water need of sugarcane is higher as compared to other crops because it is a 12 to 14 months
crop producing huge amount of biomass and its long period of formative (tillering) phase coincides
with dry period of summer season. In sub-tropical region, April to June is the most sensitive stage of
irrigation as it is most critical stage for irrigation in sugarcane. Sugarcane requires higher amount of
water during grand growth phase (July - September). That amount of water met through rain in sub-
tropical region of India. Use of water efficient technologies like drip irrigation, irrigation at critical
growth stages and mulching are important for saving considerable amount of water. Losses of
irrigation water in conventional method of irrigation are a major factor. However, this economical
loss could be minimized by adopting drip irrigation system. Kumar et al. (2013) reported significantly
higher cane yield at IW: CPE ratio 1.00 and it declined by 8.5 and 23.1% when the crop was irrigated
at 0.75 and 0.50 IW: CPE ratio, respectively. They also reported maximum water- use efficiency and
water productivity at an IW: CPE ratio 1.00. In bud chip transplanted sugarcane irrigation in furrows
at the time of transplanting is essential for initial establishment of seedlings. Two irrigations at weekly
interval is optimum for newly transplanted seedlings. Care should be taken to give light irrigation in
furrows only (Fig. 4). After seedlings establishment irrigation at critical growth stages or on the basis
of IW: CPE ratio is enough for better crop growth and tonnage. If facility of drip irrigation is
available, there is no need to give surface irrigation. In Bihar condition, 6- 7 irrigation for autumn
planted sugarcane and 4-5 irrigation for spring planted sugarcane is enough for optimum yield of
sugarcane.
Fig-4: Furrow irrigation in newly transplanted settlings

Drainage: Amongst various factors, inadequate drainage area also important factor for influencing
cane yield and quality to a greater extent. During monsoon season in north India most of the cane
growing areas facing problem of water stagnation. It is desirable to bring saturated soil to field
capacity as quickly as possible through drainage. The simplest method of draining excess water is to
dig to open channels deeper than the irrigation channels in the field to draw out excess water. These
drains are closed at the time of irrigation and after irrigation they are opened.
Weed Management: Weed management practices should be adopted in commercial planting.
Important Weed Flora of Sugarcane: Being a long duration crop, it is heavily infested with a
variety of weeds. The weed flora differs from location to location due to variation in agro-ecological
conditions and management practices. The most important weeds associated with sugarcane crop are:
Grasses: Cynodondactylon (Pers), Digitariasanguinalis, Sorghum halepense(Pers), Setariaglauca,
Dactylocteniumaegypticum (Pers), Echinochloacolonum, Eleusineindica, Panicumrepens
Sedges:Cyperusrotundus, Cyperusirria, Fimbristylismiliaceae
Broad Leaved Weeds: Melilotus alba, Melilotusindica, Eclipta alba, Convolvulus arvensisL.,
Euphorbia hirta, Chenopodium album L., Ammaniabacifera, Solanumnigrum,
Nicotianaplumbaginifolia, Visia sativa, Ipomeahaderacea, Digeraarvensis.
Critical Period of Crop-weed Competition: Weed infestation frominitial stage to formative stage in
bud chip transplanted sugarcane has been found detrimental for cane yield in both autumn and spring
sugarcane. In sugarcane ratoon crop, critical period of crop-weed competition has been identified as
30-50 days after ratoon initiation.
Methods of Weed Control: Management of weeds involves prevention as well as control measures
to minimize the losses caused due to weed with the minimum disturbance of soil and plant
environment, by adopting different mechanical, cultural and chemical methods along with integrated
weed management practices.
Mechanical Method: As sugarcane is a wide spaced crop, shallow rooted weeds can be managed by
hoeing with hand tools or with intercultural operations (with tractor/bullock drawn implements)
during growing season of crops. Among mechanical methods, hand weeding, digging by spades and
inter cultivation by five-tyne cultivator are commonly adopted. Mechanical methods contribute
towards maintaining the good physical condition of soil, which is very conducive for the growth of
sugarcane besides weed removal. Removal of weeds by hand at 30, 60 and 90 DAP from inter as well
as intra-row spaces found best among all the weed control methods at all the locations. However,
hand weeding is not much effective against perennials and Cyperusrotundus.
Cultural Methods: Weeds can also be managed through agricultural practices such as crop rotations,
crop competition, mulching, clean cultivation, trap cropping etc.
Crop Rotation: Monoculture of sugarcane may lead to severe crop- weed competition. Crop rotation
helps to break the weed chain and destroy associated weeds.
Intercropping: Sugarcane is a wide spaced crop, provides better opportunity for weeds to emerge in
a large numbers and infest crops. Inclusion of short duration and quick growing intercrops in these
row spaces can suppress weed growth to a greater extent. Wheat, maize, lentil, pea, rajmash,
broadbean, linseed, toria, mustard, potato, cabbage, onion and garlic in autumn sugarcane and black
gram, green gram, cowpea and sweet potato could be successfully intercropped with spring planted
sugarcane.
Trash Mulching: Trash mulching in inter-row spaces of sugarcane not only suppresses the weeds but
also check the loss of soil moisture from the surface. The trash of sugarcane @ 7.5 to 10 tonnes/ha
should be apply uniformly with an average thickness of 10 cm over soil surface can restricts sunlight
and checks weed emergence. Besides, suppressing weeds, trash mulching also conserve soil moisture
and provide a potential source of organic matter.
Weed Management in Ratoon Crop: Ratoon by occupying approximately 50% of cane acreage in
the state, plays important role in the sugar economy. Despite numerous advantages viz. no investment
on land preparation and planting, early bulking, early maturity and higher sucrose content, ratoon
remains a poor yielder as compared to plant crop. Among several factors responsible for poor
productivity of ratoons, heavy weed infestation is an important factor. As compared to plant crop,
more number of perennial weeds viz., Cynodondactylon, Sorghum halepense and Cyperusrotundus,
infest the ratoon crops. Crop-weed competition during initial 30 to 60 days is the most critical for
weed control in sugarcane ratoon crop. Weeds carried from preceding crop have on upper hand in
utilizing various inputs and natural resources. In sugarcane ratoon, the maximum cane yield can be
obtained by three hoeing at 30, 60 and 90 days after harvest or by atrazine @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha as pre-
emergence supplemented with hoeing at 60 and 90 days after ratoon initiation or atrazine 2.0 kg/ha as
pre-emergence (3 days after ratoon initiation) followed by 2, 4-D @ 1.25 kg/ha as post emergence at
90 days after ratoon initiation.
Integrated Weed Management in Ratoon Crop: It is essential to combine more than one method.
There is an ample scope of using cultural /mechanical and chemical methods in combination so as to
reduce dependence on either of the methods, which ensures the least damage to ecological balance.
Inratoon crop, trash mulching followed by post–emergence application of herbicides has been found
effective. Combination of pre- emergence herbicides viz. atrazine or metribuzine and intercultural
operations (hoeing at 60 and 90 days after planting) has been found effective and economical.
Irrigation at 40-45 DAP followed by hoeing and application of atrazine 2.0 kg/ha or metribuzine @
1.0 kg/ha and 2, 4-D @ 0.5 kg/ha were found effective and economical.
Cultural Operations and Precautions: The techniques of cultural operations influence the crop
stand and yield greatly. These factors operate largely through their influence upon soil physical
properties and plant growth. The principal cultural operations adopted during cane growth period are
as follows:
a. Interculturing: Interculturing with the help of 5 tyne cultivator should be done after 45 days after
planting to save the crop from weeds during critical stages of crop- weed competition. It also helps to
break surface soil crust which may be formed after irrigation in clay rich soil.
b. Detrashing: Detrashing of dry leaves may be done to avoid sprouting of buds due to accumulation
of water within the leaf sheath.
c. Removal of Off Types: Removal of diseased clumps must be ensured for healthy seed cane
production.
d. Earthing–up: Earthing-up should be done in the last week of June with the help of Bihar senior
ridger to provide anchorage to plants and also to provide sufficient drainage for removal of excess
water. It also suppresses late formed tillers or water shoots as it is a parasitic in nature. At this stage,
the remaining 25 per cent dose of nitrogen along with carbofuran 3 G (insecticide) @ 33 kg/ha may
also be applied to support the cane during grand growth period.
e. Propping: To prevent lodging of cane, propping may be done in the month of August-September
by trash-twist method. In this method two adjacent rows of cane brought together to form a sort of
arch and the lowest leaves of cane were twisted in to the form of rope (Fig. 5 & 6).
Fig. 5: Propping Fig. 6: Left over cane after bud removal

Advantages of Bud Chips
1. By adopting bud chip technology about 80 to 90% seed cane will be saved.
2. Easy to transportation and handling of seed material.
3. Only 8 to 10 quintals seed cane is enough for one hectare land.
4. After scooping of buds, leftover canes may be utilized for preparation of gur/ Jaggery or making
fresh cane juice(Fig. 6).
5. By adopting bud chip technology bulk of seed cane is reduced to manageable quantity.
6. It is reliable method for multiplication of breeder seeds or seeds of newly developed varieties.
7. It is easy and cheaper method as compared to tissue culture raised settlings.
8. It is easily accessible for all type of farmers.
9. Least chances for attack of insect –pest at initial stages as compared to 2 to 3 bud setts.
10. It produces more number of millable canes as compared to 2 to 3 bud setts.
References
Bhawani Shankar. (2015). Effect of fertility levels on productivity and sustainability of sugarcane
(Saccharumspp. hybrid complex) varieties under various planting seasons in clay loam soil of south-east
Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agronomy 60(1): 132-138.
Chakrawal, D. and Kumar, N. (2013). Effect of planting geometry and variety on growth attributes of sugarcane
in Indian sub- tropics. Indian J Sugarcane Technology 28(1): 33- 36.
Devi, T.C., Lakshmi, M.B. and Naidu, N.V. (2005). Response of new sugarcane genotypes to wider row
spacing.Sugar Tech 7(4): 154-156.
ISMA. (2018). Indian Sugar Mills Association. p: 28-30.
Kannan, K., Singh, R. and Kundu, D.K. (2007). Effect of formative stage moisture stress, mulch and planting
method on yield attributes, yield and quality of sugarcane.Madras Agricultural Journal 94(1-6): 37-41.
Kumar, N. (2012). Productivity, quality and nutrient balance in spring sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid
complex) under organic and inorganic nutrition. Indian Journal of Agronomy 57 (1): 68 – 73.
Kumar, N. (2018). Effect of planting method on productivity and economics of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.
hybrid complex) under waterlogged condition. Indian Journal of Agronomy 63(1): 95 – 99.
Kumar, N. (2020).Enhancing sugarcane plant- ratoon productivity through bud chip transplanting geometry.
Sugar Tech. 22(2): 208-215.
Kumar, N. and Kumar, V. (2020). Production potential and nitrogen fractionation of sugarcane- based cropping
system as influenced by planting materials and nitrogen nutrition. Sugar Tech. 22(4): 622-629.
Kumar, N., Singh, H., Kumar, R. and Kumari, G. (2014). Nutrient uptake, sugarcane yield and economics of
high sugar early genotypes of sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid complex) under various planting seasons
and fertility levels in Bihar.Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 84(4): 444-51.
Kumar, N., Singh, H., Kumar, R. and Singh, V.P. (2012). Productivity and profitability of different genotypes of
sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid complex) as affected by ferlility levels and planting seasons. Indian
Journal of Agronomy 57(2): 180 – 185.
Kumar, N., Singh, H., Kumar, V. and Singh, V.P. (2013). Productivity and water- use efficiency of spring-
planted sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid complex) under various planting methods and irrigation regimes.
Indian Journal of Agronomy 58(4): 592–596.
Kumar, R., Kumar, N., Singh, H. and Singh, D. (2011). Evaluation of tillage practices on the productivity and
profitability of sugarcane in calcareous soil of Bihar. Indian Journal of Sugarcane Technology 26(2): 1 – 3.
Roodagi, L.I., Itanal, C.J., Biradar, D.P. and Angadi, S.A. (2001). Leaf area index, light transmission ratio and
sugar yield of sugarcane as influenced by planting methods and intercropping systems. Bhartiya Sugar
26(10): 39-45.
Singh, A.K., Singh, S.N., Rao, A.K. and Sharma, M.L. (2012). Enhancing sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid
complex) productivity through modified trench method of planting in sub-tropical India. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 82(8): 692-696.
Verma, A., Nepalia, V., and Kanthalia, P.C. (2005). Effect of continuous cropping and fertilization on crop
yields and nutrient status of a Typic Haplustept. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 53(2): 365-
368.

RECENT ADVANCES FOR ENHANCING NUTRIENT USE
EFFICIENCY IN CROP PRODUCTION
Sunita Kumari1, Geeta Kumari2, Ragini Kumari3, K. K. Singh4 and Prem Prakash Gautam5
1
SMS (Agronomy), KVK, Vaishali, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, E-mail: sunita2009kvk@gmail.com, 2Assistant Professor, Department
of Microbiology, FBS&H, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, 3Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science, BAU, Sabour, 4SMS(Soil
Science), KVK, Muzaffarpur, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa and 5SMS (Plant Protection), KVK, Vaishali, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa,
Corresponding Author: Sunita Kumari
F ood grain production has to be doubled by 2050 to meet the needs of ever growing
population and sustainably meeting such demand is a great challenge, especially when
compared to historical cereal yield trends which have been linear. In present scenario,
improving Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) has been listed among
today’s most critical and daunting research issues. Ever since independence, trends in agricultural
production and fertilizer consumption advocate a high level of synergy between them but now a days,
escalating prices and declining responses marginalized farmers profits. Furthermore their
indiscriminate use has led to soil health degradation and environmental concerns. These are
compelling reasons of the need to increase NUE. NUE is a critically important concept for evaluating
crop production systems and can be greatly impacted by fertilizer management as well as soil and
plant-water relationship and the objective of Nutrient Use is to increase the overall performance of
cropping systems by providing economically optimum nourishment to the crop while minimizing
nutrient loses due to leaching, de-nitrification, ammonia volatilization, run off and fixation from the
field and supporting systems sustainability through combinations to soil fertility or other soil quality
components. Therefore, management practices that improve NUE without reducing productivity or
the potential for future productivity increase are likely to be most valuable. Graham (1984) defined
nutrient efficiency of a genotype (for each element separately) as the ability to produce a high yield in
a soil that is limited in that element for a standard genotype. Blair (1993) defined nutrient efficiency
as the ability of a genotype/cultivar to acquire nutrients from growth medium and/or to incorporate or
utilize them in the production of shoot and root biomass or utilize material (seed, grain, fruits, forage).
Higher NUE by plants could reduce fertilizer input costs, decrease the rate of nutrient losses, and
enhance crops yields.
Estimation of Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) in Plants: The evaluation of NUE is important to
differentiate plant species, genotypes and cultivars for their ability to absorb and utilize nutrients for
maximum yields. The NUE is based on (a) uptake efficiency (acquire from soil, influx rate into roots,
influx kinetics, radial; transport in roots are based on root parameters per weight or length and uptake
is also related to the amounts of the particular nutrients applied or present in soil), (b) incorporation
efficiency (transports to shoot and leaves are based on shoot parameters) (c) utilization efficiency
(based on remobilization). Mosier et al. (2004) and Fixen (2005) provide a good overview of Nutrient
use efficiency with examples of how they might be applied. Agronomic Efficiency (AE-kg crop yield
increase per kg nutrient applied), Recovery Efficiency (RE-kg nutrient taken up per kg nutrient
applied ),Physiology Efficiency(PE-kg yield increase per kg nutrient taken up), and Partial Factor
Productivity of Fertilizers(PFPf- kg crop yield per kg nutrient applied) are generally used to describe
nutrient use efficiency as follows:
Where,
Yf - Yield of fertilized plot (kg ha-1)
YC- Yield of Control plot (kg ha-1)
NUf- Nutrient uptake in fertilized plot (kg ha-1)
Recent Advances for Enhancing Nutrient Use Efficiency in Crop Production 85
NUC- Nutrient uptake in control plot (kg ha-1)

Na- Nutrient applied (kg ha-1)
Factors Affecting Nutrient Use Efficiency
1. Soil factors
2. Fertilizer factors
3. Crop factors
4. Agronomic/management factors
5. Biotic factors
6. Climate factors
1. Soil Factors: Production potential of many soils in the world are affected by the low supply of
nutrients due to adverse soil physical and chemical condition. In tropical regions the main soil
problems in rain fed systems that affect soil production are low soil fertility, salinity, alkalinity,
acidity and Fe toxicity, and P and Zn deficiencies. Salinity, acidity, elemental deficiencies, toxicities
and low organic matter content are some of the major chemical constraints. Physical constraints such
as high bulk density layers or pans, poor structure and texture, surface sealing and crusting, high or
low water holding capacity, water logging and extreme drying or poor aeration can also reduce NUE.
Among other nutrient dynamics, these factors can affect mineralization and immobilization, fixation
by absorption and precipitation mechanisms, leaching, runoff, and gaseous losses via de-nitrification
and ammonia volatilization.
The soil organic matter (SOM) helps to maintain good aggregation and increase water hold
capacity and exchangeable K, Ca, & Mg. It also reduces P fixation, leaching of nutrients and
decreases toxicities of Al & Mn. Best management practices such as addition of green manure, crop
residues, FYM, compost, use of cover crops reduced tillage and avoiding burning of crop residues can
significantly improve the level of SOM and contribute to the sustainability of the cropping systems
and higher NUE. About half of the world’s soils are suffering from deficiency of micronutrients. If
new cultivars that have higher yields are developed, the dynamics of micronutrient could change due
to larger removal of these elements from the soil in the harvested portion of crops. In such condition,
micronutrients will have to also be monitored for these soils to ensure that higher yields and NUE are
maintained.
2. Fertilizer Factors: The fertilizer use efficiency is affected by several factors such as efficiency of
crops, soil properties, climate, chemical species of the fertilizer used (eg urea, NH4_-N or NO3-N),
mycorhiza, and others. The availability and recovery efficiencies of fertilizer are greatly affected by
amendments such as organic materials, lime and others, due to their effects in nutrient dynamics. Best
management practices such as rate, source, method of application, and split application of nutrients
should be optimized based on soil, plant, and climatic factors to reduce nutrient losses due to leaching,
de-nitrification , ammonia volatilization, runoff and fixation. Several scientists have reported this
improvement and careful considerations to these several factors increase NUE of added fertilizers.
Changes in the soil nutrient reserve and alteration in root systems under different tillage operations
might have affect the nutrient availability and uptake by crops. Tillage practices such as conventional,
conservation and no tillage are known to bring changes in SOM, nutrient concentrations, water
holding capacity, bulk density, and soil temperature among others. Higher contents of available P, Ca,
K and organic C and N have been reported for no tillage than for conventional tillage. Minimum
tillage has also been reported to increase root weight, length, and density increasing the nutrient and
water use efficiencies. Improved tillage equipment and practices need to continue being developed to
increase NUE across different agro-ecosystems.
3. Crop Factors: Selection of improved genotypes adaptable to a wide range of climatic changes has
been a major contributor to the overall gain production. Steady increase in the average yields of major
crops during the second half of the 20th century has been achieved through genetic improvement
coupled with improvement in best management practices. In spite of such advances, the average
production of major crops at the farm level, are still two to four times lower than the recorded
maximum potentials. Modern genotypes of rice, corn, wheat and soybean are more efficient in
absorption and utilization of nutrients as compared to older cultivars. Genetic variability has been
reported to explain the differences in NUE and the parameters of nutrient uptake. Such differences in
growth and NUE in plants have been related to differences in absorption, translocation, shoot demand,
dry matter production per unit of nutrient absorbed and environmental interactions.
4. Agronomic/Management Factors: Conservation tillage, Minimum tillage, no tillage and

traditional tillage can bring profound changes in soil quality, SOM, and nutrients throughout different
horizons. Rooting pattern, water holding capacity, aeration, water penetration, soil compaction and
soil temperature are also influenced by type of tillage practices. Crop rotation and use of green
manure crops and cover crops are known to improve soil fertility and physical properties and to
minimize pest and weed infestation. Improved tillage practices and tillage equipment need to be
developed to enhance NUE in crop plants. Right time of sowing, right seed rate, weed control,
appropriate water management would enhance NUE in crops.
5. Biotic Factors: Enhanced beneficial microbes such as rhizobia, diazotrophic bacteria and
mycorrhiza in the rhizosphere have improved root growth by fixing atmosphere N2, suppressing
pathogens, producing phyto hormones, enhancing root surface area to facilitate uptake of less mobile
nutrients such as P and micronutrients, and mobilization and solubilization of unavailable organic/
inorganic nutrients. Fixation of N2 by rhizobium is very effective in humid and subhumid regions.
Weeds compete with crop plant for water, nutrients and sunlight thereby, reducing crop yields
and consequently NUE. Allelopathic interactions of weed crop plants are quite common. Appropriate
crop rotation is an effective way to alleviate weed and allelopathic problems. Infections of diseases
and insects also reduce crop yields and consequently NUE.
6. Climatic Factors: Solar radiation, Temperature and precipitation during crop growth influences
nutrient availability in soil and the nutrient uptake ability of plant and utilization of nutrient in plant
and subsequent yields.To improve NUE in plants we need to optimize best management practices
that consider climatic variables based on specific needs of a given species /cultivar .Soil temperature
influences the rate of nutrient release from organic and inorganic reserves , and the uptake by roots
and subsequent translocation and utilization in plants. Solar radition has a direct effect on
photosynthesis which in turn influences a plants’ demand for nutrients. The quality of radiation and
crop shading reduces ion uptake, crop growth, N2 fixation and crop growth. Total rainfall is not as
important for crop production and higher NUE as is the distribution of rainfall during the growing
season and how fertilizers interact with the water balance of the root zone.
Modern Methods of Increasing Fertilizer/ Nutrient Use Efficiency: Crop yield is directly related
to the fertilizer/nutrient use efficiency and therefore all the factors governing yield exclusively
influence such efficiencies. Data on potential yield, on station and on–farm yields show a gap of 37-
52% between potential and on-station yields and 35-70% gap between potential and on-farm yields.
The gap between on-station and on-farm yields varied from 6-44%. The available farm technology
can at least reduce on-station- on- farm gap in various crops. Careful selection of crops and cropping
systems result in increased fertilizer use efficiency as determined by crop equivalents or net returns
(Gill and Ahlawat, 2006). Scientific and need based water management of water, weeds and biotic
stresses is needed for realizing high input use efficiency. Water management involving proper
irrigation scheduling (irrigated areas) and moistures conservation (rainfed agriculture) is highly
correlated with NUE. Both chemical amendments such as lime and gypsum and physical management
involving tillage are important for increasing crop yields and in doing so, they improve NUE. Liming
can go a long way in improving FUE in different crops and cropping systems in acidic conditions.
a. Fertilizer Materials and their Methods of Application: Nitrogen fertilizers are highly soluble
and this leads to considerable leaching losses under upland conditions and de-nitrification losses
under low-land situations. Efforts have therefore been made to develop slow release nitrogen
fertilizers. These are of two kinds: the coated conventional fertilizers such as sulphur coated urea,
polymer coated urea, neem coated urea, and the inherently less soluble materials, which are mostly
urea- aldehyde products, such as urea form (urea formaldehyde), isobutylidene diurea (IBDU),
crotonaldehyde diurea (CDU), (Rao et al., 2016) Another approach has been to use nitrification
inhibitors to retard nitrification of applied NH3 or urea-N to reduce leaching and de-nitrification
losses (Prasad 2007). The most widely tested and used nitrification inhibitors are Nitrapyrin or N-
Serve, AM (2-amino-4-chloro, 6-methyl pyridine) and dicyandiamide. Considerable data exist in
India on the advantage of deep placement of P for increasing its efficiency for crops other than rice
(Panda et al., 2007). However, only in areas where agriculture is mechanized, deep placement of P is
practiced. Foliar application of nitrogen is desirable in dry land agriculture, because the farmers in
these areas apply fertilizers only when rains come and these are often delayed. For improving nitrogen
use efficiency, reducing nitrogen losses and environmental pollutions, through the use of simple
precision tools viz leaf colour charts and chlorophyll meter (SPAD) has offered wide scope for farm
level adoption of these technology.
b. Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM): Many of nutrients required by rice plants come
from soil. But the supply of nutrients is typically not sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement for
high rice yields. The use of fertilizers consequently essential to fill the gap between the crop needs for
nutrients and the supply of nutrient from soil and available organic inputs. SSNM helps in improving
nutrient use efficiency as it provides an approach for feeding crops like rice, maize, wheat etc. with
nutrients as and when needed. The major benefits for farmers from improved nutrient management
strategy is an increase in the profitability. SSNM eliminates wastage of fertilizers by preventing
excessive rates of fertilizer and by avoiding fertilizer application when the crop does not require
nutrients inputs. It also insures that N, P, K are applied in the ratio required by the intended crop. The
SSNM aims to apply nutrients at optimal rates and times to achieve high yield and yield efficiency of
nutrient use leading to high economic return per unit of fertilizer invested (Dobermann et al. 2005).
.Widespread deficiencies of S, Zn, and B have led to the evolution of site specific nutrient
management (Singh et al., 2008). Simply put, SSNM involves analyzing the soils for all essential
plant nutrients and developing fertilizer recommendations based on soil analysis. SSNM increases the
AE of all nutrients applied (Rana et al. 2017).
c. Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply System (IPNS): IPNS is an approach, which adapts plant
nutrition to specific farming systems and particular yield targets, with consideration of the resource
base, available plant nutrient source, and the socioeconomic background (Dudal and Roy, 1995).
Further, since plant nutrients are transferred in cyclical processes, IPNS involves monitoring all
pathways of flow of plant nutrients in agricultural production systems to maximize profit so that
farming as a profession can be sustained, which is the only way to produce food. Thus IPNS demands
a holistic approach to nutrient management for crop production and it involves judicious combined
use of fertilizers, biofertilizers, organic manures (FYM, compost, vermicompost, biogas slurry, green
manures, crop residues etc.), and growing of legumes in the cropping systems (Prasad, 2011). IPNS
also encompasses balanced fertilization and SSNM. Legumes are the most important component of
IPNS. They may be grown as a green manure, grain crop, or as a dual purpose crop (grain as well as
green manure) in cropping systems.
d. Biochar: Biochar has attracted a lot of interests in the past years basically with focus on the
application of biochar to soil, where it not only contribute to C storage but also act as source of plant
nutrients (Glaser et al., 2007). Biochar comprises biomass in a deliberately stabilized form, for which
the soil may provide storage on a very large scale. The longevity of biochar in the soil is an important
element when comparing pyrolysis bio energy and biochar production with conventional bio energy
strategies, in mitigating climate change. However, it is also vital to assess any indirect reduction in net
greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture through the use of biochar. Biochar is produced by thermal
decomposition of plant derived biomass under the partial or total absence of oxygen (pyrolysis). The
thermal decomposition reaction can be manipulated to produce CO2 and combustible gases chiefly H2,
CO, CH4 in variable ratio, volatile oils, tarry vapors, and a solid carbon rich residue generically
referred to as char. Biochar is a fine-grained and porous substance, similar in its appearance to
charcoal produced by natural burning.
Soils can only sequester additional C until the maximum soil C capacity or soil C saturation,
is achieved, which requires a steady input of biomass and careful management practices. Conversion
of biomass C to biochar C leads to sequestration of about 50% of the initial C compared to the low
amounts retained after burning (3%) and biological decomposition (<10–20% after 5–10 years),
therefore yielding more stable soil C than burning or direct land application of biomass. This
efficiency of C conversion of biomass to biochar is highly dependent on the type of feedstock, but is
not significantly affected by the pyrolysis temperature (within 350–500◦C) common for pyrolysis.
e. Nano-fertilizers: Nano-fertilizers are considered beneficial as compared to chemical fertilizers
since they increase nutrient use efficiency (NUE) by 3 folds, reduce fertilizer requirement by 80-100
times, 30 % more nutrient mobilization by the plants, provide 10 times more stress tolerance to the
crops, give 17-54 % improvement in the crop yield, improve soil aggregation, moisture retention and
carbon build up besides being eco-friendly. The cost of Nano Phosphorus per hectare is just Rs.352-
396, depending upon the leaf size of the plants that of SSP is Rs. 480-640 and DAP is Rs. 1500-2000
(both after subsidy). The Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) of nano-fertiliser is 58-51 per cent, it is 15-
16 per cent for both SSP and DAP. Such claims are being made by Dr J.C. Tarafdaar who has
developed the new variant of fertilizer at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute under ICAR. The
technology involves breakdown of the respective salts into nano-form by the use of microbial
enzymes.
f. Liquid Fertilizers: Liquid fertilizers are the inorganic substances, produced industrially and
introduced into the soil in a liquid state. Liquid fertilizers are extensively used abroad rather in the
country due to improved mechanization. Both solid and liquid fertilizers are agronomically similar,
but they differ in their physical form. Crop responses to liquid and dry fertilizer are similar, provided
the same amounts of plant nutrients are applied and the same placement and water soluble materials
are compared. Reactions of these materials in soils are similar when placed in the soil; dry fertilizers
absorb water and undergo chemical reactions similar to liquid fertilizers. Water soluble and liquid
fertilizers have better fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) (27.5 and 25.6%, respectively) over normal
fertilizers in hybrid tomato. These are applied to plant crop by various methods.
g. Foliar Application: Nutrient use efficiencies are usually enhanced with inclusion of foliar
applications in nutrient application schedules. The highest agronomic efficiency and apparent
recovery for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were recorded under the treatment combination
200:100:100 kg NPK ha-1 along with the foliar spray of plant growth promoting rhizobacterial
(PGPR) consortia @ 1.5% in hybrid maize. Foliar application of a liquid fertilizer Calmax @ 6 litre
ha-1 thrice equally, at square formation, flower initiation and peak flowering along with RDF can
increase the FUE (8.72%) over control (8%) with 9% increase in yield of cotton (Deshpande, 2014).
h. Drip Fertigation: Selim et al. (2010) fertilizer use efficiency was significantly higher with
addition of humic acid to NPK fertilizer compared to mineral NPK fertigation only. Highest mean
value of FUE was 20.9 kg biomass yield Kg-1 NPK fertilizer occurred with injection of 100% RDF +
humic acid fertigation in cowpea. Significantly higher FUE was recorded with 100% fertigation (138
kg yield/kg NPK) compared to drip irrigation (103 kg yield/kg NPK) in tomato (Shayamaa et al.,
2009).
i. Nitrogen Sensing Using SPAD Meter: Damage to the environment due to over application of
nitrogen (N) fertilizer for crop production is a phenomenon, which is of increased interest today.
There is a need to develop tools and sensors which identify areas of the field requiring specific inputs
in specific quantities. Measurement of reflectance which is inversely related to chlorophyll levels in
plant leaves is known to be a predictor of N levels Nutrient deficiencies in corn resulted in change in
leaf color in 500-750nm range, indicating drop in chlorophyll level (Al-Abbas et al., 1974). A number
of factors such as geneticity, growth stage, N type, weather, and data acquisition time all contribute to
variations in chlorophyll measurements (Schepers et al., 1992). Late-season use of chlorophyll meter
has shown to assist in providing additional information in managing N levels (Piekielek et al., 1995).
It should be clear that this information does provide advantages but does not replace good N
management practices. During recent years Minolta Corporation has introduced a hand-held
chlorophyll meter which it calls SPAD-502 (Specialty Products Agricultural Division, Minolta
Corporation). This chlorophyll meter works at 650 and 940 nm with two light emitting diodes. The
chlorophyll content is computed in a nondestructive mode by using ratio of transmittance affected by
leaf chlorophyll level at 650 nm and light transmittance at 940 nm. The 940 nm wavelength is used
for normalization as it remains unaffected by chlorophyll levels but is influenced by leaf thickness.
j. Green Seeker: The green seeker hand held data collection and mapping unit, is a crop research and
consulting tool that provides useful data to determine normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI)
and red to near infrared ratios. This measures crop reflectance in the visible (656 nm) and NIR band
(774 nm). It calculates various indices, including NDVI, between 333 and 0.6 times per second. These
data points can be used in conjunction with other agronomic references to index basic nutrient
response, crop condition, yield potential, stress, pest and disease impact in a quantitative objective
manner. The unit can be used to monitor changing field (crop, plant) conditions during the growing
season or the effects of different levels of an input compared to a local standard. The green seeker
hand held utilizes ntech‘s second-generation optical sensor. The unit‘s optical sensor captures the
light reflectance of plants. The microprocessor circuit board analyzes the plant‘s reflected light. The
data that is collected with the sensor can be downloaded to a personal computer in a text format that
can be accessed by Microsoft excel.
k. NIR Sensors and Fertilizer Inputs: The normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) can be
used to estimate crop biomass. The amount and variability of crop biomass can then be used to fine
tune fertilizer inputs. There are a number of approaches that can be used. NDVI measurements can be
conducted as part of crop scouting (before fertilizer application) or in real-time (mounted on the
fertilizer spreader). The former approach allows time to analyze why parts of the crop may have low
NDVI, it may be completely unrelated to nutrient supply (e.g. water logging, disease or pest pressure).
NDVI readings from reference strips of fully fertilized crop can be compared to those found across the
crop. If variable rate fertilizer application is available, areas of low NDVI could then receive more
fertilizer than areas of high NDVI. If variable rate technology was not available an optimal application
rate for the entire paddock could be calculated. Another approach would be to compare changes in
NDVI over time. A crop might be assessed before fertilizer application then assessed again a few
weeks later to determine the amount of change in NDVI. Areas of low or high change can be checked
and may need less or more fertilizer next time.
l. Variable Rate Applications: Developing a prescription for sensor–based variable rate nitrogen
application is more complex than PGRs or harvest aids. However, several universities have developed
different approaches to sensor–based variable rate nitrogen on cotton. These are usually for side–dress
application from First Square to early flower. Some of these use a nitrogen rich reference strip that
was developed for cereal grain production. The reference strip is an area where sufficient nitrogen is
applied to insure that it is not limiting plant growth. This strip is then used to determine the
environmental contribution of nitrogen or the maximum yield if nitrogen is not limiting growth prior
to field application. The OK method is based on yield potential and a nitrogen rich strip. The MO
method is based solely on the nitrogen reference strip. The MO method applies a high N rate on the
lower NDVI areas of the field and no N on the higher NDVI areas. The OK method is more complex,
but this doesn‘t affect the end–user because it is programmed in the on–board computer. The user
needs to know the NDVI of the reference strip, the NDVI of the adjacent area, growing degree days,
and the maximum yield potential. The limits of each prescription (maximum and minimum N rate and
NDVI thresholds) are set based on regional experience or user preference. For example, cotton with
an NDVI less than 0.3 will likely not respond to extra nitrogen.
Conclusion: Improving nutrient use efficiency is a worthy goal and fundamental challenge across the
globe and more so in developing countries like India. The opportunities are there and tools are
available to accomplish the task of improving the efficiency of applied nutrients. However, we must
be cautious that improvements in efficiency do not come at the expense of food and nutritional
security, the farmers’ economic viability or the environment. Judicious application of fertilizer
BMPs….right rate, right time, right place…. Targeting both high yields and nutrient efficiency will
benefit farmers, society, and the environment like. INM, SSNM and balanced fertilization aided with
modern tools liken SPAD, Green seeker, VAR technologies, GPS, GIS etc. will certainly be of great
use in the endeavor of achieving efficient and effective nutrient management in all crops.
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
ORGANIC FARMING IS A BOON FOR SOIL HEALTH
Bhawani Singh Prajapat1, Barkha Rani2, Deen Dayal Bairwa3, M. K. Kaushik4 and S.K. Yadav5
1,3,4,5,
Department of Agronomy, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, E-mail: bspagro1992@gmail.com, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan, and 2Department of Soil Science and Agriculture
Chemistry, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur-313001,
Rajasthan, Corresponding Author: Bhawani Singh Prajapat
O
rganic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock
feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon
crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes,
mechanical cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil
productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients, and to control insects, weeds, and other pests. (USDA,
1980). Organic farming benefits society substantially by reducing pollution and flooding; conserving
energy, soil, nutrients, fish, and wildlife and insuring the supply of food for future generations.
Throughout the history of organic agriculture, practitioners have emphasized healthy, living
soil as the foundation of sustainable and successful farming (Howard, 1947; Pfeiffer, 1943), and have
often assessed soil health in terms of soil organic matter content. As the organic movement grew
during the mid-late 20th century, its leaders urged farmers and gardeners to “build soil organic
matter,” or humus, and to “feed the soil.” Recommended practices included:
 Incorporation manure and crop residues to the soil.
 FYM and compost materials to stabilize nutrients and develop humus before applying to the soil.
 Use of organic mulches.
 Green manuring.
 Diversify the crop rotation.
 Integrate crop and livestock production.
Soil is the biologically active, porous medium that has been developed in the uppermost layer
of earth’s crust. Soil is a mixture of minerals, air, water and organic materials. These four
components react with one another, making soil one of our planet’s most dynamic and important
natural resources. Soil types across country and the world are varied. They form with the diverse
influences of local climate, organisms, topography, bedrock or underlying parent material, and the
effects of time. Incorporating all these elements (biological, physical and chemical) is a holistic
definition of soil health as “the capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem
and land-use boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air
quality, and promote plant and animal health” (Doran and Zeiss, 2000).
NRCS has defined soil health as “capacity of the soil to function as a vital living ecosystem
that sustains plants, animals, and humans” (Kucera, 2015).
Key Soil functions (Kucera, 2015) Include
 Providing biological, physical and chemical support for plant growth.
 Supporting food, feed, fiber, and fuel production.
 Providing food to beneficial micro and macro-organisms.
 Cycling, storing, and transforming C, P, N, and other nutrients.
 Sequestering C, which helps to mitigate and regulate climate.
 Regulating water, storage and allowing infiltration of plant-available water.
 Maintaining adequate aeration for soil life, microorganism and plant roots.
 Filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing, and detoxifying organic residues and inorganic
materials (nutrients, potentially harmful chemicals).
 Protecting ground and surface water quality from nutrients, sediment, pathogens, and other
contaminants.
 Suppressing pests, diseases pathogens, and weeds.
A healthy, balanced soil ecosystem provides a habitat for crops to grow without the need for
interventions such as soil fumigants and drench pesticides. Replacing and building soil organic matter
enables sustainable cycling of nutrients, like nitrogen.” (Baker et al., 2016)
Why Organic Farming is Boom for Soil Health: “Healthy soil for healthy life” soil is the
biologically active, porous medium that has been developed in the uppermost layer of earth’s crust.
Healthy soil should have high organic matter, because of food of microorganisms are organic matter
and soil become free from chemicals like herbicide, insecticide, fertilizer, weedicide etc., while
organic farming increases organic matter in soil and organic matter is a store house of nutrients.
Increase organic matter in soil owing to organic farming, increase microorganism activity and
population. They are responsible for mineralization, and increase symbiotic and non symbiotic
nitrogen fixation in soil. Due to high organic matter improve soil physical properties like soil
structure, soil aggregation, bulk density, soil aeration, water holding capacity, soil temperature and
improve soil tilth. Soil temperature is also maintain due to good soil aeration and also improve soil
chemical property, because of improve soil cation exchange capacity, buffering capacity and soil PH.
Availability of nutrient to plant, buffering capacity and cation exchange capacity become high.
To date, the majority of studies on the effects of organic farming and management practices
were focused on soil organic matter and biological activity.
Soil health refers to a balanced condition of soil physical, chemical, and biological processes
conducive to high productivity and environmental quality. For sustainability soil fertility and soil
health maintained soil physical, biological and chemical properties through organic farming for long
time because soil health become good due to high organic matter in soil which is added in soil
through manures.
Fig.: Organic farming is boon for soil health

Effect Organic Farming on Biological Properties of Soil: Organic matter is food of microorganism,
while organic farming increases organic matter in soil which is responsible for high population and
active of microorganism. The microbial population especially fungi, bacteria,
actinomycetes, azotobacter and nitrosomonas was higher under organic farming areas than chemical
farming. Organic farming has a great role to maintain excellent microbial and enzyme activities
resulted better soil health status. Soil microbes play vital role in the biochemical cycling of elements
in the biosphere where the essential elements undergo chemical transformation. Soil microorganisms,
Organic Farming is a Boon for Soil Health 93
such as bacteria and fungi, control the functioning of ecosystem through decomposition and nutrient
cycling which in turn may serve as ecosystem health. Organic farming has been improved food
quality and safety, because the nutrient supply and pest control methods are depend on biological
processes in organic farming. It has been reported, that the soil enzyme activities and microbial
population are higher in organically managed farming when compared to the conventional.
For organic farming, nutrient cycling and relative ability of the soil for nutrients are
high. Compost contains bacterial, actinomycetes and fungi; hence a fresh supply of humic material not
only added microorganisms but also stimulated them. Composting material added plenty of carbon
and thus increased heterotrophic bacteria and fungi in soil and farther increased the activity of soil
enzymes responsible for the conversion of available form of nutrient. The higher soil microbial
activity due to organic farming may be higher soil respiration due to the stimulation of heterotrophic
microorganisms. Organic farming systems have also reported an increase in the soil microbial
respiration under organic management. In our result organic farming has higher bacterial, fungal,
actinomycetes, azotobacter and nitrosomonas population compared to chemical and no-input farming
systems. The applications of animals’ manures and compost increase in activity and diversity of the
microbial community such enhancement to the soil microbial population might have benefits for soil
through increased nutrient cycling rate.
Besides compost played an important role in control of plant nematodes and in mitigating the
effect of pesticides and limits degradation as well as transport in soil, Farm Yard Manure or
vermicompost added plenty of carbon and thus increased heterotrophic bacteria and fungi in soil and
further increased the activity of soil enzymes responsible for the conversion of unavailable to
available form of nutrients. Densities of bacteria, actinomycetes, azotobacter , protozoa, nematodes,
and arthopodes in soils under organic farming were higher than conventional farming. Organic
agriculture also reduces the risk of yield failure, stabilizes returns and quality of soil health.
The dehydrogenase activity indicates the activity of bacteria and actinomycetes in the soils
under different growing conditions. The dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and acid phosphatase
activity higher under organic farming. Phosphatase enzymes helps in hydrolysis of C-O-P ester bond
of organic phosphorus to plant from soil available inorganic P in phosphate form. Organic soils tend
to be high in native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, reducing or eliminating the need for inoculation.
Decomposing organic matter can feed plants directly, but it also can indirectly benefit the
nutrition of the plant. Results obtained hitherto indicate that organic management significantly affects
the pore structure and enhances biological activity with positive effects to the environment and
agriculture (Papadopoulos et al., 2006).
Holding of nitrogen in soil by nitrogen fixation on nodules that form on the roots of legumes
contain bacteria that extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, allowing the next crops planted
in the rotation to absorb it as a nutrient. In addition to nitrogen input, quality properties such as pH,
microbial biomass and soil organic carbon significantly affected N 2O emissions. In organic farming
soil is limited emissions nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Organic methods can lock up
nitrogen and carbon.
Effect Organic Farming on Physical Properties of Soil: Soil has high organic matter while organic
farming, which has good physical condition, because of improve soil structure and aggregation, bulk
density, total & capillary and air porosity, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate, water holding
capacity, thermal capacity, diffusion coefficient, air permeability, erodibility and good soil tilth.
It was shown that organic farming and management practices can improve soil properties
through addition of soil organic matter, increased earthworm population and density of burrows,
biodiversity, soil fertility etc. (Schjønning et al., 2002).
Soil structural stability refers to the resistance of soil to structural rearrangement of pores and
particles when exposed to different stresses (e.g. cultivation, trampling/compaction, and irrigation)
(Kesik et al., 2010). Improve structure and aggregations stability through the formation of bonds with
the reactive surface of soil mineral particles. Organic matter is capable of binding individual particles
and aggregation of soil particles into water stable aggregation at scales ranging from < 2µm for
organic molecules.
Recent studies of Papadopoulos et al., (2006) using image analysis found that increased
stability of aggregates form organically compared to conventionally managed soil can be due to the
greater contribution of fine pores and also to greater roughness of pores. Moreover, the aggregate
stability under organic matter in the present study can be enhanced by the greater carbon content
which becomes a bonding agent between soil particles and in that way may increase tensile strength
of soil aggregates and stabilize them (Goebel et al., 2005). Earthworm activity may further lead to an
increase in corg and aggregate stability.
Less crusting formation and compaction because of high organic matter bulk density is also
decrease due to increase total porosity in soil.
Under the organic soil management irrespective of aggregate size and depth. However, there
was an inconsistent effect of the management systems on water infiltration and sorptivity. The water
infiltration was highest under the organic management for 15-20 mm aggregates and under the
conventional management for 30-35 mm aggregates.
Enhances aggregation stability, improves water holding and soil aeration, reducing runoff,
capacity, improving water infiltration, reduces the stickiness of clay soils making them easier to till
and reduces surface crusting, facilitating seedbed preparation (Kuoe and Jonczy 2008).
Total porosity increase because high organic matter therefore water holding capacity increase
owing to increasing total porosity (special micro pore). Organic matter can directly affect water
retention because of its ability to absorb up to 20 times its mass of water and indirectly through its
impact on soil structure and pore geometry. Soil aeration increase which improve soil oxygen, which
is good for soil microorganism and mineralization.
Aggregation is important for increasing stability against erosion, for maintaining porosity,
aeration and soil water movement, and for improving fertility and carbon sequestration in the soil
(Nichols et al., 2004 and Turki, 2002). ‘Granular’ structure consists of loosely packed spheroidal peds
that are glued together mostly by organic substances. Granular structure is characteristic of many A
horizons, particularly those with high organic matter content and biological activity soil (Harris et al.,
1964). Larger peds, in the form of plates, blocks, or prisms, are commonly associated with the B
horizon and are formed via shrink-swell processes and adhesive substances (Gardiner and Killer,
2004). Peds are held together and in place through the adhesion of organic substances, iron oxides,
clays or carbonates. Due to good tilth and soil aggregation soil aeration affected which soil thermal
capacity, thermal conductivity and diffusion coefficient which regulated soil temperature.
A high mechanical stability of soil aggregates is fundamental for maintenance of proper tilth
of soil and provides stable grip for farm implements, but limits root growth inside aggregates (Turski,
2002). The integrate effect of the internal aggregate strength and wettability can result in increased
soil stability and water infiltration (Eynard et al., 2006).
Moreover, the structure of pores in soil aggregates influences water vapour adsorption
(Kharitonova et al., 2004) and storage of water and its availability to plants (Witkowska-Walczak,
2000). Organic farming management has a greater potential for soil structural improvement.
Organic carbon may also be responsible for the differences in repellency of soil aggregates. It
may stabilize aggregates during fast wetting and increase wettability (opposite to repellency) of soil
(Eynard et al., 2006 and Raut et al., 2012).
The greater organic carbon content along with higher pH, in which the solubility of humid
acids increases and reduces the surface tension of water (Hurrab and Schau, 2006), under organically
than conventionally managed soil.
Many important soil processes occure in soil pores. Soil texture and structure influence
porosity by determining the numbers, size and interconnection of pores. Coarse textured soils have
many macro pores due to the loose arrangement of larger particles with each other.
Macropores in fine-textured soils exist between aggregates. Because fine-textured soils have
both macro and micropores, they generally have a greater total porosity, or sum of all pores, than
coarse-textured soils (Tester, 1990). In general, increasing SOM levels, reducing the extent of soil
disturbance, and minimizing compaction and erosion will increase soil porosity and improve structure
(Kesik et al., 2010).
It is well established that addition of SOM can not only reduce bulk density (Db) and increase
water holding capacity, but also effectively increase soil aggregate stability (Mikha et al., 2006).
Carter et al., (2002) noted that the amount of water-stable aggregates (WSA) was often
associated with SOC content, and that particularly labile carbon was often positively related to macro-
aggregate stability. Kay and Angers, 1999 et al., 2010 reported that a minimum of 2% SOC was
necessary to maintain structural stability and observed that if SOC content was between 1.2-1.5%,
stability declined rapidly. BoixFayos et al., 2001 showed that a threshold of 3-3.5% SOC had to be
attained to achieve increases in aggregate stability; no effects on aggregate stability were observed in
soils below this threshold. Haynes, 2002 found that the mean weight diameter (MWD) of aggregates
exhibited a curvilinear increase with carbon content, suggesting an upper limit of influence of SOC
(Kesik et al., 2010).
An important indicator of soil physical fertility is the capacity of soil to store and supply
water and air for plant growth (Benjamin et al., 2003). The ability of soil to retain water is termed
water holding capacity (WHC) In particular, the amount of plant-available water in relation to air-
filled porosity at field capacity is often used to assess soil physical fertility (Kuoe and Jonczy 2008
and Pererill et al., 1999).
WHC of soils is controlled primarily by the number of pores and pore-size distribution of
soils, and by the specific surface area of soils. In turn, this means that with an increase in SOC
content, there is increased aggregation and decreased Db, which tend to increase the total pore space
as well as the number of small pore sizes (Haynes, 2002 and Khae, et al., 2010).
The effect of organic carbon on the WHC of soil is generally assumed to be positive but the
types of carbon responsible for this effect and synergistic behavior with other soil properties. Hudson
1999 and Kern, 1995 found an increase in water content with increasing SOC content. Increase of 1 %
soil organic carbon can add 1.5 % additional moisture by volume at field capacity. Garambois et al.,
2002 observed that per gram of additional carbon at -10 kPa suction, a 50% increase in water content
was gained.
The organic carbon from exudates (‘gel’) from ectotrophicmycrorhiza would bond soil
particles, which would consequence in a change in the size of the pores and a change in water
retention at -10 kPa.
Generally good soil conditions are associated with dark brown colors near the soil surface,
which is associated with relatively high organic matter levels, good soil aggregation and high nutrient
levels. The effect of usually dark brown or black organic matter on soil colour is important not only
for soil classification purposes, but also for ensuring good thermal properties, which in turn contribute
to soil warming and promote biological processes (Baldock and Nelson, 1999).
The physical deterioration often associated with a decline in organic matter content is
manifested by a decline in wet aggregate stability, an increase in bulk and clod densities, an increase
in modulus of rupture, and a decline in large pore space (Kuoe and Jonczy, 2008).
Effect Organic Farming on Chemical Properties of Soil: Most chemical interactions in the soil
occur on colloid surfaces because of their charged surfaces. Depending on the ion’s charge, size and
concentration in the soil, it can be sorbed and held to the colloid surface or exchanged with other ions
and released to the soil solution. Fine-textured soils usually have a greater exchange capacity than
coarse soils because of a higher proportion of colloids (Kuoe and Jonczy, 2008). Soil pH can affect
CEC and AEC by altering the surface charge of colloids (Scow al el., 1994).
A number of essential nutrients present in soils as positively charged molecules as cations.
The ability of organic matter to keep on to cations in a way that hold them available to plants is
known as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Humus has many negative charges on surface and attract
opposite charges, humus is able to hold on to positively charged nutrients, such as calcium (Ca++),
potassium (K+), and magnesium (Mg++). This keeps them from leaching deep into the subsoil when
water moves through the topsoil. Nutrients held in this way can be gradually released into the soil
solution and make available to plants throughout the growing season as long time. Clay particles also
have negative charges on their surfaces, but organic matter may be the major source of negative
charges for coarse and medium-textured soils. When those clays are present, organic matter may be
the major source of negative charges that bind nutrients, even for fine-textured soils.
Conclusion: For build a healthy soil need to rich in soil organic matter, which is possible by organic
farming, and soil become chemical free and rich in organic matter, these improves soil biological,
physical and chemical properties for long time for future generation which makes soil healthy.
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
ORGANIC FARMING-PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES
Geeta Kumari1, Navnit Kumar2, Sunita Kumari3 and Khushbupriya4
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, FBS&H, RPCAU, Pusa, E-mail:geetasri.kumari5@gmail.com, 2Assistant
Professor, Department of Agronomy, SRI, RPCAU, Pusa, 3SMS, Department of Agronomy, KVK, Vaishali, RPCAU, Pusa
and 4Research Scholar, Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, BHU, UP., Corresponding Author: Geeta Kumari
T he scope of organic farming in increased yields simultaneously improving the fertility

of the soil and remedying the pitfalls in the conventional agricultural techniques has
helped place it on a high pedestal among effective farming techniques. Much can be
understood from the words of experts who are devoted to the studies on Organic farming: Organic
farming not only produces fine and healthy food products but also improves the fertility and quality of
soil (Andreas Gattinger, Isaacs 2012). Organic agriculture has been defined by Futilana as: “Organic
Agriculture is giving back to the environment what was taken from it” (Singh et al. 2012). Organic
food is grown and processed without using any synthetic fertilizers or pesticides (insecticides,
herbicides, and/or fungicides), plant growth regulators, such as hormones, livestock antibiotics and
GM organisms, and human sewage sludge (John 2011).
Organic farming is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land
and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes
(crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial
microbes (bio-fertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco-
friendly pollution free environment (Narayanan, 2005; Guruswamy and Gurunathan, 2010; Makadia
and Patel, 2015). The study team from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) states
forth about organic farming- “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc.) and to the maximum
extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste,
mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.
“Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and
enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity,
and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in
exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs” - suggests FAO. Organic agriculture is a production system
that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity
and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic
agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote
fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.."- IFOAM General Assembly
Organic Farming Approach by NAAS: "Holistic approach involving Integrated Nutrient
Management (INM), Integrated Pest Management (IPM), enhanced input use efficiency and adoption
of region- specific promising cropping systems would be the best organic farming strategy for India."
(NAAS, Policy 30
Organic Farming Employs the Use of
Crop Rotation: The method of seasonally cultivating various crops in the same farmland in order to
effectively combat weeds, pests and also to replenish the soil nutrients. Alternating crop varieties like
cereals with legumes, roots and brassica helps the soil regain its nutrients naturally while effectively
keeping pests and weeds at bay.
Compost: The regular use of composted material is a prerequisite for sustained soils with inherent
low natural fertility (Schoningh and Wichmann, 1990). Nyamangara et al.; (2003),reports, the
management of soil organic matter with the use of composted organic waste is the key for sustainable
agriculture. The use of composted organic waste as fertilizer and soil amendment not only results in
an economic benefit to the small- scale farmer but it also reduces pollution due to reduced nutrient
run-off, and N leaching (Nyamangara, 2003).
Green Manure: Organic growers are increasingly utilizing legume cover crops as green manures in
rotations to meet Nitrogen needs of crops. Beltran et al.; (2002) states that green manures when
composted increased soil organic matter (SOM), provides nutrients for plant growth, alleviate
aluminum toxicity, and render phosphorus more available to crops. Plant materials and cover crops
can be mixed into the soil, overtime enhancing and protecting the soil quality. Dabney et al.[2004];
Organic Farming-Problems and Perspectives 99
Reicosky et al.(1995); observed that residual removal when followed by soil tillage can increase soil
loss between 26-47%,meanwhile showcasing a healthy balance between the residue amount and
organic matter in the topsoil.
Biological Pest Control : The method employs the use of bugs like ladybugs, big-eyed bugs, minute
pirate bugs etc. that are advantageous to the crops aided with natural permitted insecticides like
bacterial toxins (Bacillus thuringiensis), plant, root or tree extracts like Pyrenthrum, rotenone and
neem, and bacterial metabolites like spinosad. Owing to their eco-friendly nature they are also
addressed as green pesticides at times.
What Organic Farming Rejects: Organic farming emphasizes on the principles of using only what
is directly helpful and in no way pernicious to the balance and composition of the soil and the
environment and hence is in outright denial of everything stands in the line of synthetic additives,
pesticides, fertilizers, growth regulators and all sorts of chemical enhancers and repellants. It greatly
bases its methods and approaches to those which adds to the fertility, enhancement of organic matter
availability, use of organic manure and compost to reduce the fluctuating levels of NPK,
replenishment of minerals and of nitrogen with the help of legumes, crop rotation and introduction of
natural predators and resistant varieties to keep pests at bay and such.
Organic Agriculture-Area and Production: At present in the world Australia at number one
position with total 12,29,290 ha area under organic agriculture, in terms of per centage of total land
Italy take first position with 9 per cent of total agriculture land cover under organic and with 17,557
number of organic farms Germany recorded highest organic farms in the world. India stand on 14th
rank in the world with 528,171 ha area comes under organic agriculture and it covers 0.3 per cent area
under organic agriculture of total agriculture land and 44,926 total number of organic farms in the
country. The Asian countries together currently account only 7 per cent of the total global organic
land, China and India being major contributors (Musa et al., 2015).With a certified area of 15 percent
cultivable land of 0.72 million Hectares and the remaining 85% including 3.99 million Hectares of
forest and wild land allowed for access only to collectable minor forest produces, India was ranked
10th among the world nations for cultivable land under organic certification consistent with the
APEDA 2013-14. From the total of 4.72 million Hectare coming under organic certification, India
alone contributes around 1240 million KG of certified edible and non-edible organic produce like dry
fruits, spices, sugarcane, pulses, vegetables, oil seeds, coffee, tea, cotton fibre etc. In India, Madhya
Pradesh covers the biggest organic certified area queued in by Himachal Pradesh and Rajastan.
Table 1. The status of organic production in India (2013–2014)
Total area under certified organic cultivation 0.72 M ha
Forest and wild area for collection of minor forest produces 3.99 M ha
The total area under organic certification 4.7 M ha
Total production 1.24 million MT
Total quantity exported 177766 MT
Value of total export 1328.61 crores
(Source: APEDA. 2014)
Organic Farm Products: Organic farm produce in India enlists spices, fruits, vegetables, oil seeds,
rice, tea. coffee etc.
Table 2. Major Organic farm products in India
Type Products
Commodity Tea, Coffee, Rice, Wheat
Spices Cardamom, Black pepper, white pepper, ginger, turmeric, vanilla, mustard, tamarind, clove,
cinnamon, nutmeg, mace chilly
Pulses Red Gram, Black Gram
Fruits Mango, Banana, Pineapple, Grape, passion fruit, Orange, Cashew nut, walnut
Vegetables Okra, Brinjal, Garlic, Onion, Tomato, Potato
Oilseeds Sesame, castor, sunflower
(Source: Salvador and Katke, 2003)
Organic Farming-Principles: Key principles of organic farming (Chandrashekar, 2010) are:
 To maintain the long-term fertility of soils
 To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques
 To produce foodstuffs of high nutritional quality and sufficient quantity
 To reduce the use of fossil energy in Agricultural practice to minimum
 To give livestock conditions of life that confirm to their physiological need
 To make it possible for agricultural producers to earn a living through their work and develop
their potentialities as human being
 All the above principles are based on the four ethical principles (Principle of Health, Principle of
Care, Principle of Fairness and Principle of Ecology) IFOAM, 2005.
NPOP (National Programme for Organic Production)
 Accreditation programme for certification bodies
 Norms for organic production
 Promotion of organic farming
 Recognized by European Commission, USDA and Switzerland as equivalent to their country
standards
 Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted
by the importing countries
Four Pillars of Organic Farming: The four pillars of Organic farming (Roychowdhury et al., 2013)
are:
● Organic standards
● Certification/Regulatory mechanism
● Technology packages
● Market network
Organic Farming-Advantages
Healthy Poison-Free Food: The method produces yields high in nutritional value with no trace of
any sort of synthetic additives, pesticides or fertilizers and hence hails unparalleled quality. There are
reasonably consistent findings for higher nitrate and lower vitamin C contents in conventional
vegetables (Woese et al., 1997). Several studies indicate that 10-60 percent more healthy fatty acids
(like CLA’s) and omega-3 fatty acids occur in organic dairy (Butler et al., 2008). In crops, vitamin C
ranges 5-90 percent more and secondary metabolites 10-50 percent more in organic. Also, less
residues of pesticides and antibiotics are present (Huber and van de Vijver, 2009). Heaton, (2002)
states organic food to compose of higher dry matter and minerals and to be 10-50 percent higher
phytonutrients. Decreased cell proliferation of cancer cells was observed on extracts of organic
strawberries (Olsson et al., 2006). The Parsifal study showed 30 percent less eczema and allergy
complaints and less body weight among 14 000 children fed with organic and biodynamic food in five
EU countries (Alfven et al., 2006). In animals, organic feed leads to increased fertility (Staiger, 1988)
and increased immune parameters (Finamore et al., 2004). Other studies indicate that the most
systematic differences between organic and conventional crops are the contents of secondary
metabolites (Brandt &Mølgaard, 2001).
Reduced Growing Cost: Organic farming’s decreased demand for additives and any sort of synthetic
materials ensures reduced expenditure and increased profits in the sense of yield, plant and soil health.
The growing demand for organic products also makes it a more sought out option among farmers.
Ensures Soil Nourishment: Organic farming directly handles the issues of depleting soil nutrition
and microbial presence, increased erosion, salinity in soil etc. as per the direct result of the
replacement of chemical based and synthetic products with organic and beneficial products and
practices. Biodynamic farms had better soil quality: greater in organic matter, content and microbial
activity, more earthworms, better soil structure, lower bulk density, easier penetrability, and thicker
topsoil (Reganold et al., 1993); agricultural productivity doubled with soil fertility techniques:
compost application and introduction of leguminous plants into the crop sequence (Dobbs and
Smolik, 1996; Drinkwater et al., 1998; Edwards, 2007).
Increased Energy Efficiency: More energy efficiency: energy efficiency: growing organic rice was
four times more energy efficient than the conventional method (Mendoza, 2002). Organic agriculture
reduces energy requirements for production systems by 25 to 50 percent compared to conventional
chemical-based agriculture (Niggli et al., 2009).
Carbon Sequestration: German organic farms annually Carbon sequestration: sequester 402 kg
Carbon/ha, while conventional farms had losses of 202 kg (Clark et al., 1999; Küstermann et al.,
2008; Niggli et al., 2009).
Reduced Water Pollution: in conventional farms, 60 per Less water pollution: cent more nitrate are
leached into groundwater over a 5-year period (Drinkwater et al., 1998).
Environment-Friendly Practices: Green-friendly, non-toxic pest evasive methods like spinosad,

neem, chilly mix, compost tea, crop rotation, increases the crop’s defensive system naturally and adds
to the farm’s biodiversity and resilience to climatic changes.
Means of Productive Labour: Organic farming is a labour intensive method and hence provides
employment for the agriculture based rural areas and thereby providing a livelihood to many. Free of
hazardous products and techniques this avails non-exploitative and safe working conditions and
environment. If the market value and the possibilities of the method and yield is carefully explored,
the success of organic farming could proportionally contribute to the market opportunities and rural
economies and its gradual augmentation into the national economy.
Organic Farming-Disadvantages
Lower Productivity: In 2008 UN Environmental Programme ran a study and came to the
understanding that in contrast to the conventional and industrialized farming methods, yields from
organic farms always registered only a smaller amount. Large scale commercial farms, even while
recording an alarming decrease in the soil productivity, still managed to reap yields much bigger in
magnitude, good enough to stand in argument against the feeble proportions as received through
organic farming.
Requires Skill: Organic farming calls for closer study and understanding from the farmer’s side
towards his crops and his land as there are no swift and easy solutions available to deal with pests,
plant and soil requirements. The efforts necessary to shoulder the responsibility of pure organic
methods and substances while keeping an extra close watch on the crop is gruelling and testing for the
farmer.
Prolonged Process: Maintaining an organic farm and strictly sticking to the parameters of organic
farming requires steady and tedious time and effort from the farmer. Any deviation from the
parameters could effect in the cancellation of certification for the farmer which could not be availed
for the next three years. Moreover, all organic products and compost required time and multiple
applications to take form as well as initiate its contribution to the crops and farmland as they are all
slow-releasing and slow-forming in nature.
Comparatively Labour Intensive: Organic farming demands massive amounts of labour in every
stage in order to properly observe and effectively care for the farmland and the crops. It hence
requires exponential manual labour as per the increase in area.
Expensive: On one hand, organic produce are tagged pricey in the market and hence people opt for
conventionally farmed products, and on the other hand since organic farming has not yet found wide-
spread popularity among farmers, materials and supplies for fertilization, pest control etc are not
easily available, and if at all available might tax way more than what its chemical counterparts cost.
Certification: Another hurdle with organic farming is due to the lengthy and gruelling certification
process, which in itself is a challenge to push through. Any minute deviation from established
parameters can cost the farmer greatly and for long.
Organic Certification: Organic food and agricultural products have to pass many levels and types of
certification to be legally graded as organic produce. These are some of them:
Certification Process
 Study the organic standards
 Compliance
 Documentation
 Planning
 Inspection
 Fee
 Record-keeping
Certification and Marketing of Organic Products in India: India passed a national regulatory
Framework in 2000 that states the standards and accreditation regulations in order to greatly aid the
organic farming sector. Under the leadership and sponsorship of the Indian Government ‘Indian
Organic Products–Global Markets’ conference was held in Delhi in December 2002. These six
organizations have been credited as accreditation agencies of organic products by the Ministry of
Commerce-(1) Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA),
(2) Tea Board, (3) Spices Board, (4) Coconut Development Board, (5) Directorate of Cashew and
Cocoa and (6) Coffee Board.
They have the capacity to certify organic products following certain set parameters and
certification by these bodies have been held mandatory to ensure the authenticity and quality of the
products, especially if they are to be exported. ‘The Government of India has issued a public notice
according to which no organic products may be exported unless they are certified by an inspection
and certifying agency duly accredited by one 22 of the accreditation agencies designated by the
Government of India’ (Salvador and Katke, 2003).
Limitations of Certification
1. The quality of the inspection process is not sufficient
2. High certification cost
Challenges: The major challenges that thwarts the acceptance of organic farming among farmers are
the questions and uncertainties on the production methods, competition markets, market access,
market value, distribution channels, certification process etc. Absence of technical assistance and
proper guidance only furthers the concern. Owing to the reduced availability of resources and the
trouble in passing certification directly bears upon the consumer additional charges that melts into the
product’s actual cost. The extra charges that are imposed upon the products hence prompts everyone
in the chain from food manufacturers to importers and retail organizations to the consumers to
scrutinize the authenticity of the products and hence requires extensive care and intensive
management. This tenuous process demands the farmers to carefully cultivate in quantities that are
affordable and manageable and hence the products constantly come from smaller farmlands. Another
challenge is the massive amount of paperworks and clearances and certifications that makes it
difficult for poorly educated farmers from remote areas to wade through successfully, where the
paperwork alone takes up more engagement and struggle than the actual farming. After all this
trouble, the premium price tags upon the organic products makes the common consumers second
guess the products and for all that they care, something that we need everyday, more than twice, as
common as food, breaking the bank just because it is organic does not always essentially fetch the
farmers their well-deserved and rightfully expected earnings.
Conclusion: Organic farming is a safe and environment friendly technique of using eco-friendly
substances and methods in farming that has the capacity to produce healthy and toxin free edible and
non-edible products. This method retains and consistently helps boost the soil’s fertility, organic
content and microbial presence by using conventional as well as modern practices like organic
manuring, crop rotation, compost fertilizers and pest repellants, multiple produce from the same farm
land etc. Though it requires increased labour and reduced yield when compared to commercialized
farm lands that use chemical and synthetic substances for greater yield, diametrically organic farm
products eclipse the downfall through their increased nutritional value, lack of harmful chemical
additives and positively nurturing the soil. Lack of availability of resources, strict parameters for
certification and increased manual labour pose as challenges to practice organic farming. Yet, the
multiple and desirable benefits of the method and its time-withstanding value to the environment
along with its strong promise on healthier and nutrition filled products stands abreast to shield the
importance of organic farming to both the producers and consumers alike.
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
AGRICULTURE
ECONOMICS
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF
ONION IN DEOGARH DISTRICT OF ODISHA, INDIA
O. P. Singh1, P. K. Singh1 and Gyanprakash Bishi2
1 2
Assistant Professor and M. Sc. (Ag) Student, Department of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi–221005; E-mail: ompsingh@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: O. P. Singh
A
gricultural development in respect of crop, fruit, vegetable, animal and other allied
activities occupies an important place in the economic development of our country.
Agriculture and allied sector contribute 14.6 percent to India’s gross domestic
product in 2018. In 2018, the value added to the national economy was 396.99 billion US$. The
agriculture sector is one of the largest sectors for providing employment to nearly 42.38 percent
population of the country in 2019 (World Bank, 2020). Agricultural sector also provides food to fast
growing population of the country and making country self-sufficient on the front of food grain
requirement. Total food grain production of the country was 285.21million tonnes during 2018-19. In
2017-18 total fruits and vegetable production in the country was 97.36 and 185.40 million tonnes
respectively (GOI, 2020). The prime response of increasing production of any crop, farmers are
increasing area under the particular crop. But, land is the limiting factor and it cannot be possible to
stretch land holding size of the farmers. Therefore, it is imperative to enhance the productivity of
particular crop by developing improved high yield variety seed of particular crop by adopting of
improved cultural practices by the farmers.
Agricultural production in the country is not a smooth and linear growth; it bristles with a
number of hurdles. Prior to the green revolution, agriculture production in India was mostly stagnant.
In sixties and seventies significant, unprecedented growth in agricultural sector was observed. The
scale of production has witnessed to perceive changes and agriculture has shown signs of a ‘take off’.
The growth in production and productivity of crops was due to the use of different yield attributing
inputs after the green revolution.
It is fingered to known that the basic need of Indian agriculture is an increase in the
productivity of different crops with optimal use of input resources. The main contributory factors that
influenced the crop productivity was technological intervention and resource use status of farm and
adoption of improved agronomic practices. These factors have to be viewed in any efforts designed to
increase production. Even the limitation of season and climate can be overcome in some measure by
selecting suitable techniques.
Horticulture has been recognized as a vibrant sector in agriculture, which provides avenues
for diversification, enhanced returns per unit area, better land and water used with opportunities for
employment generation. The wide range of horticultural crops provide ample opportunities by farmers
to adopting multi-layer cropping for minimising risk of crop failure and maximizing their farm
income. Horticultural crops include fruits, citrus, vegetables, aromatics and medicinal plants, flowers,
plantation crops, spices etc. Among the vegetable crops, onion is playing a prominent role in the India
diet.
Onion is one of the important horticultural crops, which play an important role in enhancing
the farmers’ income and ultimately agricultural development to the Indian economy. In 2017-18, total
onion production in the country was 23.262 million tonnes from 1.285 million hectares area with an
average yield of 18.84 tonnes per hectare (GOI, 2020).
The improved cultivation of onion, farming strategy calls for the adoption of balanced and
efficient use of modern inputs for profitable production. The improved method of onion cultivation is
capital intensive and resource poor farmers needs to borrow money from institutional and non-
institutional sources depending upon the availability in there doorstep. Hence, the use of modern
technological inputs needs a careful management of resources before allocating area under onion
cultivation. Farmers should well equipped with different types of costs incurred and return obtained
from onion, for minimising risk factor and easy adoption of modern technology.
On the other hand, the problem is arising that the pattern of onion production has been
changing over time in different regions. The shifts in preference of domestic consumers, increasing
urbanisation, rising incomes, demographic and social factors and the changes in productivity of onion
have brought about changes in the pattern of consumption and hence, the demand for onion. The
production pattern of onion also affected due to use of resource, level of production technology and
price factor of inputs and output. It has been found in various past studies that the yield of onion is
directly influenced with level of technology used in production and its adoption is augmenting total
production and productivity of onion is being recognized. However, wide gap prevails between the
performance of technology at the progressive farmers’ field and at the fields of general farmers. The
constraint operating due to modern onion production technology are more capital intensive and the
farmers have to invest more on yield attributing inputs like seed, fertilizers, plant protection measures
and irrigation etc.
The onion production in the country was 23.262 million tonnes in 2017-18. Maharashtra is
highest onion producing states with contribution of 38.06 percent to India’s production. The onion
production in Odisha was 379.34 thousand tonnes in 2017-18 from the area of 33.47 thousand
hectares. Per hectare yield of onion in the state was 11.33 tonnes per hectare. Among different district
of Odisha, Deogarh district is one of the important districts for producing onion in the state and
farmers are allocating larger area under onion cultivation because demand of onion is very high in
Sambalpur and Rourkela district.
Deogarh is one of the underdeveloped district in respect of agricultural and horticultural
production. Small and marginal land holders have dominated in the area. The variability and
sustainability of such tiny holdings is thoughtful particularly in view of the ongoing process of
production pattern. The small land holders in the district are economically poor, usually under poverty
stricken, by and large practices of subsistence nature of farming with very limited marketable surplus.
Experiences gain suggested that diversification of agriculture towards high value commercial crops
has helped small holders to augment their income. Onion is an important commercial and cash bulb
crop. The demand of onion is increasing very fast because it is integral part of the Indian diet. As
matter of fact, marketing has often been kept outside the domain of farmer’s production. This resulted
in low producers’ share in consumer’s price. Efficient marketing helps in efficient distribution of farm
products and inputs at the minimum cost from producers to consumers. Such situation is beneficial to
both the producers as well as consumers.
Keeping in the view of above facts, the study was conducted with the following objectives:
[a] To assess the cost and return of onion production in the study area; under different size group of
farmers in the study area; [b] To estimate the marketing cost, marketing margin and price spread
under selected marketing channels; and [c] To identify the production and marketing problems of
onion faced by the farmers in the study area.
Research Methodology
Sampling Procedure: Odisha state was purposively selected for present study. Deogarh district was
selected purposively for conducting present study due to larger area under onion cultivation. Deogarh
district comprises of three development blocks. Out of which, Reamaldevelopment block was selected
on the basis of maximum area under onion cultivation and it contributes about 90 percent production
to the district. After selection of development blocks, a list of major onion growing village was
prepared and 10 villages were selected on the basis of maximum area under onion crop. A list of
onion growers was prepared and 60 onion growers were selected using random table with replacement
method.
For collecting information on marketing cost, marketing margin and producers’ share, the
equal number of marketing agent and traders viz., 10 in each channel was selected randomly from the
list of onion dealers in Deogarh market.Primary data were collected from sample onion growers and
traders through personal interview using well-structured and pre-tested schedules.The primary data
were recorded regarding general information of the onion growers, cropping pattern, inputs use in
both value and quantity, output, market price, market channels etc. from onion growers. The primary
data were also collected from wholesalers, retailers and other intermediaries in the marketing channels
of onion prevailing in the area. The primary data was collected for agricultural year 2018-19.
Analytical Procedure
Cost of Cultivation: For the estimation of cost of cultivation, the cost concept suggested by the
Commission on Agricultural Cost and Prices was used. The details of cost concept was:
Economic Analysis of Production and Marketing of Onion in Deogarh District of Odisha, India 107
Cost A1 Includes: Value of hired human labour + value of hired and owned bullock labour + value of
hired and owned machinery labour + value of owned and purchased seed + cost of fertilizers, manures
+ cost of insecticide and pesticides + costof irrigation + land revenue and taxes + interest paid on crop
loan/working capital + depreciation on farm assets excluding land + miscellaneous expenses.
Cost A2 Includes: Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in land
Cost B1 Includes: Cost A2 + interest on value of owned fixed capital excluding land
Cost B2 Includes: Cost B1 + rental value of owned land
Cost C1 Includes: Cost B2+ imputed value of family labour
Cost C2 Includes: Cost B2 + imputed value of family labour
Cost C3 Includes: Cost C2 + 10 percent of cost C2 an account for managerial input of the farmer.
Marketing Costs: Marketing cost includes all the marketing charges paid by producers, wholesalers
and retailers of onion from local assembling to retailing centre in the marketing processes.
Market Margins: The market margin at each successive level of marketing is worked out by dividing
the difference of the money value of sales and purchase by the number of units of the commodity
transacted by a particular agency. Following formula may be used to work out the total marketing
margins:
Where: MT is Total marketing margin; Si is Sale value of a product for ith firm; Pi is purchase
value of a product paid by the ith firm Qi is quantity of the product handled by ith firm and i is 1,2,...n
(Number of firms involved in the marketing channel.
Total Marketing Cost: It consists of marketing cost and marketing margin together.
Price Spread: The price spreads consist of the marketing costs and margins which ultimately
determine the producer’s share in the price paid by the consumer.The price-spread was worked out by
using following formula:
Where: Pis the Producer’s share in consumer’s rupee; C is price paid by the ultimate
consumer; M is the marketing cost.
Marketing Efficiency: Marketing efficiency was measured using modified Acharya method.
Following equation was used to find out the marketing efficiency of onion:
Where: MEis the marketing efficiency; FP is the net market price received by producers
(Rsper quintal); MCis the marketing cost (Rsper quintal) and MM is the marketing margin.
Socio-economic Characteristics of Onion Growers: The average age of sample farmers was 45
years and it was ranging between 26 years to 71 years. The majority of onion growers were literate
(68.33 per cent) and remaining 31.67 per cent respondents were illiterate. Out of total literate
respondents, 43.90 per cent respondence had education of primary level, middle school 31.71 per
cent, high school 14.63 per cent and graduate and above 9.76 per cent. The average family size of the
onion growers were 7.4 members. Out of total family members, adult male, adult female and children
was 1.80, 1.65 and 3.95 persons respectively.
Land Holding Size: The average size of land holding of the respondents was 4.60 hectares and it was
ranging between 1.10 hectares to 12.80 hectares. Out of total land holding, 0.12 hectare land was
uncultivated. Average net cultivated area of the respondents was 4.48 hectare. Out of net cultivated
area, only 1.68 hectares area having irrigation facility and rest of area is rainfed cultivation. During
the kharif season, almost all the area was cultivated i.e. 4.43, but during rabi season it was 3.20
hectare. The average size of land allocated by the sample farmers for onion cultivation in the study
area was 0.91hectare.
Cost of Onion Cultivation: The average cost of onion cultivation (C3) in the study area was
Rs40422.80 per hectare (Table 1). The average variable cost viz., cost A1 for onion was estimated to
be Rs 18949.33 per hectare which account for 46.88 per cent of the total cost. The share of rental
value of own land to total cost of cultivation was estimated to be 14.84 per cent. The imputed value of
own land was found to be Rs11733 per hectare which account for about 29.03 per cent of total cost of
onion cultivation. The onion cultivation was the labour intensive and share of total labour cost (family
labour and hired labour) to cost of cultivation was 35.96 per cent of cost C3.
Table 1: Cost of cultivation of onion (Rs/Ha)
Sl. No. Particulars Physical unit Value % to cost C3
1. Hired human labour 14 Days 2800.00 6.93
2. Bullock labour 13 Days 3900.00 9.65
3. Machine labour 4.3 hours 2166.70 5.36
4. Seed Rs. 2393.70 5.92
5. Fertilizer + Manure Rs. 1675.00 4.14
6. Irrigation Rs. 2687.30 6.65
7. Plant protection Rs. 2193.30 5.43
8. Interest on working capital Rs. 371.33 0.92
9. Depreciation Rs 656.67 1.62
10. Land revenue Rs 105.33 0.26
11. Cost-A1 18949.33 46.88
12. Cost-A2 18949.33 46.88
13. Interest on fixed capital 65.67 0.16
14. Cost-B1 19015.00 47.04
15. Rental value of land 6000.00 14.84
16. Cost-B2 25015.00 61.88
17. Imputed value of family labour 11733.00 29.03
19. Cost-C1 36748.00 90.91
19. Cost-C2 36748.00 90.91
20. Cost-C3 40422.80 100.00
Yield and Profitability of Onion: The average onion yield of sample farmers was found to be 146.37
quintal per hectare and average market price of onion was Rs 535.24 per quintal. The gross income
received by the sample farmers from the onion production was Rs 78337.73 per hectare. The net
income received by the farmers from onion crops was estimated to be Rs 37914.93 per hectare. The
cost of onion production was Rs 276.19 per quintal. The B-C ratio was estimated to be 1.94.
Marketing Channel of Onion in the Study Area: Two types of marketing channel of onion were
observed in the study area viz., sale of onion at village level and sale in the market. In the village
level, farmers were selling onion to traders located in local market or farmers sell onion to wholesaler
in the Mandi. The traders purchase the onion from the farmers at the time of harvesting and sell it in
the market. The sample farmers prefer to sale their produce mainly in Deogarh and Reamalmarket.
This was the most common and important marking channel of onion in the study area. The onion
producers assembled in the market with produce and they sold their produce to the higher bidder
through the commission agent by open auction system. The onion was purchased by the primary
wholesaler in the local market acting on his own behalf or on the behalf of some outsider trader or a
cold-storage proprietor. The primary wholesaler sells the produce to the secondary wholesaler after
adding marketing cost and margin. When the “paccaarhtia” acts on the behalf of some other
wholesalers, he charges the commission varying from two to four per cent of the total price of
produce. The retailers purchase onion generally from the secondary wholesaler and sale it to the
consumers. The three main marketing channels was observed for marketing of onion in the study area
(Figure 1).
Marketing Cost and Margins of Different Marketing Channel: Marketing cost of onion
includes all the marketing charges paid by the farmers, different market intermediaries and
margins for marketing of onion from producer to ultimate consumers. The marketing cost and
margin of different marketing channels of onion is presented in Table 2. Among three marketing
channels of onion prevailing in the market, the producer received maximum price in channel–III
(Rs 595 per quintal) followed by channel–I and channel–II (Rs 490 per quintal). The sale of onion
through channel–III,i.e. farmers were selling onion to wholesaler in the market, hence there was
fair dealing on the behalf of wholesaler in the market. Therefore, the marketing cost and margin
was found to be lowest (Rs 270 per quintal). The highest marketing cost and margin was observed
in channel–II and Channel–I (farmers selling onion in the village through local trader) with Rs 375
per quintal. Hence, it was concluded that the channel–III was found to be more remunerative in
which the producers received net amount of Rs 595 per quintal from sale of onion as net saving
and the marketing cost and margin was Rs 270 per quintal (Table 2).
Producers
Channel – III Channel – I Channel – II
Local Traders
Primary Wholesaler (at village)
(at Market) Local Traders
(at village)
Wholesalers
Secondary Wholesaler
(at Market) Retailers
Consumers
Figure 1: Marketing channel in the Study area

Table 2: Marketing cost and margins of different marketing channels of onion (Rs./Qt.)
S.No. Particulars Marketing Channels
I II III
1. Producers’ sale price 490 490 645
2. Producers’ marketing cost - - 50
3. Net amount received by producer 490 490 595
4. Marketing cost born by local trader 50 50 -
5. Market margin of local trader 105 150 -
6. Sale price of local trader 645 690 -
7. Wholesaler’s purchase price 645 - 645
8. Wholesaler’s marketing cost 20 - 5
9. Wholesaler’s margin 25 - 10
10. Wholesaler sale price 690 - 660
11. Secondary wholesaler purchase price - - 660
12. Secondary wholesaler marketing cost - - 15
13. Secondary wholesaler margins - - 15
14. Secondary wholesaler sale price - - 690
15. Retailer purchase price 690 690 690
16. Retailer marketing cost 25 25 25
17. Retailer margins 150 150 150
18. Retailer sale price 865 865 865
19. Consumer purchase price 865 865 865
Price Spread of Onion in Different Marketing Channels: The efficient marketing is an essential
criterion so, that farmers can get higher remunerative price for onion. An efficient marketing system
enables producers to get the best possible revenue by reducing gap between the price earned by
producer and price paid by the ultimate consumer. Direct linkage always gives higher returns to the
producer and consumers are also benefited by getting produce at reasonable price. When number of
marketing intermediaries increases, the price of produce increases, because every intermediary in the
marketing channels expect higher margin by selling the produce. Price spread is a tool which
determines actual marketing cost and margin are incurred on per quintal of onion marketing.
The analysis of producers’ shares in consumers’ rupees through sale of onion by different
marketing channels involved in marketing process shows variations due to the number of
intermediaries’ margin and marketing charges. The data revealed that the producers’ share in
consumers’ rupee was found to be highest in marketing channel–III with 68.79 percent (Table 3). The
factor responsible for getting highest producer’s share was due to the onion growers sold their
produce in the market through fair dealing and low marketing cost was incurred in the channel.
The next important marketing channel for selling onion in the study area was found to be sale
in the village through channel–I and channel–II (sale in the village through local traders) in which
producers’ share in consumers’ rupee was found to be 56.65 percent. In both the channels, the
marketing cost was highest, which reduce the producers’ share in consumers’ rupees.From the above
discussion, it can be concluded that marketing of onion through channel–III, producer get maximum
share in consumers’ rupees followed by channel–I and channel–II.
Table 3: Price spread in marketing of onion through different channels
Sl. Particular Marketing channels
No. Channel – I Channel – II Channel – III
Rs. Percent Rs. Percent Rs. Percent
Marketing Cost
1 Producers - - - - 50 5.78
2 Local traders 50 5.78 50 5.78 - -
3 Primary wholesaler 20 2.31 - - 5 0.58
4 Secondary wholesaler - - - - 5 0.58
5 Retailer 25 2.89 25 2.89 25 2.89
6 Total marketing cost 95 10.98 75 8.67 85 9.83
Marketing Margin
1 Local traders 105 12.14 150 17.34 - -
2 Primary wholesaler 25 2.89 - - 10 1.16
3 Secondary wholesaler - - - - 25 2.89
4 Retailer 150 17.34 150 34.68 150 17.34
5 Total marketing margin 280 32.37 300 34.68 185 21.39
6. Total cost + total margin 375 43.35 375 43.35 270 32.21
7. Producers Rupee 490 56.65 490 56.65 595 68.79
8. Consumer Price 865 100 865 100 865 100
9 Price spread (%) 43.35 43.35 31.21
Percentage is percentage of total consumer rupee.
Marketing Efficiency: Deogarh market is not a regulated market, so market is not regulated by
the set of policy pertinent to the price at which farmers can get maximum market price without any
malpractices. On the other hand, the price of onion depends on the degree of involvement of
marketing intermediaries. Hence, considering the significance of the aforesaid facts it was
pertinent to calculate the marketing efficiency of onion in the study area through various channels.
The detail information of marketing efficiency estimated and presented in Table 5.
Table 4: Marketing efficiency of onion marketed through different marketing channels (Rs. per quintal)
Sl. Particulars Marketing channels Average
No. I II III
1 Net price received by the farmer 490 490 595 523.33
2 Marketing cost + Marketing margin 375 375 270 340.00
3 Marketing efficiency 131 131 220 160.67
An efficient marketing system is an effective agent of change and an important means for
raising the income level of the farmers. On the other hand, it is also considerable that movement of
onion from producers to consumers at the lowest possible marketing cost and margins may be termed
as efficient marketing. The data indicates that the marketing efficiency of onion was found to be the
highest i.e. 220 percent in case of channel–III (farmers were selling onion to wholesaler in the market)
followed by channel–I and channel–II with 131 percent respectively. Thus, the marketing efficiency
of onion was found to be better in case of the onion sold directly in the market through wholesaler.
Constraints Analysis of Onion Production: The constraint associate with onion production was
reported based on the opinion survey of the sample farmers, thus the generalizations of results
were the feedback of the farmers engaged in onion farming in the study area.The most important
constraints were lack of knowledge about insecticide / pesticide and its doses confronting by 80
percent onion growers followed by lack of marketing facilities (75 percent), unavailability of
quality seed and seedlings and lack of human labour at the time of sowing were confronted by 72
percent farmers (Table 5).Lack of human labour at the time of harvesting and visit of extension
worker (Frequent) was reported by 68 and 67 percent onion growers respectively (Table 5).
Table 5: Production constraints identified by the sample farmers
Sl.No. Particulars No of farmers (n=60)
1 Lack of knowledge about insecticide/pesticide and its doses 48 (80)
2 Lack of marketing facility 45 (75)
3 Unavailability of quality seed and seedlings 43 (72)

4 Lack of human labour at the time of sowing 43 (72)
5 Lack of human labour at the time of harvesting 41 (68)
6 Extension workers are not visiting frequently 40 (67)
7 Lack of human labour for inter-cultural operation 39 (65)
8 Lack of storage facility for onion 37 (62)
9 Lack of knowledge about seed treatment 34 (57)
10 Problem of transportation 33 (55)
11 Not getting the satisfactory 32 (53)
12 Desired fertilizer are not available 30 (50)
13 Lack of knowledge of nutrient content of different fertilizer 26 (43)
14 Irrigation water supply not available when required 25 (42)
15 Lack of knowledge about diseases insect and pes of crop 23 (38)
16 Regular Visit of extension worker 20 (33)
17 Inadequate irrigation water supply 17 (28)
Figure in brackets indicate percentage to the total number of respondents
The other important constraints faced by onion growers in the study area was lack of human
labour for inter-cultural operation (65 percent), lack of storage facility (62 percent), lack of knowledge
about seed treatment (57 percent), problem of transportation (55 percent), not getting the satisfactory
price (53 per cent), desired fertilizer not available (50 percent), Lack of knowledge of nutrient content
of different fertilizer (43 percent), irrigation water supply not available when required (42 percent),
lack of knowledge about diseases, insect and pest of crop (38 percent), visit of extension worker
(Regular) was found 33 percent and inadequate irrigation water supply found 28 percent respectively.
Suggestion for Improving the Productivity and Marketing Efficiency of Onion: Following
suggestions have been made by onion growers in study area to overcome the main constraints
occurring in production of onion. The most important suggestion was proper market should be
available (88.33 percent) followed by more subsidy should be given on inputs (75.00 percent), the
training and other motivational advice should be given (77.33 percent), efficient credit facilities
should be available (68.33 percent), the inputs should be available at cheap rate andon time
suggested by 58.33 percent onion growers (Table 6).
The next important suggestion given by the onion growers in the study area were the market
price should be high (53.33 percent), proper storage facilities should be available (45 percent), labour
saving improved implement should be developed (40.00 percent), extra incentive should be given to
onion growers (36.67 percent) and demonstration of package of practices should be given (28.33
percent).
Table 6: Suggestions confronted by the sample farmers in respect of onion cultivation
Sl.No. Suggestions Frequency Percentage (n=60)
1 Proper market for onion should be available 53 88.33
2 More subsidy should be given on inputs 45 75.00
3 The training and other motivational advice should be given 44 73.33
4 Efficient credit facilities should available 41 68.33
5 The inputs should be available at cheap rate and on time 35 58.33
6 The market price should be high 32 53.33
7 Proper storage facilities should be available 27 45.00
8 Labour saving improved implement for onion should be developed 24 40.00
9 Moreincentive should be given to onion growers 22 36.67
10 Demonstration of package of practices 17 28.33
Summery and Conclusion
Onion is one of the most important cash crops which is grown as vegetable in India. It is used
either in raw or dehydrated form to add flavour and taste to Indian cuisine. There is a lot of demand of
Indian onion in the world and country has exported 21,15,757.11MT of fresh onion to the world for
the worth of Rs. 3,106.50 crores during the year 2017-18(GOI, 2018). In Odisha onion is grown in
about 33.44 thousand hectare with production of 379.24 thousand MT (GoO, 2018). In Deogarh
district onion crop is grown in about 583.0 hectare and production is about 4770 tonnes (GoO, 2018).
The average size of holding was 4.60 hectare in the study area and nearly 36 percent area is
irrigated. The average size of land allocated by the farmers for onion cultivation was 0.91 hectare. Per
hectare average cost of cultivation in the study area was Rs 40422.80 and crop yield was 146.37
quintal. The net income received by sample farmers was Rs 37914.93 per hectare and average cost of
onion production was Rs 276.19 per quintal. The B-C ratio for onion was 1.94. There are three
marketing channels prevailing in the study area. Out of these marketing channels, channel–III was
found to be more remunerative and farmers have received net price of Rs 595 per quintal and
marketing cost and margin was Rs 270 per quintal. The highest marketing cost was observed for
channel–I and II. The producers’ share in consumers’ rupee was found to be highest in marketing
channel-III and it was 68.79 per cent.
Most of the farmers in the study area growing high yielding variety of onion without proper
utilisation of fertiliser and irrigation. Therefore, farmers should adopt improved cultural practices for
onion cultivation to fetch higher income. Government should provide financial support to onion
growers in the study area at doorstep because farmers were found resource poor. Government should
provide storage facilities to the onion growers, so they can keep their produce and they sell produce in
the market when the remunerative price is prevailing in the market. The market margin of different
intermediaries of marketing channels area quite high. Thus, to improve their bargaining power, onion
grower should form the cooperative and sale their produce after grading and standardisation in the
market. Resulting to this they will get higher price of their produce.
References
Government of India. (2018). Horticultural Statistics at a Glance–2018, Horticulture statistics division,
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare, Government of India.
Government of India. (2020), Third Advance Estimates of Production of Foodgrains for 2019-20, Directorate of
Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
Government of Odisha. (2018), Economic survey of Odisha 2017-2018, Planning and Governance Department,
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Odisha.
World Bank, (2020), The global economy. Business and economic data for two hundred country based on world
Bank estimation. https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/India/

GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF PRODUCTION AND EXPORT OF
MAJOR VEGETABLE CROPS IN INDIA
O. P. Singh and P. K. Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi – 221005; E-mail: ompsingh@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: O. P. Singh
A
griculture is playing important role in the Indian economy. During 2018-19, India’s
gross domestic product at market price was Rs 141001.19 billion. Out of this, gross
value added by agricultural sector was Rs 18525.8 billion, which account for about
13.14 per cent (GOI, 2019). The fruits and vegetables contributes about 28 per cent to the agricultural
gross value added in 2017-18. Agriculture is one of the largest sectors in the country, which provides
employment to nearly 42.38 per cent population of the country in 2019 (World Bank, 2020).
Agriculture provides food to the fast-growing population of the country and it makes country self-
sufficient on foodgrain requirement. In the year 2018, total stock of foodgrain in the central pool was
35.93 million tonnes. Total foodgrain production in the country was 285.21 million tonnes during
2018-19.Horticultural sector provides avenue to the farmers for crop diversification and sustaining
farm income and profitability (Idris et al., 2005). Horticultural sector includes fruits, vegetables,
flowers, aromatic and medicine, plantation and spices. India witnessed the shift in area from foodgrain
production towards horticultural crops from 2012-13 and production of horticultural crops have
outpaced the production of foodgrain since 2012-13.In 2017-18, total area under horticultural crops in
India was 25.43 million hectare. Out this share of area under vegetables cultivation was 40.34 per cent
(10.26 million hectare). Total horticultural production in the country was 311.71 million tonnes in
2017-18. Out of this, production of vegetables was 184.39 million tonnes which accounting for about
59.16 per cent during 2017-18 (GOI, 2018). The nutritional intake from fruits and vegetables is higher
among urban peoples as compared to rural peoples. Along with urbanisation, peoples are likely to
increase their calorie intake at higher pace through fruits and vegetables. The growth of horticultural
sector was triggered by the fast growing population, urbanisation, augmentation of purchasing power
of the peoples, changing consumption pattern of the peoples and providing more income to the
farmers as compared to foodgrain per unit area.
In 1991, India’s national import was Rs 431.71 billion and it increased to the level of Rs
30010.33 billion by the year 2017-18 and it was increasing with compound growth rate of 17.07 per
cent per annum. India’s national export was Rs 325.27 billion during 1990-91 and it augmented to the
level of Rs 19565.15 billion by 2017-18 showing a compound growth rate of 15.74 percent per
annum. The trade balance at national level was negative i.e. Rs -90267.13 billion during 2017-18
(GOI, 2019). The agricultural sector also generates massive foreign exchange through export of
agricultural produce. In 1990-91, total import for agricultural sector was Rs 12.06 billion and it was
expanding with compound growth rate of 16.50 percent per annum, it reached to Rs 1520.95 billion
by 2017-18. Whereas, the export from agricultural sector was Rs 60.13 billion in 1990-91 and it
reached to the level of Rs 2515.64 billion in 2017-18. The trend analysis suggests that export from
agricultural sector was growing with a compound growth rate of 13.74 per cent per annum during
same period of time. The trade balance for agricultural sector was Rs 994.69 billion in 2017-18. The
share of agricultural sector to India’s import and export was 5.07 and 12.86 per cent respectively in
2017-18 (GOI, 2019).The major vegetable crops grown in different parts of country arepotato, onion,
brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, okra, pea, tomato, sweet potato etc. The vegetables are earning sizeable
amount of foreign exchange through vegetable export. Total value of vegetable export was Rs 36197
million during 2017-18. The present study was an attempt to study the growth performance of
vegetables production in the country. Study also tried to find out foreign exchange earnings through
vegetables in India.
Present study was based on the secondary data and it was collected for the period of 1997-98
to 2017-18 from different government publications like horticultural statistics at a glance, agricultural
statistics at a glance, spices board of India etc. The exponential function (Y = a . bt) was used to study
the temporal growth in area, production and yield of spices. Where, Y is the dependent variable (it
may be area, production or yield), t is the independent variable (it is rank given to the year
concerned). Ranking of the year was done in ascending order, a is the functional coefficient used in
exponential function and b is the compounding coefficient (Singh and Singh, 1997).
The coefficient of variation [CV = (µ) x 100] was used to measure the variability in area,
production and yield of spices. Here, is the standard deviation and µ is the mean (Singh and Singh,
1997). To study the contribution of area, yield and its interaction (area and yield) towards an increase
in production, a decomposition technique has been used (Singh and Singh, 1997). The algebraic
model is described as:
P = Y0 (An – A0) + A0 (Yn – Y0) + AY
1 = {(Y0A)/P} + {(A0Y)/P} + {(A Y)/P}
Growth Performance of Vegetable
Onion: In 2017-18, total onion production in the country was 23262.33 thousand tonnes. Out of this
major onion producing states were Maharashtra (38.06 per cent) followed by Madhya Pradesh (15.91
per cent), Karnataka (12.84 per cent) and Bihar (5.33 per cent). These four Indian states were
contributing about 72.14 per cent of total onion production in the country.
In 2001-02, total area allocated by the farmers under onion cultivation in the country was
495.80 thousand hectares and it was increased to the level of 1285.0 thousand hectare by 2017-18.
Growth trend analysis suggests that it was growing with compound growth rate of 6.82 per cent per
annum during same period (Table 1). Total onion production in India was 5252.1 thousand tonnes in
2001-02 and it was expanding with compound growth rate of 9.82 per cent per annum it reached to
the level of 23262 thousand tonnes in 2017-18. Per hectare onion yield was 10.60 tonne in 2001-02
and it augmented to 18.10 tonne per hectare by 2017-18. The growth trend analysis for onion yield
suggests that it was increasing with compound growth rate of 3.01 per cent per annum during same
period of time.
Table 1: Compound growth rate of area, production and yield of major vegetables, India
Name of Vegetable Area Production Yield
Crops CGR R2 CGR R2 CGR R2
Onion 6.82* 92.50 9.82* 90.40 3.01* 72.70
Potato 3.14* 92.20 4.83* 93.70 1.70* 63.00
Tomato 4.16* 77.00 7.08* 92.30 2.90* 93.20
Brinjal 2.58* 89.80 3.43* 87.80 0.86* 59.00
Cabbage 3.72* 85.20 3.82* 88.60 0.10 5.60
Cauliflower 4.09 93.10 8.47** 38.50 0.50* 51.30
Okra 3.12* 86.60 4.58* 86.90 1.45* 81.10
Vegetable pea 4.38* 91.70 7.13* 96.70 2.74* 91.40
Sweet Potato -0.70** 20.60 1.39* 36.30 2.07* 87.00
CGR: Compound growth rate (per cent per annum); *: Significant at 5 per cent level of significance; **: Significant at 10
per cent level of significance
To study the inter-annual variability in area, production and productivity, coefficient of
variation was used. The highest inter-annual variability was observed for onion production (43.24 per
cent) followed by area allocated by the farmers under onion cultivation (32.73 per cent) and lowest for
onion yield with 16.44 per cent (Table 2). The higher variability in area under onion cultivation was
due to farmers were trying to fetch high income by increasing or reducing the area under cultivation.
Table 2: Coefficient of variation in area, production and yield of major vegetables, India
Name of Vegetable Area Production Yield
Crops STD Mean CV STD Mean CV STD Mean CV
Onion 297.70 909.51 32.73 6048.21 13987.38 43.24 2.43 14.76 16.44
Potato 280.62 1801.46 15.58 8957.04 37046.65 24.18 2.18 20.34 10.72
Tomato 159.43 679.27 23.47 4857.07 13752.01 35.32 3.09 19.74 15.64
Brinjal 84.16 621.01 13.55 1961.99 10871.19 18.05 0.99 17.41 5.70
Cabbage 64.38 326.35 19.73 1453.10 7248.88 20.05 0.49 22.20 2.20
Cauliflower 72.81 351.17 20.73 2072.02 6371.95 32.52 0.64 18.71 3.44
Okra 72.88 445.68 16.35 1172.18 4921.34 23.82 0.89 10.92 8.14
Vegetable pea 90.00 379.80 23.70 1212.35 3318.87 36.53 1.19 8.50 14.04
Sweet Potato 9.36 122.08 7.66 147.37 1179.09 12.50 1.12 9.68 11.60
STD: Standard deviation; CV: Coefficient of variation (per cent)
Growth Performance of Production and Export of Major Vegetable Crops in India 115
The decomposition analysis was carried out to find out the effect of yield, area and interaction
effect (both area effect and yield effect) on total onion production in the country (Table 3). The
analysis suggests that area effect was highest effect on total onion production with 46.47 per cent.
Followed by interaction effect with 32.88 per cent and lowest effect was observed for yield effect
(20.65 per cent) on onion production in the country.
Table 3: Decomposition analysis for area, production and yield of major vegetables, India
Name of Vegetable Crops Yield effect Area effect Interaction effect
Onion 20.65 46.47 32.88
Potato 21.48 63.47 15.05
Tomato 32.50 44.01 23.49
Brinjal 10.18 85.20 4.60
Cabbage 5.36 91.72 2.92
Cauliflower 7.80 86.91 5.28
Okra 30.03 55.98 13.99
Vegetable pea 29.67 47.12 23.21
Sweet Potato 104.07 -3.04 -1.03
Potato: Total potato production in the country was 51310.01 thousand tonnes. The major potato
producing state was Uttar Pradesh contributing about 30.32 per cent of total production followed by
West Bengal (24.91 per cent), Bihar (15.09 per cent), Gujarat (7.42) and Madhya Pradesh (6.13 per
cent). These five states contributes about 83.86 per cent of India’s total potato production.
Total area under potato cultivation in India was 1259.50 thousand hectares in 2001-02 and it
reached to the level of 2141.70 thousand hectares by 2017-18 showing a compound growth rate of
3.14 per cent per annum (Table 1). Total potato production in the country was 24456.10 thousand
tonnes in 2001-02 and it reached to 51310 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18. Potato production in
the country was growing with a compound growth rate of 4.38 per cent per annum. In 2001-02, per
hectare potato yield was 19.40 tonnes and it expanded to 24 tonnes per hectare by 2017-18 registering
a compound growth rate of 1.70 per cent per annum.
The coefficient of variation was used to find out annual variability of area, production and
yield of potato crop. The highest inter-annual variability was observed for potato production (24.18
per cent) followed by area under potato cultivation (15.58 per cent) and lowest for potato yield with
10.72 per cent (Table 2). The higher fluctuation in area allocation under potato was due to farmers
were trying to harness high income by increasing or reducing the area under potato cultivation.
The decomposition analysis was conducted to find out the effect of yield, area and interaction
effect (both area effect and yield effect) on total potato production in India (Table 3). The analysis
suggests that highest contribution was observed from the area effect with 63.47 per cent to total potato
production, followed by yield contribution with 21.48 per cent and lowest from interaction effect with
15.05 per cent on overall potato production in the country.
Tomato: In 2017-18, total tomato production in India was19759.30 thousand tonnes. Out of total
production six Indian states were contributing about 55.87 per cent of total tomato production in the
country. The highest tomato producing state was Andhra Pradesh (13.89 per cent), Madhya Pradesh
(12.24 per cent), Karnataka (10.53 per cent), Gujarat (6.87 per cent), West Bengal (6.40 per cent) and
Telangana (5.93 per cent). These states contributing about 55.87 per cent of India’s total tomato
production.
In 2001-02, total area allocated by the farmers under tomato cultivation in India was 458.10
thousand hectares and it attained to 789.20 thousand hectares by 2017-18,exhibiting compound
growth rate of 4.16 per cent per annum (Table 1). in 2001-02, total tomato production in the country
was 7462.30 thousand tonnes and it reached to 19759.30 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18.
Tomato production in India was expanding with a compound growth rate of 7.08 per cent per annum.
Per hectare tomato yield was 16.30 tonne in 2001-02 and it was growing with compound growth rate
of 2.90 per cent per annum it reached to 25 tonne by 2017-18.
The coefficient of variation for area, production and yield of tomato crop. The highest
variability was observed for tomato production (35.32 per cent) followed by area under tomato
cultivation (23.47 per cent) and lowest for tomato yield with 15.64 per cent (Table 2). The higher
fluctuation in area allocation under tomato production affects tomato production in the country.
Decomposition analysis was carried out to find out the contribution of yield, area and
interaction (both area effect and yield effect) on total tomato production in the country (Table 3). The
analysis suggests that area contribution was highest on total tomato production with 44.01 per cent.
The contribution of yield to total tomato production in the country was 32.50 per cent and lowest
effect was observed for interaction effect (23.49 per cent) on tomato production in the country.
Brinjal: Total brinjal production in the country was 12800.80 thousand tonnes in 2017-18. Out of
this, four Indian states were contributing about 57.47 per cent of India’s total brinjal production.
These states were West Bengal (23.65 per cent), Odisha (15.73 per cent), Bihar (9.70 per cent) and
Madhya Pradesh (8.39 per cent).
Total area under brinjal cultivation in India was 502.40 thousand hectares in 2001-02 and it
reached to the level of 730.40 thousand hectares by 2017-18 displaying compound growth rateof 2.58
per cent per annum (Table 1). In 2001-02, total brinjal production was 8347.70 thousand tonnes in
2001-02 and it augmented to 12800.80 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18. Brinjal production in the
country was expanding with a compound growth rate of 3.43 per cent per annum. Per hectare yield of
brinjal was 16.60 tonnes in 2001-02 and it was growing with compound growth rate of 0.86 per cent it
reached to the level of 17.50 tonne by 2017-18.
The inter-annual variation was analysed to find out the variability of area, production and
yield of brinjal. The highest coefficient of variation was observed for brinjal production with 18.05
per cent followed by area allocated by Indian farmers for brinjal cultivation (13.55 per cent) and
lowest for brinjal yield with 5.70 per cent (Table 2). The higher fluctuation in area allocated under
brinjal cultivation was due to the market price received by the farmers and they are trying to reach at
the equilibrium point of demand and supply of brinjal by increasing or decreasing area under
cultivation.
effect (both area effect and yield effect) on overall total production of brinjal in the country (Table 3).
The decomposition analysis suggests that area effect was highest on total brinjal production with
85.20 per cent. Contribution of yield in total brinjal production was found to be 10.18 per cent and
lowest contribution comes from interaction effect with 4.60 per cent in brinjal production in the
country.
Cabbage: Total cabbage production in India was 9039.30 thousand tonnes in 2017-18. The share of
six Indian states were contributing about 63.27 per cent of total cabbage production in the country.
The highest cabbage producing Indian state was West Bengal with 25.32 per cent followed by Odisha
(11.72 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (7.60 per cent), Assam (7.08 per cent), Gujarat (6.97 per cent) and
Chhattisgarh (4.58 per cent).
Total area under cabbage cultivation in India was 258.10 thousand hectares in 2001-02 and it
increased to the level of 398.50 thousand hectares by 2017-18 showing a compound growth rate of
3.72 per cent per annum (Table 1). Total cabbage production in the country was 5678.20 thousand
tonnes in 2001-02 and it mounted to 9037.30 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18. Cabbage
production in the country was growing with a compound growth rate of 3.82 per cent per annum. in
2001-02, per hectare cabbage yield was 22.0 tonnes and it expanded to 22.70 tonnes by 2017-18
registering a compound growth rate of 0.10 per cent per annum.
yield of cabbage. The highest variability was observed for cabbage production with 20.05 per cent
followed by area allocated by the farmers for cabbage cultivation (19.73 per cent) and lowest for
cabbage yield with 2.20 per cent (Table 2).
(both area effect and yield effect) on overall cabbage production in the country (Table 3). The analysis
suggests that area effect was highest contribution to the total cabbage production with 91.72 per
cent,followed by yield contribution (5.36 per cent) and interaction effect was lowest with 2.92 per
cent on cabbage production.
Cauliflower: In 2017-18, total production of cauliflower in India was 8668.22 thousand tonnes. Out
of total cauliflower production, six Indian states were contributing about 66.14 per cent to total
production. These Indian states were west Bengal (22.37 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (11.63 per cent),
Bihar (10.79 per cent), Haryana (8.06 per cent), Odisha (7.12 per cent) and Gujarat (6.16 per cent).
In 2001-02, area allocated by the farmers in the country for cauliflower cultivation was
269.90 thousand hectares and it touched to 452.60 thousand hectares by 2017-18 (Table 1). The
growth trend analysis for area under cauliflower showed that it was escalating with compound growth
rate of 4.09 per cent per annum during same period of time. The cauliflower production was 4890.50
thousand tonnes in 2001-02 and inflated to 8668.20 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18. Cauliflower
production in the country was growing with compound growth rate of 8.47 per cent per annum. In
2001-02, per hectare cauliflower yield was 18.10 tonnes and it magnified to 19.20 tonnes per hectare
by 2017-18 registering a compound growth rate of 0.50 per cent per annum.
The coefficient of variation was used to find out inter-annual fluctuation in area, production
and yield of Cauliflower. The highest variability was observed for cauliflower production (32.52 per
cent) followed by area under cauliflower (20.73 per cent) and lowest for yield with 3.44 per cent
(Table 2). The higher fluctuation in area allocation under cauliflower was due to the farmers were
trying to get higher income by increasing or reducing the area under cauliflower cultivation.
The decomposition analysis was done to find out the impact of yield, area and interaction
(both area and yield) on total cauliflower production (Table 3). The analysis suggests that area impact
was highest on overall cauliflower production with 86.91 per cent. The yield contribution was 7.80
per cent on cauliflower production, whereas lowest contribution was comes from the interaction with
5.28 per cent on cauliflower production in the country.
Okra: Total okra production in the country was 6094.90 thousand tonnes during 2017-18. Out of total
production of okra, six major Indian states alone contributing about 68.14 per cent. The highest okra
producing state was Gujarat (15.12 per cent), followed by West Bengal (15.01 per cent), Bihar (12.93
per cent), Madhya Pradesh (10.47 per cent), Odisha (9.30 per cent) and Chhattisgarh (5.30 per cent).
In 2001-02, total area under okra was 347.20 thousand hectares in the country and it inflated
to the level of 509 thousand hectares by 2017-18, showing a compound growth rate of 3.12 per cent
per annum (Table 1). In 2001-02, production of okra in the country was 3324.70 thousand tonnes and
it further increased to 6094.90 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18. The growth performance of okra
production in the country was multiplying with a compound growth rate of 4.58 per cent per annum.
In 2001-02, per hectare yield of okra was 9.60 tonnes and it expanded to 12 tonnes by 2017-18. The
growth of okra yield in the country was registering compound growth rate of 1.45 per cent per annum.
Analysis of coefficient of variation for area, production and yield of okra suggests that highest
inter-annual variability was observed for okra production (23.82 per cent) followed by area under okra
cultivation (16.35 per cent) and lowest for potato yield with 8.14 per cent (Table 2). Farmers are
trying to attain the equilibrium point of demand and supply of okra to get higher income from okra
production by increasing or reducing the area under crop.
effect (both area effect and yield effect) on total okra production in the country (Table 3). The analysis
suggests that area effect was highest on total okra production with 55.98 per cent. Followed by yield
effect with 30.03 per cent and lowest effect was observed for interaction effect (13.99 per cent) on
okra production in the country.
Vegetable Pea: In 2017-18, total production of vegetable pea in India was 5422 thousand tonnes. Out
of total vegetable pea production in the country, four Indian states were contributing about 77.72 per
cent to total production. These four Indian states were Uttar Pradesh (46.39 per cent), followed by
Madhya Pradesh (17.73 per cent), Punjab (7.27 per cent) and Jharkhand (6.40 per cent).
Area under vegetable pea was 303.30 thousand hectares in 2001-02 and it intensifying to the
level of 540.50 thousand hectares by 2017-18. Area under vegetable pea was growing with compound
growth rate of 4.38 per cent per annum (Table 1). Total production of vegetable pea in the country
was 2038.20 thousand tonnes in 2001-02 and it augmented to 5422 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-
18 and it was growing with a compound growth rate of 7.13 per cent per annum. vegetable pea yield
was 6.70 tonnes per hectare in 2001-02 and it expanded to 10 tonnes per hectare by 2017-18
registering a compound growth rate of 2.74 per cent per annum.
The inter-annual variability of area, production and yield of vegetable pea, the higher
variability was observed for production (36.53 per cent) followed by area under vegetable pea
cultivation with 23.70 per cent and lowest for yield with 14.04 per cent (Table 2). The higher
fluctuation in vegetable pea production was due to higher variability in the area and yield.
Decomposition analysis was carried out to find out the contribution of yield, area and
interaction (both area and effect) on overall production of vegetable pea in the country (Table 3). The
analysis depicts that highest contribution comes from area in total production of vegetable pea with
47.12 per cent,followed by yield effect with 29.67 per cent and lowest contribution comes from
interaction (both area and yield) (23.21 per cent) in overall production of vegetable pea in India.
Sweet Potato: In 2017-18, total sweet potato production in the country was 1500.50 thousand tonnes.
Out of total sweet potato production in India, four major sweet potato producing states were
contributing about 78.11 per cent. These Indian states were Odisha (25.39 per cent), Kerala (22.73 per
cent), Uttar Pradesh (15.30 per cent) and West Bengal (14.69 per cent).
Sweet potato cultivated areain the country was 131.90 thousand hectares in 2001-02 and it
decline to the level of 130.60.70 thousand hectares by 2017-18 showing negative compound growth
rate of -0.70 per cent per annum (Table 1). Total sweet potato production in the country was 1130.30
thousand tonnes in 2001-02 and it reached to 1500.50 thousand tonnes by the year 2017-18. Sweet
potato production in the country was growing with a compound growth rate of 1.39 per cent per
annum. In 2001-02, per hectare yield of sweet potato was 8.60 tonnes and it expanded to 11.50 tonnes
per hectare by 2017-18 registering a compound growth rate of 2.07 per cent per annum.
yield of sweet potato. The highest inter-annual variability was observed for sweet potato production
(12.50 per cent) followed by yield of sweet potato (11.60 per cent) and lowest for potato area with
7.66 per cent (Table 2).
Decomposition analysis was done to find out the effect of yield, area and interaction effect
(both area and yield) on total sweet potato production in the country (Table 3). The analysis showed
that yield was the important factor for sweet potato production and impact was 104.07 per cent. The
contribution of yield and interaction was negatively associated with overall production of sweet potato
in the country.
Export Performance of Major Vegetables: The vegetables are earning sizeable amount of foreign
exchange through export. The total value of vegetable export was Rs 38715.04 million in 2015-16 and
it was increased to the level of Rs 43251.43 million in 2016-17 and again it was declined to the level
of Rs 36197 million (Table 4). The highest foreign exchange comes from the export of onion
(fresh/chilled) with Rs 30888.22 million during 2017-18 followed by export of potato other than seed
(fresh/chilled) With Rs 4118.25 million. The contribution of value of export earnings from Tomato
(fresh/chilled) was Rs 1142.19 million during 2017-18. In 2017-18, value of export from cabbage
(fresh/chilled), Cauliflowers and headed broccoli (fresh/chilled), pea (shelled/unshelled and sweet
potato was Rs 8.45 million, Rs 9.52 million, Rs 17.94 million and Rs 12.484 million respectively
(Table 4).
Table 4: Export of major vegetables from India
Name of the vegetables Quantity (Tonnes) Value (Rs million)
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
Onion (Fresh/Chilled) 1382959.54 2415739.05 1588985.71 30972.09 31060.64 30888.22
Potato other than seed
(Fresh/Chilled) 279650.47 396340.67 395748.12 3615.48 6614.75 4118.25
Tomato (Fresh/Chilled) 160877.14 267515.4 47446.09 4041.26 5481.57 1142.19
Cabbage (Fresh/Chilled) 349.33 386.02 527.28 6.54 4.27 8.45
Cauliflowers & Headed
Broccoli (Fresh/Chilled) 85.43 1338.76 177.86 3.00 22.74 9.52
Pea (Shelled/Unshelled)
Fresh/Chilled 693.4 1073.68 410.11 53.96 56.71 17.94
Sweet Potato 508.53 434.48 403.73 22.72 10.76 12.484
Total 1825123.84 3082828.06 2033698.9 38715.04 43251.43 36197.06
Source: GIO (2018)
Summery and Conclusion
Vegetables are the annual or perennial horticultural crops, with certain sections (roots, stalks,
flower, fruits and leaves etc.) that can be consumed wholly or partially, cooked or raw. Vegetables are
important for human nutrition in term of bioactive nutrients such as dietary fibre, vitamins and
minerals, and non-nutritive phytochemicals (phenolic compounds, flavonoids, bioactive peptides etc.).
These nutrient and non-nutrient molecules reduce the risk of chronic diseases (Pennington and Fisher,
2009; Septembre-Malaterreb et al., 2018). With the growing urbanization, increasing purchasing
power of the peoples and changing food habits, triggered growth of vegetable production in the
country. The vegetable sector also providing sizeable amount of foreign exchange by exporting to
other countries. Total value of vegetable export was Rs 36197 million during 2017-18.The major
vegetables grown in the country are onion, potato, tomato, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, okra,
vegetable pea and sweet potato. The growth trend analysis for area, production and yield for major
vegetable crops for the period of 2001-02 to 2017-18, suggest that positive compound growth trend
except for area under sweet potato. The coefficient of variation for area, production and yield of major
vegetables was found vary high inter-annual variation. Decomposition analysis suggests that area was
the most important factor for increasing overall major vegetable production in the country followed
by the yield effect and lowest for the interaction contribution towards overall production of major
vegetables. The export of vegetables suggests that highest earning from export was found for onion
followed by potato, tomato, vegetable pea, sweet potato, cabbage and cauliflower. As area was main
triggering force behind the growth of production of vegetables, but area is the limiting factor.
Therefore, plant breeders need to develop high yielding varieties for these vegetables and improved
cultural practices by agronomists. Further, farmers should be trained and advocate them to adopt high
yielding varieties of vegetables with improved agronomic practices to harness the full potential of
vegetable production. This will lead to overall higher earning/profit from vegetable cultivation.
References
Government of India. (2018). Horticultural statistics at a glance–2018. Horticulture Statistics Division,
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers' Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare,
Government of India, New Delhi.
Government of India. (2019), Agricultural Statistics at a glance–2018, Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare,
Idris, S., Singh, A. and Praveen, K. V. (2015). Trade competitiveness and impact of food safety regulations on
market access of India’s horticultural trade. Agricultural Economic Research Review, 28(2): 301-309.
Pennington, J.A.T. and Fisher, R. A. (2009). Classification of fruits and vegetables, Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis, 22(1): 23-31.
Septembre-Malaterreb, A., Remizeb F. and Poucheretra, P. (2018). Fruits and vegetables as a source of
nutritional compounds and phytochemicals: Changes in bioactive compound during lactic fermentation,
Food Research International, 104: 86-99.
Singh Virendra, P. and Singh, O. P. (1997). Specio-temporal variation in production of groundnut, rapeseed-
mustard, sesamum and linseed crops: a decomposition approach. Agricultural Situation in India, 54(5):
241-246.
World Bank. (2020). The global economy, Business and economic data for two hundred country based on world
Bank estimation. https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/India/

STUDY OF KEY ISSUES OF CATTLES AND DAIRY FARMERS IN
EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH
P.K. Singh and O.P. Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, E-mail: pksbhu222@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: P.K. Singh
I ndia is predominantly a rural economy, where more than 50 percent population of the
country is directly dependent on agriculture and allied sectors. Though the share of
agriculture in national income has come down from 53.71 percent in 1950-51 to 14.5 in
2018-19, still it has a substantial share in GDP. Other than income and employment generation,
foreign exchange earnings and livelihood security, this sector is also ensuring nutritional security to
the increasing population of the country. In any situational change in the agriculture sector, positive or
negative, has a multiplier effect on the entire economy. In recent years, the allied sector of agriculture
is gaining importance for augmenting rural incomes. Forestry, fisheries and livestock sector contribute
to stability in rural incomes by insulating from income shocks due to crop failures and market risks.
(Kurukshetra,2018). Among the various allied sectors of the agriculture, livestock sector has shown
tremendous growth rate of 9.9 percent in 2016-17, after fishing and aquaculture. The livestock, animal
husbandry and dairy sector has been playing a significant role in generating employment in the rural
areas, particularly among women, the landless and the small and marginal farmers besides providing
nutritional security. Livestock in general and dairying in particular play a vital role in the Indian
economy and also in the socio-economic development of millions of rural households.
Table-1: Growth of GVA at constant (2011-12) prices
Particulars 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
Agriculture, forestry& fishing 1.5 5.6 -0.2 0.6 6.3 5.0
Crops 0.2 5.4 -3.7 -2.9 5.0 3.8
Livestock 5.2 5.6 7.4 7.5 9.9 7.0
Forestry and logging 0.2 5.9 1.9 1.7 1.4 2.1
Fishing and aquaculture 4.9 7.2 7.5 9.7 10.0 11.9
Source: Source: Central Statistics Office (As per Press Release dated 31.01.2019 and 28.02.2019)
19th livestock census(2012) conducted by government of India shows that out of total
livestock population in the country, about 190.90 million population belongs to cattle which is about
37.28 percent of the total livestock population. Livestock sector contribute nearly 26 percent to rural
income in case of poorest households and about 12 percent in case of overall rural income. Dairy
sector has immense potential to enhance income and employment generation in the country especially
in rural areas. Dairy sector in India has demonstrated a significant growth in past 10 years with milk
production increasing at the rate of 4.5 percent average annual growth rate, reaching 176.3 MT in
2017-18. In the same period, the per capita availability of milk in India has increased from 233 gms
per day to 337 gms per day and in 2017-18 and in the year 2018-19 it has increased to the level of 394
gms /day/person at all India level. National Action Plan for Dairy envisages target of 254.5 Million
MT by 2022 and 300 Million MT by 2023-24 from existing 155.5 Million MT requiring an annual
growth rate of 8.5 percent which would lead to increase in per capita availability of milk from current
level of 337 grams per day to 515 grams per day by 2022 and to 590 grams per day in 2033-34
addressing the substantial nutritional requirement of growing population( Table-2) India ranks first in
milk production, accounting for 19 % of world production. National Action Plan for Dairy
Development is targeted to increase organized milk handling from 20 percent at present to 41percent
by 2022 to 50 percent by 2023-24. Milk production has been estimated taking into account the
growing population of the country and the requirement of milk that will be needed to meet the rural
and urban milk demand. Human population is estimated to grow to 1384.1 million by 2021-22 and
1389 million by 2023-24 from existing 1280.2 million during 2015-16 assuming at a CAGR of 1.29%
per annum .This would lead to increased demand for milk & milk products.
In order to boost dairy sector and to fulfill the projected demand of milk by the year, 2033-34,
tremendous and integrated approach should be initiated by the state and central government,
NABARD, NGOs and private sector.
Some regions in India have not had the full benefit of the White Revolution and in some
states it has brought prosperity to millions of farmers. While the overall production of milk has to
Study of Key Issues of Cattles and Dairy Farmers in Eastern Uttar Pradesh 121
increase to meet the growing demand, dairying has also to drive economic change for the rural poor,
particularly women. Indian dairying sector mainly comprises of smallholder milk producers who are
primarily small and marginal farmers including landless labourers. And currently, low productivity
per animal is also hindering development of the dairy sector. Despite being the world largest milk
producer, India’s productivity per animal is very low, at 987 Kg per lactation, compared with the
global average of 2038 per lactation.
Table-2: The projected Demand for Milk in India
Year Per capita demand (gms/day) Population(Million) Demand(Million tones)
2015-16 333 1280.2 156
2020-21 409 1366.8 204
2021-22 417 1384.1 211
2025-26 456 1447.9 241
2028-29 502 1497.6 274
2032-33 571 1566.5 327
2033-34 590 1584.3 341
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers welfare, Govt of India, 2018
Uttar Pradesh is the highest milk producing state in India and holds a share of more than 18%
in the total milk production in India (MOFPI). Apart from being the largest milk producer, it was
having second highest cattle population and highest buffalo population. Livestock’s are the central to
the livelihood of the poor. The livestock practices not only secure and enhance their livelihood but
also increase market participation opportunity of poor farmers (ILRI, 2007).The livestock population
in the state has also increased substantially by 14.01 percent as per livestock census 2012. And the
production of milk has increased to305.00 lakh ton in 2018-19 as against 233.00 lakh ton in 2012-13.
Livestock sector plays pivotal role in rural employment. This sector has also highest potential for
rural-self employment generation at the lowest investment per unit possible. Further, animal
husbandry sector has the potential of providing the much needed hedging risk against the crop loss
due to natural calamities in Uttar Pradesh (NABARD, 2015). Uttar Pradesh is predominantly an
agrarian economy, and especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh majority of the farmer belongs to marginal
and small category and they are mainly dependent on growing traditional crops like wheat and paddy.
Therefore due to small land holding, low marketable surplus and low remunerative prices for the
crops produce, they are not getting much income. Therefore the development of dairy sector can play
an important role in increasing the income of the majority of the farmers in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Keeping in view the above aspects, the present study entitled “Study of Key issues of Animal
Husbandry and Dairy sector in eastern Uttar Pradesh” was conducted with the following objectives
(1) To study the socio-economic profile of the respondents in the study area,(2) To identify
constraints faced by the dairy farmers in practicing dairy farming and (3) To suggest suitable policy
measures for the development of dairy farming in the study area.
Sampling Procedure: Uttar Pradesh was purposively selected for the present study. Ghazipur district
was selected purposively for conducting present study because out of 28 district of eastern zone of
Uttar Pradesh, it is one of the less developed districts and it has characteristics of subsistence
agricultural with low agricultural efficiency. For administrative purposes Ghazipur district is divided
into 16 developmental blocks. Out of which, one block viz., Jakhanian block was selected on the basis
of maximum cow breeds, out of 16 blocks in the district. After selection of development blocks, five
villages were selected randomly. After selection of the villages, a survey was conducted in the
selected villages to identify the total number of farmers having milch animals and practicing dairying.
And from each selected villages 16 respondents having each, at least two cattle (cow or buffalo) were
selected, making a total of 80 dairy farmers. Primary data were collected from sample growers for
collecting information on socio-economic condition and various constraints faced by farmers
practicing dairying through personal interview using well-structured and per-tested schedules.
Socio-economic Profile of the Dairy Farmers: The socio-economic profile of the sampled dairy
farmers tremendously influence their status in the society, decision making, repayment capacity and
risk bearing ability of the respondents . Age of the dairy farmers is an important factor which affects
the working performance of dairy farmers. The study revealed that majority of the dairy farmers (45.0
percent) belongs to the age group of 31 to 50 years and the next age group was up to 30 years and
above 50 years, which accounts for 31.25 and 23.75 percent respectively (Table-3).Out of total
respondents 85 percent were male and 15 percent were female dairy farmers. It was noticed that
women participation in dairy farming was considerably low. It may be due to less awareness, low
literacy level and social backwardness etc. Literacy level of the dairy farmers reflects their awareness
level and it is an important variable for the overall performance of the business. In the study area it
was found that majority of the dairy farmers had illiteracy level of 37.50, followed by primary (15
percent), middle (12.5 percent), intermediate (18.75) and graduate and above were having 16.25
percent of literacy level. Family size was another important variable which affects the earning,
consumption and other expenditure of the family and majority of the dairy farmers (60 percent) were
having 4 to 6 members in their family and 28.75 and 112.25 percent respondents had more than 6 and
less than 4 members respectively. It was observed that majority (47.50 percent) of the respondents had
10 to 20 years of experience in dairy business and 27.50 and 25.0 percent farmers were having more
than 20 years and less than 10 years of experience. The occupational distribution of the respondents
shows that majority (38.75) of the dairy farmers were engaged in dairying and cropping activity and
28.75,18.75,7.50 and 6.25 percent of the respondents were having only dairying, dairying and
agriculture labour, dairying and other business and dairying and service as a occupation respectively.
Table-3: Socio-economic profile of dairy farmers
Characters Category Frequency Percentage
Age(years) Up to 30 years 25 31.25
31 to 50 years 36 45.00
Above 50 years 19 23.75
Gender involved in Male 68 85.00
dairying Female 12 15.00
Literacy level Illiterate 30 37.50
Primary 12 15.00
Middle 10 12.50
Intermediate 15 18.75
Graduate and above 13 16.25
Family size Small (less than 4 members) 9 11.25
Medium(4-6 members) 48 60.00
Large(more than 6) 23 28.75
Experience(Years) Less than 10 years 20 25.00
10 to 20 years 38 47.50
More than 20 years 22 27.50
Occupation Dairying and Service 5 6.25
Dairying and other business 6 7.50
Only Dairying 23 28.75
Dairy and Cropping 31 38.75
Dairy and Agriculture labour 15 18.75
Constraints Analysis of Cattle and Dairy Farmers: Though India has become the largest milk
producing country in the world, still this sector is facing numerous challenges, which hinder the
optimum growth in milk production, access of milk producers to organized market, processing of milk
& Value Added Products and availability of quality milk & milk products to consumers. Some of the
major challenges being faced by Indian Dairy sector are low productivity of Indian bovine,
imbalanced feeding to animals, limited access of milk producers to organized sector, age old
infrastructure operating on obsolete technology, lack of organized credit system, lack of
manufacturing facilities for Value Added Products, lack of efficient chilling infrastructure at village
level, lack of penetration in smaller cities/ towns in terms of milk marketing, and lack of efficient cold
chain distribution network which hinders commitments for doubling farmers income by 2022
(NAPDD,2018). Similarly in the study area, dairy farmers are also facing some serious constraints.
Table-4: Constraints identified by cattle and dairy farmers
S.No Particulars No of respondents (n= 80)
1 Lack of finance 70 ( 87.50)
2 Lack of required transportation facilities 70 ( 87.50)
3 Low price of milk 68 (85.00)
4 Lack of awareness about government schemes 65 (81.25)
5 Costly feed 61 (76.25)
6 Lack of market access 61 (76.25)
7 Lack of improved breeds of cattle’s 56 (70.00)
8 Shortage/ deficiency of feeds and green fodders 52 (65.00)
Study of Key Issues of Cattles and Dairy Farmers in Eastern Uttar Pradesh 123
9 Young youth are not much interested 50 (62.50)

10 Weaker sections are discouraged by bank officials in disbursement of loan 50 (62.50)
due to many reasons
11 Lack of basic infrastructural facilities 48 (60.00)
12 Lack of training regarding dairy farming 42 (52.50)
13 Lack of awareness about vaccination of milch animals 40 (50.00)
14 Problem of insufficient space for cattle’s 38 (47.50)
15 Lack of visit of livestock and dairy extension workers regarding 38 (47.50)
awareness of various dairy development technologies
16 Lack of refrigerated/cold chain for efficient distribution of milk 35 (43.75)
17 Lack of dairy cooperatives in the study area 32 (40.00)
18 Lack of milk processing unit 28 (35.00)
19 Lack of chilling facility 25 (31.25)
20 Low productivity of cattle’s 23 (28.75)
21 Poor road network in the area 15 (18.75)
22 Low awareness about technical knowledge 12 (15.00)
Survey based: Figure in brackets indicate percentage to the total number of respondents
The constraints associated with the cattle and dairy farmers were reported based on the
opinion survey of the respondents. In the survey it was found that majority (87.50) of the respondent
were facing problem of finance/ capital for smooth running of the dairy business (Table-4). It may be
due to their low awareness, low literacy level and lack of communication skill. Lack of required
transportation facilities was also reported by the majority i.e. 87.50 percent of the dairy farmers. This
shows about the poor road infrastructure in the study area, and ultimately this affects transportation
cost. In the study area, low price of the milk was reported by 85.0 percent of the farmers and it may be
due to low purchasing power of the people. Lack of awareness about government schemes was also a
major constraint among the dairy farmers and it was reported by 81.25 percent of the respondents. It
might be due to their low education level and poor working of government official and extension
workers. Costly feed and lack of market access was the fifth major constraints reported by 76.25
percent of the opinion growers. In the study it was found that lack of improved breeds of cattle’s was
also a major problem and 70 percent dairy farmers were facing this problem. The reason behind this
constraint may be lack of capital, more dependency on natural breeding and lack of upgraded and
modernized Artificial Insemination (AI) centers in the study area. During investigation, it was noticed
that shortage/ deficiency of feeds and green fodders was also a major (65.0 percent) problem. This
may be one of the important reasons, that production potential of milch animal is not fully realized.
NABARD conducted a study in 2015-16 in Uttar Pradesh and reported similar finding that deficiency
of feed and fodder accounts for half of the total production loss, followed by the breeding and
reproduction (21 percent) and disease (18 percent). In the present it was reported by old age
respondents that Young youths are not much interested in dairy farming business. And it was reported
by 62.5 percent of the farmers. It may be due to the fact that youths are not much aware about the
different subsidy schemes and government is not providing many incentives to youths. One of the
major (62.5) constraint reported by the respondents was weaker sections are discouraged by bank
officials in disbursement of loan due to many reasons. The other important constraints faced by dairy
farmers in the study area was lack of basic infrastructural facilities (60.0 percent), lack of training
regarding dairy farming (52.5 percent), lack of awareness about vaccination of milch animals (50.0
percent), problem of insufficient space for cattle’s (47.5 percent), lack of visit of livestock and dairy
extension workers regarding awareness of various dairy development technologies (47.5 percent),
lack of refrigerated/cold chain for efficient distribution of milk (43.75), lack of dairy cooperatives in
the study area (40.0 percent), lack of milk processing unit(35.0 percent), lack of chilling facility
(31.25 percent), low productivity of cattle’s (28.75), poor road network in the area (18.75 percent)
and low awareness about technical knowledge was reported by15.0 percent of the respondents.
Suggestion for Dairy Sector Development in Eastern Uttar Pradesh: Following suggestion has
been made to overcome the major constraints, increasing the economic prospects and strengthening
the cattle’s and dairy farmers in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
 The existing Artificial Insemination (AI) centre should be strengthened and upgraded or new
semen stations be established to cover breedable cows and buffalos and AI farmers doorstep.
 The role of extension workers and NGOs should be promoted.
 Dairy entrepreneurship development scheme should be initiated to strengthen the dairy farmers
and creating more opportunities among them.
 Government officials should ensure about the actual disbursement of credit to dairy farmers.
 Government, dairy cooperatives and Farmers Producers Organizations should facilitate to provide
remunerative prices for milk to the dairy farmers.
 Dairy farmers should be encouraged to keep those cattles which gives higher milk productivity.
 Large breeding companies should be encouraged and given the responsibility of delivering
Artificial Insemination services.
 Easy availability of high quality semen.
 Organized sector should be given incentives to cover majority of the dairy farmers.
 Livestock insurance scheme should be effectively implemented as these schemes provide security
to farmers against death of cattle’s.
 Women should also be motivated to participate in dairy business. It may be one of the major
source of women empowerment.
 National Livestock Mission should be effectively implemented to ensure intensive development
of livestock along with adequate availability of quality feed and fodder.
 Facilities should be increased for village milk collection.
 Proper supervision, monitoring and effective implementation of various schemes of government is
required for realizing the actual benefit of the schemes.
 Training of cattle and dairy farmers for different operation is required at regular intervals.
 An effective and holistic approach should be honestly implemented in the region to resolve the
various issues of cattle and dairy farmers.
Conclusion
Dairy in the state has become an important source of livelihood support, income and
employment to the rural population especially women’s, landless, marginal and small farmers.
Though in the present study many constraints have been identified, however there is immense scope
to strengthen and develop livestock and dairy sectors in the region that will result in a more balanced
development of rural economy of the state.
References
GOI. (2018). Agricultural Statistics at a glance-2018, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers welfare, Government
of India.
GOI. (2012). 19th Livestock Census-2012, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
ILRI. (2007). Markets that Work-Making a living from livestock.
Chandrika, M., Ashok, K.R. and Anbrasan. (2018). Allied Sector as Catalyst of Economic Growth. Kurukshetra
Vol.66 (6): 9-13, ISSN 0021-5660
National Action Plan for Dairy Development (Vision-2022), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
Government of India, 2018
NABARD (Government of Uttar Pradesh, 2015-16), Accelerating the Pace of Capital Formation in Agriculture
and Allied Sector, State Focus Paper- Uttar Pradesh.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEM FACE BY
VEGETABLE GROWERS IN VARANASI DISTRICT OF EASTERN
UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
Ajay Ku. Srivastava1, Rakesh Singh2 and O.P.Singh3
1
Research scholar, Professor, 3Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural
2
Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi; E-mail: ajaysrivastava9335@gmail.com,

Corresponding Author: Ajay Ku. Srivastava
I ndia stands as the largest producer of vegetables in the world after China and it
contributes over 13 per cent to world’stotal vegetable production.India occupies the first
position in the production of cauliflowers, second position in onions and third in
cabbages. India has 10.26 million hectares of vegetables under cultivation with total production of
184.40 million tonnes during 2017-18 (GOI, 2018). Average yield of vegetable crops in the country
was 17.97 tonnes per hectare during 2017-18. The vegetable production in the country has increased
from 101.20 million tonnes to 184.40 million tonnes since 2004-05 to 2017-18, whereas production of
fruits has increased from 50.9 million tonnes to 97.35 million tonnes during same period of time
(GOI, 2018). More than 40 kinds of vegetable from different groups such as the solanaceous,
cucurbitaceous leguminous, cruciferous, root and leafy types are gown in tropical, subtropical and
temperate regions. Tomatoes, onions, brinjals, potato, capsicum cabbage, cauliflower, okra and peas
are among the most important vegetables grown. Agricultural goods with high economic value are
generally covered under high value agriculture (HVA). Transformation in favour of high value
commodities is driven mainly due to changing food consumption pattern and income elasticity.
The export of horticultural products in the country is expanding. In 2017-18, the value of
export of horticultural crops from India was Rs 36.20 billion (GOI, 2018). In traditional export items
like fresh mango, grapes and mango pulp, there was no significant growth during the period. In terms
of percentage total production exported, it was 11.67% in onion, 1.95% in grapes and 0.85% in
mango. Considering the fact that India is the largest producer of banana and mangoes, the second
largest producer of onion, and the third largest producer of potato, the export share should have been
much more. The major component of export cost is freight, which varies with the distance and the
mode of transport. The costs by sea freight is low, but there is a great degree of risk of spoilage of
fruits if not exported properly packed. For enhancing export of fresh fruits, improvement in quality
standard as well as in post-harvest handling is essential. Total Indian horticulture production in 2019-
20 is expected to be 313.35 million tons, about 0.84 percent higher than 2018-19.Total horticulture
production of the country is estimated to be 311.74 million tons in 2018-19 which is almost equal to
the production of 2017-18.
In 2017-18, total horticultural production of Uttar Pradesh was 29.25 million tonnes
accounting for about 12.60 per cent of the India’s total horticultural production (GOI, 2018). In case
of fruits production, Uttar Pradesh contributes about 10.80 per cent to India’s total production ranking
third position amongst Indian states. The vegetable cultivation has an increasingly important
commercial role, especially for low income households. In case of vegetable production, total
vegetable production was highest in Uttar Pradesh and total vegetable production in 2017-18 was
28.32 million tonnes from 1.46 million hectares. In case of fruits production Uttar Pradesh ranks third
place with the contribution of 10.80 per cent of total fruit production in the country during 2017-18.
Apart from the nutritional benefits, the production of vegetables improves the economy of the country
as these are very good source of income and employment. The contribution of vegetables remains
highest i.e. 59-61 per cent in total horticultural crop production during last five years in the country.
India witnessed the shift of area from foodgrain towards horticultural crops over last five years (from
2013-14 to 2017-18). The production of horticultural crops surpassed the production of foodgrain
since 2013-14 in the country. Because It has great potentiality and scope for improving socio-
economic condition of the farmers since it provides higher yield and high economic return in short
period of time as compared to foodgrain. It has more income per unit area and employment generation
in short span of time and thereby have attracted the farmers of the state. These crops have proved to
be the boon to the small and marginal farmers of the state who accounts for more than 90% holding of
the State. It was, therefore, required to study the profile of vegetable growers to get some knowledge
about socio economic profile of vegetable growers.
In view of shrinking agricultural land and operational holdings which are attributable to the
expansion of urbanization and, high growth rate of population, along with changes in consumer food
basket, the farmers are straining to include or substitute additional high value crops in to the cropping
system (Singh, 2010). The declining share of traditional commodities in production, consumption and
trade makes, horticulture and other non-traditional, high-value, agricultural crops an important area of
potential income growth in rural areas (Sharma and Jain, 2011). The cultivation of high value crops
may lead to alleviate poverty and improve the income of smallholders. The present paper aims to
study the socio-economic profile and the problems faced by the high value crop growing farmers in
Varanasi district.
Data and Methodology
Present study was based on primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected for the
agricultural year of 2018-19. Varanasi district falls in the eastern Uttar Pradesh and it has highest
horticultural production in eastern Uttar Pradesh was selected purposively. Three development blocks
of Varanasi district viz., Kashi Vidyapeeth, Araji line and Sewapuri was selected for present study
because these development blocks having highest production of horticultural crops. A list of villages
producing horticultural crops was prepared and six villages from each block were selected randomly.
From each selected village, 20 high value crop growing farmers were selected randomly. Total 120
farmers were selected from 6 villages. Data was collected through personal interview using pre-tested
schedule. The data was analysed by using appropriate statistical methods such as percentage, mean
and standard deviation. The secondary data was collected from the various sources of government
publications.
Growth Performance of Vegetables: Total area under vegetable cultivation in the country was 6.16
million hectares in 2001-02 and it was increased to the level of 10.26 million hectares by the year
2017-18 (GOI, 2018). The growth trend analysis for area allocated by the farmers under vegetables
cultivation was expanding with compound growth rate of 1.50 per cent per year (Figure 1). The
vegetable production in the country was 88.62 million tonnes during 2001-02 and it was augmented to
the level of 184.39 million tonnes by the year 2017-18, registering a compound annual growth rate of
5.05 per cent per year. The average yield of vegetable crops in the country was 14.40 tonnes per
hectare and it was increased to the level of 17.97 tonnes per hectares during 2017-18. The growth
trend analysis suggests that it was growing with compound growth rate of 3.55 per cent per annum
during same period of time. The improvement of per hectare vegetable yield was due to development
of high yielding varieties of vegetables and use of other inputs of vegetable production.
Socio-Economic Profile of the Sample Farmers: The major socio-economic characteristics
consideredfor present study was age distribution, education level, occupation, gender of the farmers,
land holdingsize and married and unmarried of selected source of information.
Socio-economic Characteristics and Problem Face by Vegetable Growers in Varanasi District…………... 127
Age-wise Distribution of Sample Farmers: The classification of sample farmers according to age is
presented in Table 1. Sample farmers were classified into three groups i.e. young age group (20-40
years), middle age group (40-58 years) and old age group (above 58 years). The highest sample
farmers were gelongs to the group of middle age (60 per cent). In case of young and old age group,
sample farmers were 24 and 24 respectively. the average size of the family of the sample farmers was
12, comprising of four male, three female and five children. The composition of family members
suggests that joint family is still prevailing in the rural area. The mean 49.60 per cent and standard
deviation 9.04 per cent.
Table 1: Classification of sample farmers on the basis of age
Sl.No. Particular Number of farmers Percentage
1. Young (20-40 years) 24 20.00
2. Middle (40- 58 years) 72 60.00
3. Old (>58 years) 24 20.00
Total 120 100
Mean: 49.60, SD: 9.04
Literacy Rate of Sample Farmers: The distribution of sample farmers according to educational
qualification is presented in Table 2. The majority (29.16 percent) of the sample vegetablesgrowers
having education level of high school followed by intermediate level (24.10 percent), middle school
(14.16 percent), primary level (10.89 percent), graduate level (10.00 percent), post graduate (6.69
percent).The five percent sample farmers were illiterate.
Table 2:Distribution of sample farmers according to educational qualification
Sl. No Particulars Sample farmers (Number) Percentage
1. Illiterate 6 5.00
2. Primary school 13 10.89
3. Middle school 17 14.16
3. High school 35 29.16
4. Intermediate 29 24.10
5. Graduate 12 10.00
7. Post graduate 8 6.69
Total 120 100.00
Occupation-wise Distribution of Sample Farmers: Occupation-wise classification of sample
farmers in the study area is presented in Table 3. From the Table 3, it is clear that, majority of the
sample farmers in the study area was engaged in only vegetable production i.e. 65 percent.19.16 per
cent sample farmers in the study area were engaged in vegetable production along with livestock
rearing. Nearly 10 per cent sample farmers were doing vegetable cultivation with small business
within village and near by the village area. About 5.80 per cent farmers in the study area were
engaged in vegetable cultivation along with service.
Table 3: Occupation-wise classification of the sample farmers
S.N. Type of occupation No. of farmers Percentage
1. Agriculture (vegetable production) 78 65.00
2. Agriculture and dairy 23 19.16
3. Agriculture and services 7 5.84
4. Agriculture and business 12 10.00
Total 120 100.00
Gender and Marital status Wise Classification of Sample Farmers: Table 4 represent the
classification of sample farmers in the study area according to the gender and marital status. Out of
total sample size (120), nearly 79.16 per cent farmers were belongs to male category, whereas rest of
the sample farmers were female category (21.84 per cent). Out of total sample farmers, 90.0 per cent
vegetable growers in the study area were married and remaining 10 per cent vegetable growers were
unmarried. This finding was also support to the study carried by Adesoji and Farinde(2006).
Table 4: Classification of sample farmers on the basis of Gender and marital status
Sl.No. Particulars Frequency Percentage
1. Male 95 79.16
2. Female 25 21.84
3. Married 108 90.00
4. Unmarried 12 10.00
Distribution of Vegetable Growers According to Land Holding: Uttar Pradesh is highly populated
state in the country and land holding size of the farmers were very small due to the segregation of
inheritance land. For the purpose of present study, we classified land holding as below one hectare as
marginal farmers, one to two hectares as small farmer and more than two hectares as medium farmers.
The distribution of sample vegetable growers was classified according to land holding size and it is
presented in Table 5. Nearly 73.33 per cent sample farmers were belonging to the category of small
farmers having one to two hectares of land holding followed medium farmers (21.67 per cent) and
marginal farmers (5 per cent).
Table 5: Classification of the Land holding
Sl.No. Category No. of farmers Percentage
1. Marginal (less than 1 hectare) 6 5.00
2. Small(1- 2 hectares) 88 73.33
3. Medium(> 2 hectares) 26 21.67
Total 120 100.00
Mean= 1.42, SD=0.9125
Information About Vegetables Cultivation: The foremost source of information about vegetable
cultivation in the study area was Krishi Vigyan Kendra and about 33.33 percent farmers were getting
information regarding the vegetable cultivation (Table 6). Next important source of information was
TV/Ratio and nearly 23.33 per cent farmers of the study area were getting information from this
source, followed by newspaper (15 percent). The information received by the vegetables’ growers
about vegetable cultivation in the study area was government extension workers and farmers from
neighbouring villages was 6.66 percent respectively. Next important source of information received
by the sample farmers about vegetables cultivation in the study area was non-governmental
organisations working in the study area (5.83 percent), followed by information received from private
vegetable seed dealers (5.0 percent) and farmers in the same village (4.19 percent).
Table 6: Source of Information about vegetable cultivation
Sl.No. Source of information Number of farmers Percentage
1. Govt. extension service 8 6.66
2. Non-governmental organisation (NGOs) 7 5.83
3. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) 40 33.33
4. Private vegetable seed dealers 6 5.00
5. News paper 18 15.00
6. TV/Radio 28 23.33
7. Farmers in same village 5 4.19
8. Farmers in neigh boring 8 6.66
Total 120 100.00
Problems Faced by Vegetables Growers: The problems faced by the vegetables growers in the
study area is presented in Table 7. Out of the several problems faced by the vegetables’ growers in
the study area, most important problem was climate fluctuation and most of the farmers (97.50
percent) were facing this problem. The climatic fluctuation is the exogenous factor which is beyond
the farmers’ control. The second most important problem faced by the vegetable growers in the study
area was high fluctuation in vegetable price and nearly 93.75 percent farmers were facing this
problem. About 84.62 per cent farmers in the study area total that very low price of the vegetables in
the market and due to the perishable nature of product, we can’t keep it for longer period of time. The
non-availability of procurement facility of vegetables at the market and farmers field and nearly 78.75
percent farmers were reported about this problem. During the field survey, nearly 71.25 percent
farmers were told that in the market place the space available for selling the vegetables was
unhygienic condition. About 66.25 per cent vegetables growers also reported that the marketing cost
was very high and it includes transportation, market fee and other charges. About 65 percent
vegetable farmers in the study area were reported that lack of vegetable market in nearby the village,
this triggers high transportation cost.
Table 7: Problems faced by vegetable farmers
Sl.No. Problems Number Percentage
1. Climatic fluctuations 78 97.50
2. Fluctuation of vegetables prices 75 93.75
3. Low price of vegetables 58 84.62
4. Procurement facilities at the market and farm 63 78.75
5. Unhygienic spaces at the markets to sell their produce 57 71.25
6. High marketing cost 53 66.25
7. Lack of vegetable market 52 65.00
(Source Of Income –SRIVASTAVA et. al) Socio- Economic Study of High Value Crop Growing Farmers in Varanasi District
of Uttar Pradesh.
Socio-economic Characteristics and Problem Face by Vegetable Growers in Varanasi District…………... 129
Infrastructural and Technical Problems: Further the farmers were asked about the infrastructural
and technical problem faced by the farmers after harvesting ofvegetable crops in the study area. First
for most important problemfaced by vegetable farmers in the study area was storage facility and about
91.25 percent farmers were reported (Table 8). As we know vegetables are perishable commodity and
it requires cold storage facility for storing the vegetables. But cold storage facility was neither
available in the study area nor in the vegetable market. Resulting to this, farmers were force to sell
vegetables at lower market price. Second most important problem faced by the sample farmers were
management of harvesting, transportation etc. and nearly 85 percent farmers were reported. Third
important problem faced by the sample farmers were quality and quantity of high yielding variety of
vegetable seed. Most of the time farmers purchase seed from the market, but germination percentage
was low. Even some times seeds are not germinated and the quality of vegetables were not good.
Beside this, nearly 66.25 percent farmers were facing problem of transportation facility. They were
depends on the private vehicle owners and they are not able to transport vegetable on time into the
market.
Table 8: Infrastructural and technical problem faced by the farmers
Sl.No. Problems Number Percentage
1. Storage 73 91.25
2. Management 68 85.00
3. New technology (seed) 62 77.50
4. Transportation 53 66.25
(Source of Income –SRIVASTAVA et.al) Socio- Economic Study of High Value Crop Growing Farmers in Varanasi District
of Uttar Pradesh
Conclusions and Policy Implication: The shift towards cultivation of high value crop i.e. vegetables
in Varanasi district may change the scenario of the agriculture in the district as well as in the State.
Out of total sample farmers, majority of the farmer were belonging to the category of small farmer,
followed by medium and marginal farmers. The major problemfaced by the vegetable growers in the
study area was fluctuation in market prices, climatic fluctuation, lack of inadequate storage space and
technical know-how. The efforts are required to provide procurement facilities, remunerative prices to
the farmers and encourage processing industries to take produce from small and marginal farmers at
field level. It is suggested that storage facility should be created on custom hiring basis and
Government should make efforts to check extreme fluctuation of vegetable prices. Policy support is
needed for continued and sustainable growth of vegetable production and profitable marketing of the
produce.
Major policy areas to be addressed are desired level of crop diversification, promotion of
vegetable cultivation, improved post-harvest management, value addition and market facility and
pricing policy.That encourage farmers to diversify their income sources, particularly for marginal and
small farmers. Policies should focus on the development of vegetables that motivates farmer to
undertake crop production at commercial level. Delivery of formal and informal education and
extension should be strengthened. There is a need to develop marketing infrastructure for better
accessibility for farmers. The government should ensure organized input supply to the farm sector.
References
Government of India. (2018). Horticultural statistics at a glance–2018, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation
and Farmers’ Welfare, Horticultural Statistics Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare,
Adesoji, S. A. and Farinde, A. J. et al. (2006), Socio-economic factors influencing yield of arable crop in Osun
state, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 5(4):630:34
Singh, S. (2010), High-Value Crops and Marketing: Strategic Options for Development in Uttarakhand, Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 65(4): 782.
Sharma, Vijay Paul and Jain, Dinesh (2011), High-value agriculture in India: Past trends and future prospects,
Working Paper No. 2011-07-02, Indian Institute of Management, pp 51.

AGRICULTURAL
STATISTICS
NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS UNDER
POLYHOUSE, SHADE HOUSE AND OPEN FIELD CONDITION
Neetu and Brijesh Kumar Maurya
Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Banda University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda,
E-mail: nitubhu2009@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Neetu
I ndia is the second-largest producer of vegetables in the world. Still, there is an urgent
need for technology up-gradation to meet the international quality standards as well as
domestic needs. Horticulture today is not merely a means of diversification but
constitutes an integral part of the food and nutritional security, as well as employment generation.
Entrepreneurship, as a legally allowed profession, is a phenomenon appearing in the last two decades
as an excellent opportunity for improving the livelihood of the rural people. Entrepreneurs are faced
with an unpredictable environment due to changing formal institutions and have to cope with a past
that has not been conducive to private initiatives. Vegetable nursery production has become a highly
commercialized business, wherein most farmers buy their plugs from professional growers. A
vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling of young vegetable seedlings
until they are ready for more permanent planting. Usually, the seeds of some vegetables are grown in
the nursery beds for making seedlings, and then the seedlings from these beds are later transplanted in
the main field. Such vegetable crops are generally small-seeded crops that belong to the family
Solanaceae, Cruciferae, and cucurbitaceous besides onion, lettuce, asparagus, etc.
Nursery: It is an area in which new seedlings are raised and nourished until they are ready for sale or
transplanting at a permanent place in a field. Growing seedlings in a nursery are important for various
reasons. “A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for rasing or handling of young vegetable
seedlings until they are ready for plantingin the permanent field.”
Why Raise the Nursery: The following objectives for which nursery is generally made, clearly bring
out its importance.
1. Some important species of vegetable crops do not produce seeds every year. Plantations of these
species can be raised annually, only by sowing all available seeds in the nursery to grow seedlings
to be planted out several years.
2. Some species grow very slowly, and if the seeds of these species are sown directly in plantation, the
seedlings are most likely tobe suppressed by weeds and ultimately killed. Therefore, slow-growing
spices are generally raised in the nursery and planted out, only when the seedlings are not liable to
be damaged by weeds.
3. The success of roadside avenue plantations depends on mostlyplanting tall and sturdy plants, which
can only be obtained from the nursery.
4. Plantations of some species, when raised by direct sowing, are not so successful when grown by
transplanting their seedlings. In such cases, the nursery is an essential part of artificial regeneration
to these species.
5. The best method for the introduction of exotics, tropical Pines, Poplars Eucalyptus, etc. is only by
planting, and therefore nursery is essential for them.
6. Planting of nursery-grown plants is the surest method of artificial regeneration on poor and barren
sites.
7. Causalities in plantations have to be replaced either for the year of planting or in the next year.
Sowing done in the gaps is liable to be unsuccessful as a result of suppression from weeds and
cannot catch up the growth as from original planting. Therefore, replacement of causalities is
always done by planting nursery-grown plants or stumps and so the nursery is essential for
causality replacement also.
Benefits of the Nursery Seedlings
1. It is very convenient to look after the tender seedlings
2. It is easy to protect the seedlings from pests and diseases
3. The economy of land usage (duration in the main field is reduced) and reduced field management
cost
4. Valuable and tiny seeds can be raised effectively without any wastage
Nursery Management in Vegetable Crops under Polyhouse, Shade House and Open Field Condition 131
5. Uniform crop stand in the main field can be maintained by selecting healthy, uniform, and
vigorous seedlings in the nursery itself.
6. Easy to weed control.
10. Shorter growing season and more efficient use of land as wll as optimum use of hybrid seeds.
11. More accurate prediction of harvest date and gaining higher yield.
Important Factors for Raising a Nursery
1. The location of the nursery bed should be near the house.
2. Well exposed to the sun but protected against severe heat.
3. Well, it protected against animal damage, strong winds.
Management of Nursery: Nursery plants require due care and attention after having either emerged
from the seeds or have been raised from other sources or through tissue culture technique. Generally,
they are grown in the open field under the protection of Mother Nature, where they should be able to
face the local environment. It is the duty and main objective of a commercial nursery grower to
supply the nursery plants with suitable conditions necessary for their development and growth. This is
the major work of management in the nursery which includes all such operations right from the
emergence of young plantlet till its are fully grown-up or are ready for uprooting and transplanting in
the main fields.
Common Insect Pest in the Nursery
Insects Characteristics or symptoms Control
Aphids It is small green, brown or black sap-sucking insects, which Dimethoate 2 ml/1 or
secrete honeydew that attracts ants and develops sooty mold. Neem oil 4-5 ml/1
Thrips It is tiny blacks or yellow-colored sap-sucking insects,which Dimethoate 2 ml/1 or
infest young portions of plants and flowers. Neem oil 4-5 ml/1
Scales Small immobile sucking insects that are covered by wax mainly Dimethoate 2 ml/1
infesting the stems of plants.
Mealybugs It is small sucking pests covered by white filamentous hair. Chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 2.5ml/l or
5%malathion dust @ 25kg/ha
Mites It is microscopicinsect livedorsal surfaceof the leaves and Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/l
producing webs and galls. wettablesulphur @5g/l
Leaf miner Leaf mining insects that produceserpentine (snake-like) white Triazophos@ 0.25 ml/l
shining lines on leaves.
Termites Tiny white ants that mainly infest dead parts of the plants and Chlorpyrifosemulsion @3 ml/l.
stay underground.
A Pattern of Vegetable Seedlings Production in Different Nursery Units
Unit Number of trays/ beds Tomato Chilli Brinjal Cabbage
Poly house 10 4770 5950 3525 7360
Shade net house 10 4140 5600 3385 5000
Open field 10 334 440 240 700
Economics of vegetable seedlings production under polyhouse(for 2,000m2 area /annum)
Sl.No. Particulars Quantity (kg) Rate per unit (Rs.) Value(Rs.)
A. Variable cost
1 Seed
a. Tomato(kg) 1.59 95/10gm 15,105(2.26)
b. Chilli(kg) 2.38 290/10gm 69,020(10.72)
c. Brinjal(Kg) 1.41 95/10gm 13,95(2.00)
d. Cabbage(kg) 3.68 195/10gm 71,760(10.72)
2 Protrays with 98 cells(no) 21605 4/tray 86,420(12.91)
3 Cocopeat (kg) 21605 6/kg 1,29,630(19.36)
4 Fertilizer (kg) 11 190/kg 2,090(0.31)
5 Plant protected chemicala (kg) 17.28 500/500gm 17,280(2.58)
6 Human labour
a) Man days 365 200/day 73,000(10.90)
b) Women days 1095 130/day 1,42,350(21.26
7 Intrest on working capital (8%)(Rs.) 49,604(7.41)
Total variable cost (A) (Rs.) 6,69,654(100.00)
B Fixed cost
1 Rental value of land(Rs.) - 20,000 20,000(12.79)
2 Land revenue - 20,00 20,00(0.01)
3 Depreciation(tank,pipe,pumpset,pump - 1,36,266(87.91)
house,sprayers,including poly house (Rs.)
Intrest on fixed capital (12%) -
4 18,754,32(10.71)
Total fixed cost (B) (Rs) - - 1,56,286(100.00)

C Total cost (A+B) 8,25,940.00
D Returns
a) Tomato seedling trays (no) 4,770 50/trays 2,38,500(20.93)
b) Chilli seedling trays (no) 5,950 60/trays 3,57,000(3132)
c) Brinjal seedling trays (no) 3,525 50/trays 1,76,250(15.46)
d) Cabbage seedling trays (no) 7,360 50/trays 3,68,000(32.29)
Grass income 11,39,750(100.00)
E Net returns (D-C) (Rs.) 3,13,810.00
Economics of vegetable seedlings production under shade net house(for 2,000m2 /annum)
Sl.No. Particulars Quantity(kg) Rate per unit(Rs.) Value(Rs.)
A. Variable cost
1 Seed
a. Tomato(kg) 1.38 95/10gm 13,110(2.20)
b. Chilli(kg) 2.24 290/10gm 4,960(10.88)
c. Brinjal(Kg) 1.354 95/10gm 12,863(2.15)
d. Cabbage(kg) 2.5 195/10gm 48,750(8.17)
2 Protrays with 98 cells(no) 18,125 4/tray 2,500(12.15)
3 Coco pith (kg) 18,125 6/kg 1,08,750(18.22)
4 Fertilizer (kg) 10.00 190/kg 1,900(0.32)
6 Human labour
a) Man days 365 200/day 73,000(12.23)
b) Women days 1,095 130/day 1,42,350(23.85)
7 Intrest on working capital (8%)(Rs.) 44,214.64(7.41)
Total variable cost (A) (Rs.) 5,96,897.64(100.00)
B Fixed cast
1 Rental value of land(Rs.) - - 20,000(13.99)
2 Land revenue - - 20(0.01)
3 Depreciation (tank,pipe,pum set,pump - 1,22,932(85.99)
house, sprayers, including shade house (Rs.)
Intrest on fixed capital (12%) -
4 17,154,32(10.71)
Total fixed cost (B) (Rs.) - - 1,42,952
D Returns
a) Tomato seedling trays (no) 4,140 50/trays 2,07,000(21.51)
b) Chilli seedling trays (no) 5,600 60/trays 3,36,000(34.92)
c) Brinjal seedling trays (no) 3,385 50/trays 1,69,250(17.59)
d) Cabbage seedling trays (no) 5,000 50/trays 2,50,000(25.98)
Gross income 9,62,250(100.00)
E Net returns (D-C) (Rs.) 2,22,401.00
Note: the above calculation is based on the commonly observed practice of growing 4,140 trays of
tomato seedling,5,600 trays of chili seedlings, 3,385 trays of brinjal seedlings and 5,000 trays of
cabbage seedlings.
Economics of vegetable seedlings production under open field(for 2,000m2 /annum)
Sl.No. Particulars Quantity (kg) Rate per unit (Rs.) Value(Rs.)
A. Variable cost
1 Seed
a. Tomato(kg) 3.34 95/10gm 31,730(6.37)
b. Chilli(kg) 440 290/10gm 1,27,600(25.63)
c. Brinjal(Kg) 2.40 95/10gm 22,800(4.57)
d. Cabbage(kg) 7.00 195/10gm 1,36,500(27.41)
2 Soil pruning (1,714 beds)(tonnes) 7 1,200/ton 8,400(1.68)
3 FYM(tons) 2 3,000/ton 6,000(1.20)
4 Gunny bags for mulching (no) 1,714.0 10/bag 17,140(3.44)
6 Insecticides (ml) 285 1,000/200ml 1,42,5(0.29)
7 Human labour
a) Man days 365 150/day 54,000(10.85)
b) Women days 360 130/day 46,800(9.40)
7 Intrest on working capital (8%)(Rs.) 36,872.32(7.40)
Total variable cost (A) (Rs.) 36,872.32(100.00)
B Fixed cast
1 Rental value of land(Rs.) - - 20,000(34.65)
Nursery Management in Vegetable Crops under Polyhouse, Shade House and Open Field Condition 133
2 Land revenue - - 20(0.03)

3 Depreciation (tank,pipe,pumset,pump - - 37,699.33(65.31)
house,sprayers,including field -
preparation)(Rs.) - -
4 Intrest on fixed capital (12%)(Rs.) 6,926.31(10.71)
Total fixed cost (B) (Rs) - - 57,719(100.00)
D Returns
a) Tomato seedling from 334 beds (no) 6,01,200 200/1000 s 1,20,240(19.1)
b) Chilli seedling from 440 beds (no) 5,28,000 400/1000 s 2,11,200(33.64)
c) Brinjal seedling from 240 brds (no) 3,60,000 240/1000 s 86,400(13.76)
d) Cabbage seedling from 700 beds (no) 8,40,000 250/1000 s 2,10,840(33.45)
Gross income 6,27,840(100.00)
E Net returns (D-C) (Rs.) 72,278.64
Conclusion: Protected agriculture is climate-resilient agriculture. It is expanding in India very fast in
many states, especially Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan,
Punjab, and Haryana. The Government is giving massive subsidy to promote protected agriculture for
the farmers. Farmers are being exposed to various demonstrations and training programmes related to
multiple exhibits and training programmes related to multiple aspects of protected cultivation.
Protected agriculture is the future agriculture for the Indian Farmers, as it is suited for small and
marginal landholdings with very less available water. The increasing incidence of disease, pest, and
unfavorable weather necessitates the use of protected agriculture in India to meet the growing demand
of high-value vegetables and flowers.
Currently, the majority of nursery workers were using soil or silt for raising plants and were
unaware of soil less substrates. However, the majority is willing to use soil less substrates if available
locally at affordable prices and provide better results than soil or silt. Major constraints included lack
of technical skills for soil less substrate usage, ignorance of common substrates being used, and high
cost of imported substrates. Therefore, there is a need to develop locally available, cheaper, and
sustainable substrate using agricultural wastes for better quality nursery production. Moreover,
policies should be prepared for promoting soil less substrate use and capacity building of nursery
workers for producing quality plants and to cope with quarantine issues if exported.
References
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world Centre, Regional Centre for South Asia, ICRISAT Campus, Patancheru, 502324, A.P, TS1: O-1,
National Conference on Production of quality seeds and planting material-health management in
Horticultural crops, 11-14 March, New Delhi, 1-2.
Hills, G. E., Lumpkin, G. T., & Singh, R. (1997). Opportunity recognition: Perceptions and behaviors of
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
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN INDIA-CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES
Surajit Kalita1, Sangita Mahanta2, Rumjhum Phukan3 and Sundar Barman4
1
Directorate of Research (Agri), Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam, India, 2Department of Horticulture,
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam, India, Mob.: +91-9435091302, Email: sangita.mahanta@aau.ac.in,
3
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam, India and 4Department
of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam, India, 4Department of Agronomy, Biswanath
College of Agriculture, Biswanath-784176, Assam, India, Corresponding Author: Sangita Mahanta
T he geometric progression of human population coupled with reducing area under

cultivation and climatic adversities compelled us to think of intensive agriculture with
the use of modern agricultural technologies such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
high yielding varieties, plant growth regulators, etc. This on one hand led us towards achieving the
goal of food security, but on the other hand resulted in loss of biodiversity, soil and water degradation.
Organic agriculture is a holistic approach which aims to produce safe food with good nutrition
through use of renewable resources which sustains and upholds the health of entire agro-ecosystem.
(Gomiero et al. 2011). Crop management practices like soil conditioning through use of water, use of
stale seedbeds, crop rotations, plant mulches, and use of cultivars are some of the practices that are
found suitable for organic cultivation (Litterick et al., 2002). According to the IFOAM, organic
farming is guided by four principles: maintenance of soil, plant, animal and human health, ecological
sustainability, improving environment and life support systems, and protecting all life in this planet
and environment (IFOAM, 2018).
Scopes and Opportunities in Organic Agriculture
 Organic farming is environmentally safe as no any chemical inputs are utilized.
 It improves productivity of land through promotion of natural processes.
 It supports long term sustainability by maintaining the biodiversity thereby establishing
ecological equilibrium.
 It helps in proper energy recycling and in achieving potential yield with lesser energy
consumption.
 Organic farming reduces pollution in the environment and thereby improves quality of life.
 It reduces greenhouse effect and global warming as it impounds carbon in to the soil.
Technological Advancement and Options in Organic Agriculture
Crop Improvement: Plant breeding has been innately tied to the human race for thousands of years.
The prevailing genetic diversity within and between species allows plants to adapt to changing
environmental conditions, and enables us to improve our crops to suit our needs. The basic objective
of both organic Farming (OF) and Conventional Farming (CF) is higher productivity, incorporation of
resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic factors, and higher resource-use efficiency (water,
nutrients, light, etc.). Since resource recycling is an intrinsic part of organic farming, one of the
primary objectives of Organic Plant Breeding (OPB) is to develop cultivars with traits that can exploit
the available organic resources to sustain production.
Traits of Importance for Organic Plant Breeding: It is estimated that more than 95% of organic
production is based on crop varieties that were bred for the conventional high-input sector. Such
varieties lack important traits required for organic and low-input production conditions. Studies have
shown that traits such as Nutrient- use efficiency, weed competitiveness , early vigor and allelopathy
to enhance weed suppression, ability to establish symbiont relations with micro-organisms in the soil
are relevant for OF because they can enhance the uptake of resources and its use efficiency
(Lammerts Van Beuren et al. ,2011).
Sources of Genetic Diversity: The sources of variation to incorporate relevant traits in cultivars for
OF conditions are same as the sources of variation for cultivars aimed for CF such as wild relatives
and landraces. They may be mainly differentiated into the primary gene pool (elite breeding lines),
secondary gene pool (landraces, gene bank material) and tertiary gene pool (related species or wild
relatives). Wheat breeders have significantly improved wheat performance by exploiting the genetic
variability within the primary wheat gene pool. Trethowan and Mujeeb-Kazi (2008) suggested the
exploration of synthetic wheat varieties and landraces, and introgression of genes from related
Organic Agriculture in India-Challenges and Opportunities 135
species. For example, synthetic hexaploid wheat, derived by crossing tetraploid wheat with Aegilops
tauschii, was shown to provide new genetic variability for resistance to drought, high temperature,
salinity, waterlogging, and soil micronutrient imbalances from the secondary wheat gene pool. The
tertiary gene pool has been more difficult to exploit due to complex inheritance, meiotic instability,
and an associated linkage drag of undesired traits.
Methods and Tools: Organic plant breeding is restricted to crossing methods that do not break the
reproductive barrier between species. The selection methods such as intra-specific crossing,
backcrossing, mass selection, selection with the use of DNA markers, hybrid varieties and meristem
culture are used. Technologies or methods such as Genetic engineering, application of hormones and
colchicine do not fit within the four principles of organic farming (health, ecology, fairness, and care).
Development of varieties adapted to organic farming can be successfully achieved if plant breeding
programs combine the selection of progeny in organic or low input environments or by exchanging
segregating generations between different environments to achieve wide adaptation (Shuttle
breeding). A modality of this shuttle breeding scheme, is to only carry out selections of advanced
generation progenies developed by conventional breeding procedures, under optimum organic
environments to determine their value for cultivation and use in further testing; this is advantageous,
particularly when there is limitation of financial, human, and institutional resources (Crespo Herrera
and Ortiz, 2015). Thus, participatory plant breeding (PPB) and evolutionary breeding (EB), have been
proposed as suitable breeding methods to target oF (Dawson and Jones, 2008). These methods keep in
view the needs of the farmer and the adaptive capacity of the variety to the local environment which
can lead to faster variety adoption. Identification of key locations to conduct variety trials is essential
for OPB to exploit the G x E interaction. Association studies to understand of the extent of variation
and the genetic architecture of useful traits should be given due priority. Modern remote sensing
phenotyping platforms can be used for assessing traits such as weed competitiveness and Nutrient use
efficiency for higher genetic gains. Cultivar mixtures can be deployed to increase resilience against
biotic and abiotic stresses
Traits of Importance for Organic Plant Breeding
Nutrient-use Efficiency: Organic and conventional systems differ to a great extent in the soil
management practices used and to interactions in the rhizosphere (Baresal et al., 2008). Warman
(1998), observed that organic systems depend upon organic matter based fertilizer inputs, wherein the
N and P supplies to the crop are related with mineralization of the inputs. During periods of
fluctuating soil temperature and water availability crops often experience limited micronutrient
availability due to reduced mineralization capacity of the soil biota. Therefore organic systems require
crop genotypes that have mechanisms such as vigourous root systems, ability to form active
mycorrhizal associations, reduced root losses due to pathogen, ability to maintain a high
mineralization activity in the rhizosphere via root exudates, increased rooting depth and associated
ability to recover N leached from the top soil and are able to form active symbiotic relationships with
beneficial organisms in the rhizosphere.
Improving the different components of nutrient-use efficiency such as maintenance of
photosynthesis under nutrient stress, nutrient-uptake capacity, nutrient-utilization capacity and
translocation efficiency, will contribute to higher yield and quality under low-input
conditions. Nutrient-uptake efficiency of plants can be improved by the capacity of crops to establish
and sustain efficient (1) plant-growth-promoting-rhizosphere (PGPR) bacterial communities (Wissiwa
et al., 2009) and (2) arbuscularmycorrhizas (AMs).PGPR-bacteria promote N-uptake efficiency since
they (1) protect root systems against attack by soil-borne pathogens (Cook, 2007), (2) maintain
efficient mineralization-driven nutrient supplies to plant roots (Shaharoona et al.,2008), and (3)
support the establishment of active AM associations . AMs are essential for efficient phosphorus,
micronutrient and water uptake in plants grown under organic (Gosling et al., 2004) and low-input
conditions (Wissiwa et al., 2009). Environmental conditions, especially fertilizer applications,
temperature, light intensity and soil moisture also have a significant impact on nutrient-use efficiency
(NUE) (Kramer, 1979). Agronomic practices and climatic conditions significantly affect NUE; hence
it is important to quantify genotype × environment interactions of traits contributing to NUE to select
crop plants within the context of different agronomic and climatic environments.
Rhizosphere Competence for Disease Suppression: A healthy root system is crucial for crops to
express their genetic potential for nutrient-use efficiency and yield (Wissiwa et al., 2009). In a study
conducted by Mazzola et al. (2000) and Roberti et al. (2008), it was observed that soil microbial
populations (e.g., plant-growth-promoting rhizosphere (PGPR) bacteria, AM-fungi) in the rhizosphere
have the potential to reduce the severity of both soil-borne root diseases and foliar pathogens in
wheat. Suppressive effects are provoked by a range of different mechanisms including (1) antibiosis,
(2) site and nutrient competition, and (3) induction of resistance in the crop plant (Sari et al., 2008).
Weed Competition and Tolerance to Mechanical Weed Control: Weed control also remains a
problem in many cereal crops such as wheat. Wheat varieties are genetically variable in their ability to
compete with weeds (Cosser et al., 1997). Allelopathy, a potentially important weed suppression trait,
is a chemical process where plants provide themselves with a competitive advantage due to the direct
or indirect effect on germination, growth or development of neighboring plants (Wu et al., 1999). An
initial step towards the development of varieties with allelopathic activity is to evaluate the
allelopathic potential of crop germplasm in bioassay-based studies. In many no tillage systems which
help to reduce soil erosion and carbon losses, herbicide usage is often essential. According to
Richards and Whytock (1993), early ground cover is one aspect vital to weed suppression and has
shown to have a competitive advantage over early emerging weeds and increased resistance to
mechanical weeding operations. The ability to tolerate damage and/or a rapid recover following
mechanical weed treatments is therefore an important trait for varieties used in organic and low-input
systems (Donner & Osman, 2006).
Crop Management
Horticulture: Organic horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or
ornamental plants by following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and
conservation, pest management, and heirloom variety preservation. The horticulture sector has
assumed great commercial importance due to demand of organic horticultural produce in the domestic
as well as overseas market, since most of the horticultural crops are consumed for nutrition,
therapeutic and aesthetic values (Pathak, 2016).India is one of the leading fruit producers in the world,
producing about 10% of the world’s fruit production (Indian Horticulture Data Base, 2014). However,
a negligible amount of fresh and processed fruits are exported due to huge domestic demand
(Palanivel et al., 2015). Organic fruits which could be successfully exported include mango, banana,
grapes, litchi, passion fruit, pomegranate, sapota, apple, walnut, and strawberry (Mitra,2013). India is
the second largest vegetable producer country after China and traditional vegetables like onion,
potato, okra, bitter gourd, and green chilies, and non-traditional vegetables like asparagus, celery,
paprika, sweet and baby corn, and cherry tomato are all usually exported every year. Global demand
for organic vegetables is increasing every year and Indian organic vegetable producers would be in a
position to expand their market in the EU, Australia, and Singapore. India currently accounts for over
12% (in terms of quantity) of the world spice market and organic spices produced by India having
export potential include pepper, ginger, turmeric, cloves, mace, nutmeg, vanilla, cardamom, chili,
mustard, tamarind, camboge, thyme, rosemary, oregano, marjoram, parsley, and sage (fresh,
dehydrated, and oil) (Mitra et al., 2016).
Organic Farming in Fruit Crops: Bhat et al., (2017), proposed the following organic methods in
fruit crops:
1. Biodynamic Farming: It is an ecofriendly system, wherein, energies from cosmos, earth, cow and
plants are systematically and synergistically harnessed. It includes biodynamic preparations like BD
500 (Cow Horn manure), BD 501 (Cow Horn Silica), BD liquid manures and pesticides,
Vermicompost, Vermiwash, NADEP compost, etc. and help in continuous improvement in physical,
chemical and biological properties of soil.It improves quality with respect to nutrition, appearance and
better shelf life. Application of BD-500 (30 g in 13 liters of rain or fresh tube well water) encourage
the growth of beneficial microorganisms and earthworms, promote rooting process and harvest
terrestrial forces for better crop growth and increased biological activity in the soil. Biodynamic
formulation 501 (BD-501) is also used as foliar spray (mixing 1g in 13 lits. of water by whirling for
one hour) and is known to be promoting photosynthetic activity of the plants, resulting into better
growth of the plants and better quality of grains and fruits. BD-501 also acts as prophylactic agent and
helps in prevention of many fungal diseases such mildews and blights (Pathak and Ram, 2008).
Application of organic manures (10-20 kg/tree) through NADEP, vermicompost, biodynamic compost
(BD) or microbe mediated compost (MM) in descending moon period, growing of legume for green
manuring or as inter/ cover crops as per requirement as per moon constellation, mulching after
application of 100g CPP, spray of cow horn manure (BD 500) and release of earthworm in presence
of proper moisture as per calander, need based foliar spraying of biodynamic liquid manure/ vermi
wash/ cow pat pit (CPP) in ascending moon phase, and Spraying of Agnihotra ash rich water on soil
and plants are some of the organic nutrient management staretagies that could successfully be utilized
in organic horticulture farming.
2. Homa Farming: In homa farming, seeds and bulbs are impregnated with a mixture of Agnihotra
ash and cow urine before planting/sowing. This strengthens the germinating plant and makes it more
resistant to pests. This treatment increases production in quantity and quality, reduces cost of labour to
apply agrochemicals, improvement in taste, size, texture and nutrition and prolongs the shelf life and
makes them fitter for export.
3. Glorabiosol: Gloria biosol is a very effective bio-fertilizer which can be produced in a homa
atmosphere. Biosol liquid can be used for foliar application to nourish plants and soil. Anon. (2010)
observed that application of biosol increased the yield in several horticultural crops as compared to
conventional farming. In case of fruit processing natural preservatives like neem oil, salt, sugar,
lemon, honey, bee propolis, rosemary extract, grapefruit seed extract, citric acid, alpha tocopherol,
potassium sorbate etc. can be used. Edible coatings and films like Apple wraps, Cellulose-based
coating, Nature seal (NS), Chitosan coatings, Corn-zein coatings, Mineral oil based coatings, Wax
coatings (Paraffin and Bee wax), Milk Protein Coatings, Whey Protein Coatings, Casein coatings,
Aloevera Gel etc.(Bhat et al., 2017). Sharmin et al. (2015) studied the shelf life enhancement of
Papaya with Aloe vera gel coating at ambient temperature and observed that 1.5% Aloe veragel
coating extended the shelf life of papaya up to 15 days compared to that of 0.5%, 1%Aloe veragel
coating and control. Soil management strategies consists of crop rotation, cover cropping, green
manuring, green leaf manuring, animal manures, mulching, composting, vermicomposting, etc.
Rehman et al. (2015) studied the effect of different mulching materials on fruit size and yield of
Strawberry andfound that straw dust gave maximum fruit size and yield. The response of soil covers
on guava cv. Sardar was studied by Das et al., (2010) and the results showed that among organic and
inorganic mulches used, paddy straw was found to be effective to improve the fruit quality of guava.
Organic Farming in Vegetables: Organic farming of vegetables is still in its infancy in India and
there is not much work done in this field. India with its varied climate and variety of soils has an
enormous potential for organic vegetable production Export preference of organic vegetables offers a
great scope to a country like India, which has inculcated the skill of growing organically since time
immemorial (Singh et al., 2017). Various approaches to produce organic vegetables are organic
farming, natural farming, ecological agriculture, Agnihotri, Homeopathy farming, Biodynamic
Agriculture or Vedic Kheti, Astronomical calendar, RishiKrishi (Rishi Kheti) which consists of
Amritpani, Angara and Panchya Gavya. Different organic sources of nutrients are green
manures,Farm yard manure, Enriched compost, vermicompost, concentrated organic manures (oil
cakes), crop residue, liquid manures, biofertilizers etc. Renuka and Sankar (2001) studied the effect of
organic manures on growth, yield and quality of tomato and they reported that combination of
farmyard manure (FYM) and biogas slurry recorded maximum fruit yield (46.66 tonnes/ha) over
control (18.44 tonnes/ha).The study conducted on organic farming in vegetable crops at IIVR,
Varanasi, revealed that the productivity of vegetables crop in organic farming was less in initial years
but the yields increased progressively under organic farming equating the yields under conventional
inorganic farming in 4-5 years (Singh et al, 2016;).The study on organic cultivation of onion during
rabi 2005 revealed that the higher yield was obtained in FYM 30 t/ha plus neem cake 1 t/ha plus
Cotton seed cake 0.8 t/ha plus NSKE 4% sprays plus Trichodermas prays 0.5% (Patil, 2008).
Research work also showed that organically grown vegetables have higher vitamin C, total
carotenoids, higher mineral levels and higher phytonutrients, which can be effective against cancer
(Worthington, 2001).
Organic Floriculture: Organic farming of flowers is still in its infancy in India and there is not much
work done in this field. Several works have been conducted by different scientist on use of
biofertilizers to enhance the yield of different flower crops. Various biofertilizers viz. Azotobacter,
Azospirillum, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and AM fungi show their suitability for application in
different flower crops such as rose, tuberose, carnation, marigold, aster, jasmine, etc. For example,
Singh (2006) concluded that the significant increased in leaf area index and plant height was recorded
withapplication of Azotobacter in rose. Dubey and Misra (2005) revealed that the combined
inoculation of Azotobacter +Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) in gladiolus could increase corm
weight (39.14 g), number of corms/plant (2.27), number of cormels/plant (82.03), cormel weight (1.38
g) and propagation coefficient (1492.99%). Srivastava and Govil (2005) stated that vase life of
gladiolus cv. American Beauty was significantly increased as result of application of different bio-
fertilizers over control. The bio-fertilizer inoculated plant resulted in earlier flowering (112.80 days)
as compared to water soluble and commercial straight fertilizers (116.90 and 117.40 days,
respectively) in carnation (Bhatia and Gupta, 2007). Yadav et al. (2005) reported that among different
bio-fertilizers, the Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) was found more effective in increasing
bulb production and root biomass closely followed by Azotobacter in tuberose cv. Double. Shyamal et
al. (2006) carried out an experiment on effectof bio-fertilizers on growth and yield in marigold and
stated that plants treated with 1.50 kg/ha Azotobacter gave maximum flower yield as compared to
control.
Crop Protection: Insect pests have been a serious threat to agriculture since time immemorial.
Nearly 10,000 species of insect pests are found to attack agricultural crops along with about 50000
species of fungi, 1800 species of weeds and 15 000 species of nematodes reported to attack crops
worldwide (Kaul 2011), accounting an annual loss of about$6 to 50 billions. Synthetic pesticides are
the most common and the popular method to control these pests, but their use create adverse effects
on soil health, water quality, produce quality and develop problems like insecticide resistance, pest
resurgence, outbreaks of secondary pests, pesticide residues and harmful effect on non-target
organisms. Biopesticides are the best known alternatives that can play major role in changing the
scenario of chemocentric agriculture to organics, make the environment green without denting the
economy and health of the farmers as well as creating ecologically suitable agricultural landscape
sustainable.
In organic farming, plant protection is very strictly regulated and most importantly organic
farming is regulated with the use of preventative measures in most of the cases. In organic
agriculture, only a very limited numbers of plant protection chemicals which are very much essential
for sustainable production are recommended. The basic aim of organic farming is to promote and
practice conventional to eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture techniques with the minimal use of
chemical inputs (El-Shafie, 2019). Moreover, substrates of biological origin like entomopathogenic
bacteria, fungi, nematode, etc. along with conservation of natural enemies like parasites and predators
are most widely used in organic agriculture (Honek, 1997). Pest management in organic farming is
achieved through effective use of cropping techniques, biological control, and natural pesticides
extracted from plant or animals. Moreover, principles and components of integrated pest management
(IPM) were found to be best fitted in achieving pest management in organic farming, with an aim to
prevent pests from reaching economically damaging levels. IPM always plays an important role in
maintaining equilibrium between agroecosystem and occurrence of insect pests. In organic farming
system, natural fauna and floral diversities also play an important role in pest and disease
management (Westerman et al., 2003; Hajjar, 2008), which has been taken care off through habitat
manipulation. Habitat manipulation usually encourages population build up of natural fauna and flora
to achieve natural pest management through suitable structural redesigning of a micro-climate.
Generally, effective plant protection in organic farming could be achieved by following three basic
protection principles –monitoring, prevention and suppression.
Monitoring of Crop Pests: Identification of insects, plant pathogens, nematodes and weed along with
their natural enemies through regular inspection and surveillance is the prerequisite for any effective
organic pest management program. Early detection is always helpful minimizing the attack through
minimal use of resources. An early warning system also helps in developing a location specific
economic threshold level of pests and also early decision-making in selection of suitable management
options. Insect pests attacking a particular crop could be monitored through visual observation and
scouting, use of pheromone traps, light traps, sticky traps, and other available resources.
Prevention of Crop Pests: Prevention of crop pest damage in organic agriculture is achieved through
special time, crop and location specific cultural management practices including habitat manipulation
and host plant resistance. It may also be mentioned that use of host plant resistance in the form of
genetically modified organism and plants is completely banned in organic farming. Cultural crop
protection practices are very much useful in organic farming which have the capacity to alter the
environment or microclimate making it more condusive for the host plant and helps in suppression of
the insect pest and diseases attacking the crop. In agricultural crops, crop rotation, selection of crop
plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of
trap crops help reduce populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests to a
larger extent and have certainly high merits for their use in organic agriculture. These cultural
practices are preventive in nature and thus require proper planning in advance and efficient and timely
execution (Matyjaszczyk, 2015). Several cultural operations like summer deep ploughing, burning of
stubbles, destruction of alternate host, clean cultivation, etc. could destruct the protective umbrella to
the harmful insect pests and thereby expose them to natural enemies and extreme weather factors.
Habitat manipulation through diversified crop habitat achieved via mixed cropping, relay cropping,
trap cropping, stripe cropping, etc. could help supporting natural enemies like parasites and predators
in terms of food, shelter, and breeding sites (Jervis and Kidd, 1986), which will in turn limit the pest
population to larger extent.
Suppression of Crops Pests: In organic farming, suppression of crop pests and weeds is generally
achieved through curative management practices like mechanical, physical, microbial and most
importantly natural pesticides or botanicals. In case of insect pest and disease control, the most
common mechanical control operation is the handpicking and destruction, which eliminates
destructive stages of the pests without any involvement of external resources. In case of diseases like
cucumber mosaic, bacterial and fungal wilt in chilli could help the farmer in limiting further
perpetuation of the causal organisms in the crop field. Clean cultivation in the form of manual
weeding and hoeing is the most commonly practiced operation in organic farming, which has been
found replaced by organic mulching through use of paddy straw and other organic stubbles in recent
times. Inclusion of allelopathic plants in rotations may have the potential to avoid weed in organic
farming. Physical and mechanicalsuppression methods recommended in organic farming includes
mowing, hoeing, flaming, soil solarization, tilling or cultivation, washing, etc. (Hill, 2008).
Sometimes, mechanical devices like lure traps (against fruit fly attacking cucurbits), light traps
(against nocturnal insects like tomato fruit borers, etc.), and pheromone traps (against tomato fruit
borers, brinjal fruit and shoot borer, diamond back moth attacking cole crops, etc) could be very much
useful in killing of harmful insect pest in the organic farm.
Another important field of organic pest management that has gained popularity now days is
the biopesticides , which are known to have minimal or no risk to the environment and non-target
organisms. Biopesticides(including natural enemies, fungi, bacteria, virus, nematodes, etc.) cannot be
a panacea to all the problems but are alternatives to synthetic pesticides (Hazarika and Kalita, 2016).
Over the past 150 years, plenty of researches had revealed their usefulness in controlling several
economically important insect pests and diseases. Microbials constitute the largest group of broad-
spectrum biopesticides covering about 1500 naturally occurring insect-specific microorganisms
(Khachatourians, 2009). Over 200 microbial biopesticides are available worldwide, but the products
registered and available in Asia is very much limited (Thakore, 2006). The common Biopesticide
renowned worldwide is theBacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which shares 90% of the world biopesticide
market. Next to Bt, entomopathogenic fungilikeBeauveriabassiana, Metarhiziumanisopilae,
Nomuraearileyi, Paecilomycesfarinosus and Verticilliumlecanii are the most commonly utilized ones
in organic agricultural controlling several insect pests of crops. Apart from these, microbial like
Pseudomonas florescence, Trichodermaviridae, T. harzenium, etc. had also proven to be successful in
controlling several diseases attacking crop plants. A list of biocontrol technologies proposed by
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat has been enlisted in Table 1 and proper utilization of the same
could bring smile to the practicing organic farmers in year to come.
Potentiality of botanical pesticides of plant origin had also shown some promise as India has
been known for its high floristic diversity of higher plant with pesticidal properties. One of the major
advantages of using botanical pesticides is the ecological safeness to non-target organisms unlike that
of chemical pesticides. Out of different insecticidal plant species, neem (Azadirachtaindica) is
renowned one with more than 30neem based products developed and marketed in India (Hazarika and
Kalita, 2016). Several others had also been tried and found to be useful in organic agriculture, but
product development out of it is still lacking. With the increased demand of organic food indicates a
huge scope for potential growth of biopesticides sector in India, which will pave a path for
development of newer and effective biopesticides in future.
Government Policies on Organic Agriculture: The policy of Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India
on organic farming is to promote technically sound, economically viable, environmentally non-
degrading, and socially acceptable use of natural resources. The policy actualizes the area and crop
potential for organic farming, sustaining soil fertility, conserving bio resources, strengthening rural
economy, promoting value addition accelerating the growth of agro-business and securing a fair
standard of living for the farmers and agricultural workers and their families.
Table 1.Biological crop pest management technologies for organic agriculture
Name of the crop Target insect/disease/nematode Technology recommended
A. Insect pests management
i. Biological agents
Okra Helicoverpaarmigera Release of T. chilonisor T. priteosum @ 50,000/ha
Rice Stem borer and leaf folder 6- 8 releases of Trichogrammajaponicum and T. chilonis @
50,000/ha/week starting from 30 days after transplanting.
Cole crops DBM Release of T. chilonisor T. priteosum @ 50,000/ha 4-5 time with
interval of 5-7 days
Tomato Helicoverpaarmigera, Inundative release of Trichogrammabrasiliensis, T. chilonis or T.
Spodopteralitura priteosum @ 50,000/ha for 6 times at weekly interval
Chilli Aphid Spray Verticilliumlecanii based bioformulation @ 5 ml/lit or
Metarhiziumanisopliae based bioformulation @ 5ml/lit of water
Chilli White fly Spray Verticilliumlecanii based bioformulation (10 10 conidia/ litre)
or garlic emulsion @ 2%
Banana Banana pseudo stem weevil Application ofBeauveriabassiana based bioormulation or
Metarhiziumanisopliae based bioformulation @ 15 ml/lit. Apply
entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) @ 1 billion/ha
Banana Aphid Spraying of V. lecanii @ 1 x 107 spores/ml
ii. Botanicals
Rice Case worm, leaf folder, hoppers, Broadcasting of cut pieces of pumelo @ 30 Kg /ha
etc.
Okra Several insects including Spraying of neem based pesticides @ 2.0 ml/lit of water
Helicoverpaarmigera
Cole crops,Tomato Several insects Spraying of neem based pesticides @ 2.0 ml/lit of water
Cole crops Diamond back moth Foliar spray of Lemon juice @ 1.0%
Carrot Several insect pests Foliar spray of Lemon juice @ 4.0% and neem based pesticides @
2.0 ml/lit of water
Chilli Aphid, Jassids, Mite Spray tobacco decoction or neem oil -garlic emulsion @ 20 ml/lit.
Banana Banana pseudo stem weevil Dipping of stem in mud cumneem oil emulsion @ 30 ml/lit
Banana Banana Rhizome Weevil Crushed neem seed should be applied to the pit @ 1 kg/plant
B. Disease management
Potato Several diseases Bioforpf @ 500 g/q as seed treatment
Cole crops Soil borne disease like damping off Treat the seeds with Trichodermaharzianum based bioformulation
@5 g/lit of water + CMC @ 0.02%
Tomato Wilt Seed treatment with Trichoderma at the rate of 1 g per 150 g of seed
Bhut jolokia Damping-off/Collar rot Apply T. harzianum @ 20 ml/kg or apply Trichodermaharzianum
based bioformulation @ 5 ml/kg
Bhut jolokia and Chilli Bacterial wilt Soil application of Trichodermaviride based bioformulation @
2kg/m2 or Pseudomonas fluorescence based bioformulation @ 2
kg/m2
Chilli Bacterial leaf spot Soil application,seedling root dip and foliar spray of Pseudomonas
fluorescensor PGPR mix II @ 20 g/lit at 15 days interval.
Ginger Rhizome rot and bacterial wilt Soak seed rhizomes, spray and drenching the plant with 5% talc
based Pseudomonas fluorescens P1 formulated (50 g/lit)
Banana Panama Wilt Dipping of planting material in 2% Pseudomonas
Banana Bunchy top disease Spraying of Vertilicillumlecanni based bioformulation or
Metarhizium based bioformulation @ 5 ml/lit
iii. Botanicals and others
Chilli Leaf curl virus Spray neem based insecticides (2 ml/lit)
Banana Sigatoka leaf spot Apply power oil (Mineral oil) 1% emulsion.Need based sprayings of
1% Bordeaux mixture. Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 20g/lit or
Bacillus subtilis @ 5g/ lit
Banana Panama Wilt Apply lime @ 500g per pit or Neem cake @1 kg per pit
Banana Bunchy top disease Spraying neem based insecticide @ 3-4 ml/lit.
C. Nematode management
Okra Root knot nematode Seed treatment with Pochoniachlamydosporia @ 5 ml/lit along with
application of Pochoniachlamydosporiaenriched compost @ 2 t/ha.
Alternatively, seed treatment with Bacillus megaterium @ 5 ml/lit +
soil application of 2 t of vermicompost enriched with 5 lit of B.
megatorium/ha
Chilli Nematode Seed treatment with Bacillus macerans @ 3% W/W (2.5 kg/ha)
Banana Burrowing nematode, root knot Dipping of rhizomes in hot water at 45 -50°C for 20 minutes
nematode, root lesion nematode

and cyst nematode
ii. Botanicals
Chilli Nematode Apply Eupatorium and neem leaves @ 100g/m2
Banana Burrowing nematode, root knot Apply Neem cake @ 1 kg/plant
nematode, root lesion nematode
and cyst nematode
Source: Modified after Anonymous (2019)Organic Package of Practices for selected crops of Assam. Assam Agricultural
University, Jorhat & Directorate of Agriculture, Govt. of Assam
Thrust Areas
1. Maintenance of Soil Fertility by Using Natural Resource: The policy encourages the use of crop
rotations and manures to maintain soil fertility. Green manuring, mulching and inter cropping of
legumes, recycling of crop residues, encourage of production of bio fertilizers, conservation of soil
organic matter and biotic life, minimum tillage etc are the important aspects with regard to maintain
the soil fertility.
2. Biological Control of Crop Pests, Diseases and Weeds: Collection of biotic agents like,
parasitoids and predators, isolation of antagonizing microbial organisms, mass production of biotic
agents and microbial pesticides and use of botanical pesticides are important aspects in this regard.
Biological, cultural and physical controls of weeds are to be encouraged.
3. Harnessing of Traditional and Indigenous Knowledge: Concerted efforts should be made to
pool, distill and evaluate traditional practices, knowledge and wisdom and harness them for
sustainable agricultural growth.
4. Area Approach: Areas which are rainfed and mostly under monocrop and traditionally no
chemical input has ever been used (States of N.E. Region, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Rajasthan);
Also areas primarily under rainfed farming having little irrigation support (States of Orissa, HP, J&K,
MP, Chattisgarh and Gujarat and also parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka) may be included in
organic agriculture.
5. Identification of Crops: Horticultural crops such as grapes, banana, mango, papaya, pineapple,
guava, passion fruits, mausambi, orange, cashewnut, walnut and fresh vegetables; export oriented
cereals like basmati rice, and few others like sorghum and pearl millets; all pulses, soybean,
groundnut and cotton and spices like chillies, garlic, turmeric, coriander, ginger have to be covered at
least 10 percent in organic cultivation.
6. Rural Income Generation: On-farm production of organicmanure, compost, vermi-compost,
azolla, blue green algae by farmers have to be encouraged as it offers farmers new possibilities for
value added income generation. Organic farmers and consumer groups should work to support
markets, cut out monopolies and increase farm income.
7. Market Development and Domestic Certification: Efforts should be made to develop organic
Bazaar as a local marketing programme and the existing certification system needs to be simplified.
Approach should be made to develop ‘Participator Guarantee System’ for domestic certification
purpose where there will be interactive participation of small farmers, enterprises, traders and
consumers. The policy encourages group certification process cost sharing for organic certification.
8. Promotion of Organic Agriculture: Awareness campaigns and training programmes for farmers
and NGOs about organic agricultural methods as well as how to sell, promote and diversify their
markets and how to fulfill certification requirements as per NPOP should be promoted by the State
Government.
9. Bio-diversity: Approach should be made to identify appropriate plant/tree species. Agri-Horti-
Silvi-Pastoral-fodder system would be encouraged on individual farm.
10. Information Generation: Facility should be created to develop a comprehensive package of
information and know how to promote organic agriculture as a means of enhancing livelihood
opportunity for small and marginal farmers.
11. Regulatory Mechanism: Adoption of organic agriculture necessarily involves a sequence of steps
that need to be followed by the growers and verified by certification and inspection agencies. This is
necessary to ensure that the consumer is not duped and genuine organic cultivator is not put to
disadvantage.
Important Government Programmes/ Schemes: Government is promoting organic farming through
various schemes/ programmes throughout the country. Some of important programmes are National
Project on Organic Farming (NPOF),Paramapragat Krishi VikasYojana (PKVY) and Mission Organic
Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCD-NER).
1. Project on Organic Farming (NPOF): It is a continuing central sector scheme since 10th Five
Year Plan. NPOF is being implemented by National Centre of Organic Farming at Ghaziabad and its
six Regional Centres at Bangalore, Bhubaneshwar, Panchkula, Imphal, Jabalpur and Nagpur. The
objectives of the projects are -
 Promotion of organic farming in the country through technical capacity building of all the
stakeholders, transfer of technology, promotion and production of quality organic inputs.
 Awareness creation and publicity through print and electronic media.
 To act as nodal quality control laboratory for analysis of biofertilizers and organic fertilizers as
per the requirement of Fertilizer Control Order, 1985.
 Revision of standards and testing protocols of organic inputs under quality control regime.
 To maintain National and Regional culture collection bank of biofertilizer, biocontrol, waste
decomposer organisms for supply to production units, procurement and efficacy evaluation of
biofertilizer strains and mother cultures.
 Promotion of Organic Farming through low cost certification system known as “Participatory
Guarantee System”.
 Providing financial assistance through Capital Investment Subsidy Scheme (CISS) for organic
production units, and implementation of quality control regime, human resource development.
2. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojna (PKVY): "Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)” a
sub- component of Soil Health Management (SHM) scheme under National Mission of Sustainable
Agriculture (NMSA) aims at development of models of excellence in organic farming through a mix
of traditional wisdom and modern science in value chain mode to install sustainability, ensure long
term soil fertility buildup, resource conservation and to offer safe and healthy food grown through
organic practices without the use of agrochemicals. PKVY also aims at empowering farmers through
institutional development through clusters for not only in farm practices management, input
production, quality assurance but also in value addition and direct marketing through innovative
means. Participatory Guarantee System under PGS-India programme will be the key approach for
quality assurance under the PKVY.
3. Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region: Realizing the potential
of organic farming in the North Eastern Region of the country Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer
Welfare has launched a Central Sector Scheme entitled "Mission Organic Value Chain Development
for North Eastern Region" for implementation in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, during the 12th plan period. The scheme aims
at development of certified organic production in a value chain mode to link growers with consumers
and to support the development of entire value chain starting from inputs, seeds, certification, the
creation of facilities for collection, aggregation, processing marketing and brand building initiative
Conclusions: Organic agriculture has been demand in this decade and thus, long-term studies on
ecosystem biodiversity and exploration of traditional knowledge could help us in promoting/
popularizing and practicing organic farming in India with limited use of chemical counterparts.
Strengthening of participatory organic farming could help us in optimizing the existing practices and
to develop new technologies on organic farming in future.
Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to the Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat for
providing necessary support and facilities.
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
HORTICULTURAL SECTOR TOWARDS DOUBLING FARM INCOME:
KVK INTERVENTIONS
Manisha Kachari1, Aradhana Barooah2 and Himadri Shekhar Dutta3
1,2,3
Assistant Professor, College of Horticulture, AAU, Jorhat, E-mail: manisha.kachari@aau.ac.in,
Corresponding Author: Manisha Kachari
A
griculture is the backbone of the Indian economy as 75% of India’s population
depends on Agriculture (Kekane, 2013). Agriculture contributes about 17% to the
total GDP and more than 60% population are under this noble profession. By 2050
the world’s population will be expected to reach 9.1 billion and in order to feed this growing
population, food production must increase by 70% (How to feed the world, 2050). Horticulture sector
plays an important role in total agriculture production of the country and also support to improve the
livelihood of rural communities. Horticulture crops have high export demand, high yield per unit area,
best usages of wasteland, supply of raw materials for industries and more production of food per unit
area as compared to other field crops. It generates employment to men and women by engaging them
in various production and post-harvest activities of horticultural crops. However, the women
participation in agriculture has increased due to movement of men to urban areas for increasing
demand of labour force in construction and other industrial activities (Tripathi et al., 2012). Rural
women’s can be empowered by providing employment opportunities through food processing,
floriculture, nursery business of horticulture crops, seed production, mushroom cultivation etc.
(Ravichandra, 2014).
Augmentation of advanced agricultural technologies is playing a major role in paving the way
for green revolution in Indian agriculture. The agriculture extension system foresees to achieve
diversified growth in agricultural sector. Both institutional reform and structural adjustment of
extension system are operating in Indian agriculture since 1960. In developing countries the extension
services were suffering from a number of gaps like disperse of extension workers; prioritize low level
tasks, lack of agricultural knowledge and skill among extension functionaries. In order to strengthen
the extension service ‘Training and Visit’ (T & V) system was introduced in the country (Acharya and
Chatterjee, 2019). KVKs designed by ICAR are sparing effort to reach out to more farmers for
providing technical guidance to fulfill the government's goal of doubling farmers' income by 2022.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under Govt of India observed that Krishi Vigyan
Kendras (KVKs) helps in hastening the agricultural production and improving the socio-economic
conditions of the farming community through, number of extension programmes like conducting on
farm testing(OFT) to identify location specific agricultural technologies and demonstrating the
production potential of crops at farmers’ fields (FLD). All the possible measures have to be taken by
the researchers and extension workers to increase farmer’s income by motivating the farmers to adopt
new horticulture technology to boost Indian agriculture. High value horticultural crops have the
potentiality to play an important role in diversification of agriculture for doubling the farmers income
and may give thrust in upliftment of the economy. Several thorough research, technological
upgradation and policy initiatives in horticulture sector has become a fruitful and sustainable
enterprise for the small and marginal land holders. Major gross cropped area (77%) occupied by the
field crops (Pulses, Oilseeds and Cereals) contributed only 41% of total output of the crop sector
which is almost equal to the output covered by horticultural crops (Fruits, Vegetables, Spices &
Condiments, Flowers etc) which occupied only 19% of gross cropped area during 2013-14.
(Chatterjee and Mukherjee, 2019). Therefore, potentiality of high valued horticultural crops to double
farmers’ income is more as compared to the cultivation of field crops.
Major Interventions for Doubling Farmer’s Income by 2022-23
1. Make availability of quality planting material for better quality and yield.
2. Rejuvenation of unproductive fruit orchards.
3. Selection of crop vulnerable to climate change
4. Organic cultivation.
5. Hi-tech protected cultivation.
6. Quality control by Proper post harvest management.
Horticultural Sector towards Doubling Farm Income: KVK Interventions 147
7. Value addition of high value horticulture crops.

8. Diversification of horticulture to more remunerative business like mushroom cultivation,
apiculture etc.
9. Horti-tourism for ecological balance and extra returns to the farmers.
10. Adoption of soil health and pest management practices. (Chatterjee and Mukherjee, 2019)
Strategies: Horticulture has pop-up as a main sector of agriculture over the past decade, and found as
an optimal option for crop diversification in agriculture. The challenge is to enhance production by
increasing the productivity of all the horticultural crops and at the same time sustaining it by adoption
of good cultural practices and precision farming principles. Site and situation specific crops, varieties
and innovative technologies should be developed and popularized. High input cost in horticulture
crops, unproductive orchards, unorganized supply chain are the major barrier; hence adoption of
sustainable farming system and organized marketing approach should be encouraged for minimising
the input cost and enhancing the income ultimately. Aromatic plants and spices are important division
of horticultural sector. However, productivity of aromatic and spices is very negligible i.e. 1.56 tonnes
per hectare and 2.21 tonnes per hectare respectively. So Medicinal and Aromatic Plants should be
given more attention as compared to other vegetables and fruits where productivity was 17.96 and
14.81 tonnes per hectare, respectively during 2018-19. There is possibility of waste land development
through cultivation of medicinal plants like saffron, cardamom, turmeric, chillies, ginger and vanilla
beans, mentha, satavar, lemon grass, artimicia, aloe vera, ashwagandha, sarpgandha, basil, opium,
stevia, tulsi etc. India has got the greater potentiality to encash from medicinal crops because of very
high demand in the international market (Kumar, 2018).
Water management through micro-irrigation is important method to improve the production
of fruits, vegetables and flowers especially. Among various irrigation methods, drip irrigation has
proved to be successful in sustainable use of water. It saves down the irrigation water from 25 to 60
per cent in various fruit and vegetables crops with a 10 to 60 per cent increase in yield as compared to
the traditional method of irrigation. This system of irrigation is most popular in water scarce and
saline soil areas. Adoption of micro-irrigation can save input costs to the farmer up to range of 20 to
40 per cent in case of horticultural crops. (De et al., 2019)
Based on a survey, it is found that the major problems faced by horticulture farmers are
finance, marketing, labour, storage, maintenance, education etc. Non availability of fruits and
vegetables due to heavy post-harvest losses of perishable crops is a matter of concern. About 30% of
horticultural produce are being spoiled due to poor post harvest management facilities. It reveals that
India experiencing postharvest losses due to the absence of modern cold storage facilities and lack of
proper food processing units. Therefore, more emphasis needs to be given on post-harvest
management of fruits and vegetables. Besides storage and processing, value addition is another aspect
which allows farmers to capture greater price in the market. Horticulture crops like tomato, potato and
onion are the most sensitive crops to price fluctuations. Drop in horticulture production because of
various factors like unfavourable weather, high transport costs, seasonality and supply chain
constraints affects demand and supply of the produce. Production should be targeted on the
availability of market to reduce price fluctuations and emphasize should be given to cold storage
option to locate bulk of sensitive horticulture crops close to the markets.
Use of hybrid seed and good planting material is another prerequisite to increase production
and to raise the farmer’s income. The hybrid technology has the potentiality to strengthen the
production of vegetable and ornamental crops by increasing its demand. High production, earliness,
superior quality, uniform produce and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses are the main advantages
of hybrid varieties. Adoption of hybrid varieties can increase 1.5-3 folds more yields which fetch
more income from increased output from the same area. Incase of fruit crops, appropriate selection of
rootstocks has potential to modify the architecture of plants for efficient utilisation of resources,
develop strong root systems, improves the soil, nutrient and water use. High density planting is an
advance technique where more numbers of genetically dwarf cultivars and rootstock of fruit crops can
accommodate to get more output. The planting material should be disease free from virus, bacteria
and fungi which can be detected by various biotechnological tools like Polymerase Chain Reaction,
multiplex PCR, Real Time PCR, ELISA for healthy production and productivity of horticultural
crops.
In modern agriculture protected cultivation of horticultural crops is a good choice for

producing quality produce and proper utilization of space and other resources. It is efficacious for
nursery raising and off season production of high value vegetable and flower crops like cucumber,
cole crops, tomato, capsicum, broccoli, chilli, leafy vegetables rose, gerbera, orchids etc. Application
of slow release of nutrients and precise dose of fertilizes to the plants yields better production,
minimize environmental degradation and improve the nutrient use efficiency by using nano-
encapsulated fertilizers, biofertilizers, VAM, biological N fixers and beneficial microbial agents to
increase the production. The cultivation of horticultural crops is labour intensive and time specific.
The production of the farmers can be maximise by adopting mechanized farming system by using
farmer’s friendly and sophisticated implements and machines to increase the efficiency of farm
operation (Kumar, 2018).
The different components of farming system includes field crops, horticultural crops,
veterinary, sericulture, apiculture, mushroom cultivation, forage crops, biogas production and non-
conventional plant resources (Munda et al., 2007). In order to produce more food cropping intensity is
the most important option considering various measures viz, primarily irrigation, use of fertilizers,
crop rotation, mixed cropping, relay cropping, etc. In perennial horticultural crops, the interspaced
available in the pre-bearing stage of the orchard can be effectively utilised to grow short duration
horticultural crops like spices, vegetables as intercropping to gain higher income. Floriculture is a fast
emerging venture in India for generating new employment opportunities with high return per unit area
for rural development. Many flowers and ornamental plants are being grown for domestic as well as
export market. The major flower producing stares are Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal, Maharashtra, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, occupy nearly eighty per cent of area under
floricultural crop cultivation. Organic farming in India has been reactivated and getting popularity
with each passing days. The organic fruits and vegetables are nutritionally superior and safer from the
toxic pesticide residues. Organic farming also helps to reinstate soil health, protect environment,
enhance biodiversity, sustainable crop production and increase farmer’s income. The organic
production of horticultural crops has been worked with use of resistant varieties, use of biofertilizers,
vermicompost and management of disease and pest by biological control and effective use of
biodegradable pesticides. The organic farming has great potential to improve the socio- economic
status of rural farmers. With collective effort of the government of India and various organisations
with proper implementation of schemes the farmer’s income can certainly be doubled.
Quality seed production plays a crucial role in horticulture crop production. Farmers can
enhance their income by producing hybrid seeds through Public Private Partnership mode with
different seed companies to develop more seed producing pockets so that there is more availability of
seed at reasonable price across the country. It is a form of contract farming where farmers are supplied
with pure lines for further crossing and production of hybrid seeds of horticultural crops like
vegetable crops. Agroforestry is widely known to improve the livelihood of the farmers through
simultaneous production of essential food, fuel wood, fodder and building materials and as a
supplementary source of income. The farmers are dependent on agroforestry farming systems as a
way of increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity. The natural resources are conserved
through a number of agro forestry systems in different agro climatic situations. Suitable agroforestry
systems such as agrihorti, agrihorti-silvi pastoral, mixed horti, pure horti, hortisilvi-pastoral and multi-
tier horticulture system should be popularised based on agroclimatic zones, crop priority, topography
and socio-economical factors to enhance the farmers' income (Purohit and Gehlot, 2006). Horticulture
based cropping system optimises use of the space and time and increase the productivity from same
piece of land. Diversified farming system increases productivity and profitability, minimizes risk of
loss, reduces volatility, adoption of new technology; reduces fodder, fuel and timber crisis; avoids
degradation of forests and environmental pollution, generates employment and provides opportunities
for agro-industries by utilizing the natural resources efficiently and this will help in maintaining
sustainability. Integrated farming system of horticulture crops in combination with dairy, fisheries,
poultry, etc. generate regular income and employment to small farmland holder, decreasing
cultivation cost through multiple uses of resources and providing adaptability to predicted climate
change scenario. Beekeeping and agri farming is another integrated approach that is taken up by the
farmers in rural area for their livelihood. In various agricultural and horticultural crops, honey bees
pollination improves the quality of produce. Honeybees, in addition to enhancing the yield of various
crops also convert nectar and pollen into honey and other beehive products, which provides additional
income to the farmer (De et al., 2019).
Mushroom cultivation is also a profitable small-scale enterprise which has wide prospective
to double the farmer’s income. In mushroom production it converts the waste into best high protein
nutritional food. It has less negative impact on the environment. Burning and disposing of crop
residues disrupt ecosystem, human health which can be minimized with operation of mushroom
industry.
The Government of India Suggested a Multidimensional Strategy which Includes
1. More crop per drop using micro irrigation practices and nutrient film techniques.
2. Production of quality seeds and nutrient supply as per recommendations of soil health cards.
3. Large investment for establishment of cold chain and warehouses to prevent post-harvest losses.
4. Promotion of value addition through processed food, storage, pack house, deliverance van,
ripening chamber, warehouses, cold chain and marketing etc
5. Goal to create marketing facilities for premium price of produce through implementation of e-
NAM, formation of FPO, Farmers’ Co-operative Societies.
6. Introduction of crop insurance scheme like Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojna at low cost to
reduce the risk.
7. Promotion of agriculture allied activities like dairy, animal husbandry, poultry, bee keeping,
horticulture and fisheries.
8. Cut flowers and loose flowers production in peri metro cities viz. rose, tuberose, gladiolus, lily,
orchids, chrysanthemum, anthurium, gerbera, marigold, jasmine, bela, chandani, hibiscus,
gailardia, crossandra.
9. Value addition of medicinal, aromatic and spices.
10. Commercial nursery production.
11. Establishment of agro-forestry system or bamboo production in waste land.
12. Recycling of farm and processing industry waste.
13. Role of information and communication technology in doubling income of farmer.
14. Interlinking of rivers to raise output and farm incomes.
15. ‘Operation Greens’ to solve price fluctuation of perishable commodities.
16. PM Kisan Sampada Yojana to promote food processing in a holistic manner.
17. Oil Palm Development Programme (OPDP)
18. Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) a scheme for the holistic growth of
the horticulture sector covering fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops, mushrooms, spices,
flowers, aromatic plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and bamboo. (Source: Saikia and Bordoloi,
2019; Gautam et al., 2018; Indian Economy. 2018)
A Few Case Studies of KVK Intervention in Horticultural Sector in ne India
KVK East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
Production of Off-season Exotic Vegetable: The farmers of Lumwahkrem village were not aware of
the high value Broccoli crop prior to the intervention by KVK, East Khasi Hills. In the year 2014-15,
the KVK introduced a new high yielding broccoli variety Solan Green Head with improved
production and management technology, through training. The impact of the training was that all the
farmers of the Lumwahkrem village were motivated to grow organic broccoli as high value vegetable
crop. Introduction of the high yielding broccoli variety which grew very well in their village was able
to increase their income by fetching higher price in the market as compared to the other vegetables.
The farmers of Lumwahkrem village were able to sell broccoli at a price of Rs. 80/kg and the broccoli
leaves sold at a price of Rs. 30/ bunch. In subsequent year there was increase in the number of
farmers of Lumwahkrem village who started growing broccoli.
(Source : Success story, KVK, East Khasi hills, Meghalaya)
KVK West Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
Terrace Cropping: Shri Bitri Basyrngaid of Pyndengumiong Mairang in West Khashi Hills district
of Meghalaya has been cultivating various horticultural crops like potato, chow-chow, cabbage,
cauliflower, tomato, lettuce, radish, gerbera, carnation etc. since more than 30 years and sold in
Mairang market and Shillong market. In the year 2007-08, there was a great demand for chowchow in
the market which lead to the need for area expansion of the crop. This was the turning point for him
and he started terrace cropping of potato and chowchow in the same area as he had limited land.
Showing of chowchow was done in the month of December followed by potato in February where
chowchow crop was grown above the ground level on the wooden planks and potato on the ground
level. Potato harvesting was done in June at one time while chowchow was harvested for several
times from June to November every year. This lead to the increased income of the farmer and he was
able to sell his produces in the local as well as nearby markets. This innovation of terrace cropping is
a good example of success story of farmer’s innovation.
(Source : Success story, KVK, West Khasi hills, Meghalaya)
KVK Nalbari, Assam
Emergence of Balitara as Floriculture Village in the year 2009-2010: Mr. Pankaj Kalita, a highly
progressive farmer of Balitara of Nalbari district of Assam initiated tuberose cultivation in an area of
0.026 ha from which he could earn Rs. forty five thousand. In the year 2012 with the guidance of
KVK Nalbari and constant support of the District Agriculture office, the area under flower cultivation
was extended to 0.5 ha, incorporating few other flower crops like gerbera, gladiolus, marigold etc.
This led to increased income by more than three lakh rupees from selling as cut flower and planting
material. Mr. Kalita set an example in commercial flower production and stimulated many youths of
his village to adopt commercial floriculture as a source of livelihood security and entrepreneurship
development and thereby making Balitara commercial floriculture village. (Source: Success story,
KVK Nalbari, Assam)
KVK Nalbari, Assam
Off Season Cultivation of Pumpkin: Sri Pankaj Kalita and Bipul Haloi of Chengnoi and Mairadanga
village of Nalbari district are the two progressive farmers. They grew pumpkin in silt deposited area
in normal season i.e. October-November with high irrigation input cost due to less water holding
capacity. The business does not make the profit due to poor demand in the market. With KVK
intervention they started off season cultivation of pumpkin by preponing the month to July- August
which becomes a successful farming to get good demand and higher price in the market and a
profitable business. (Bharali et al., 2019)
KVK Dhemaji, Assam
Demonstration on Papaya Cultivation Variety Red Lady: Mr. Nirmal Borah of Borpathar area of
Silapathar under the Sissiborgaon development block of Dhemaji district was primarily engaged in
farming of paddy, vegetables and fruit crops like banana and Assam lemon in 2.14 ha area. Mr. Borah
approached KVK, Dhemaji in 2014 and showed his interest in scientific cultivation of fruit crops and
other vegetables. Looking at his interest in adopting of new technology, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Dhemaji supported and suggested him to go for Papaya cultivation var. Red Lady in an area of 0.043
ha with 50 numbers of papaya seedlings in homestead garden of Mr Borah. From 0.043 ha area of
papaya cultivation Mr. Borah was able to harvest about 2300.00 kg of fruits sold at Rs. 25.00/kg with
an earning of Rs. 57000.00. Seeing a good profit from the crop, area expansion was undertaken up to
0.26 ha. The nearby farmers got convinced seeing the production, market demand and economic
benefit of the crop and the intervention got horizontal spread covering 1.00 ha area in the district.
(Source: Success story, KVK Dhemaji, Assam)
KVK Thoubal, Manipur
Pickle, Jam, Jelly Preparation: Smt. Pukhrambam Romita Devi of Kakching Wairi Sanapati Leikai
village is a farmer who was motivated and trained up by the KVK Thoubal on pickle making of food
products. After getting training on food preservation she started preparing pickles in small scale with
initial investment of Rs 40/- and fortunately could able to sale the pickles at double the amount of the
capital. Seeing her success she expand her business with more number of items like pickles, candy,
juice, jelly of locally available fruits. Now she is running her business in larger scale and the local
salesman takes the products from her door. She is earning an average net profit of Rs.8000/- per
month with investment of Rs. 20 per kg of finished product.
(Source: Success story, KVK Thoubal, Manipur)
KVK , Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh
Demonstration on Organic Cultivation of Pea, Variety Prakash: In the Tirap district of Arunachal
Pradesh, cluster Front Line Demonstration of rabi pulse (under NFSM) i.e., field pea, variety: Prakash
was conducted for the first time in the year 2015-16. The demonstration was conducted in a total area
of 10 hectares of land, at 32 locations in 5 villages viz. Otongkhoua, Natun Basti, Dadam, Deomali
and Bera Basti. Organic, rainfed cultivation of the pea crop was done following recommended
packages of practices. Dry cow dung was applied @ 1 t/ha and a total of 180 mm rainfall was
received during the growing period of the crop. Total yield of pea cultivation was 122 q. seeds, out of
which 30 q. produce was sold in nearby markets to meet the daily requirement and especially for
education of children. Farmers were satisfied with the performance of the variety Prakash because the
yield was increased almost 45.36 % more than their local pea varieties and the net income of the
farmers were enhanced by Rs. 29,790/ ha. The farmers are ready to increase the area under Prakash if
the seed is available on time. (Source: Success story, KVK Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh)
KVK, Imphal West, Manipur
Demonstration on Oyster Mushroom Cultivation: One adopted farmer of KVK, Imphal West
motivated Shri Konthoujam Santom Singh, a matriculate and laborious farmer for growing mushroom
in the year 2007 with only 120 bags. KVK conducted one demonstration programme on Oyster
mushroom cultivation and production unit under the Horticulture Mission (MM-I). He earned a
handsome amount by selling mushroom and started growing and multiplied master spawn for his own
use and the excess was sold to fellow mushroom growers. By the end of 2013, his production capacity
was increased to 2800 bags. (Source: Success story, KVK Imphal West, Manipur)
Future Challenges
1. To fetch premium prices for farmers by reforming the existing marketing structure
2. Raising productivity
3. Reforming agriculture land policy
4. Relief measures.
5. 5. Development of value chain, market linkages and trade potential.
Conclusion: In this present scenario of Indian Agriculture the poverty among the farming community
brings the concept of doubling farmer’s income to uplift their economy and reduce agricultural
sufferings. The KVK has got a significant role in promoting farmers to adopt innovative technologies,
through demonstration, trainings, and awareness programme, entrepreneurship development.
Doubling farmer’s income can be boosted by production through improved seeds, planting material
and organic farming, value addition and food processing, effective use of warehouse and cold chain
facilities to reduce post harvest losses, optimum use of fertilizers using soil health card and adopting
smart nutrient management practices, integrated farming systems approach; promoting scientific
agriculture micro-irrigation and fertigation, precision farming, income enhancement through
promoting agri-tourism and generating non-farm employment; structural reforms in agriculture
relevant to land leasing and market restrictions, adopting biotechnological approaches; use of export
oriented and industrial crops; crop diversification including grasping maximum benefit from the
flagship programmes of the government. With adoption of the advanced agricultural technologies in
integrated manner the farming community can develop their livelihood and rise their income to
double and thereby contributing towards nation building.
References
Acharya, S.K., Chatterjee, R. (2019). Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) and its Role in the Upliftment of the Farm
Women inIndian Agriculture, Indian Journal of Agriculture Business. 5(2):75-78.
Bharali, M., Datta, HS., Bora, M., Chakraborty, M., Deka, M., Bhuyan., S and Ali, A. (2019). Adoption of off
Season Rabi Pumpkin in Commercial Basis in Assam. Journal of Community Mobilization and Sustainable
Development. 14(1):11-14.
Chatterjee, S. and Mukherjee, D. (2019). Strategies for doubling farmers’ income through horticulture.
AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter, 1(3): 5-7.
De, LC., De, Tulipa, Pamarthi, RK. and Singh, RK. (2019). Agri-Horticultural Interventions for Doubling of
Farmer’s Income. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 8(12): 1414-1425.
Saikia D. and Bordoloi, R, (2019). Strategic Interventions on Horticultural Sector for Doubling Farmers Income
in Assam by 2022-23”. Acta Scientific Agriculture. 3(1): 56-58.
Gautam, U.S., Singh, A., Shahi, B.P., Singh, M.K. and Srivastava, D.S. (2018). Strategies for dubling farmers
income through horticulture based interventions in different agroclimatic zones of Uttar Pradesh.
International Journal of Agriculture Sciences. 10 (14): 6712- 6715.
How to feed the world in 2050, High Level Expert Forum, Rome, 12-13 October, 2009.
Indian Economy. 24 December, 2018. Doubling Farmers’ Income: A Promise to be fulfilled by 2022.
Kekane, M.A. (2013). Indian Agriculture- Status, Importance and Role in Indian Economy, International
Journal of Agriculture and Food Science Technology. 4(4): pp. 343-346.
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Farming Technology in India, Director, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793103,
Meghalaya. pp. 585.
Purohit, S.S. and Gehlot, D. (2006), In: ‘Trends in Organic Farming’, Agrobios India, Jodhpur, Rajasthan,
pp.438.
Ravichandra, N.G. (2014). Horticulture and Its Role in the National Economies. In: Horticultural Nematology.
pp. 1-3.
Tripathi, P.C., Babu, N. and Srinath, K. (2009). Gender Issues in Horticulture. DRWA-Women Empowerment
Series- 13.

ANIMAL
SCIENCE
ROLE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN DOUBLE INCOME OF INDIAN
FARMER’S BY 2022
Vinod Bhateshwar1, S. K. Choudhary2 and Hanuman Lal Nehra3
1
Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-
221005 (Uttar Pradesh), India, E-mail: vinodbhu0883@gmail.com, 2Department of Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra
Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329 (Rajasthan), India and 3Department of Livestock Production Management,
Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329 (Rajasthan), India,
Corresponding Author: Vinod Bhateshwar
I n India, agriculture and livestock sector related intrinsically from the very beginning and
about 70% of the rural farmer’s livelihood depends on it. The Agriculture and allied
sector contributed significantly in Indian economy. The income of farmer’s depends upon
the resources available with them and it varies from state to state. According to the report of NSSO
(2012-13) monthly income of farmers were Rs. 6,426 (Kumari et al., 2017). Dinani et al. (2018)
reported that the average monthly income of farmers was less i.e. Rs. 3,844. The income reported by
various researchers, is not sufficient to fulfill the basic needs of one family in the 21st century. Due to
Green Revolution, India’s food production has increased by 3.7 times, whereas population multiplied
by 2.55 times (Chand, 2017). The food production has been increased from 51 million Ton in 1950-51
to 273 million tons in 2016-17. Due to this per person food production has been increased by 45%,
which made the India not only food self-sufficient at the aggregate level, but also a food exporting
country (Chand, 2017). Hence, this situation compels the government to focus on double the farmer’s
income. So, our Prime Minister, Sri Narendra Modi has given the narrative that Double Farmers’
Income by 2022’ marking the country’s 75th year of independence is a welcome directive, which
would aim to benefit the Indian Farmer through interventions from FARM to FORK (NABARD,
2018). To double the income of farmers would require 15% compounded income growth rate by
2022. This is not possible through agriculture alone. Therefore, in order to achieve the target of
doubling farmer’s income would require much greater effort and focused attention on various
livestock sub-sectors.
Role of Livestock Sector: Crop and livestock are complementary to each other in the agricultural
systems of India. Livestock alone provide livelihood security to 2/3 rd population of landless and
marginal farmer, who kept 70-75% of livestock population. Livestock provides employment to
unemployed educated rural youth, nutritional supplements in terms of milk, meat and eggs to family
members and critical input to crop sectors. Apart from these, animals are natural capital to the
livestock keeper and acts as mobile banks at the hour of needs. Livestock sub-sector plays a vital role
in the Indian economy and also in the socioeconomic development of millions of rural households. As
per the annual report (DAHD&F, 2017-18), livestock sector contributed 28.4% to agricultural GVA
(Gross value added) and 4.9% to national GVA (At current price).
Current Livestock Population in India: The status of livestock population in India of different
livestock commodities are depicted in table 1.
Table 1: Current status of livestock population (Livestock census, 2019)
Category Population (In million) 2012 Population (In million) 2019 % Growth
Cattle 190.90 192.49 0.83
Buffalo 108.70 109.85 1.06
Sheep 65.07 74.26 14.13
Goat 135.17 148.88 10.14
Pig 10.29 9.06 -12.03
Mithun 0.30 0.38 26.66
Yak 0.08 0.06 -25.00
Horses & Ponics 0.63 0.34 -45.58
Mule 0.20 0.08 -57.09
Donkey 0.32 0.12 -61.23
Camel 0.40 0.25 -37.05
Total Livestock 512.06 535.78 4.63
Contribution of Livestock Sector in Indian Economy: Livestock and poultry sectors contribute 4.0
and 0.9%, respectively, to the national economy in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The
agriculture and allied sector collectively contributed about 17.2% to the total GDP of the country.
According to estimates of the Central Statistical organization (CSO, 2017) GoI, the value of output
from livestock sector was about Rs. 10,43,656 crore at current prices during 2017-18 which is about
39.67% of the value of the output from total agriculture and allied sector. The total export earnings
from livestock products and agriculture are approx. 1% and 6%, respectively (Kumar et al. 2018).
Meat and meat products contributed 90% to total export earnings from livestock sector.
Livestock Role in Farmer’s Income: Farmers earn income from various sources, viz. crop
cultivation, horticulture, dairy, poultry, fisheries, other allied activities, non-farm activities, and wage
employment. During the last 30 years, the income disparity between farmers and non-farmers has
increased. In 1983–84 the average income of a farm household used to be about a third of that of a
non-farm household. By the year 2004–05, this statistic had reduced to one-fourth. Livestock has been
an important source of livelihood for small farmers. They contributed about 16% to their income,
more so in states like Gujarat (24.4%), Haryana (24.2%), Punjab (20.2%) and Bihar (18.7%)
(Planning Commission, 2012).
Hurdles in Livestock Sector to Double the Farmer’s Income: Livestock sector act as an engine for
agricultural growth. Doubling the farmers’ income would require addressing challenges availability of
high yielding germplasm, shortage of feed and fodder, frequent occurrence of some deadly diseases
etc. The sector has remained under invested; and neglected by the financial and extension institutions.
Livestock markets are under-developed, which is a significant barrier to the commercialization of
livestock production. Besides, the sector will also come under significant pressure of increasing
globalization of agri-food markets. Major hurdles in livestock sector to double the farmer’s income
are listed below.
1. Improving productivity in a huge population of low-producing animals is one of the major
challenges. The average annual milk yield of Indian cattle is 1172 kg which is only about 50% of
the global average. Likewise the meat yield of most species is 20-60% lower than the world
average.
2. The deficit of dry fodder, concentrates and green fodder currently is 10, 33 and 35%, respectively.
Only 25% of forage seeds are available, that too of 15-20 years old varieties. Nearly 4% of total
cultivated area utilized for fodder production is nearly constant from last three decades. The
common grazing lands too have been deteriorating quantitatively and qualitatively.
3. Insufficient prophylactic vaccination and deworming. Frequent outbreaks of diseases like FMD,
BQ, PPR, Brucellosis, Swine fever and Avian Influenza etc. continue to reduce productivity and
production.
4. Available veterinary support in terms of infrastructure (for hospitals and diagnostic labs) and
technical manpower are insufficient.
5. Livestock sector receives only about 12% of the total public expenditure on agriculture and allied
sectors and about 4-5% of the total institutional credit flowing to agriculture and allied sectors.
Insufficient funding, subsidy and bank loan as compared to other agriculture sectors
6. Insufficient Livestock insurance coverage- Only 6% of the animal heads are provided insurance
cover.
7. Livestock extension- Livestock extension remains grossly neglected. Only about 5% of the farm
households in India do access information on livestock against 40.4% for crop farming.
8. Organized slaughtering facilities are too inadequate.
9. Lack of access to organized markets and meager profits distract farmers from investing into
improved technologies and quality inputs. Informal market intermediaries often exploit the
producers.
Need to Double the Farmer’s Income
Promote Farmers Welfare: Adoption of new technologies which helps to increase in the productions
and growth of farmers (Chand, 2017). Various schemes and Yojnasare also developed by Department
of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries or the promoting of farmers welfare. E.g.-: ENAM
(Electronic: –National agriculture market) (Kumar, 2018) Pradhan Mantri Fasal BimaYojna
(PMFBY), Dairy Entrepreneurship Development program, National Livestock Mission etc. (DAHDF,
2017).
Agrarian Distress: India is the world’s 2nd largest agriculture producer. Farming can be very risky
business due to; unpredictability of weather, crop and market. That unpredictability for small farmers
led many into agrarian distress (Chand, 2017).
Role of Animal Husbandry in Double Income of Indian Farmer’s by 2022 155
Increase Number of Farmer’s Suicides: Famers suicide a very complex phenomenon largely
associated with economic, social and psychological distress. There are several causes of farmer’s
suicides which include: – Increase cost of production, globalization and exploitation from money
lending sources, shrinking water table, repeated crop failure, natural calamities and lack of alternative
source of income bring down the farmers suicides (Chand, 2017).
Rural Youth Less Interested in Farming: Lack of credit and negative perception towards farming;
leading young people less interested and leave farming (Chand, 2017). Youth are not continuing as
farmers due to, falling profitability and income in agriculture. Attracting and Retaining Youth in
Agriculture (ARYA) & Rural Entrepreneurship Awareness Development Yojna (READY) are the two
schemes developed by Government of India for the educating of rural youth toward farming (Indian
ministry of Agriculture and farmer’s welfare, 2018).
Prospects of Animal Husbandry to Increase the Farmer’s Income
Widening the Coverage of A. I.: According to report of Niti Ayog Paper (2017), the coverage of A.I
in cattle and buffalo is approx. 35%. This situation is prevailed due to inadequate supply of quality
semen doses and liquid nitrogen. To achieve the required target of A. I, we require 160 million doses
of semen, but currently we are producing 81 million doses, which widen the gap between demand and
supply.
Improving the Productive Efficiency of Dairy Animal: The productivity of our Indigenous animals
in India is very low (2-4 kg/day) as compared to other developed countries. Farmer’s income can only
be double if productivity of these low producing animals enhanced (Choudhary et al., 2018). There is
ample scope in the improvement of production efficiency of dairy animals by improving the housing,
feeding, health and reproductive management like anestrous, delayed puberty and delayed heat. Also,
there is a need to improve genetic material and breeding methods which is helpful in enhancing the
productivity of dairy animal (Tekam et al., 2019).
Technology Generation and Dissemination: In livestock, information technology used for
dissemination of livestock related information such as; vaccination alert can be delivered through
mobile service and various social media before Monsoon (Choudhary et al.,. 2018).
Diversification: Crop-livestock diversification is the best livelihood strategies for farm household.
This system provides increased stability in income, food security and nutrition to the farmers.
Livestock sector alone provides alternative livelihood option to over 70 millions small and marginal
farmers. Meat, egg, wool and their by- products are also emerging as important productive sector for
diversification (Tekam et al., 2019).
Value Addition: Value addition is a process of changing and transforming a product from its original
state to a more valuable state. Product development is a way that enhances the value of milk and meat
byproducts. Local farmers also get the benefit if they engage in value addition activities which
enhance the value of livestock commodities (Tekam et al., 2019).
Ensure Availability of Feed and Fodders: India is a deficit of 10% of dry fodders, 33% concentrate
feeds and 35% of green fodders. So, the availability of feeds and fodders can only be improved
through dietary manipulation, microbial manipulation and increased production of fodder crop. Inter
cropping and mix cropping are widely used to minimize the risk of failure, low water requiring and
short duration forage such as; cow pea, cluster bean can be intercropped with long duration crop such
as sorghum, pearl millet. Fodder production can be increased by raising fodder crop as a catch crop
between the main cropping seasons (Lathwal et al., 2018). The animal should be fed with balanced
ration including mineral mixture and vitamins.
Fodder and Feed Development: Since, feed and fodders contribute 60-70% of the total variable cost
in livestock rearing, thus, economic feeding will increase the profitability. Fodder Development
program along with fodder bank should be designed in every district. Establishment of fodder banks
in a fodder scarcity region through dairy federation and organizations can help small farmers to feed
their livestock (NABARD, 2018). At the same time, the number of low productive animal need to be
decreased to provide the adequate feed and quality feed instead of keeping large number of animal
with underfed.
Improvement of Nutritional Value: Majority of feed and fodders for animals are paddy straw, wheat
straw, maize stalk, sugarcane, bagasse which have poor in nutritional value due to high fiber content.
Nutritional value of these fodders can be improved through urea treatment, water irrigation and heat
treatment methods (Lathwal et al., 2018).
Increasing Funding, Subsidy and Bank Loan: Majority of livestock development policy has been
implemented by State government and only 10% governed by central governments. There is very less
private sector investment in animal husbandry. Investment linked tax incentives and attractive credit
facility to private investors are missing in this sector, which need to be addressed.
Improve Breeding Practices: It is necessary to provide updated knowledge regarding artificial
insemination and problem associated with it to the paravet and AI technician on regular basis to
improve the breeding efficiency and thereby loss of farmers. Also new technology like MOET and
IVF need to be implemented to increase the breeding potential of superior Dam. It is further
strengthened by providing a timely supply of liquid nitrogen, frozen semen, vaccine, first aid kit,
concentrate feed, mineral mixture and forage seed to paravets for onward supply to dairy animals
through local dairy federation or NGOs engaged in livestock husbandry (Lathwal et al., 2018).
Shelter Management: Farmers should ensure the welfare and comfort of animals by providing
sufficient space requirement of individual animal, proper ventilation, water management, feeding
management, proper hygiene in animal shelter (Kachhiapatel et al., 2018). With a changing climate,
the housing design of animals needs to be modified to make the micro-climate conducive for health
and production by adopting a free stall design, fogger, sprinklers and mist cooling system (Lathwal et
al 2018).
Improvement of Health Care Services: Creation of awareness among farmers regarding animal
diseases and preventive measures by organizing regular camp in villages and vaccination of animals
for most common diseases. Also need to be established disease investigation laboratory for early
disease diagnosis, dairy federation for milk procurement, private agencies and farmer’s federation for
effective treatment of animals.
Contract Farming: Now a days various co-operatives and agribusiness organizations promoting
contract livestock and poultry farming, including risk coverage, which help in the improving of the
socio-economic status of rural farmer.
Livestock Insurance: Livestock insurance provided by the public sector insurance companies could
cover only about 6% of the animal heads. Therefore, innovative and acceptable insurance models may
be designed to evolve a suitable scheme for various livestock species.
Kisan Credit Card: Government of India started KISAN CREDIT CARD in the year 1998 to
provide timely and adequate credit support to the farmers from the banking system in a fixable, hassle
free and without cost. The benefit of this system is also still underutilized.
Women SHGs: Now a day, Woman SHGs is emerging as a most credible institution to provide cash
support to small enterprises and also they have a very good track record on credit supply and timely
recovery. So there is need to invest more and more by the government to provide the credit benefit to
these women SHG for the establishment of any new venture for their livelihood.
National Dairy Development Programme: This programme is focused on production of quality
milk, procurement, processing and marketing of milk and milk byproduct by creating /strengthening
of infrastructure.
Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme: This scheme is being implemented through
NABARD which provide financial assistance to farmers to become a entrepreneur.
National Dairy Plan Phase 1: NDP-1 is a central government scheme, implemented by the National
Dairy Development Board to increase productivity of milch animals through scientific breeding and
feeding to meet the rapidly growing demand for milk. By 2022 the demand of milk would be 254
million tonnes, which is possible only through crossbreeding and upgrading of nondescript breed and
low producing animals.
Strengthening Livestock Extension Services: Livestock extension services remain in dormant stage
and majority of livestock keepers are very poor and uneducated, that’s why they do not able to access
information given on various platforms. So there is need to aware the farmers through building up an
exclusive cadre of livestock extension workers, establishment of KVKs exclusively for livestock
activities and strengthening ATMA with AH experts (Choudhary et al., 2018). ICT based agricultural
extension services also brings extremely good response among the farming community.
Fixing the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for Livestock Products: The farmer is mainly
concerned with the profit he gets from a particular commodity. Further, better price, may be fetched
by diversification of livestock products with practical options. It also needs to fix the minimum price
of each livestock commodity, which provides financial security among the livestock keepers.
Role of Animal Husbandry in Double Income of Indian Farmer’s by 2022 157
Strengthen Organic Livestock Farming: In recent days, everybody is looking for organic products
and even interested to pay a higher price in comparison to inorganic product. In our country, various
places like, NER, HP, J&K, Uttarakhand, MP, Chhatisgarh, and Jharkhand is organic by default, must
be made Organic by Process for the producers to get advantage of market value.
Adoption of Integrated Farming System (IFS): Development and adoption of IFS model in various
farming system according to the need of people will fulfill the target of Doubling farmer’s income by
utilizing output of one enterprise as input of other enterprise viz. Fish cum duck farming, Livestock
and crop, Fish-duck- goatery, Fish-duck- fruit plant etc.
Role of Government: Extension agents and other ICT tools help to provide information to the
farmers to overcome the infectious disease of animal. State government organize camp, like- Krishi
Mela in Krishi Vigan Kendra for famers to provide information regarding adoption of latest
technology related with livestock. Educating livestock farmers about various method of production of
value added product, Also help in provide loan with low interest to the farmers. Provide insurance to
farmers during natural climatic condition.
Schemes (Annual Report 2017-2018)
Livestock Health and Disease Control Scheme: Centrally sponsored scheme launched buy the
DADF (2010). Efforts are made towards prevention, control and treatment of animal from economic
importance diseases such as; Foot and mouth disease, Hemorrhagic septicemia, Black quarter in cattle
and New castle disease in poultry etc.
Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme: Objective of that scheme to generate self
employment opportunity in Dairy Sector in the country this scheme being implemented through
NABARD which provide financial assistance.
Rashtriya Gokul Mission: Implemented by Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying and
Fisheries for development and conservation of indigenous breed. That scheme is implementing for
upliftment of about 80.00% low producing indigenous animals. Objective of that scheme to enhance
milk production and improve genetic makeup of indigenous cattle breeds.
National Mission on Bovine Production
Pashu Sanjiwani: Started for the welfare of animals through effective treatment of sick animals by
veterinary graduate.
Advanced Reproductive Technology: Production of female calf only through use of sex sorted
semen, which are disease free and also reducing the cost of rearing male calf.
E- Pashu Haat: E- market Portal has been started for availability of high quality germplasm and
selling along with identification, traceability of germplasm sold through e -market connecting
breeder’s agencies and stakeholders.
Role of Veterinarian in Increasing Farmers’ Income: Role of veterinarian is much more important
in creating awareness about major livestock diseases and their prevention and control. Apart from
this, they help farmers in various ways- like giving information about various livestock policies and
schemes, encouragement of farmers for making value added livestock products and benefit of
diversification in animal husbandry (Planning commission, 2012).
Conclusions: In the era of globalization and industrialization, doubling farmer’s income is very tough
task due to continuous decreasing arable land for cultivation and excessive population growth. This
can only be achieved through proper implementation of appropriate strategies. Basically, income of
farmers may be enhanced by three ways, such as increasing the gross income, reducing the costs of
production and stabilizing the income. Gross income of farmers can be increased by improving
productivity of milch animals, integrated and diversified farming system, better market price
realization and special policy measures. Livestock policy should be based on the principles of social
acceptability, economic feasibility, technical viability and resource conservation ability. Policy
support system like Kisan credit card, SHG and NGO provide financial support to the farmers to
become entrepreneurs. Large scale awareness and skill programme need to be organized to educate
the farmers to adopt the diversification in the livestock sector.
References
Annual report. (2017-2018). Department of animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries. 4-87.
Basic animal husbandry and fisheries statistics (2019). Government of India, ministries of agriculture and
farmer welfare, Department of animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries, Krishak Bhawan, New Delhi, (ahs
series-18).
Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), GoI. 2017.

Chand R. (2017). Doubling of farmer’s income, rational, strategy, prospect and action plan. Niti Policy Paper: 5-
19.
Choudhary, S., Yamini, Raheja, N., Barman, D., Prashad, K., Panchbhai, G. (2018). Doubling of farmers
income of country: ways and means, dairy planner. 9-11.
Dinani, O. P., Tyagi, R., Giri, A. D. (2018). Role of livestock in doubling the farmer’s income national
perspective and the way forward, International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology. 497-503.
Kachhiapatel, A. J. (2018). Strategies to double the income of dairy farmers in India, Compendium smallholders
livestock's producers in India opportunities and challenges organized at Dantiwada, Gujarat 11 -13 April.
2018, 31-37.
Kumar, S., Chahal, V. P. (2018). Doubling farmers’ income: Possible way out, Indian farming. 95-96.
Kumari B. (2017). Importance of livestock sector in doubling of farmer’s income by 2022. Indian Journal of
Economics and Development. 136-140.
Lathwal, S. S., Devi, I., Dudi, K. (2018). Strategies for enhancing income of smallholder livestock farmers in
western India. Compendium smallholder’s livestock's producers in India opportunities and challenges
organized at Dantiwada, Gujarat 11-13 April. 2018, 42-52.
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (2018). Final report on doubling farmer’s income; Issues
and strategies for Maharashtra state.
Planning Commission. (2012). Report of the working group on animal husbandry and dairying for the twelfth
five year plan 2012-2017. Government of India, New Delhi.
Planning commission. (2012). Report of the working group on animal husbandry and dairying.
Tekam, D., Sonawane, N., Bhanotra, N., Sawant, M. (2019). Doubling of farmers income through animal
husbandry by 2022. International Journal Current Microbiology and Applied Science. 8 (02): 3246-3255.

INFLUENCE OF EWE WEIGHT AT MATING AND PARITY ON
REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE, LAMB GROWTH AND
SURVIVABILITY IN MECHERI SHEEP
P. Senthilkumar, V. Sankar, N. Sri Balaji, L. Arun and P. Naliniand J. Muralidharan
Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri- 636 453, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Tamil Nadu,
India, E-mail: drpskumar2003@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: P. Senthilkumar
I n recent years, sheep production systems have become more intensive in India. It
increases interest in understanding of factors such as parity and weight of ewes at mating
on sheep performance to improve sheep productivity. Similarly, lamb survivability is
very important character in sheep production. The effect of ewe weight at mating having greater
influence than age of the ewe on sheep productivity (Aliyari et al., 2012). An increase in the pre-
mating weight of the ewes has resulted in a proportional increase in the lamb birth weight, weaning
weight (Aliyariet al., 2012) and lambs survivability (Kott, 2014). The earlier reports were mostly
carried out under temperate condition. Under tropical conditions, the relationships between these
mentioned factors are poorly understood, although a few studies were carried out under extensive
system of rearing. Hence, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the relationship between pre-
mating ewe weight and parity of promising meat breed of Mecheri sheep on their reproductive
performance and on the growth characteristics and survivability of the lambs.
Area Description: The study was carried out in the Mecheri Sheep Research Station (MSRS), Tamil
Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University. Location of MSRS is at longitude of 77º 56'E,
latitude of 11º45'N and altitude of about 650 feet above MSL. The local climate of the area is
generally hot, semi-arid and tropical with an average rainfall of 831.4 mm.
Animals, Feed and Management: The study analysed data from 422 births and 389 lambs,
corresponding to a flock of Mecheri ewes. Parity distribution was: 1-parity (128), 2-parity (109), 3-
parity (116) and 4 and above-parity (114).
Ewes grazed tropical pastures containing Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), Guinea grass
(Panicum maximum), Cenchrusciliaris and native grasses for 8 hours/d and were supplemented with a
concentrate mixture containing 2.50 Mcal ME/kg DM and 18.80% CP, 500 g/ewe/d at mating
(flushing) and, 250 g/ewe/d after matting until lambing.
The mating was achieved in a hand mating system. Ewe lambs were mated at the moment that
they reached 70 percent of their mature body weight whereas for multiparous ewes it was at the time
of weaning (90 days after lambing) and with an average body condition of 2.4 and 3.0 (using the 5-
point scale described by Russel et al., 1969) at the beginning and at the completion of mating,
respectively..
Lambs were creep fed from the first week of age up to weaning (90 days), with a mash feed
containing 18% CP, 3% fat and 2.5% CF. The average amount of creep feed consumed by lambs was
estimated as 100 g/d. Average age of lambs at weaning was 90 days.
Live weight of the ewes was determined before mating season using digital scale with a
sensitivity of 100g. Newborn lambs were ear-tagged and traits like birth weight, weaning weight and
survivability till weaning were observed and recorded.
Data Collection: Ewes weight were determined 1 week before the start of the mating season using
digital scales with a sensitivity of 100g. The mating was achieved in a hand mating system and
completed within 60 days in all the season in a year. Newborn lambs were tattooed and traits (i.e.,
birth type and weaning weight) observed in the study were recorded. The data were adjusted using
interpolation. Then the number of lambs that survived until days 90 was used to determine survival
rates for those days.
Statistical Analysis: Binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine the influence of the
pre-mating weight and parity of the ewes on the fertility rate and survivability of the lambs.A simple
regression analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between the pre-mating ewe weight
and parity of the ewe with the birth weight and weaning weight of the lambs. The effect of pre-mating
ewe weight and parity on the growth (Birth weight and weaning weight) of the lambs were analysed
by an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using least squares means.
The reproductive performance of Mecheri ewes and the survivability rate of lambs according
to the premating weight of the ewes are presented in the Table 1. The binary logistic regressions for
the effect of ewe premating weight in the fertility rate and survivability of the lambs are provided in
Table 2 & 3, respectively. The survivable rate and fertility rate was significantly (P<0.05) influenced
by pre-mating weight of the ewes. It was lower in lambs born for first parity ewes and for less than 15
-20 kg body weight ewes. The current findings are similar to Molina et al. (1994) that lambs
survivability and sheep efficiency were affected by the increasein the ewe weight at mating.
Table 1.Effect of pre-mating ewe weight on reproductive performance and survivability rate
Parameter 15-20 kg 21-25 kg 26-30 kg 31-35 kg
Ewes exposed (nos.) 56 230 158 45
Ewes lambed(nos.) 43 200 134 38
No. of lambs born(nos.) 43 200 134 38
Fertility rate (%) 76.78 86.95 84.81 84.40
Survival rate up to weaning (%) 88.37 (5) 96.5 (7) 100 100
Nos. in parenthesis denotes nos. of animal died
Table 2.Logistic regression model for the effect of pre-mating ewe weight on fertility rate
Predictor Coef SE Coef P- value
Constant 1.412 0.251 0.001
15-20 kg 0.111 0.158 0.004
21-25 kg 0.331 0.141 0.095
26-30 kg 0.234 0.139 0.311
>30 kg -0.067 0.164 0.631
Table 3.Logistic regression model for the effect of pre-mating ewe weight on survival rate
Predictor Coef SECoef P- Value
Constant 1.839 0.114 0.001
15-20 kg 0.092 0.146 0.015
21-25 kg 0.184 0.624 0.213
26-30 kg 0.221 0.144 0.096
>30 kg 0.311 0.179 0.084
*<15 kg body weight group was the reference group
The reproductive performance of Mecheri ewes and survivability rate of lambs according to
the premating parity of ewes are provided in Table 4. Furthermore, the binary logistic regressions for
the effect of ewe premating parity on the fertility rate and survivability of the lambs are given in
Tables 5 & 6, respectively. Fertility rate and survivable rate was significantly (P<0.05) influenced by
pre-mating ewe parity. It was lower, when the pre-mating ewe at first parity. It may be due to low
milk secretion and lack of experience maternal care in low boy weight ewes compared to mature ewes
(Corner et al., 2013).
Table 4.Effect of parity on reproductive performance and survivability rate
Parameter 1st parity 2nd parity 3rd parity 4th parity
Ewes exposed (nos) 128 109 116 114
Ewes lambed (nos.) 108 102 106 106
No. of lambs born (nos.) 108 102 106 106
Fertility rate (%) 84.37 93.67 91.37 92.98
Survival rate up to weaning (%) 83.33 (18) 98.0 (2) 98.11(4) 98.11(4)
Nos. in parenthesis denotes nos. of animal died
Table 5.Logistic regression model for the effect of pre-mating ewe parity on fertility rate
Predictor Coef SECoef P-value
Constant 1.386 0.791 0.001
st
1 parity 0.811 0.858 0.034
nd
2 parity 1.200 0.882 0.345
rd
3 parity 2.090 0.984 0.174
th
>4 parity 0.515 0.845 0.103
Table 5. Logistic regression model for the effect of pre-mating ewe parity on lamb survival rate
Predictor Coef SE Coef P- value
Constant 1.651 0.432 0.001
st
1 parity 0.452 0.251 0.040
Influence of Ewe Weight at Mating and Parity on Reproductive Performance, Lamb Growth……………..161
nd
2 parity 1.100 0.740 0.501
rd
3 parity 2.410 0.978 0.132
th
>4 parity 0.121 0.992 0.211
*<1 year old group was the reference group
Effects of ewe’s premating weight and parity on the birth weight and weaning weight of the
lambs are shown in Table 7. The birth weight of lambs born was significantly (P<0.05) influenced by
pre-mating weight of ewes. It was not influenced by parity of the ewes. Whereas, the weaning weight
of lambs were not influenced by both parity and pre-mating weight of ewes. In contrast, Aktaset al.
(2014) reported that the highest live weight was observed in the lambs born to the heaviest ewes. The
variation may be due to variation in breeds, feed sources and quite likely management and climatic
conditions.
Table 6. Effect of pre-mating ewe weight and parity on growth performance of Mecheri lambs
Birth weight Weaning weight
Overall 2.36 ± 0.024 (422) 10.67 ± 0.121 (389)
Parity NS NS
st
1 2.11 ± 0.064 (108) 10.16 ± 0.260 (97)
nd
2 2.39 ± 0.045 (102) 10.69 ± 0.224 (96)
rd
3 2.47 ± 0.049 (106) 11.46 ± 0.360(98)
th
>4 2.34 ± 0.047 (106) 10.63 ± 0.232(98)
Pre-mating weight * NS
15-20 kg 1.94 ± 0.080 (50) 9.32 ± 0.404 (37)
21-25 kg 2.22 ± 0.040 (200) 10.64 ± 0.193 (186)
26-30 kg 2.48 ± 0.039( 134) 11.08 ± 0.191 (130)
>30 kg 2.64 ± 0.056 (38) 11.21 ± 0.333 (36)
NS- Not significant (P>0.05); * Significant (P<0.05); Nos. in parenthesis denotes nos. of observation
Conclusion
A better reproductive performance and lamb birth weight in Mecheri sheep may be achieved
by the breeding ewes weighing more than 20 kg and more than two years of age.
References
Akta¸ S, A. H. and Do˘gan, S. (2012). Effect of live weight and age of Akkaramanewes at mating on multiple
birth rate, growth traits, and survivalrate of lambs, Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci., 38: 176–182.
Aliyari, D., Moeini, M. M., Shahir, M. H., and Sirjani, M. A. (2012). Effectof Body Condition Score, live
weight and age on reproductive performance of Afshari Ewes, Asian J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 7: 904–909.
Corner, R. A., Mulvaney, F. J., Morris, S. T., West, D. M., Morel, P. C. H., and Kenyon, P. R. (2013). A
comparison of the reproductive performance of ewe lambs and mature ewes, Small Rumin. Res.,114: 126–
133.
Kott, R. (2014). Montana farm flock sheep production handbook, available at: http://animalrangeextension.
montana.edu/sheep/reproduction.
Molina, A., Gallego, L., Torres, A., and Vergara, H. (1994). Effect of matingseason and level of body reserves
on fertility and prolificacy of Manchega ewes, Small Rumin. Res., 14: 209–217.
Russel, A.J., Doney, F., and Gunn, R. G. (1969). Subjective assessment of body fat in live sheep.Journal of
Agricultural Science, 72: 451-454.

BOTANY
RICE LANDRACES WITH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACT
UNDER COMBINED ABIOTIC STRESS CONDITION
S. Bharathkumar1 and R. Salomi2
1
PG & Research Department of Botany, Kandaswami Kandar’s College, P.Velur, Namakkal-638 182, Tamilnadu, INDIA,
E-mail: bharathkumar76@gmail.com and 2Department of Botany, Arignar Anna College (Arts and Science), Krishnagiri,
Tamilnadu, INDIA, Corresponding Author: S. Bharathkumar
R ice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops for half of the world
population since it is being a stable food. At the same time, the physiological process
of rice is severely affected by various abiotic stresses by climate changes. In rain-fed
upland and irrigated conditions, a new trend is emerged with the shift from transplanting to direct
seeding in rice production due to operational simplicity as well as to avoid high cost of labour. Even
though the direct seeding method can shorten crop growth duration up to 14 days, there is a major
obstacle of poor crop establishment in areas prone to flooding after sowing (Tuong, 2000). Besides,
flash-flooding and submergence adversely affect at any developmental stage during rice growth in
rain-fed lowland rice cultivating areas. At vegetative stage, plants are completely submerged for 2
weeks or more than that by flash flood or stagnant flooding. Due to frequent flash flood or
submergence in rain-fed lowland areas it is reported that about 20 million ha are adversely affected
each year. Additionally, the low temperature affects growth and development of rice plants during any
developmental stage from seed germination to reproductive stage in terms of yellowing of the leaves,
lower stature and decreased tillering of the rice plant, sterility of the spikelets, incomplete panicle
exertion and spikelet abortion at reproductive stage. Under low temperature, delayed germination and
seedling growth may result in non-uniform seedling growth and weak seedlings, which may affect
final grain yield (Cruz et al., 2006). Temperatures below 20ºC can decrease both the speed and
percentage of germination, resulting in poor crop stands (Yoshida, 1981). The optimum temperatures
for rice germination and early growth are 25-30ºC (Fei 2002). Germination speed, in turn, relates to
seedling vigour, and can be a significant determinant of good field performance. In this way, low
temperature causes yield lose to rice farmers in range of 0.5 to 2.5 t/ha annually (Singh, et al., 2005;
Ye, et al., 2009).
Although qAG and SUB1 QTLs are available for flood tolerance during seed germination and
seedling stage, respectively, they are independent (Angaji, 2010; Ismail, et al., 2009). Enhanced
tolerance of flooding during seed germination and seedling growth could therefore help improve crop
establishment and promote more widespread adoption of direct seeding. Besides, rapid germination
and growth at low temperature are favourable traits for seedling establishment and uniform crop
stands in direct-seeding systems (Blum 1988). Fortunately, there are many QTLs and genes in
JAPONICA and INDICA accessions have been identified for cold tolerance at different growth stage
(Lou, et al., 2007; Wang, et al.,, 2014; Shakiba, et al., 2017). Moreover, cold tolerance plays a
significant role in all growth stages from seed germination to seed setting stage. Thus, in the absence
of cold tolerance in rice there would be delay in seed germination, seedling growth, flowering time
and seed setting. Therefore, rice breeders have to make possibility to develop rice varieties with
tolerance to different types of stresses from germination up to reproductive stage. In the present study,
nine rice landraces were screened for ability of tolerance of cold and flood during seed germination
and seedling stage at phenotypic and genotypic level.
Plant Materials: In this study, nine rice landraces, Pokkali, Rupsal, Nagalmutha, Ravana, Polai,
Marishal, Talmugra, Kamini and Raspanjar obtained from the Germplasm collection centre, National
Rice Research Institute (NRRI), Cuttack, Odisha were used.
Phenotypic Screening
Cold Stress: For cold tolerance screening at seedling stage, seeds of these rice landraces were
allowed to germinate along with intolerant check (IR50) and grew until 3-leaf stage in trays with field
soil. At 14 d after seeding, cold stress was imposed on seedlings at 4ºC constantly (day/night) with
12 h light for 8 days. The tolerance and leaf rolling incidence were recorded in these landraces (Lou,
et al., 2007).
Rice Landraces with Positive and Negative Impact under Combined Abiotic Stress Condition 163
Anaerobic Seed Germination: For anaerobic seed germination, seeds were sown in rows in plastic
trays along with tolerant check (EC516602) and covered by a thin layer of soil and then immediately
submerged to a water depth of 10cm. This depth was maintained for 21 days and the percentage of
seed germination and shoot length was determined (Angaji, 2008).
Submergence Stress: For submergence stress, these landraces at 14-d-old seedling stage grown in
metal trays, along with FR13A (tolerant) and IR42 (intolerant) were transferred into submergence
tank. Seedlings were submerged for 2-weeks followed by raising water level up to 90cm. Then, they
were de-submerged for survival rate at 10 d recovery (Septiningsih, et al., 2009).
Genotypic Screening
PCR Amplification: A crude DNA preparation suitable for PCR screening was prepared using a
simplified miniscale procedure. A single piece of healthy young leaf was harvested and placed in a
labeled 1.5 ml centrifuge tube in ice. The leaf sample was macerated using thick glass rod after adding
400 µl of extraction buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 2.5 mM EDTA, 300 mM NaCl and 1% SDS).
The leaf was ground until the buffer turned into green colour. After grinding, another 400 µl of
extraction buffer was added and mixed by pipetting. The contents were centrifuged at 12,000g in
micro centrifuge for 10 min. Nearly 400 µl of lysate was extracted with 400 µl of chloroform. The top
aqueous supernatant was transferred to another 1.5ml tube and DNA was precipitated with absolute
ethanol. The contents were centrifuged for 3 min at full speed and the supernatants were discarded.
The pellet was washed with 70% ethanol. The DNA was air dried and re-suspended in 50 µl of TE
buffer (10mMTris-HCl, pH 8.0, 1mM EDTA, pH8.0). PCR amplification was done with primer
sequence of BAC1, PNK5, PNK7, PNK10 and BAC22 SSLP (simple sequence length polymorphism)
markers in the Ctb1 region (Saito, et al., 2010). Primer sequence of RM312 (qAG1), RM341(qAG2
and qCTS2), RM206(qAG11), RM28759(qAG12) and RM493 (qCTS1) SSR markers associated with
anaerobic seed germination (Angaji, 2008) and cold tolerance (Lou, et al., 2007) were used. For
submergence, Sub1QTL-specific markers RM23865, RM8300, IYT1, IYT3, AEX, Sub1A203, Sub1BC2,
ART5 and Sub1C173 were used (Septiningsih, et al., 2009).
RNA Extraction and Reverse-transcript (RT)-PCR: Gene expression study was carried out in
landraces under stress condition. For RNA extraction, leaf sample of cold tolerant landraces (Rupsal,
Nagalmutha, Polai, Marishal, Talmugra, Kamini and Raspanjar) and IR50 (sensitive) were collected
under cold stress condition. A 100mg leaf tissue were ground in liquid nitrogen using mortar and
pestle and total RNA was extracted using TRIzol according to manufacturer’s instructions. The RNA
pellet was dissolved in 50µl RNase free water and stored at –20ºC. The quality and quantity of total
RNA were analysed by gel visualization in a 1.5% Tris–boric–EDTA–agarose gel stained with
ethidium bromide and by spectrophotometric analyses. cDNA sysnthesis was carried out using
SuperScriptTM III Reverse Transcriptase according to manufacturer’s protocol (Invitrogen, California,
USA) in a reaction mixture containing 50–75 ng RNA with the final volume completed to 20µL
using RNase free water. Normal PCR was done using synthesized cDNA with primer sequences of
RAB16A, LEA3, LIP9, SalT, AP37, AP59 and DREB1A (dehydration-responsive element) (Fukao, et
al., 2011), OsDREB2A (Dubouzet, et al., 2003) and OsCDPK7(Calcium-dependent protein kinase)
(Saijo, et al., 2000), F-box protein gene (FB) and ser/thr protein kinase gene (PK) (Saito, et al.,
2010).The primer sequence of ACTIN1 was used as a loading control.
Sequence Analysis: PCR amplified products of three SSLP markers PNK7, PNK10 and BAC22
located in the Ctb1 gene associated with cold tolerance at booting stage were sequenced and the
cluster analysis was done based on the information of gene sequences.
During seed germination among these geotypes, there was huge variations in the ability of
seed germination under flooding and no variation under non-flooding condition. Under flooding, these
genotypes were classified into three categories such as tolerant (EC516602, Pokkali, Rupsal, Marishal
and Ravana), moderately tolerant (Talmugra, Polai, Nagalmutha and Raspanjar) and intolerant (IR42
and Kamini). In the screening, the highest rate was found in EC516602 (83.3%) followed by Pokkali
and Rupsal (83%), Marishal (80%), Ravana (73%), Talmugra (64%), Polai (63.3%), Nagalmutha
(56.6%) and Raspanjar (53%), Kamini (36%) and IR42 (10%). Under non-flooding condition, the rate
seed germination was cent percent in these genotypes. In seedling growth in term of shoot length,
more growth was measured in Talmugra (26.0cm) followed by Polai (18.4cm), Rupsal (15.9cm),
Marishal (15.8cm), EC516602 (14.3cm), Raspanjar (12.5cm), Nagalmutha (12.3cm), Ravana

(12.2cm), Kamini (10.5cm) and IR42 (3.0cm) (Table-1; Fig.1a).
Table-1 Results of phenotypic screening and allelic banding patterns of rice genotypes with SSR markers linked with
qAG QTL (colour variations indicate the allelic variation).
Rice genotypes Phenotypic screening SSR markers linked with qAG QTL
Seed germination (%) Plant growth RM312 RM206 RM28759 RM341
Flooding Non-flooding Shoot elongation
(cm)
EC516602 83.3 100.0 14.3
(Tolerant)
IR42 10.0 100.0 3.0
(Intolerant)
Pokkali 83.0 100.0 14.3
Rupsal 83.0 100.0 15.9
Nagalmutha 56.6 100.0 12.3
Ravana 73.0 100.0 12.2
Polai 63.3 100.0 18.4
Marishal 80.0 100.0 15.8
Talmugra 64.0 100.0 26.0
Kamini 36.0 100.0 10.5
Raspanjar 53.0 100.0 12.5
Here, the rate of seed germination shows the clear difference between tolerant and intolerant
check and it indicates the accurate results of the screening. And, many of these genotypes have
accounted for more than 70 per cent seed germination. Particularly, Rupal, Pokkali and Marishal
genotypes have showed a significant rate of seed germination (more than 80%) like tolerant check
(EC516602) and they have nearly mimicked in the shoot growth also (14-15.8cm). The higher
survival rate is associated with higher rate of starch consumption in tolerant genotypes and lower rate
in intolerant genotypes This starch consumption is dependented on expression of amylase (RAmy),
sucrose synthase (Sus) and alcohol fermentation related genes (Pdc, Adh) under flooding (Ismil, et al.,
2009). Similarly, a few rice genotypes associated with higher tolerance to submergence during seed
germination has been identified from a large population (Angaji, 2010). In Kamini and IR42, the rate
of seed germination and shoot growth coincides with each other (i.e. less seed germination rate with
less shoot growth) when compare to others.
In PCR screening with SSR markers linked with qAG (Anaerobic germination) QTLs, these
landraces showed a polymorphic banding pattern with RM312 and RM341 markers and monomorphic
pattern with RM206 and RM28759. Here, some landraces have possessed gene alleles similar to the
tolerant check (EC516602) i.e. Pokkali, Rupsal and Nagalmutha for RM312 and Rupsal, Nagalmutha,
Polai, Ravana and Talmugra for RM341 and these landraces have accounted for more than 50 per
cent seed germination under flooding. And, some landraces viz., Rupsal, Nagalmutha, Polai, Ravana
and Talmugra accounted for more than 55 per cent survival rate have possessed gene alleles for
RM312 and RM341 markers. In a previous study also, these two SSR markers linked with qAG1 on
chromosome 1 and qAG2 on chromosome 2 have been reported for their association with
submergence tolerance during seed germination (Angaji, 2008).
Table-2 Results of phenotypic screening and allelic banding patterns of rice landraces with SSR/Gene specific
markers linked with Sub1 QTL (colour variations indicate the allelic variation).
Rice Phenotypic SSR/Gene specific markers linked with Sub1 QTL
genotypes Screening RM23865 RM8300 IYT1 IYT3 AEX Sub1A203 Sub1BC2 ART5 Sub1C173
(%)
FR13A 90.0
(Tolerant)
IR42 10.0
(Intolerant)
Pokkali 50.0
Rupsal 0.0
Nagalmutha 20.0
Ravana 40.0
Polai 60.0
Marishal 0.0
Talmugra 0.0
Kamini 15.0
Raspanjar 50.0
In submergence screening at seedling stage, the survival rate was higher in FR13A (90%)
followed by Polai (60%) Raspanjar and Pokkali (50%), Ravana (40%), Nagalmutha (20%), Kamini
(15%), IR42 (10%), Rupsal, Marishal and Talmugra (0%) (Table-2; Fig.1b). In the screening, we
found more shoot elongation in landraces and less survival rate compare to FR13A during
submergence. This result indicates that the SUB1 in FR13A restrains the process of leaf and inter
node elongation by decreasing the rate of carbohydrate consumption and landraces having no SUB1
tends to elongate to contact air by increasing the rate of carbohydrate consumption (Fukao, et al.,
2006). In the PCR screening for Sub1 QTL, many gene alleles similar to tolerant check FR13A were
detected in these rice landraces with SSR and gene-specific markers such as Pokkali, Nagalmutha,
Marishal and Ravana to RM23865, Pokkali, Rupsal, Polai, Marishal, Ravana, Raspanjar to RM8300,
Nagalmutha, Ravana, Raspanjar to IYT1 and IYT3, Ravana, Polai, Kamini, Raspanjar to AEX,
Nagalmutha, Polai, Raspanjar with Sub1A203, Ravana, Polai, Talmugra, Kamini, Raspanjar and IR42
to Sub1C173 showed allele similar to FR13A (submergence tolerant). However, the response of these
landraces under flooding is not found to be significant but only moderate tolerance and sensitive
reaction among them. This PCR results clearly disclose that all these landraces having positive alleles
to closely linked (RM23865, RM8300) and gene-specific (IYT1, AEX, Sub1203) markers for Sub1
QTL have associated only with the moderate or poor survival rate of submergence tolerance. Here,
none of these landraces have possessed gene alleles of FR13A (tolerant) to Sub1BC2 marker located in
between Sub1A and Sub1B gene and ART5 marker in promoter region of Sub1C gene of Sub1 QTL.
Perhaps, these two markers might associate with submergence tolerance and they would be useful in
screening of submergence tolerant genotypes in rice breeding. And, these landraces might be used the
escaping mechanism by Sub1C gene during seedling stage under flooding. But, the process of shoot
elongation during submergence at seedling stage in intolerant will lead seedlings to lodge or die after
de-submergence (Ismail, et al., 2009). Moreover, the landraces particularly, Rupsal and Marishal
which showed significant survival rate during seed germination under flood condition have accounted
for zero per cent survival rate during seedling stage. The tolerance of flooding during seed
germination is not associated with tolerance of complete submergence during the vegetative stage, as
demonstrated by the sensitivity of FR13A (Ella, et al., 2011; Zhang, et al.,, 2017). It suggests that
genotype with SUB1 do not usually possess AG (Anaerobic germination) trait (Ismail, et al., 2009).
Hence, by developing new types of varieties with tolerance to submergence during seed germination
and seedlings can be enhanced direct seeding method. Recently, some advanced breeding lines
derived from one cross combination (Khaiyan with AG trait and IR05F101 with SUB1) have been
showed for the nature of compatibility of these traits (Angaji, 2010).
In the cold screening, most of these landraces were grouped to tolerant category (Rupsal,
Nagalmutha, Polai, Marishal, Talmugra, Kamini and Raspanjar) and only one landrace Ravana as
sensitive along with IR50 based on visual symptoms on rice seedlings caused by low temperature. In
this screening, the leaves of tolerant genotypes were found to be expanded condition and rolled
condition in sensitive genotypes at 4ºC after 8-days of cold stress. In PCR analysis, these landraces
produced 4-types of alleles with RM493 and 2-types with RM341 markers. According to Lou, et al.,,
(2007), these two SSR markers reported as flanking markers of qCTS2 and qCTS1 are associated with
cold tolerance at seedling stage. With RM493, four types of banding patterns were obtained such as
Rupsal in one type, Nagalmutha, Polai and Marishal in second type, Ravana, Talmugra and
Raspanjar in third type and Kamini in fourth type of allelic band. Here, in these two markers, RM493
is clearly differentiated these landraces into tolerant and sensitive types in this study. Similarly, a wide
range of genetic variability has been observed in rice, in relation to the effects of low temperature on
germination (Andaya and Mackill, 2003). With SSLP markers, these landraces showed monomorphic
banding pattern with BAC1 and PNK5 markers and polymorphism with PNK7, PNK10 and BAC22
markers (Table-3; Fig.1c).
Table-3. Results of phenotypic screening and allelic banding patterns of rice landraces with SSR and SSLP markers
linked with qCTS and Ctb1 gene for cold tolerance, respectively (colour variations indicate the allelic variation).
Rice genotypes Cold SSR markers linked SSLPMarkers in Ctb1 region
screening at with qCTS1 & 2 QTLs
4ºC RM493 RM341 BAC1 PNK5 PNK7 PNK10 BAC22
IR50 Sensitive
Pokkali Tolerant
Rupsal Tolerant
Nagalmutha Tolerant
Ravana Sensitive
Polai Tolerant
Marishal Tolerant
Talmugra Tolerant
Kamini Tolerant
Raspanjar Tolerant
In gene sequence analysis of OsCtb1, these landraces were grouped into two main clusters for
all three SSLP markers (PNK7, PNK10 and BAC22) but with different combinations of landraces
(Fig.2). In this cluster, IR50 (sensitive) is sub-clustered within major cluster for these all markers.
Ravana landrace showed sensitive reaction under cold condition is sub-clustered clearly for PNK10
marker and other tolerant landraces are grouped as major cluster for these all markers. These markers
in Ctb1 gene is identified on chromosome 4 of one japonica rice variety, Norin-PL8 and this gene is
reported for cold tolerance at booting stage (Saito, et al.,, 2010).
In the RT-PCR analysis, expression of stress-inducible genes related to Abscisic acid (ABA)-
dependent and independent signalling pathways was revealed in landraces such as SalT gene in
Kamini and Marishal, LIP9 gene in Rupsal, Kamini and Marishal, RAB16A gene in Rupsal, Marishal
and Polai, AP37 gene in Talmugra, Marishal and IR50, AP59 gene in Rupsal, Kamini, Marishal,
Nagalmutha and Polai, DREAB1A gene in Rupsal, Kamini, Marishal and Nagalmutha, OsDREB2A
gene in Talmugra, Raspanjar, Ravana, Kamini and Marishal and OsCDPK7 gene in Rupsal and
Kamini under cold stress condition(Fig.3). Expression of these genes has been reported under salt,
drought and cold stress condition in Arabidopsis and rice plants in previous studies (Chen et al.,,
2008; Oh et al.,, 2009; Matsukura et al.,, 2010; Hirayama and Shinozaki, 2010; Fukao, et al.,, 2011).
Expression of OsCDPK7 gene in Talmugra, Raspanjar, Rupsal and Kamini landraces under
cold condition coincides with the previous report of Saijo, et al., (2000). It indicates that these cold
tolerant landraces is associated with Ca+ dependent protein kinase (CDPK) pathway along with ABA-
dependent and independent pathways in this study. From recent findings, it has been reported that
AP2/ERF transcription factors, by cross-talking with each other, have likely to regulate the
developmental, physiological and biochemical responses of plants to a variety of environmental stress
conditions (Mizoi, et al., 2012). According to Wang et al.,, (2014), over expression of miR319 gene
family is associated with cold tolerance in rice.
In conclution, the high survival rate of seed germination of some of these landraces under
flood condition may associated with the expression of pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), alcohol
dehydrogenase (ADH), and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) to release the energy for the growth of
coleoptiles through alcoholic fermentation(Miro, et al., 2017). And, the low survival rate of seedlings
of landraces after de-submergence may associated with expression of Sub1C gene which up-regulate
the a-amylase gene (Ramy3D) involving in starch degradation results in stem elongation during
submergence (Septiningsih, et al., 2009). Hence, the rice seedling of of the landraces could survive
and not survive during seed germination and seedling stage, respectively, after water level decreased.
This difference in the survivality of seedlings discloses the presence and absence of tolerance capacity
in landraces. Meanwhile, the cold tolerance capacity of these landraces might have supported the
growth of seedlings under the flood alongwith the expression of PDC, ADH, ALDH and Sub1C gene
during seed germination and seedling stage, respectively. Because low temperature determines the
uniformity of seed germination and seedling growth (Cruz et al.,, 2006). And, the variations in the
survival rate of seedlings are associated with the variations in the tolerance capacity of seedlings.
Seedlings having more tolerance could continue their growth after stress but not seedlings with less
tolerance. Thus, the cold tolerance is associated with positive and negative impact on seedling growth
under the flood condition in presence and absence of tolerance QTLs, respectively. From these results,
this present study discloses the association of abiotic stresses with one another on crops and therefore,
it urges the necessity of gene combination for uniform rice growth and yield.
Acknowledgement: We sincerely thank the Director, National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack,
Odisha, INDIA for provided the necessary facilities to conduct these experiments.
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
SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF BUTTON MUSHROOM
Kamlesh Kr. Gautam1 and Shashi Bala2
1
Department of Botany and 2Department of Horticulture, U.P. College, Varanasi-221002,
E-mail: kamleshgautam254@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Kamlesh Kr. Gautam
ultivation of edible mushroom in world started during 18th century in France and
C white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is the first cultivated species as an ideal
mushroom which are cultivated on substrate and has relatively low C:N ratio as
compared to others Agaricus spp.. Mushroom are rich sources of important nutrients such as essential
amino acid, vitamins and has nutraceutical value that makes them valuable among consumers for their
nourishment and rightly called as vegetarian meat. Currently (Bahl, 1988), 14000 mushroom species
have been identified which account for 10% of the world. Among the estimated mushroom species
over 3000 species from more than 30 genera are regarded as prime edible mushroom but of these only
about 100 species are grown experimentally, 60 cultivated economically, around 30 cultivated
commercially and only 15 are produced on an industrial scale (Oei,2003. Chang and Miles, 2004).
Button mushroom is a saprophytic fungi and are food for both the rich and poor. They can be grown
anywhere as long as the condition for their growth and cultivation are provided. Mushroom
cultivation is a another source for self employment of unemployed people.
Nutritional Value: Mushroom are low in calories, high in fiber and contain many important vitamins
(A,B1,B2,C,D,K,Niacin and pantothenic acid) and minerals some also have medicinal properties and
are an excellent source of protein in some regions are known as Vegetable meat for their high protein
content. They contain essential amino acid needed for human body. The percentage of protein in dry
mushroom could be between 10% and 30% of the total mushroom weight (Awasthi, 1992). They have
a high concentration of carbohydrates at 57% and 14% raw fiber, most of those carbohydrates are
complex sugars that will help to regulate insulin and sugar levels because they are in low glycemic
sugars.
Method of Cultivation: Most of the production of button mushroom in our country is seasonal if
cultivation is done by conventional methods using unpasteurized compost the yield of mushroom low
however in recent years improved agronomic practices has resulted in greater yield mushrooms.
Cultivation of the common button mushroom requires technical skill. Temperature and relative
humidity management is foremost requirement for cultivation of Agaricus mushroom. It requires a
temperature of 150-200 C during cropping period hence, its cultivation has popularize among the
cooler hilly regions of our country besides one crop is taken in the winter seasons in the plains of
North India. The material on which the mycelium of the mushroom growers is called substrate.
Agricultural waste like wheat straw, paddy straw, and sugarcane baggasse and horse dung is used for
preparation of natural compost. Chicken manure, wheat brain/rice brain and nitrogen sources like
urea, ammonia sulphate fertilizers. Cakes are the activators and nitrogen content is adjusted at 1.5% of
the dry weight of the base materials used depending upon availability of different base materials.
Activators and nitrogen sources the given compost formulation are popular in commercial scale.
FORMULA: 1
Wheat straw 1000 kg
Chicken manure 400kg
Brewers grain 72kg
Urea 14.5 kg
Gypsum 30kg
Sustainable Production of Button Mushroom 171
FORMULA: 2
Wheat straw 500 kg
Horse manure 1000 kg
Chicken manure 300 kg
Brewers grain 60 kg
Gypsum 30 kg
Urea 7 kg
FORMULA:3
Paddy straw 1000 kg
Rice bran 167 kg
Urea 17 kg
Gypsum 40 kg
Cotton seed meal 20 kg
FORMULA: 4
Paddy straw 1000 kg
Chicken manure 150 kg
Wheat bran 42 kg
Gypsum 30 Kg
Compost Preparation: The substrate for cultivation is specially prepared from compost, the
mushroom house should have the facilities of pasteurization. The Buildings are constructed from
wooden hollow cement brick or double walls shed is partitioned into small compartment and provided
with trays environmental condition like temperature, relative humidity and ventilation are controlled
inside the shed by installing suitable equipment (Chandra, 2014). Compost is prepared by the giving
method:
Long Method: It takes 26—28 days and involves 7-8 turning at varying intervals, this method is
used by small growers and lack in pasteurization facility .The base materials is spread over a concrete
floor two days before composting and sprinkled with water 2-3 times to allow it to absorb sufficient
moisture. Activator and fertilizers are mixed in a separate heap and watered one day before
composting. Mix thoroughly the wet mixture of urea [fertilizers] and bran and moist straw and stack
in a heap, the length of heap depends on the quantity of base material used. The heap is pressed from
the top and is given turning as indicated below. On the six day 1st Turning is given. The heap is
broken and remade for proper aeration using wooden board. Dry patches are sprinkled with water
lightly. Ten day: second turning is given, chalk powder is added if required the heap is pressed
slightly and watering is done as indicated above. Thirteen day: the heap is turned, gypsum is added
the heap is remade and pressed slightly. Sixteen day fourth turning is given along with addition of
Furadon 3G@ 770g per 1000 kg and cotton seed meal if required. Nineteen day: fifth turning is given.
Twenty-two day: sixth turning the compost is generally free of ammonia by this time. Twenty-five
day seventh turning is given after exposing the compost for some time. Twenty-six day: benzene hexa
chloride (gamma 200ml/ 1000 kg) and Temik 10G, 400 g/1000kg if Furadon has not been added in
mixture. The compost is filled in trays or polythene bags for spawning (Gautam and Gautam. 2019).
SPAWNING (substrate inoculation) process of mixing spawn in the sterilized substrate is
known as spawning. Generally three method of spawning in compost first surface spawning, second
layer spawning at two depths and third through spawning. Rate of spawning- 0.5 % of compost i.e.
250 g of spawn (mushroom seed) in sufficient of 1 sq m compost more spawn is required for layer or
through spawning than in surface spawning . after spawning the compost is pressed hard to make it
compact. The temperature during spawn run in mushroom house maintained between 23 0- 250 C and
relative humidity maintained 90- 95% in the mushroom house (Singer, 1975).
Casing: After 15-20 days, casing is done on the compost beds after completion spawn run should be
covered with a layer of soil (casing) about 2-3 cm thick to inside fruiting. The casing materials
should be having high porosity, water holding capacity and P H Should range between 7-7.5, best
casing material is not available in India as such the mixture like garden soil and sand (4:1)
decomposed caw dung and loam soil (1:1) and spent composed (2-3 layers old) sand and lime are
commonly used
Cropping: One week after casing, the mushroom house is lowered to 150 C and the fur heads started
appearing within 6—10 days. Ventilation is required at this stage. The CO2 concentration in
mushroom house should remain below 0.1 and air bed ratio should be 6:1 more watering is required
during production of button stages. Button stage appears within 12-16 days of the casing . At small
button size stage heavy mist spraying should be done. Basidiocarp appear in flushes every 7-11 days.
Harvesting: Mushroom are harvested while still in button stage. Each enlarges to form a button
which comes above ground and rapidly expands into a mushroom. The size of stalk 2.5—3.5 cm,
they should be cut at the base with sharp knife, do not spray water before harvest it is advisable to
harvest along with the roots, after harvest clean or cut root the portion and pack it in punched poly
bags for sale in market.
Storage: Button mushroom are highly perishable harvested mushrooms are cut at the soil line and
washed in a solution of 5g KMS in 10L of water for removing the soil particles as well as to induce
whiteness. After removing excess water these are packed in perforated poly bags each containing
around 250—500 g of button mushroom they can be stored in polythene bags at 40—60 C for a short
period of maximum 4-5 days
Yield Assessment: Harvested mature mushroom were weighed with analytical balance to determine
biological efficiency of mushroom produced from substrate. An average yield of 10—15 kg/100 kg of
compost is obtained within a period of 56-70 days. Button mushroom cultivation is a cash crop and
empowerment of human being and it is a short return agriculture business and can be immediate
benefit to the humanity and eco friendly environment. Mushroom cultivation not only helps to reduce
the protein deficiency especially in India. Button mushroom cultivation can be a good source of
income through rural development program for former if they are made aware its cultivation method
and its importance value.
References
Awasthi, S.K. (1992). Nat.Acad. Sci. letter. 15(1):1-2
Chang, S.T. and Miles P.G. (1989). Edible Mushroom and their cultivation. CRC. Press. boka, pp. 256—274.
Gautam, K.K. and Deepak Gautam. (2019). Sustainable production of oyster Mushroom in U.P. India.
Sustainable production of for Natural Resource and Management.pp.89-96
Chandra, R. (2014). Text Book of mushroom cultivation Methods and Technology, BHU [Varanasi].pp.24-29
Bahl, N. (1988). Hand Book on Mushroom. Oxford and IBN Publ.NewDelhi,pp.1-8
Peter Oei. (2003). Manual on cultivation: Techniques species and opportunities for Commercial Application in
developing Country. Tool publication Amsterdam. The Netherlands pp.274
Singer, R. (1975). The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy .3 rd Edition J. Cramer Weinbeim pp.912

ORGANIC FARMING: AS SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN INDIA,
ISSUES AND CONSTRAINTS IN ITS PROGRESS
Jyoti Rani and Sunita Sangwan
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Botany, Govt. College for Women, Tosham, Bhiwani, Haryana.
E-mail: k.sunitasangwan@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Sunita Sangwan
I ndia is the second most crowded nation on the planet with expanding population; the
cultivable land asset is contracting every day. Innovative headway and advancement in
agriculture has made our nation to meet with food security. During the 1960s, the Green
Revolution protected developing nations, similar to India, from the food shortage by delivering more
food and other agricultural products by utilizing high-yielding varieties of seeds, advancing
equipments used in agriculture, and considerably expanding utilization of chemical (Suryawanshi et
al., 2019). As each coin has different sides; this all progression in agriculture has caused imbalance in
our environment. Under such conditions, genuine concerns have been communicated with respect to
the utilization of overusing chemicals, pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in agriculture as far as their
negative effect on the human wellbeing and nature. To meet the food, fiber, fuel, fodder and different
needs of the developing population, the profitability of agricultural land and soil health should be
improved. With the expansion in population our impulse would be not exclusively to settle
agricultural production yet to increase it further in sustainable way. The researchers have understood
that the 'Green Revolution' with high input use has arrived at a plateau and is currently sustained with
reducing return of falling dividends. Thus, a balance is required to be maintained priory for existence
of life and property and is also necessary to attain the goal of sustainable development (Hans and Rao,
2018). Accordingly, a characteristic parity should be kept up at all expense for presence of life and
property. Sustainable agriculture is important to accomplish the objective of sustainable development.
As indicated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), sustainable agriculture "is the fruitful
management of the resources for farming to meeting changing present human needs along with
improvement in the the quality of environment and protecting natural resources". Organic agriculture
is one of the few ways found to achieve the goals of sustainable agriculture (FAO). Numerous
procedures utilized in organic farming like inter-cropping, mulching and integration of crops and
livestock including the traditional agricultural practices in old nations like India. Be that as it may,
Organic farming is not quite the same as the conventional farming as it depends on some laws and
certifications that completely prohibit the use of all synthetic inputs and to improve and maintain
health of the soil is focal point of the method. The former president of India and missile man Dr.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam defined "organic farming, a comprehensive framework that centers around
improvement in soil health, utilization of local inputs and moderately high force utilization of nearby
workers, is an excellent fit for dry terrains from multiple points of view and the dry land offer
numerous advantages that would make it generally simple to execute." The goals of ecological, social,
and economic sustainability are the nuts and bolts of organic farming (Barik, 2017). The main focus is
put to keep up the soil fertility by restoring all the losses to it mostly through manure to limit the hole
between NPK addition and removal from the soil (Roychowdhury et al., 2013).
Indians take around multiple times a greater number of pesticides through food items than the
normal American intake, despite the fact that the modest quantities of pesticides that stay in the food
supply will cause no quick reaction but could cause health problems if routinely consumed over a
long period (Gurung et al., 2013). These days modern system of farming, becoming highly
unsustainable which is evidenced by decreasing crop productivities, damage to ecological system,
chemical pollutants and so forth. Every one of these progressions affect human health such that the
individuals are combating medical issues, including a noticeable hike in cancer cases, reproductive
medical issues, mental retardation and kidney ailments. The need of having an elective agricultural
strategy which can work in a friendly eco-system while supporting and expanding the crop
productivity is acknowledged now. A response to this destruction is the organic farming, an
ecologically friendly agricultural methodology which at last prompts to proper human health.
Agricultural practices of India go back to over 4000 years, and organic farming is much
native to this nation. As referenced in Arthashastra, farmers in the Vedic time frame had reasonable
information on soil fertility, seed choice, plant protection, planting seasons, and sustainability of crops
in different lands. The farmers of ancient India clung to the natural laws and this aided in keeping up
the soil fertility over a moderately longer timeframe (Sharma and Singhvi, 2017). The moderately
high success of organic farming in certain nations are because of the high attention to the medical
issues caused by the usages of contaminated food items, the bad effects of environment degradation,
supports by the government and organizations like the European Union and International Federation
of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). The main challenge of organic agriculture in the nation
is absence of connections between the farmers and markets and absence of money related help from
the governments (Brzezina et al., 2017). Due to many reasons India can possibly turn into a
significant organic producing nation; those are given the worldwide interest for our farm products,
diverse agro-climatic regions for the development of various crops, the size of the domestic market or
more throughout the entire tradition of environment friendly farming and living. There are three
classes of thinkers about the significance of organic farming in India. The first basically excuses it as
a prevailing craze or furor. The subsequent class, which incorporates many farmers and scientists,
opnion that there are merits in the organic farming yet we ought to continue for conventional farming
considering the national needs and conditions where Indian agriculture capacities. However, they are
completely aware of the environmental issues made by the conventional farming. In any case, huge
numbers of them accept that yields are lower in organic farming during the underlying time frame and
furthermore the expense of labor will in general increase in that. The third one is completely
supportive of organic farming and encourages its adoption with whole heart. According to their views
tomorrow's environment is a higher priority than the present conventional farm benefits (Gaur, 2016).
Anyway the gainfulness of organic farming vis conventional farming, is the crucial one from
the perspective of the Indian farmers, especially the small and marginal.
Concept of Organic Farming: The concept of organic farming starts in the recent history in 1940’s.
During this period, the innovative writing regarding organic farming published by J.I. Rodale in the
United States, Lady Balfour in England. In India Sir Albert Howard was pioneer working for organic
farming (Siddique et al., 2015). What does organic farming implies? Organic farming is
comprehensive production management system which advances and upgrades agro-ecosystem health,
including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil natural biological action. Organic production
systems depend on explicit and exact standard of production which target accomplishing ideal agro-
biological systems which are socially, environmentally and financially sustainable. IFOAM states
―organic agriculture as a production system that supports the strength of soils, environments and
individuals. It depends on natural procedures, biodiversity and cycles adjusted to local conditions, as
opposed to the utilization of inputs with unfavorable impacts. Organic agriculture consolidates ancient
culture, innovations and science to profit the shared environment and promote healthy relationships
and a decent personal satisfaction for all the concerned (Barik, 2017)"
Need of Organic Farming: The methodology towards worldwide food security has involved grave
worry globally. To have a superior, effective and all encompassing approach towards the worldwide
food security, the idea of bio-safety is being executed at various levels. In any case, presently a-days,
stress is being laid on the appearance and the amount of food as opposed to the internal quality and
vitality of the food grains. Pesticides and different chemical fertilizers that are being utilized at the
time of crop improvement are being found in the food. Moreover, the low quality of food has driven
into an expansion in different illnesses, principally different types of cancer and different diseases
relating to weakened body immune system. To the extent this commercialization of farming has been
found to negatively affect the ecological system (Das, 2007).
The utilization of pesticides have prompted an increased biomagnified chemical develop in
even our bodies beginning from water, air, crop and animals as various degrees of this bio-
magnification. One of the elements that couldn't be neglected is eutrophication which is caused
because of large scale utilization of nitrogenous fertilizers during crop production causing a decrease
in accessible oxygen in the water. In serious cases, it might likewise cause an algal bloom. A
fascinating reality is that these chemical fertilizers have a transient impact on crop productivity yet on
the opposite have a long term negative impact on the ecological system where they stay for a long
period of time after leaching and running off, polluting ground water and water bodies (Yadav et al.,
2013). Then again, the utilization of hybrid seeds have prompted an extreme danger to local and
Organic Farming: As Sustainable Agriculture in India, Issues and Constraints in its Progress 175
indigenous varieties which are very nearly elimination of their germplasm if the causing factors
proceed for the up in the coming years.
With these results, a significant inquiry that emerges in our mind is that how far we can go for
the supposed 'productivity'. For the sake of addressing the requirements of the regularly expanding
population, we have gone astray of unsustainability. Regardless of the blushing picture painted by
different agro-chemical and seed companies bolstered by different policies proposed by the
government, a stunning part is that a large number of the individuals are as yet deprived. They are
starved as well as the food that they eat has a huge capability of murdering them gradually (Surekha et
al., 2010). At that time the point that comes into our brain is that to which vision we should stick or
we should approach to dispose of this appalling circumstance. Another significant overall negative
effect on the farming communities regardless of the alleged expanded productivity is a downturn in
their agricultural fortunes (Savari et al., 2013). The main beneficiaries being the agrochemical firms,
seed firms, different global firms and the other political top dogs who are legitimately or in a
roundabout way engaged with the exchanging of the food grains being only uninformed of the current
circumstance that exists in actuality. This is the place the organic farming becomes possibly the much
more important. Organic farming can possibly deal with these issues in a proficient way. The double
bit of leeway being the beneficial outcomes on environment on one hand just as to make the farmer
independent to the extent his necessities in regards to agro-inputs is concerned and that too at a
marked down cost.
Standards of Organic Agriculture: There are four wide standards of organic agriculture, which are
the pillars for organic agriculture development and improvement over the entire world (Narayanan,
2005; Deshmukh and Babar, 2015). These are as per the following:
1. Principle of Health: the main theme of the organic agriculture is to maintain and improve the
health of soil which ultimately results in good health of the flora and fauna depends on it for their
growth and development.
2. Principle of Ecology: It focuses to maintain the ecological balance of farming systems, formation
of habitats and conservation of genetic and agricultural diversity. Organic producers, consumers and
traders should sustain the natural system of environment including grasslands, climate, habitats,
biodiversity, air and water.
3. Principle of Fairness: Organic agriculture should expand on relationships that guarantee fairness
with respect to the shared environment and survival opportunities. Fairness is described by justice,
regard, equity and stewardship of the common world, both among individuals and in their relations to
other living creatures.
4. Principle of Care: Organic agriculture ought to be overseen in a preparatory and accountable way
to secure the wellbeing and prosperity of current and people in the coming generations and the
environment. It should forestall noteworthy dangers through proper innovations and dismissing
capricious ones, for example, genetic engineering.
Regulatory Bodies for Organic Agriculture: In India, Agricultural Processed Foods Export
Development Authority (APEDA) under Ministry of Commerce is the controlling body for
certification of organic products. To give an engaged and all around coordinated improvement of
organic farming and quality products, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India,
propelled a National Program on Organic Production (NPOP) in the year 2000, which was officially
notified in October 2001 under the Foreign Trade and Development Act (FTDR Act). This record
gives data on principles and standards for organic agriculture, frameworks standards, and process for
accreditation of Inspection and Certification bodies, the national organic logo and the guidelines
overseeing its utilization. The norms and methods have been detailed in concordance with global
guidelines, for example, those of Codex and IFOAM (www.dacnet.nic.in/ncof. and https://
apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/about_apeda/NOP.htm).
For quality confirmation the nation has universally acclaimed certification process set up for export,
import and domestic markets. National Program on Organic Production (NPOP) characterizes the
regulatory system and is managed under two different acts for export and domestic markets. NPOP
notified under Foreign Trade Development and Regulation Act (FTDR) takes care of the export
requirement. To look after the necessity of import and domestic market the equivalent NPOP has been
notified under Agriculture Produce Grading, Marking and Certification Act (APGMC).
Administrative group of NPOP under FTDR act is Agricultural and Processed Foods Export
Development Authority (APEDA) under Ministry of Commerce and of NPOP under APGMC act is
Agricultural Marketing Advisor (AMA) under Ministry of Agriculture. Accreditation of Certification
and Inspection Agencies is being conceded by a typical National Accreditation Body (NAB)
(www.dacnet.nic.in/ncof. and https://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/about_apeda/NOP.htm).20 accredited
certification agencies are caring for the necessity of certification process. Out of these 4 agencies are
under public part while staying 16 are under private administration.
Globally, equivalency exchanges are in progress, and a few agreements are now set up, to
blend certification between nations, encouraging universal trade. Some international certification
bodies are also there including members of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM), the Organic Crop Improvement Association (OCIA). Where formal
agreements don't present between nations, organic product for export is regularly certified by agencies
from the importing nations, who may build up permanent foreign offices for this reason. In 2006,
India's organic certification process under NPOP has been granted equality with European Union. It
has additionally been perceived for congruity evaluation by USDA's NOP.
Question Arose Regarding Organic farming in Agricultural Fraternity Mind: Numerous
researches completed in a many parts of the world show that organic farms can be nearly as profitable
as conventional farms (especially in developed nations) and once in a while considerably more
beneficial (particularly in developing countries). It is notable that our interest for food is expanding
and then again the land assets are contracting. In this way, we can't afford complete conversion to
organic farming. As a first step towards the way of organic farming we should maintain the organic
farming in those regions of India which are by default organic likewise hilly regions and desert area.
These areas have potential to completely converting into organic agriculture (Devi, 2017; Pandey and
Singh, 2012; Emsley, 2001).
1. Is Organic Farming Requires More Labor Work than Conventional Farming?: The facts
demonstrate that organic farming is regularly more work escalated than ordinary agribusiness. For
example, organic farming focuses on the soil fertility improvement which requires more labor. In
developing nations, these practices are for the most part performed by hand or with limited advances,
which infer the accessibility of a large workforce. Be that as it may, in numerous regions of the
World, land and capital (as opposed to labor) are the restricting variables. In most developing nations
workforce will in general be less expensive than chemical inputs. Instead, there are numerous scopes
of work sparing innovations and techniques that can be applied in the developing nations. They
incorporate utilization of crop cover to control of weeds and protect against soil erosion, the
utilization of direct mulching with crop residues, and decreased tillage.
2. Is it Possible to Meet the Nutrient Requirement of Crops Entirely from Organic Sources?: It
is not possible to fulfill the complete crop nutrition requirement by organic source. Yet, in broad
development region case hilly region and desert area FYM along with crop residue reusing is
adequate to get a yield like suggested NPK from third/four year onwards.
3. Are there any Significant Environmental Benefits from Organic Farming?: There is no doubt
in this point that organic agriculture is very beneficially for the environment. Organic farming not
only for producing the healthy food but it also focuses on the maintenance and conservation of the
ecological system and diversity.
4. Is the Food Produced by Organic Farming Superior in Quality?: European Union financed
project on Organic Farming (10 years) information founded that there is 40 percent more useful
compounds in agricultural produce and 90 percent more in milk contrasted with present day chemical
based agriculture (20). Organic produce are known to be more extravagant in micronutrients, nutrients
and other quality parameters.
5. Is Organic Farming Economically Feasible?: Organic farming is monetarily attainable in zones
where assets are accessible inside the farm and least reliant on outer assets. Besides, organic produce
are required to get premium cost and along these lines should be prudent to the small and poor
farmers.
6. Is it Possible to Manage Pest and Disease in Organic Farming?: The most troublesome work in
organic farming is to control the disease and pests. However, with the experience and better selection
of disease resistant varieties, cultural practices, and utilization of plant based formulas so on the issue
of diseases and pest can be figured out to large extent.
Constraints in Organic Farming Progress in India: The most significant issue in organic farming
in India is the lack of the government strategy for the promotion of the organic farming in the country.
Except if such an clear direction is available as far as both in form of financial and technical help,
from the Center to the town level, simply just regulation making will add up to nothing. Major issues
in the promotion of the organic agriculture in the country are as discussed below (Altarawneh, 2016;
Sharma and Maheshwari, 2014):
1. Absence of Awareness: It is the fact that most of the farmers have inadequate or unclear
information about the organic farming and its benefits over the conventional farming. Increase in the
utilization of bio-fertilizers and bio pesticides, preparation of organic manures and compost requires
much knowledge and readiness of the farmer’s community to use it. Farmers also don’t have
knowledge about the amount and time of application of the organic supplement according to crop
cycle.
2. Crop Marketing Problems: Assurance of the marketing of the organic produce at premium price
than conventional farming products is important before starting the cultivation of the organic
products. It is necessary to get the premium price for organic produce at least for the time period
required to setback the productivity level in organic farming.
3. Lacking Supporting structure: There are very less number of accreditation and certification
agency nearly 20 in whole country and that are too limited for some crops. There are climatic
variability all over the country and India has 15 agro-climatic zones so modulated organic production
technology is required according to different zone.
4. High Input Costs: In India small and marginal farmers are more in they having lack of budget to
buy the expensive natural inputs as at this time the expense of natural sources are higher than those of
industrial produce chemical fertilizers and pesticides and other inputs utilized in the normal
conventional faming system.
5. Advertising Problems of Organic Inputs: Advertising and distribution of the organic products is
very less due to low demand and interest of agricultural fraternity. Lack knowledge and long term
benefits of these organic inputs also add in this problem of marketing of these products. Higher edges
of benefit for synthetic composts and pesticides for retailing are other serious issues influencing the
business sectors for natural sources of info. Large margin profit in the chemical inputs is also one
more reason for the low popularity of the organic inputs.
6. Lack of a Proper Agriculture Policy for Organic Farming Promotion: There is no proper
policy implemented by government in the country to dealt with export and domestic consumption, to
fulfill the food requirements of poor farmers and input supplies issues which are waiting for an
appropriate policy of India to deal with and promote the organic production in country.
7. Absence of Financial Support: The underdeveloped regions of India need to restructure a plenty
of provincial guidelines to compete with those of the advanced countries. The adoption, maintenance
and implementation of the organic farming will require a lot of money. The major component of
organic farming is certification in which the timely inspections carried out by the certifying agencies
and these fixes the timing and number of inspections according to their own way which is very
cumbersome for small and marginal farmers. Hence Government should subsidized or provision of
financial help to these farmers regarding the certification process.
8. Absence of Quality Standards for Bio-excrements: Now a day the market is overwhelmed with
organic inputs so there is a need to fix the standards and quality parameters for these inputs. Although
the concept of organic farming relays stress on the use of the input from the farm itself but many of
the branded products available in the market guarantee to be organic are not actually organic. So lack
of these standard quality parameters makes the farmers suspicious while using those.
Proposals and Recommendation: The farmers should have complete understanding of the concept
of organic culture and scientific principles behind these. This can be possible through the extension of
the research work done in institutes and lab up to grass root level.
 Government should give the provision of the subsidies or credit at low rate of interest to the
farmers concerned to organic farming.
 The most relevant step that should be taken out by government is the fixing higher price for the
organic produce than the conventional produce.
 Research institutes and universities should emphasize their research on the organic farming also.
 Various seminars, workshops, trainings and conferences for organic farming should organize by
the various government and private institution, NGO’s and extension workers with the help of
subject experts specially for farmers.
 At individual level we should promote the organic farming by producing organically in kitchen
garden and purchasing the organic products available in the market as demands increase the
production. An individual change can make a noticeable change in society with time. So we can
do it from today and start by own.
Future Prospective: The organic movement began with developed world is bit by bit getting in
developing nations. Be still the demand for organic produce is centered in developed and most
wealthy nations. India has a rich past of organic culture as a part of its tradition; however the
development of present day innovative and scientific agriculture has pushed it to divider. Now India is
ready for quicker growth with the growing domestic market for organic products. India has a great
potential to grow organic crops and rise as a significant provider of organic items worldwide. With
this developing interest increasingly more technical advancement like IRF Technology and their
usage in farmers' field will guarantee economical feasible organic agriculture and help in its
acceptance by the common farmers. Thinking about the expanding awareness regarding the safety and
quality of foods, sustainable growth of agriculture and aggregating confirmations of being equally
productive, the organic farming has developed as an elective system of farming which can address the
quality and sustainability concerns, yet in addition guarantee a debt free, productive livelihood choice.
References
Suryawanshi, O.K., Bansode, S.B., Sachchan, T.K. (2019). Organic Farming in India: An overview.
International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 6 (5): 64-67.
Hans, B. V., and Rao, R. (2018). Organic Farming for Sustainable Development in India. Journal of Acta
Scientific Agriculture, 2(12): 96-102.
Barik, A. K. (2017). Organic Farming in India: Present Status, Challenges and Technological Breakthrough. 3rd
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management International, Jaipur, 101-110.
Roychowdhury, R., Gawwad, M.R.A., Banerjee, U., Bishnu, S. and Tah, J. (2013). Status, Trends and Prospects
of Organic Farming in India: A Review. Journal of Plant Biology Research, 2(2): 38-48.
Gurung, K., Sharma, P., and Dhalor, M. (2013). Comparative study of India's organic agriculture with the
Leading Countries: Europe and U.S.A. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 2(4): 26-39.
Sharma, N., and Singhvi, R. (2017). Organic Agriculture in India: A Summary. International Journal of
Agriculture Innovations and Research, 5(6): 1044-1046.
Brzezina, N., Biely, K., Helfgott, A., Kopainsky. B., Vervoort, J., and Mathijs, E. (2017). Development of
Organic Farming in Europe at the Crossroads: Looking for the Way Forward through System Archetypes
Lenses Sustainability. www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability, 9(821): 1-23
Gaur, M. (2016). Organic Farming in India: Status, Issues and Prospects. SOPAAN-II, 1(1): 26-36.
Siddique, S., Hamid, M., Tariq, A., and Kazi, G. A. (2015). Organic Farming: The Return to Nature.https://
link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1- 4614-8824-8_10, 249-281.
Das. K. (2007). Towards a smoother transition to organic farming, Journal of Economic and Political Weekly,
(June 16).
Yadav, S. K., Babu, S., Yadav, M. K., Singh, K., Yadav, G.S., and Pal, S. (2013). A Review of Organic
Farming for Sustainable Agriculture in Northern India. International Journal of Agronomy, (718145): 1-9.
K. Surekha, K., Jhansilakshmi, V., Somasekhar, N., Latha, P. C., Kumar, R.M., Rani, N.S., Rao, K. V., and
Viraktamath, B. C. (2010). Status of Organic Farming and Research Experiences in Rice. Journal of Rice
Research, 3(1): 23-35.
Savari, M., Maymand, R. E., and Kanigolzar, F. M. (2013). The Factors Influencing the Application of Organic
Farming Operations by Farmers in Iran. Agris on-line Papers in Economics and Informatics, 4: 179-187.
Narayanan, S. (2005). Organic Farming In India: Relevance, Problems And Constraints. National Bank for
Agriculture & Rural Development, Department of Economic Analysis & Research.
Deshmukh, S. M., and Babar, N. (2015). Present Status and Prospects of Organic Farming in India. European
Academic Research, 3(4): 4271- 4287.
Yadav, A.K. Training Manual Certification and Inspection Systems in Organic Farming in India. Government of
India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, National Centre of Organic
Farming, Ghaziabad, UP. www.dacnet.nic.in/ncof.
https://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/about_apeda/NOP.htm
Devi, S.K. (2017). A study on attitude of farmers towards organic farming. International Journal of Current
Research and Modern Education, 2(1): 159-162.
Pandey, J., and Singh, A. (2012). Opportunities and Constraints in Organic Farming: An Indian Perspective.
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Emsley, J. (2001). Going one better than nature. Nature. 410, 633-634.
Altarawneh, M. (2016). Determine the Barriers of Organic Agriculture Implementation in Jordan. Bulgarian
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Sharma, S., and Maheshwari, S. (2014). Constraints faced by tribal women in adoption of organic farming.
Advance Research Journal of Social Science, 5(2): 224-229.

CROP
PRODUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT
RAPESEED-MUSTARD CULTIVATION IN RICE FALLOW OF
MANIPUR: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Diana Shamurailatpam and Pushparani Senjam
AICRP on Rapeseed-Mustard, Directorate of Research, Central Agricultural University, Imphal-795004, Manipur, India,
E-mail: dia_bie@yahoo.com, Corresponding Author: Diana Shamurailatpam
R apeseed-mustard (Brassica sp.) is an important rabi oilseed crop grown in the state of
Manipur. Belonging to the Brassicaceae (Syn. Cruciferae) family, rapeseed-mustard
broadly consists of five cultivated species, B.juncea (L.) Czern & Coss., B. rapa, B.
napus, B.carinata and Eruca sativa among which, Indian mustard (B. juncea (L.) Czern & Coss.) and
toria (Brassica rapa var. toria) are quite popular in the state.
Manipur, a north eastern state of India covers a geographical area of 22,327 km2 and lies
at93° 03′ and 94° 78′ E longitude and 23° 83′ and 25° 68′ N latitude. Its unique topography has an
oval shaped central valley of 2,230 km2 completely surrounded by rugged hills constituting 90% of
the total geographical area. Agriculture remains one of the main livelihoods for the people of
Manipur. Out of a total area of 37,670 ha under oilseed crops, rapeseed-mustard alone occupies a
whooping area of 29,260 ha with a total production of 25.04Mtmanifesting to be the main source of
vegetable oil in the state (Anonymous, 2018a). At the national level, India is one of the largest
importers of vegetable oil. The demand-supply gap in the edible oils has necessitated huge imports
accounting for 60 percent of the country’s requirement. The rate of per capita demand (~6%) is
rapidly increasing due to enhanced per capita consumption (18 kg oil per annum) driven by increase
in population and enhanced per capita income (Anonymous,2018b)
On a positive note, rapeseed-mustard has the capacity to give profitable returns under
minimum agricultural inputs and management practices with high oil content ranging from 38-43
%.Small and marginal farmers of Manipur cultivate it mainly as subsistence crop under rainfed
condition. Traditionally, local cultivars of Indian mustard are being grown mainly for vegetable
purpose rather than for oil. However, there is huge scope for area expansion under the crop in rice
fallow during rabi season (Table 1). Moisture stress during cropping season, cattle menace and low
oil content of the local cultivar being the main reasons for reluctance by the farmers in adoption of the
crop, it is high time the problems are addressed and rapeseed-mustard cultivation be taken up at a
commercial level in the state. Following zero tillage practice will emerge as one of the most suitable
cultivation technology under the rice fallow condition and will serve a major role in raising the socio-
economic condition of the marginal farmers.
Table 1: Area under rice cultivation and area, production and productivity of rapeseed-mustard in Manipur over the
last four years (2014-15 to 2017-18)
Rapeseed-mustard
Year Area under rice cultivation (‘000 ha)
Area (‘000 ha) Production (‘000 tonnes) Yield (kg/ha)
2014-15 194.88 28.27 24.52 870
2015-16 195.00 29.00 24.52 850
2016-17 195.00 29.13 24.90 850
2017-18 187.06 29.26 25.04 860
Fig: Performance of toria var. TS 38 under zero tillage condition

Rapeseed-Mustard Cultivation in Rice Fallow of Manipur: Challenges and Opportunities 181
Challenges for Rapeseed-mustard Cultivation in Rice Fallow: Rice (Oryzasativa) is the

predominant crop and staple food of Manipur. The gross cropped area (GCA) of this state is 3,55,930
ha and 67% of GCA is utilized for rice cultivation (Anonymous 2018a). It is grown in almost all
districts of the state and the farmers usually grow local varieties i.e., glutinous rice which is of long
duration and remain in field till November to first fortnight of December. Moreover, the agricultural
production in Manipur is completely rainfed so the farmers mainly practice rice mono-cropping
system and the fields remain fallow during rabi season.
As of the present situation, rapeseed-mustard cultivation in rice fallow is confined tofew
pockets of the state. Traditionally, it has been practiced by the local people since time immemorial.
However, the productivity of the crop is very low which is basically due to the use of traditionally
available landraces and scarcity of water during rabi season after the paddy harvest. Moreover,
injudicious use of chemical fertilizers along with traditional crop management practices and cattle
menace adds up to the problem.
Majority of the farmers in the state are small and marginal thus, producing the crop at
subsistence level. Cultivation of long duration rice varieties during kharif season is one of the major
constraints for lower productivity of Brassicas. Late harvest of paddy results in then arrow window
for planting of rapeseed-mustard during rabi season. Due to the shortage of time for ploughing of
field after paddy harvest, the farmers are compelled to practice zero tillage cultivation of rapeseed-
mustard in rice fallow. In zero tillage, adequate soil moisture in rice fallow is necessary for rapid
germination and satisfactory plant stand. However, delayed sowing may cause reduction in soil
moisture creating unfavourable condition for crop germination. Delayed sowing results inreduction of
seed yield primarily due to shorter duration of reproductive phase and thus left with less time for
formation of siliqua and development of seed.
Maintenance of optimum plant population is necessary for ensuring good yield.Cultivation of
the crop is primarily rainfed and considering the poor seed germination due to late sowing, the
farmers usually increased the seed rate up to 40 kg/ha. Economic yield increases with increase in plant
population up to a point and subsequently decreases with increase in population. Extremely dense
plant population is a major contributing factor that affects crop productivity.
Crop grown on residual moisture requires deep placement of fertilizer in the moist zone and if
not possible, foliar application is adopted. Irrespective of the availability of soil moisture and fertility,
application of excessive nitrogenous fertilizers and negligible amount of other chemical fertilizers at
the time of sowing is commonly followed by the farmers which affects both the yield and oil content
of crop.
Brassicas are highly vulnerable to a large number of insect pests and diseases. Mustard aphid
(Lipaphiserysimi) is the key pest of Brassica crops in the state. The period of peak activity for aphid is
January-February. Delayed sowing of crop favours higher incidence of aphids. Moreover, excessive
application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the attack of aphids.
Usually rapeseed-mustard crops are harvested as soon as 80 % of the siliquae turn yellow but
most of the farmers harvested it when 40-50 % siliquae turn slightly yellow to minimize shattering
loss. This practice of untimely harvesting of crop by the farmers is also responsible for decline in
productivity.
Opportunities for Rapeseed-mustard Cultivation in Rice Fallow: After the harvest of paddy, dry
winter prevails in the state limiting the source of irrigation and late harvest leaves a narrow window
for planting of rabi crops. Owing to these major constrains, most of the farmers leave their fields
fallow till the onset of the monsoon. However, rice-rapeseed based cropping system is an indigenous
cropping system practiced in isolated pockets of the state. The traditional method with higher seed
rate, indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers along with use of land races often produce low yield
leading to continuous declination and deterioration of the ecosystem with poor economic returns.
Zero tillage cultivation involves growing of rapeseed-mustard in rice fallow without any sort
of ploughing and broadcasting the seeds directly among the stubbles with adequate moisture level in
the soil hence giving a significant reduction in labour requirement and cost of cultivation. With the
advent of zero tillage practice integrated with short duration and high yielding varieties, cultivation of
rapeseed-mustard in rice fallow becomes a reliable way for obtaining higher productivity with
minimal inputs. The short duration varieties of toria gains its importance among the local people when
additional benefits of obtaining higher yield was recognized in spite of delayed sowing. Besides, use
of four (4) bee colonies/ha during crop bloom period for pollination reportedly increased the
productivity of the crop along with the economic return from the honey harvested (Singh et al, 2014)
Introduction of quality seeds and high yielding improved varieties of Brassica species (Table 2) with
better adaptability to the diverse environmental condition of the state is the pre-requisite for
successful cultivation of the crop. Establishment of optimum plant population is essential so that it
utilizes the residual soil moisture efficiently and gives maximum potential yield. In doing so, the seed
rate is lowered and the recommended seed rate of crop is brought up to 12-15 kg/ha under zero tillage.
This avoids the excessive use of seed inputs thereby reducing the cost of cultivation.
In the same manner, the recommended dose of fertilizer is reduced to two-third of the dose of
conventional tillage. Balanced fertilization is essential for long-term fertility of the soil. Since the crop
is grown in residual moisture, the moisture status of the soil is the foremost factor to be considered
while applying the chemical fertilizers. Split application of recommended dose of fertiliser in zero
tillage is recommended so that sufficient quantities of nutrients is provided to meet the crop demand
and to avoid excess availability. Foliar application of fertilizers can also be applied during the crop
growth stages when inadequate moisture in the soil is observed.
Table 2: Suitable varieties of rapeseed-mustard for cultivation under zero tillage condition in Manipur
Average Days to Oil content
Crop Variety Salient features
yield (kg/ha) maturity (%)
Suitable for timely and late sowing (up to 1st
TS 38 700-1300 90-95 36 - 40
week of December) in rice fallow.
Potential yield of the variety is 1000-1200
TS 46 640-860 90 44
Toria kg/ha.
Suitable in paddy-toria cropping sequence
TS 67 600-840 90-95 40 - 42 under late sown condition (up to 1st week of
December).
Bold seeded type with a potential yield of
NRCHB 101 800-1040 105-135 34 - 42
Indian 1600-1700 kg/ha.
Mustard DRMR 150-
750-1000 110-120 38-40 Suitable for early sown rainfed condition
35
Source: Report of NEH component of AICRP(R-M) Scheme (2019-20), CAU, Imphal Centre
Fig: Performance of Indian mustard var. NRCHB 101 under zero tillage condition
Growing of improved or resistant varieties reduce the infestation of insect pest and diseases.
Timely sowing of the crop and balanced fertilization are important factors that limit the attack of
insect pest. Adopting zero tillage, farmers could increase the productivity, reduced cost of cultivation
thereby increasing the cropping intensity and earning an additional income for themselves with less
effort. An average net profit of Rs. 27,388/ha including cost of honey within three and half months
with a low investment of Rs. 13,412/ha was reported by adopting zero tillage cultivation in rice fallow
in the state (Singh et al., 2014).
Rapeseed-Mustard Cultivation in Rice Fallow of Manipur: Challenges and Opportunities 183
Conclusion: Zero tillage cultivation practices of rapeseed-mustard have been found to offer a variety
of potential benefits compared to traditional practice in terms of productivity, profitability, higher
input use efficiency, reduce environmental pollution and rural economic development. Considering
the time of sowing based on adequate soil moisture for seed germination, the farmers can select the
suitable high yielding variety of rapeseed-mustard and adopt the zero tillage practice as it had helped
in obtaining higher net returns.
References
Anonymous. (2018a). Area, production and yield for the year 2017-18, State Agricultural Department,
Government of Manipur.
Anonymous. (2018b). Present Status of Oilseed crops and vegetable oils in India, National mission on oilseeds
and oil palm, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, pp 1.
Singh, M.P, Puri, S.N., Singh,T.R., Devi, Th. R., Nandini Chongtham, Sharma, A.K. and Singh Dhiraj. (2014).
Zero tillage cultivation - a viable option for large scale production of rapeseed-mustard in rice fallow,
kiran.nic.in.

ENTOMOLOGY
ROLE OF WOMEN IN INCREASING THE ECONOMY OF
AGRICULTURE
Sushmita T.H.1 and Swarupa Y.2
1
PhD Scholar, Department of Entomology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam,
E-mail: pipithockchom@gmail.com and 2Research Associate, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Periyavaram,
Corresponding Author: Sushmita T.H.
A
griculture is regarded as an engine of growth reduction in countries and is the main
occupation of the poor. Agriculture is the main background of many developing
countries. Day by day our food consumption is increasing but the food production is
not increasing to meet the demand of reducing the necessary of many people. About 70% of the
population is involved in agriculture and women play a vital role in agricultural sector. Most of the
women in developing countries are occupied in agriculture and play a significant and crucial role in
agricultural development and other allied fields like crop production, livestock production,
horticulture, agro/social forestry, fisheries, sericulture, edible insect etc. There is a saying by the
famous scientist Swaminathan that it was woman who first domesticated crop plants and they initiated
the art and science of farming.
Women also play a role in conserving the basic life support systems like land, water, flora and
fauna. The global in average is dominated by Asia and within the Asian; the South Asia is occupied
by 35% women labour and 50% in East and Southeast Asia. The developing countries of the America
have lower women agricultural labour than the other developing countries by 20% in 2010. The
women’s involvement in agriculture is complex and diverse. They are involved in a wide range of
activities in agriculture as well as at home. The unequal income between men and women is another
important consideration and for practitioners who seek to promote the adoption of new technologies
among women. In developing countries, women have less access to productive resources. Despite
their importance to agricultural sector, they are the largest group of landless labourers with little real
security in case of breakup of the family leading to death or divorce, custom discrimination against
them. Therefore, women are involved in fisheries and aquaculture, edible insect production,
sericulture, livestock production which deliberately increase the economy in agriculture.
Women in Fisheries and Aquaculture: About 45 million people worldwide and 135 million people
are estimated to be employed in fishery primary sector and secondary sector which also include the
post harvest activities. So, women are occupied for 30% of the total employment in fisheries both in
primary sector as well as secondary sector. About 21% and 24% of women worked as fishers and fish
farmers in China and India.
Women are more commonly occupied in subsistence and commercial fishing from small
boats and canoes in coastal or inland waters which provide labour before and after catch in both
artisanal and commercial fisheries. Women also played a significant role in both artisanal and
industrial fisheries which is during processing and marketing satges where they are active in all
regions. Most of the fish processing is performed by women either in their own household level
industries or as wage labourers in the large scale processing industry.
Women in Edible Insect Production: Consumption of insects by human is known as entomophagy.
It is practiced in many countries and predominant in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The
nutritional content of insects depends on their stage of life i.e metamorphic stage, habitat and diet. The
insects provide high quality protein and nutrients as compared with meat and fish. The insect
consumption is often regarded as “emergency food” or “food for the poor” and that they are only
consumed in times of hunger.
The most of the women in Asian countries are engaged in mass production technologies,
harvest and post-harvest processing technologies as well as sanitation procedures to ensure food and
feed safety especially in comparison to meat products. As women are excel more when it comes to
household chores and cooking, the women helped in creation of new recipes and menus in restaurants
to the design of new food products.
Women in Sericulture Production: Sericulture is the rearing of silkworms for the production of
cocoons which forms the raw material for producing raw silk. India is the only country in the world to
produce all the 4 known varieties of silk including Mulberry, Tasar, Muga and Eri. Women have been
Role of Women in Increasing the Economy of Agriculture 185
involved in the sericulture activities in various ways like worker, supervisors, supporting personnel
within the family and the sericulture production can generate employment upto 11 persons for every
kg of raw silk produced.
In sericulture per acre of mulberry plantation, an average of 46 man days in required in
which women participation is more because women are occupied in weeding, planting operation in
the process of mulberry cultivation. The indoor activity of silkworm rearing is high with women
participation comprising of 94.67%. Women are also engaged more in leaf picking, chawki rearing,
spinning or harvesting of cocoons. Out of the 4005 man days of employment opportunity in
sericulture activities, 2116 man days were for women folk.
Women Participation in Rural Labour Market: About 70% of employed women and 60% of
employed women in Southern Asia and sub- Saharan Africa work in agriculture. In Latin America,
female employment is relatively small in agriculture and women are less likely than men to work in
the sector. Women have great role in income generating activities of agriculture but have little control
over income. Most of the women are engaged in small scale activities and have better work to local
market often at a price discount.
Women are participated in low income groups and living in areas with limited facilities, they
are also occupied for spending long hours on water and fuel collection, food preparation and other
domesticated and child care activities to help for poor infrastructure. In Tanzania, Zambia about 60%
women is responsible in all transport activities in rural households, travel for firewood, water and
transport to the grinding mill.
Women in Livestock Production: Livestock play an important role in pastoralist and mixed farming
system. In the livestock production sector, women are heavily engaged which will help in improving
the financial. Women share the responsibility of caring livestock along with man and children and
particular species and types of activity are more associated with women than men. Women are
involved in managing poultry, dairy animals and in caring for other animals that are housed and fed
within the homestead.
In some countries, small scale pig production is domesticated by women and female- headed
households are more successful than male-headed households in generating the income from the
animals. In Vietnam, many medium sized duck breeding enterprises are managed by women. Women
are also specialized in activities like production of day old chick, provision of services, slaughtering,
processing and retail and they are always available in painstaking semi-skilled work.
Gender Differences Faced by Women as More Work Less Pay: There is a gender difference in
employment patterns within labour markets which varies across culture and regions. Because of the
child care responsibility, women are less in labour market and accumulate in less work experience.
Due to less work experience, women are more likely to work in part time jobs and in informal
arrangements that pay less and provide fewer benefits but have more flexibility. In rural labour
market, women are paid less even for equivalent job and comparable levels of education and
experience than men.
Most of the women are confined in particular sectors which give disadvantage to their
position with respect to human capital and bargaining power. The women have limited decision
making ability within the household and are more likely to accept lower wages.
References
Food and Agriculture Organization (1999)
Ashby, et al. (2007). Gender in agriculture.Agriculture and rural development.
Lal, R. and Khurana, A. (2011). Gender issue: The role of women in agriculture sector. International Journal of
Business Economics & Management Research.
SOFA TEAM and Doss, C. (2011). The role of women in agriculture.The food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations.Paper no 11-02.
Patil, B and Babu, S.V. (2018). Role of women in agriculture.International Journal of Applied Research.
4(12):109-114.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT
M. Raghuraman
Department of Entomology & Agricultural Zoology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi,
E-mail: raghu_iari@yahoo.com
T he large scale use of natural enemies of insects started after the discovery of vedalia
beetle, Rodoliacardinalis, which feeds on cottony cushion scale, Iceryapurchasi. This
scale insect was introduced and became established in Los Angels area sometime
before 1876. By 1885, it was threatening to wipe out the citrus industry in southern California. C.V.
Riley examined specimens and determined that the pest had been introduced from Australia. Riley
arranged for an expedition to Australia to collect natural enemies of cottony cushion scale for possible
introduction. Subsequently, another American Entomologist, Albert Koebele, traveled to Australia
and found two enemies of the scale insect, a parasitic fly and the vedalia beetle. These were shipped
to San Francisco, reared and sent to Los Angeles. The natural enemies were released on scale-infested
trees covered by canvas tents. The vedalia beetle population increased rapidly and was allowed to
spread to adjacent trees. With the help of growers and state agencies, the vedalia beetle dispersed
throughout the scale-infested areas. Complete economic suppression of the cottony cushion scale had
occurred by 1889 and it continues even today. The total cost of this management programme was less
than $2,000.Biological control is an important tactic in IPM Systems, and should be utilized wherever
it is feasible. There are several advantages to the use of biological control in comparison with other
pest control tactics. Following are some of the merits of biological control.
Merits of Biological Control
Safety: It is the safest of all control measures used. There is no disturbance of ecological balance. No
pollution of environment. It minimizes health hazards for food growers and consumers.
Permanency: It is a long lasting method, once the natural enemies have established they are self
perpetuating and take care of the pest. They spread themselves to far distant places and multiply
continuously. Therefore, if environment changes are not very drastic, biological control is successful.
It has been achieved in many orchard crops. Such type of habitats provide constant type of
environment.
Economy: It is most economical method. Once the parasites/predators have established, we need not
bother about the pest and regular releases of natural enemies are not required. Therefore, except the
initial high expenditure, in long run biocontrol is cheaper. In orchards, we need not release the natural
enemies every year.
Selectivity: Natural enemies are mostly pest specific. Pest problems are neither intensified nor new
ones are created. Pest will be unable or slow to develop resistance to such control measure.
Limitations of Biological Control: Biological control is slow. Biocontrol agents are more affected
by climatic conditions as compared to the pest. Therefore, there are chances of failures, if climatic
conditions are not suitable for the biocontrol agents. The large scale rearing of biocontrol agents is
difficult and costly affair because a long chain of host plants, host insect and parasites and predators
are involved. Only in few cases, parasites and pathogens have been mass cultured on artificial diets.
They do not control the pest up to economic threshold level in many cases because a drastic reduction
in the pest population will also result in the reduction of their own population. Standardization is
difficult. We have to work out that how many parasitoids/predators are needed to control the pest in
unit area. It is often unpredictable. The performance of a newly discovered natural enemy can not be
known before hand.
Factors Affecting Biological Control
Tolerance Limit of Crop to Insect Injury: Biological control is successful in crops with high
tolerance limits.
Crop Value: Successful in crops with high economic value.
Crop Duration: Long duration crops are most suitable.
Indigenous or Exotic Pest: Imported natural enemies are more effective against recently introduced
pests.
 If alternate host is available then the control of target pest is low.
 In unfavorable season occurs, reintroduction of natural enemies are required.
Biological Control in Insect Pest Management 187
 Presence of hyperparasites reduces the effectiveness of biocontrol.

 Tritrophic Interaction of Plant-Pest-Natural Enemy affects success of biocontrol, eg., Helicoverpa
parasitization by Trichogramma more in sorghum than in pigeonpea.
 Use of pesticides affect natural enemies.
 Selective insecticides (less toxic to natural enemies).
 Identical situation for successful control does not occur.
Desirable Features of an Ideal Natural Enemy: An ideal natural enemy is very rare but if following
characteristics are there, we can call it an ideal natural enemy.
High Searching Capacity: The natural enemy should be able to search for its host, even if the host
population is very low. It is often said, a good natural enemy is a scarce natural enemy because they
keep the host population at low level, therefore, their own population remains low.
They should be able to control the population below economic threshold level and economic
injury level. High reproductive potential i.e. more than the host will reduce the host population within
one generation at low level. It should be fairly host specific. It should have excellent synchronization
with the host’s life history. It is a important characteristic. Suppose pest is in egg stage and natural
enemy is the larval parasite, then emergence of adult should coincide with the larval stage of the pest.
It should be able to resist the environmental changes up to some extent. It should be somewhat
resistant to insecticides. It should be easy to mass rear in artificial conditions in laboratory. It should
have the power of uniform dispersal. Natural enemies should be adopted biologically to its hosts.
Adult Parasite Characteristics: Adult stage of the parasite is one of the important stage because
females are responsible for host finding and oviposition. The females should have sufficient power of
locomotion. It should be able to search, on which plant insect is feeding. Ovipositor should be such so
that it can lay eggs even in gallery. Some parasites paralyze their host before pre-mating and egg
laying, for eg. Braconhebetor on Sesamiainfrens. Most of the parasite do not have pre-mating period.
Just after emergence they start mating.
In many cases parasites have a period before they start egg laying, during that period they
require some food. If food is not given then there will be no egg laying. On this basis the adult
parasite can be divided into two.
1. Pro-ovigenic:-In pro-ovigenic, the parasites do not require food in adult stage. Egg production
depends on stored nutrient. In such type of parasites, egg laying is done just after mating in one toll
only and not in installments. Therefore, they do not require nutrient from outside.
2. Syno-ovigenic: They lay eggs in installments and they require continuous supply of food in adult
stage. Generally, they require a protein/nectar source either from their host itself or from some other
plants eg. Mustard and alfaalfa etc. There may be two sources of food viz., Adults feed on nectar and
adults feed on host itself after puncturing the body.
History of Biological Control
Predators
 Liu (1939): Predatory ants, Oecophylla were used for the control of citrus pests in Asia during
900-1200 AD.
 Forskall (1775): In Arabia, the growers introduced colonies of predatory ants from the mountains
annually into the date palm groves to control a pest ant, which often destroys the trees.
 Indian Mynah bird, Acridotherestristis (L.) was imported to Maurititus in 1762 and has
successfully controlled the red locust, Nomadacrisseptemfasciata.
 Clausen (1940): The hemipteran, Picromerusbidens L. was recommended as a predatory agent
against bed bug, Climax lectularis in Europe as early as 1776.
 Kirby and Spencer (1815): Distribution of cocinellids on plants and in green houses to destroy
aphids.
 Boisgiraud in France in 1840 collected large number of carabid beetles, CalosomasycophantaL.
and placed them on poplars where they destroyed the caterpillar of gypsy moth.
Parasites
 Aldrovandi in 1602 was the first to notice the exit of a parasite, Apantelesglomeratus from the
imported cabbage worm but Vallisnieri was apparently the first to discover the real nature of
phenomenon.
 Shortly after, Raeumur and De Geer worked out the biology of a number of parasites.
 Erasmus Darwin, the father of Charles Darwin emphasized the possibilities of biological control
in his Phytologia or the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening, published in London in 1800.
Transfer of Parasites / Predators
 Fitch in 1854 suggested the transferring of European parasites of the wheat midge,
Contariniatritici Kby., to USA.
 C.V. Riley in 1870 proposed the transfer of parasites from one region to another part of the same
country and an important experiment of this sort was carried out by Webster in 1906 with
parasites of the Hessian fly, Phytophaga destructor (Say).
 First international transfer of a beneficial arthropod was made by Planchon and Riley in 1873
with the introduction and establishment in France of an American predatory mite,
Rhizoglyphusphylloxerae, which fed upon the grape vine phylloxera in the USA.
 In 1874, Cocinellaundecipunctata L. was introduced from England in New Zealand in an attempt
to control plant lice.
 In 1882, Saunders introduced Trichgrammaminutum into Canada from USA.
 Riley in 1883 imported Apantelesglomeratus into the USA from England to combat the imported
cabbage worm.
 The above mentioned attempts of biological control were overshadowed by the remarkable
success of biological control of following insects.
 The vedalia beetle, Rodoliacardinalis, a predator on the cottony cushion scale, Iceryapurchasi was
introduded in USA in 1888 and since then in more than 50 countries.
 AphelinusmaliHald, an internal parasite of the apple wooly aphid, Eriosomalanigerum (Hausm.)
in North America has been introduced into about 40 countries since 1920.
 Aphytisdiaspidis to control San Jose Scale, Quadraspidiotusperniciosus imported from USA in
1960 to Himachal Pradesh.
Major Techniques of Biological Control
1. Foreign Exploration and Introduction of Natural Enemies
2. Augmentation of Natural Enemies
3. Conservation and Enhancement of Natural Enemies
I. Foreign Exploration and Introduction of Natural Enemies: Before introduction of a natural
enemy, we must know the following points.
1. Nature of pest to be controlled. Generally forest and orchard pests are easy to control by bio-
agents, whereas the control of crop pests is comparatively difficult.
2. If the pest has been suddenly introduced from a foreign country, then the import of natural enemy
from its native land is advantageous.
3. The climatic conditions of the two countries should be some what similar. The two country means
the country of origin of natural enemy and the country in which it is being imported.
4. Host plant of the natural enemy must be known. For eg., the Chilo feeds on sorghum and maize
both and if we want to control Chilo on sorghum then we will have to try for natural enemies on
sorghum itself.
(a) Planning and Preparation for Natural Enemy Introduction
1. Taxonomic identification of natural enemy is the first step.
2. The entomologists in that country are contacted and existing information on that natural enemy
should be known to us.
3. Time of import i.e. in what part of the year it should be imported.
4. Lab. culture techniques have to be developed before import.
5. The method of transportation /shipment be tested before hand. We should know the suitable stage
of the natural enemy to be transported and which type of container will be successful.
6. Preparation for the receipt of the material are made in advance. It is first received in quarantine
laboratory.
7. Permission from the Plant Protection Adviser, Govt. of India must be taken.
(b) Transportation of the Natural Enemy: The container should be such that it can not be pressed
and temperature should not shoot up excessively high and it should be properly ventilated. It should
be such that humidity is not depleted. Generally, plastic containers with a layer of sponge with 2-3
apartments are made with perforated material. Sufficient space is provided for the activity of adults,
which may emerge out in transit. Arrangement for food is made for such emergencies. Proper stage
for transportation is generally pupae. Adults are rarely transported. Parasitized hosts are also
transported but a care has to be taken in doing so. They should not contain any hyper parasite,
pathogens and other undesirable microbial agents, otherwise it is easy to send the parasitized material.
(c) Processing of Material in Quarantine Laboratory: Material is first taken to quarantine
laboratory, where it is opened inside a sleeved cage. If is adult, food or host is provided immediately.
In case of pupae, they are kept for sometime for adult emergence. After opening the container may be
fumigated and then burnt and disposed. Insects are taken out and reared in quarantine laboratory.
They are examined there for a week or so for any hyper parasite involved with them. It is better to rear
one or two generations of the natural enemy in quarantine to confirm the purity of imported culture.
When the purity is confirmed, they are multiplied on the host insect and preparations are made for
their release in field. Generally 1-2 months is taken for release in the field.
(d) Colonization: To help the imported species in establishing itself in a new environment (area of
country) is called as colonization. Colonization is the most critical operation in biological control. To
make it successful, following considerations are made.
1. The site chosen for colonization should be thoroughly protected from the use of
pesticide and cultural practices. (Private gardens and neglected or abandoned plantings are
generally better protected).
2. The natural enemy should be stored at a low (160C) temperature to curtail activity, but permit
some feeding while the suitable weather for the release is awaited.
3. The timing of release should coincide with the availability of host stages suitable for release. The
weather should be favourable and the time, preferably morning because this is a common time
for the parasites to mate so that eggs could be laid during the warm day time.
4. The release stage should be adult since the younger stages are more prone to destruction by
unfavourable weather conditions.
5. Insects about to be released should be fed and mated before release.
6. Insects should be transported to the site of release in metal containers wrapped with moist cloth to
allow evaporative cooling or in ice boxes or even in refrigerated vans.
7. Release of insect is done in two ways : open field release and confined release. In open field
release, the insects are released directly into the field and in confined release, they are released in
sleeves or cages containing hosts to get them acclimatized to field conditions before they go out.
8. The number released depends on the natural enemy’s host searching ability. If the ability is good,
fewer (10 or so) could be released or else any number may be released.
(e) Recovery: Recovery attempts are undertaken soon after the initial release just to ascertain if the
released insects are surviving and without relevance whether or not control is provided.
II. Augmentation of Natural Enemies: Augmentation is a biological control practice that includes
any activity designed to increase numbers or effect of existing natural enemies. These objectives may
be achieved by releasing additional numbers of a natural enemy into a system or modifying the
environment in such a way as to promote greater numbers or effectiveness. It is also the manipulation
of natural enemy itself to make it more stronger and effective. There are two parts in augmentation.
(i) Artificial Releases: Artificial release is one of the important method for biological control.
Releases are of value in case of the pest whose seriousness is proportionate to the absence of natural
enemy. The number of natural enemies required to bring the pest population below ETL has to be
worked out. Frequency and time interval between releases has also to be worked out. There are two
types of releases.
(a) Inundative Releases: This type of releases are made to control the pest population largely if not
entirely by the released natural enemies itself and not by their progeny. This approach is similar to
that of application of insecticides. To get success from this type of releases, the following points are
important.
1. crop should be of high value and annual.
2. infestation should be less.
3. pest species should be univoltine.
Inundative releases have been attempted in several programmes involving natural enemies
like Trichogramma, Chrysoperlacarnea and ladybird beetles, Hippodamiaconvergens.
In many instances, however, inundative releases of insect parasitoids and predators have been
unsuccessful. The lack of success is usually ascribed to insufficient coverage over a large enough area
or augmentation in environments not supportive of the numbers released. Another reason is the
movement of released natural enemies out of the targeted area.
Some of the most successful inundative releases have been with pathogenic microorganisms
like B. thuringiensis. Microbial insecticides have been applied mostly against caterpillars, beetles,
mosquitoes and black flies. They suppress the pest population quickly, much the same as a
conventional insecticide.
(b) Inoculative Releases: In this type of release, we get the control both by the released natural
enemy and its progeny but mainly by its progeny and control usually persists longer. This type is
release is made in many insects. Some insects have been successfully controlled by this type of
release for eg., scale insects. Partial success has been achieved in case of codling moth, oriental fruit
moth and sugarcane borer by releasing Trichogrammaspecies.
(ii) Selective Breeding: The idea of selective breeding came from improvement of honeybees and
silkworms. Apisindica has been crossed with Apismellifera but success was not achieved. The first
requirement of selective breeding is that there should be sufficient variability in the strain of parasite
and predator which has to be improved by selective breeding. Selective breeding is done for various
purposes.
(a) For Resistance against Insecticides: If a parasite/predator is resistant to insecticide then it will
not be killed by the use of insecticide, whereas the pest will be killed.
(b) For changing the host preference.
(c) For changing the host habitat.
(d) For Resistance to Adverse Weather Conditions: The adverse weather condition mainly
includes adverse heat and adverse cold. De back et al., 1960 have done some selective breeding on
Aphytislingnensis. This is a parasite, which feeds on scale insects. They found that after 85
generations, the parasite showed resistance for adverse heat and cold conditions. Similarly, the work
on resistance to insecticide was done by Glacier and Pox 1956. They used tachinid fly
Parathecaclaripalpis, which feeds on sugarcane borer.
III. Conservation and Enhancement of Natural Enemies: Following techniques have been adopted
for the conservation and enhancement of natural enemies.
(a) Provision of Artificial Structures: Many parasites and predators require habitat other than the
host habitat. If the required habitat is provided then efficiency is increased and they breed faster. For
eg., Predaceous wasps have been used for control of Spodopteralitura.
(b) Supplementary Food for Natural Enemies: Crops which provide nectar and pollen also serve as
the habitat for the adult natural enemies. For eg., Alfa alfa crop in between the sugarcane in USSR.
Similarly, pumpkin crop in maize, berseem in sugar beet. By these type of provisions, the
ovipositional power of natural enemy is increased.
(c) Modification of Agricultural Practices: Planting time can be changed in favour of natural
enemies in such a way that humidity and temperature is suitable for multiplication of natural enemies.
For eg. Maximum parasitization in Chilo takes place in August. It means there is more parasitization
during rainy season so in spring if we irrigate, the parasitization of Chilo is increased.
References
Clausen, C.P. 1978. (Ed.) Introduced parasites and predators of arthropodpests and weeds: a world review. ARS,
USDA, Agric. Handb. No. 480,545 pp.
Jayanth, K.P. (1987). Introduction and establishment of Zygogrammabicolorata onPartheniumhysterophorus at
Bangalore, India.Curr. Sci. 56: 310-311.
Jayanth, K.P. and Singh, S.P. (1993). Biological control of aquatic weeds. IndianFamg. 42: 25-30.
Joy, P.J., Sathesan, N.V., Lyla, K.R. and Joseph, D. (1985). Successful biologicalcontrol of the floating weed
Salviniamolesta Mitchell using the weevil
Cyrtobagoussalviniae Calder and Sands in Kerala (India). Paperpresented at Asian-Pacific Weed Science
Society, Tenth Conference,Nov. 24-30, Chiangmai.
Julien, M.H. and Griffith, M.W. (1999). Biological Control of Weeds: A WorldCatalogue of Agents and Their
Target Weeds (Fourth Edition). CABInternational, Wallingford, Oxon, UK, 223 pp.
Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. (1997). Australian ladybird beetle,CryptolaemusmontrouzieriMuls. Madras
agric. J. 84(5): 237-249.
Muniappan, R. and Viraktamath, C.A. (1986). Status of biological control ofthe weed Lantana camara in India.
Trop. Pest Manage. 32: 40-42: 81-84.
Pawar, A.D., Misra, M.P. and Singh, J. (2002). Role of Epiricaniamelanoleuca(Fletcher) in biological control of
sugarcane pyrilla, Pyrillaperpusilla(Walk.) outbreak in 1999 in Western Uttar Pradesh. J. Biol. Control
16(1): 71-76.
Rao, V.P., Ghani, A.M., Sankaran, T. and Mathur, K.C. (1971). A review of thebiological control of insects and
other pests in Southeast Asia andthe Pacific region.Commonw. Inst. Biol. Control Tech. Commu.No. 6,149
pp.
Sankaran, T. (1974). Natural enemies introduced in recent years for biologicalcontrol of agricultural pests in
India. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 44 (7): 425-433.
Singh, S.P. (1995). Experiences in classical biological control in India, pp. 121-154.In: Biological Control as a
Cornerstone of Integrated Pest Managementfor Sustainable Agriculture in Southeast Asia, Proceedings of a
Workshop on Biological Control.
Paul Ferrar, Loke Wai Hong, A. (1995). Sivapragasam,Ahmad Anwar Ismail, LumKengYeant, Lim Guan Soon
and JannyVos(Eds.). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September 11-15, MARDI,Malaysia/ACIAR, Australia, 221
pp.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
Sandeep Kumar Choudhary1, Vinod Bhateshwar2, Sanju Piploda1, K. Anvesh1 and
Sushila Bhathesar
1
Department of Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur - 303329 (Rajasthan), India and
2
Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-
221005 (Uttar Pradesh), India, E-mail: bhateshwarv@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Sandeep Kumar Choudhary
T omato, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, okra, beans and cucurbits are important
vegetables cultivated in India. Cultivation of hybrids or improved varieties of
vegetables during off-season, intensive agronomic practices and indiscriminate use of
insecticides have disrupted the delicate balance between the insect pests and their natural enemies.
The development of insecticide resistance in tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera), brinjal fruit
borer (Leucinodes orbonalis), serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifollii), and diamond back moth
(Plutella xylostella) in cabbage are a few examples. To combat these insecticide resistant insects, IPM
techniques are being devised. Use of marigold as a trap crop for tomato fruit borer, H. armigera,
mustard as a trap crop in cabbage and cauliflower, use of NPV and Trichogramma against tomato fruit
borer, application of neem seed kernel extract against all the pests of crucifers are a few well known
IPM technologies. Use of neem and pongamia cakes in the pest management in brinjal, cucurbits and
okra are the new strategies devised. The IPM is yet to make a large scale impact in farmers’ fields.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to popularize the new technologies after taking stock of the existing
techniques and if necessary, modify them to suit different ecological needs. This paper presents a
status report of the available IPM technologies for vegetable crops including their limitations and
economic aspects.
IPM Technologies
Trap Crops: Use of mustard and marigold as trap crops in cabbage and tomato are the two important
classical IPM technologies available to farmers. Mustard as trap crop and neem seed kernel extract
(NSKE) for cabbage and cauliflower. The technology developed in 1989 (Srinivasan and Moorthy,
1991; 1992) recommends two rows of bold-seeded Indian mustard after every 25 rows of cabbage.
The first row of mustard is sown 15 days prior to the cabbage planting and second row is sown 25
days after planting. Mustard attracts more than 80 percent of the cabbage pests. However, the mustard
foliage is to be sprayed with dichlorvos to kill pests in addition to 2-3 sprays of Neem Seed Kernel
Extract (NSKE).
Marigold as Trap Crop for Management of Tomato Fruit Borer: Use of tall African marigold as
trap crop for the management of tomato fruit borer, H. armigera, was demonstrated in 1992
(Srinivasan et al., 1994). Under this package, 45-day old marigold is planted for every 16 rows of
tomato to synchronize flowering in both the crops. Most of the eggs of borer are laid in marigold
flowers or flower buds, and only negligible eggs are laid in tomato. Whatsoever little incidence of the
insect is controlled by spraying of endosulfan at 28 and 35 days after planting (DAP). The limitations
of this technology are that the flowering in marigold and tomato has to be synchronized and some
tomato rows are to be sacrificed for marigold (Subramaniam, 1997).
Use of Botanicals: Use of Neem Seed Kernel Extract Sprays: NSKE sprays are recommended on a
variety of crops such as cabbage, cauliflower, tomato and cucurbits against all pests, on tomato and
cucurbits against serpentine leaf miner, and on beans against stem fly, Ophiomyia phaseoli. In
cabbage and cauliflower, NSKE sprays provided excellent control of all the pests and the crop could
be raised without a single insecticide application. It was demonstrated in 1989 by (Srinivasan and
Moorthy, 1992). Demonstration of NSKE sprays under mechanised cabbage farming was also done in
a large area of Tamil Nadu by (Moorthy et al. 1998).
Many farmers are aware of the usefulness of NSKE sprays, but they do not know the proper
method of its preparation. Some also complain about non-availability neem seeds in the market during
the summer when pest problems are more. Further, preparation of the extract is problematic as it
involves grinding and filtering, which irritate eyes.
Many neem formulations are available in the market, but these are moderately effective
compared to NSKE (Srinivasan and Moorthy, 1993). Perhaps, the only exception is a new powder
formulation with 6% azadirachtin. It was found highly effective against DBM in cabbage (at the dose
Integrated Pest Management in Vegetable Crops 193
of 1g/L) and also in tomato against fruit borer. Many neem formulations have been found effective
against serpentine leaf miner also. The mode of action of cakes seems to be ‘repellency’ through the
volatiles present in the cakes. The effect was also found to be reduced with rise in temperature and
high wind velocity during summer and pre-monsoon months. The utility of the cakes in IPM of
different insect pests and crops is briefly described below.
Brinjal: The insecticide resistant brinjal shoot and fruit borer was effectively reduced to 6-10% by 2-
3 soil applications of neem and pongamia cakes @ 250 kg/ha. This was found to reduce the incidence
of ash weevil, gall midge and thrips successfully and with minimum insecticide use. However, the
incidence of mite and aphid could not be reduced by the cakes.
Okra: The soil application of neem cake @ 250 kg/ha at sowing, and two repeated applications at 30-
45 days interval was found to reduce the incidence of petiole maggot (Melanogromyza hibisci), fruit
borer (Erias vitella) and hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula).
Cucurbits: The application of neem cake or sprays of NSKE were very effective in controlling fruit
fly in cucumber. Soil application of neem cake reduced the incidence of fruit fly to 6 percent, whereas
insecticide applied plots recorded its incidence at more than 15 percent. The soil application of cakes
and foliar soap sprays were more effective in reducing thrips in water melon as compared to
insecticide sprays.
Cabbage and Cauliflower: The results in both cabbage and cauliflower indicated that neem cake
application reduced DBM significantly. In these crops, foliage development takes a long time to cover
the soil surface. Hence, the volatiles in the cakes may get evaporated fast. Therefore, effect may not
be very significant when the crop canopy is poor, especially during the early growth stage of the crop.
The study on cauliflower showed that it could be very effective during winter when temperature and
wind velocity are low.
Use of Soaps: Sprays of neem and pongamia soaps were found to be highly effective in controlling
insecticide resistant DBM in cabbage. The efficacy of soaps in cabbage was successfully
demonstrated under on farm trials during the summer of 2000-2001 under IVLP programme. These
can also be used as a component of IPM in other crops like tomato, cucurbits, and beans. The
advantage of soaps is that they have very low residual toxicity and are readily washed away with
water. However, a thorough coverage of plant surface is necessary, because the insect may not die
unless the soap droplet falls on it. Sprays of soaps should be done judiciously, avoiding frequent
sprays as they may inhibit vegetative growth. Further, these soaps are not yet commercially available
and have potential in national and international markets.
Biocontrol
Release of Trichogramma: Inundative releases of the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma brasilensis @
2,40,000/ha are also recommended for the control of fruit borer. Six releases at weekly intervals @
40,000/ha with the first release coinciding with 50% flowering in tomato is recommended. This IPM
along with nuclear polyhedrons virus (NPV) sprays on tomato was demonstrated. However, the
release of parasitoid alone is not very effective (Moorthy et al., 1992).
Sprays of NPV: The sprays of Ha NPV at 250 larval equivalents/ha, has been found to be effective in
controlling fruit borer. Studies at IIHR have indicated that 3-4 applications at weekly intervals, the
first spray coinciding with flowering, reduced pest incidence to minimum (> 5%). (Moorthy et al.,
1992 and Mohan et al., 1996). The presence of H. armigera eggs was monitored by pheromone traps
on the young leaves on the top of the plant.
Use of Barriers: Use of nylon net as a barrier for control of brinjal shoot and fruit borer was studied
at IIHR, Bangalore and Indian Institute for Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi. This strategy along
with shoot clipping could reduce the borer incidence by 16%. However, the cost of nylon net is high,
and studies are, therefore, being conducted on the use of live barriers like maize. These barriers may
also be effective in reducing the wind effect when cakes are applied.
Economics of IPM
Tomato: Tomato fruit borer, H. armigera is the major pest on tomato. The benefit cost ratio of
marigold as trap crop for tomato fruit borer management was studied by (Khaderkhan et al., 1998)
and observed a benefit-cost (B:C) ratio of 1.53 compared to 1.08 from non-IPM technologies. The net
return using IPM was Rs 60,168/ha as compared to Rs 47,359/ha in chemical control.
In addition to the fruit borer, an introduced insect pest serpentine leaf miner (SLM),
Liriomyza trifolii, is also another important pest of tomato. Hence, the following IPM is suggested for
tomato crop:
 Apply neem cake/pongamia cake @ 250 kg/ha while planting to reduce the leaf miner and fruit
borer egg laying and spotted wilt disease
 Plant 45-day old marigold seedlings and 25-day old tomato seedlings simultaneously in a pattern
of one row of marigold for every 16 rows of tomato (optional for tomato fruit borer management)
 Spray NSKE (4%) or neem seed powder (7%) at 15 and 25 DAP (for serpentine leaf miner
control, if required)
 Repeat neem cake application at flowering to reduce incidence of fruit borer incidence
 Spray NPV 250 LE four times in the evening at intervals of 4-7 days for a pure tomato crop. If
marigold is grown as a trap crop, spray it only twice at 28 and 35 DAP.
Brinjal: Shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis), ash weevil (Myllocerus subfaciatus), gall
midge (Asphondylia sp.), leaf feeding beetle (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata), leaf hopper
(Amrasca bigutula biguttula), aphids (Aphis gossipii) and red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus)
are some important pests of brinjal. While fruit borer and hoppers are the major problems, mites, gall
midge and ash weevil may also result in considerable yield loss in some regions.
A comparison of net returns with and without IPM shows that integration of neem is cost-
effective and results in higher yield and net higher returns. In view of this, the following IPM
practices are suggested for brinjal:
 Apply neem /karanj (pongamia) cakes while planting @ 250 kg/ha in furrows to manage ash
weevil
 Repeat cake application at 30-40 DAP to manage ash weevil and early incidence of shoot and
fruit borer
 Repeat cake application at 90-100 DAP to manage fruit borer, midge, hoppers and thrips
 Spray NSKE/pongamia soap at 10-15 days of interval during summer and windy period (only if
borer incidence is more than 10%)
 Spray dicofol (0.05%), if required to control mite.
Crucifers (Cabbage and Cauliflower): The cruciferous vegetables suffer from a number of insect
pests. The important ones are: DBM (Plutella xylostella Linn.), leaf webber (Crocidolomia binotalis
Zeller), stem borer (Hellula undalis Zeller), aphids, (Brevicoryne brassicae Linn, Hyadaphis erysimi
Kaltenbach), stink bug (Bagrada cruciferarum Kirkaldy), striped flea beetle (Phyllotreta striolata
Fabr.), and mustard saw fly (Athalia lugens proxima Klug). For these crops, planting Indian mustard
as a trap crop and spraying NSKE take care of all the pests. NSKE sparys alone are also effective. The
economics of different packages (only NSKE, mustard as trap crop + NSKE sprays), including use of
only insecticides were studied under IVLP programme (Srinivasamurthy et al., 1999). In view of this,
the following IPM practices are suggested for cabbage and cauliflower:
 Sow one row of mustard for every 25 rows of cabbage (optional)
 Spray the seedlings with Bt just before transplanting
 Spray Bt between 10 and 15 DAP only if early incidence of DBM is noticed
 Spray NSKE/NSP/Soap/Bt from 20 DAP at intervals of 10-15 days, 3-4 times. Threshold of 1
larva/plant may be followed after the first spray given at 20 DAP. Maximum of 4 sprays are
required for a crop of 70-80 days duration
 If mustard is taken as trap crop, then spray it with dichlorvos at intervals of 10-15 days.
Conclusions: Despite use of pesticides, insect pests and diseases cause considerable losses in
vegetables. Moreover, many insect pests have developed resistance to insecticides used to control
them, implying repeated applications of insecticides and increase in the cost of protection. The newer
technologies and practices embedded in IPM provide better protection against insect pests; improve
crop yields and net benefits to the farmers.
References
Khaderkhan, H., Nataraju, M. S. and Nagaraja, G. N. (1998). Economics of IPM in tomato. In: Proceedings of
first National Symposium in Pest Management in Horticultural Crops, pp: 151-152.
Integrated Pest Management in Vegetable Crops 195
Mohan, K. S., Asokan, R. and Gopalakrishnan, C. (1996). Isolation and filed application of a nuclear
polyhedrosis virus for the control of fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) on tomato. Pest
Management in Horticultural Ecosystems 2: 1-8.
Moorthy, P. N. K. and Kumar, N. K. K. (2000). Efficacy of neem seed kernel powder extracts on cabbage pests.
Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems. 6: 27-31.
Moorthy, P. N. K., Kumar, K. N. K., Selvaraj, C. and Daniel, J. S. (1998). Neem seed kernel extract applications
for diamond back moth management: Transfer of technology for mechanised farming. Pest Management in
Horticultural Ecosystems. 4: 128-130.
Moorthy, P. N. K., Srinivasan, K., Mohan, K.S., Mani, M. and Gopalakrishnan, C. (1992). Integrated
management of Heliothis armigera in tomato. Paper presented at the Golden Jubilee Symposium on
Horticulture Research: Changing Scenario, held at Bangalore, May 24- 28, 1993 Abst. 258.
Moorthy, P. N. Krishna and Srinivasan, K. (1997). Evaluation of neem products and standard chemicals for the
management of bean fly, Ophimyia phaseoli (Tryon) in French beans. In: Neem and Environment Vol. 1
(Eds. R. P. Singh, M. S. Chari, A. K. Raheja and W. Kraus). New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing.
Srinivasan, K. and Moorthy, P. N. K. (1993). Evaluation of neem products and other standard chemicals for the
management of major pest complex on cabbage: Comparison between standard spray regime and IPM
involving mustard as a trap crop. In: Neem and Environment Vol. 1 (eds. R. P. Singh, M.S. Chari, A. K.
Raheja and W. Kraus). New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing.
Srinivasan, K., P.N. Krishna Moorthy and T.N. Raviprasad. (1994). African marigold as a trap crop for the
management of the fruit borer; Helicoverpa armigera on tomato. International Journal of Pest Management
40 (1): 56-63.
Srinvasan, K. and Krishna Moorthy, P. N. K. (1991). Indian mustard as a trap crop for management of major
lepidopterous pests on cabbage. Tropical Pest Management. 37: 26-32.
Srinvasan, K. and Moorthy, P. N. K. (1992). Development and adoption of integrated pest management for
major pests of cabbage using Indian mustard as trap crop: diamond back moth and other crucifer pests.
Proceedings of the Second International Workshop, Tainan, Taiwan, 10-14 December 1990. Asian
Vegetable Research and Development Centre, AVRDC Publication Centre, AVRDC Publication No. 92-
368. pp. 511-521.
Subramaniam, K.V. (1997). Critical factors in adoption of integrated pest management technologies: An
economic analysis. In: First National Symposium in Pest Management in Horticulture Crops. IIHR,
Bangalore. October. 15-17.

INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
K. Anvesh, Sandeep Kumar Choudhary and Sanju Piploda
Department o Entomology, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur–303329 (Rajasthan), India,
E-mail: anvesh.kantegari@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: K. Anvesh
I nsects are the most abundant arthropods spread over different habitats. Insects account to
about 5-10 million species including all terrestrial and aquatic forms. Insects apart from
causing damage to various commodities and irritating humans, help the mankind in
various aspects. As far as the beneficial aspects of insects are concerned, they act as pollinators for
various crops useful to human beings and also produce various products used by man. Economic
products produced by various insects are honey, propolis, bee wax, bee venom, silk, lac and dyes. The
insects of various orders have different importance in human life (David, 2002). Insects of order:
Hymenoptera and order lepidoptera produce useful products and act as pollinators. Coleopterans feed
on dead and decomposed organic matter and act as scavengers. Different types of insects useful to
mankind are discussed below:
Honey Bees: Honey bees belong to the order: Hymenoptera and major families of honey bees are
Apidae and Meliponidae. Different species of honey bees seen commonly in India are Indian honey
bee, Apis cerana indica; European bee, Apis mellifera; Rock bee, Apis dorsata; Little bee, Apis florea.
Other than these there are two more bee species, i.e., Himalayan honey bee, Apis laboriosaand Black
dwarf bee, Apis adreniformis. Among all the species the most widely domesticated species are Indian
honey bee and European honey bee. Rearing of honey bees for extraction of honey, wax and propolis
by human beings is called as ‘Apiculture’. The nest or house of honey bees is called as ‘Hive’. A bee
hive consists of different castes of honey bees, viz., queen, workers and drones. The only fertile
female of the colony is queen bee. The workers are sterile females which constitutes the major
numbers in a colony. The only male caste of the colon is drones. The diploid chromosome number of
honey bees is 2n = 32, this is applicable to queen and workers because they originate from fertilized
eggs. The drones develop from unfertilized eggs and possess haploid chromosome number n = 16.
The only role of queen bee is to mate with drones and lay eggs. Drones mate with queen during
nuptial flight, which is the only function of this caste. The worker caste of honey bees are active and
carryout major functions of the colony. There are 2 types of workers they are household workers and
forage workers. The total life span of worker bee can be divided into two parts of three weeks each.
During the first three weeks the worker bee performs household duties like comb building, taking care
of queen and young bees. After the third week the workers go out in search of food (foraging) and
carry pollen and nectar to the hive. The plants or crops on which bees depend for nectar and pollen are
called bee forage or bee flora. Most of the forest trees like tamarind, moringa, neem, eucalyptus are
the major sources of nectar. Field and plantation crops serve as a source of pollen and fruits and oil
seeds are good sources of both pollen and nectar. In a natural bee hive the location of brood cells from
top to bottom follows the order: honey cells, pollen cells, worker cells, drone cells and the queen cell.
Silkworms: Silkworms belong to the order: Lepidoptera and the major families of silkworms are
bombycidae and saturniidae. Rearing of silkworms for production of silk is called ‘Sericulture’. The
most important species of silkworm is the Mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori and the sericulture
involving this silkworm is called mulberry sericulture. The silkworms other than mulberry silkworm
are Tasar silkworm, Antheraea paphia; Muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis and Eri silk worm,
Samia cynthia ricini. All the above non-mulberry silkworms belong to the family: Saturniidae. The
cultivation of mulberry as a food for silkworms is called ‘Moriculture’ and that of other host plants is
called ‘Arboriculture’.
Silkworms with their hosts and voltinism
S. N. Silkworm Host plants Voltinism
1. Mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori Mulberry, Morus spp. Bivoltine/ Multivoltine
2. Tasar silkworm, Antheraea paphia Asan, Arjun, Sal, Ber Bivoltine
3. Muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis Som, Soalu Multivoltine
4. Eri silkworm, Samia cynthia ricini Castor,Kasseru, Papaya, Tapioca Multivoltine
There are four stages in the lifecycle of a silkworm, i.e., egg, larva, pupa and adult. The
economic part of sericulture industry is the ‘cocoon’, which is spun by the larva to enter into pupal
stage. The larvae are reared till the formation of cocoons and used for processing. The processing
Insects of Economic Importance 197
begins with the boiling of cocoons to kill the pupae present inside the cocoons; this process is called
‘Stifling’. After stifling a process called brushing is followed to find out the free end of the silk
filament and then the silk filament is reeled and made into bundles/skeins. The bundles are converted
into books and books finally into bales. The standard weight of one bale is 50 kg in India as against 60
kg at international level.
Lac Insect: Lac insect, Laccifera lacca belongs to the order: Hemiptera and family: Lacciferidae. Lac
is a resinous substance secreted by resin glands of the female insect. These glands are present all over
the female body except mouth, anus and breathing pores. India is the largest producer of lac in the
world and the states contributing to 90% of lac production in the country are Jharkhand, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Assam and Orissa. Many host plants have been reported
to be capable of supporting lac cultivation in India, among which kusum, Schleichera oleosa; palas,
Butea monosperma; ber, Zizyphus jujuba and khair, Acacia catechuare the major hosts. There are
three developmental stages in the lifecycle of lac insect, viz.,egg, nymph and adult.
There are two strains of lac insects a) Kusumi strain b) Rangeeni strain. The Kusumi strain
is raised on kusum host and the Rangeeni strain on all other lac hosts such as palas, ber, arhar, etc.
Various steps in the production of lac are as follows: selection of suitable site, pruning, inoculation of
brood lac, lac extraction and preparation of shellac.
Insect Pollinators: Many species of insects are known to have a role in pollination of plants.
Pollination mediated by insects is termed as Entomophily (Atwal, 2000). Important orders which have
an immense role in pollination are Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. A mutualistic relation
between insect species and plants has an ancient evolutionary trend. Insect pollinated plant species
produce nectar to attract the insects and the insects in course of nectar feeding carry the pollen from
flower to flower. Some fruit plants like peas, beans, sunflower, figs, etc. will not produce fruits
without pollination. Honey bees are known to increase the yield of various agricultural and
horticultural crops by many folds. Some of the important insect pollinators are honey bees, houseflies,
wasps, butterflies, moths, etc. The pollination by insects is named after the insect which acts as an
agent. The following are different types:
Melitophily-Bees
Cantharophily-Beetles
Myophily-Syrphid and Bombylid flies
Sphingophily-Hawk moths
Psychophily-Butterflies
Phalaeophily- Small moths
Predators: Insects are used as predators in pest management. Many insects feed on the other smaller
insects as food. The insect feeding is called a predator and the insect which is predated is called prey.
Many sucking insect pests like aphids, leafhoppers, whiteflies and thrips are devoured and eaten away
by many coccinellids, syrphid flies etc. The insect orders which contain predators are Coleoptera,
Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Dictyoptera, etc.
Parasitoids: A Parasitoid is a special kind of parasite which is often about same size as its host, kills
its host and requires only one host for its development. Depending upon the stages of insect on which
the parasitoid is feeding there are different types of parasitoids, viz., egg parasitoid, egg-larval
parasitoid, larval parasitoid, larval-pupal parasitoid, pupal parasitoid and adult parasitoid. Majority of
the parasitoids belong to order: Hymenoptera and Diptera. Hymenopteran families-Ichneumonidae,
Braconidae, Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Trichogrammatidae and Dipteran family: Tachinidae include
many parasitoids which are used in integrated pest management programs.
Weed Killers: Insects which feed on weed plants or their parts are called weed killers. Many insects
feed on weeds, just as they do on cultivated plants. A successful weed killer insect should have the
following properties: a) it should not itself be the pest of cultivated plants; b) should be effective in
damaging and controlling the weed; c) should preferably be a borer or internal feeder of the weed; and
d) should be able to multiply in good numbers without being effected by parasitoids and predators.
List of insects used to kill different weeds
S.N. Weed species Weed killer
1. Congress grass/carrot weed/white top, Parthenium Mexican beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata
hysterophorus
2. Siam weed, Chromolaena odorata Arctiid moth, Parenchaetes pseudoinsulata
3. Water fern, Salvinia molesta Weevil, Cryptobagus cingularis
4. Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes 1. Weevils, Neochetina eichhorniae, N. brunchi

2. Mite, Orthogalumna terebrantis
5. Alligator weed, Alternanthera philoxeroides Flea beetle, Agasicles hygrophila
6. Crofton weed, Eupatorium adenophorum Tephritid fly, Procecidochares utilis
7. St. John’s Wort, Klamath weed, Hypericum Beetle, Chrysolina quadrigemina
perforatum
8. Lantana weed, Lantana camara Seed fly, Ophiomyia lantanae
9. Prickly pear, Opuntia spp. Moth borer, Cactoblastis cactorum
1. Opuntia inermis (O. stricta) Coccineal insect, Dactylopius tomentosus
2. Opuntia dilleni
Other Useful Insects
 The larvae and adults of dung or chafer beetles feed on dung or decaying vegetable matter and
clean the surface. Many other insects like rove beetles, fungus gnats, dady-long-legs, hover flies
also have similar feeding habit and perform scavenging function.
 Some insects serve as a food source for humans. The phenomenon of consumption of insects as
food by man or other animals is called ‘entomophagy’. Grasshoppers, crickets, beetles,
caterpillars, pupae of moths and butterflies, termites, large ants, aquatic bugs, cicadas, bee brood,
etc. have been used by humans in different parts of the world (Ragumoorthi et al., 2016).
 Dead and dried bodies of certain insects and the galls produced by them are a source of natural
dyes. The beautiful carmine red dye cochineal is obtained from dried and powdered bodies of
cactus scale insect, Dactylopius coccus and D. tomentosus (Srivasthava and Dhaliwal, 2011).
References
Atwal, A.S. (2000) Essentials of Beekeeping and pollination. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
David, B.V. (2002) Elements of Economic Entomology. Popular Book Depot, Chennai.
Ragumoorthi, K.N., Srinivasan, M.R., Balasubramani, V. and Natarajan, N. (2016) Principles of Applied
Entomology. A.E. Publications, Coimbatore.
Srivasthava, K.P. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (2011) A Textbook of Applied Entomology.Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.

PROCESSING OF LAC
N. V. Lavhe1, V. K. Biradar2, S.T. Dangore3 and P.R. Pancbhai4
1,2,3&4 Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Nagpur, E-mail: nlavhe@gmail.com,
Corresponding Author: N. V.Lavhe
R emoval of lac encrustation from sticks. Scraping should be done immidietly after
harvesting to avoid damage by insect pest. The scraped material is known as ‘Raw
lac’ or ‘scraped lac’ or ‘Stick lac’ and it is kept for sundrying. Storage for long time,
it should be fumigated with sulphur .Equipments used for scrapping: Knives, hand operated disc-type
lac scraping machine, roller type lac scraping machine, motor operated lac scraping cum grading
machine.
Preparation of Seed Lac: Scraped lac’ is then immersed in water for 3days, drain off crimson
colored supernatant. The material is transferred to large vats to which lime is added @ 1kg per 160 kg
material. Lac dye settled down is collected. Suspended lac is filtered through cloth, the process is
repeated thrice or four times. The material is spread on floor and allowed to dry- it is called as ‘Seed
lac’ or ‘grain lac’
Preparation of Shellac: From ‘seed lac’ ‘Shellac’ is manufactured. Seed lac contains some
impurities embedded in resin which have to be removed. Principle involved in this process is to melt
the seed lac by application of heat and filter the molten mass through filter cloth
Hand-made Shellac: Seed lac is packed into cloth bag of about 40 feet long and 2.5 inch diameter.
The bag is heated portion-wise but by uniformly rotating in front of a wood-charcoal fire burner
called ‘Bhatta’. The bag is made of thick Markin cloth. After heating lac melts and oozes out from
cloth bag and by twisting the bag, molten lac is collected on clean cement floor or transferred to glaze
porcelain surface of hot water cylinder. The material is uniformly spread over fire to soften it and it is
stretched manually.
Machine-made Shellac: Due to availability of mechanized heat processing, there is no need of
tedious manual heating and streching of lac. ‘Button lac’ is manufactured by pouring the molten lac
into dyes in a zinc sheet instead of stretching for shellac. This results in buttons of lac 7cm in diameter
and 0.6cm thick.
Composition of Lac
Lac resin-75%; waxes-6%; Dyes- 5-6%; Albuminous material- 12-13%; Lac resins (75%):
It is polyester type material, comprising of long-chain sesquiterpenic fatty acids.It has
property of forming films on wide variety of surfaces: these films possess outstanding adhesion, gloss,
scrach hardeness and resistance to petrochemical solvent.It is highly inflammable but good electrical
insulator
Lac dye (5-6%): It is polyhydroxy arthaquinone derivative. It is specially used in dying silk and wool
Lac wax (6%): It is secreated by insect along with lac in the form of thin white filament. It is
generally found to the extent of 4-5% in seedlac, 3-5% in shellac and 5-6% in stick lac. It is recovered
directly during processing of sticklac and also during preparation of solvent based dewaxed shellac
generally called shellac wax. (Anonymous, 2019).
Aleuritic Acid from Shellac: Aleuritic acid, chemically 9,10,16-trihydroxypalmitic acid, is a major
constituent acid (35%) of lac resin. The demand of aleuritic acid is continuously growing in foreign
countries as well as in domestic market especially in the field of perfumery and pharmaceuticals. It is
an excellent starting material for the synthesis of different bioactive & perfumery compounds like
civetone, ambrettolide, isoambrettolide etc, which have the musk like pleasant smell. Besides the
perfumery industries, aleuritic acid has its application in various fields such as glucose monoaleuritate
in medicines, preparation of plastics with good adhesive properties, lacquers, as an antioxidant agent
for protecting skin cosmetics etc.
The yield of aleuritic acid obtained varied from 19 to 19.8% of the weight of fresh seedlac
and 16 to 16.7% from old seedlac with melting point in the range of 94-96oC. The yield of aleuritic
acid obtained at industrial scale by different manufacturers at present is around 14-15% of the weight
of seedlac.
Economic Analysis for Commercial Production of 25 kg/day Capacity Aleuritic Acid
 The processing cost of aleuritic - Rs. 300/kg.
 Aleuritic acid presently fetching above Rs. 2,000/kg in the market.
 By establishing aleuritic acid manufacturing unit of capacity 25 kg/day, a minimal feasible
capacity, net monthly profit of Rs. 75,000/- can be earned.
Bleached Lac: Bleached lac is Non-Toxic, physiologically harmless (edible), and is being very
widely used in the food industries, food packaging and allied industries.
Bleaching agent: Hydrogen peroxide and Sodium hypochloride
The yield of bleached lac was found to be 80-82% by wt. of seedlac and processing cost was Rs.
65/kg by wt. of bleached lac.By establishing unit for manufacturing bleached lac of 50 Kg/day (a
minimal feasible capacity), one can earn net monthly profit of Rs. 50,000 to 60,000.
By-Products: The important by-products obtained during manufacture of Shellac are Molamma, Kiri,
Passewa, Shellac Wax and Lac Dye.
Molamma: This product is obtained during winnowing or sieving of washed seedlac. It is usually in
the form of fine dust comprising of lac associated with wood particles and such other ingredients as
are normally common in sticklac. This lac content varies from 45 to 80%.
Kiri: This is the residue retained in the bag after refining seedlac into shellac by hot filtration process.
It contains apart from lac, materials like sand, insect debris and such other materials as are normally
associated with seedlac. kiri is usually available in the form of round slabs. Lac content varies from
40-70%.
Passewa: The product is obtained by boiling the cloth bag used for refining seedlac into shellac by the
indigenous process. It is usually found as thick, slabs having a lac content to the extent of 90%.
Shellac Wax: Lac contains about 5% of wax. During the manufacture of dewaxed shellac, the wax is
recovered. The wax has properties similar to the carnauba wax and has a number of industrial
applications.
Lac Dye (Laccaic Acid): Lac dye is obtained during washing of seedlac. Previously it was an
important export commodity, but with the invention of synthetic dyes, the lac dye lost its field. At
present it is practically a waste product. Research has been carried out both in India & China to find
its application as a colouring matter of food and beverages. the toxicological test has proved that lac
dye is harmless to the living system.
Applications of Lac: Shellac is non toxic and environmentally safe
 Lac dye (Arthoquinone derivative):
 Dying of wool and silk
 Soft drink formulations
 Medicinal Pill coating
 Confectionary and chocolate coating
Processing of Lac 201
Lac Wax
 Shoe, automobile and floor polishing
 Bottle sealer
 Tailor chalk
 Crayons (especially for writing on glass)
 Electrical potting compound
 Cosmetics- hair spray, lipsticks, nail polish etc
 Fruit coating- to increase shelflife, improved appearance, less moisture loss and shriveling,
reduced postharvest decay
Lac Resin (An Ester Complex of Long Chain Fatty Acids and Sesquiterpenic Acids)
 Electrical industry
 Air drying and baking type insulating varnish
 Protective coating for PCBs(Printed circuit Board)
 Micanite-an electrical insulation (Sheets, tubes and moulded insulators)
Adhesive Industry
 Gasket cement
 Optical cement
 Sealing wax
 Polymer adhesive
Varnish and Printing Ink Industry
 Furniture polish
 Floor polish
 Sealers
 Pattern paints for wood
 Flexible fast drying agent for printing ink
 Heat and waterproof varnishes
 Aqueous lac varnishes for earthen wares
Industrial Uses of Shellac: Due to the versatility of the lac resin, it finds innumerable uses in
different industries.
 Shellac dissolves in a wide variety of alkaline or rapidly drying alcoholic solvents, but is resistant
to a number of other solvents, particularly hydrocarbons.
 Its films show excellent adhesion to a wide variety of surfaces, possessing high gloss, hardness
and strength.
 Shellac is a powerful bonding material with low thermal conductivity and a small coefficient and
expansion. Its thermal plasticity and capacity of absorbing large amounts of filters are
noteworthy.
 Its electrical properties include high dielectric strength, low dielectric constant and characteristic
freedom from tracking.
 It is resistant to the action of ultraviolet rays.
 Shellac is non-poisonous.
Popular Use of Shellac are-
Wood Finishing: Bleached shellac is used to produce a transparent finish to bring out the natural
beauty of the light coloured wood. Large quantities of bleached shellac are used for floor polishes in
the United States, specially for making so-called No-Rub polishes that can be applied by brushing,
spraying or even by wiping with a short cloth. Shellac is also used as sealer and undercoat.
Printing Ink: Various types of inks particularly flexographic ink and water-proof ink contain shellac.
The chief characteristics of shellac are strong adhesion and excellent binding power for dyes and
pigments, superior flow, gloss, slip and abrasion resistance and good definition in printing. It is also
quick-drying, free from any objectionable odour and possessing long shelf life.
In Pharmaceutical Tablet Coating, the Functions of Shellac are-
 To serve as a moisture barrier protecting the co-ingredients
 As a enteric coating
 To control disintegration
 As a granulating agent
 As a finishing coat over wax prior to the printing of trade mark.
The main use of shellac in the confectionary industry are for coating chocolate goods such as
extruded chocolates, chocolate covered nuts and raisins and similar products.
 Shellac has become an important ingredient for fruit coating composition.
 The coating for confectionary of fruit performs one or more of the following functions:
Enhances and protects the gloss
 Serves as a barrier to moisture either entering or leaving the confection.*Prevents blocking
together
 Extends shelf life.
Hat Industry: Hat is no longer an essential article of dress, but still hat trade even nowadays is a big
consumer of shellac. Both fur and wool felts are made by similar processes. The hood is treated with
an aqueous solution of shellac-a process known as proofing.
Photographic Industry: Shellac varnish is used to protect negative and sound tracks on talky film.
Shellac is also used for preparing dry mounting paper and in the cold top enamel process of photo
engraving and etching.
Automobile Industry: Most important use of shellac in the automobile industry is the gasket cement.
Shellac is insoluble to petroleum and this property is utilised in shellac-based gasket cement.
The Moulding Properties of Shellac are Utilised in the Manufacture of Various Products
Gramophone Records: The manufacture of gramophone records was formerly the largest single
outlet for shellac. But in recent years shellac has been displaced almost completely by synthetic
resins. However, records of 78 r.p.m are still based on shellac.
Dental Compositions: Dental plate blanks are plastic compositions comprising of shellac fatty acids
and waxes with filters and colouring matter. Sufficiently softened in warm water, they take an
impression from which the hand mould is made.
Sealing Wax: The widely known sealing wax contains shellac turpentine, rosin and fillers including
colouring matter. Shellac is essential for good adhesion, toughness, tenacity and preventing
discolouration on melting.
Other Moulded Articles: Inspite of extensive use of bakelite and other synthetic resins for a wide
variety of plastic mouldings, shellac is still used for making some items.(Kumar et.al. 2015)
Confectionery coating Chocolate coating Dyeing of Wool and Silk
Medicinal Pill coating Used as Electrical potting compound Wax Crayons
Fruit Coating Fruit Coating PCB’s
Furniture Polish Micanite Sheet Micanite Sheet

Polymer Adhesive Gasket Cement Pattern Paint for Wood
Varnishes for Earthen wares Lac Bangles Lac Bangles
Gold Ornaments Electrical Industry Chapda Lac
Toys & Furniture Polish

(Lavhe et.al. 2012)
Marketing of Lac
Marketing of Broodlac, Sticklac and Scraped Lac: Output is transported to local weekly markets
where primary trades, lac growers, middlemen, commission agents visits regularly.Lac growing
farmers sell raw lac (Scraped lac / stick lac) to middlemen at primary / village / local / weekly
markets. At second level, these local collectors sell this raw lac to big middlemen /wholesaler/
processors. Thus, lac marketing up to this level is unorganized. After this level, wholesaler, processer,
brokers and exporters get involved.The levels involved in marketing of lac are primary markets
(Village markets-haats), secondary markets (mini assembling centres), wholesale markets and
terminal markets.
Scrapped Lac Filling of Scrapped lac in Gunny bags

Scrapped Lac
Gunny bags ready for transport to

Weighing of Scrapped Lac Sewing of Gunny bags Processing Unit
Marketing of Lac
Marketing of Broodlac, Sticklac and Scraped Lac: Output is transported to local weekly markets
where primary trades, lac growers, middlemen, commission agents visits regularly.Lac growing
farmers sell raw lac (Scraped lac / stick lac) to middlemen at primary / village / local / weekly
markets. At second level, these local collectors sell this raw lac to big middlemen /wholesaler/
processors. Thus, lac marketing up to this level is unorganized. After this level, wholesaler, processer,
brokers and exporters get involved.The levels involved in marketing of lac are primary markets
(Village markets-haats), secondary markets (mini assembling centres), wholesale markets and
terminal markets.
Scrapped Lac Filling of Scrapped lac in Gunny bags

Scrapped Lac
Gunny bags ready for transport to

Weighing of Scrapped Lac Sewing of Gunny bags Processing Unit
Table 1 : Major lac producing states with markets
State District Market
Chhattisgarh Bilaspur Kota and Pendra
Dhamtari Gatta Silli
Janjgir-Champa Sakti
Kanker Antagarh, Bhanupratapur and Sambalpur
Korba Bhaisama Bazar, Hardi Bazar, Katghora, Korvi and Pali
Mahasamund Pithora
Raipur Chhura, Mainpur and Udanti
Rajnandgaon Manpur and Mohala-chowki
Surguja Balrampur and Ramanujganj
Jharkhand Garhwa Tandwa
Gumla Palkot and Raidih
Latehar Chandwa and Latehar

Daltonganj Daltonganj
Jharkhand Ranchi Bundu, Hembrom, Jonha, Khunti, Maranghada, Murhu,
Soeko and Torpa
Simdega Bano, Jaldega and Kolebira
West Singhbhum Bandgaon and Chakradharpur
Madhya Pradesh Balaghat Baraseoni, Katangi, Lalbarra and Langi
Chhindawada Damoh
Hosangabad Pipariya
Mandla Bichhia and Nainpur
Seoni Barghat, Keolari and Khari
Maharashtra Gondia Amgaon and Salekasa
West Bengal Midnapur Katai and Moina
Purulia Jhalda and Kalamati
Common Lac marketing Chain
Yield of Lac Harvested per Plant per Season

Kusum: The productivity of kusum host is the highest. One plant can give 50-100 kg brood lac (Age
6 years). After 10 years age upto 250 kg yeild can be obtained
Palas:10-15 kg per plant (Age 7-8 years). Ber: 20 kg lac per plant (Age 5-6 years).
(Ali, et.al.1979), (Pashine 2014),(Kolhe, 2019).
Lac Extraction
 The scrapped lac should be crushed lightly.
 Washed with water to remove debris of dead insects.
 Dried in open under shade to obtain amber coloured granular material called as Seed Lac locally
known as Chowri.
 The impurities remained after flowing of molten lac through cloth is called as Kiri.
 Clear material or pure lac is either dropped on cold surface to solidify into round button shaped
pieces (Button Lac) or stretched into thin sheets called Shellac.
Mechanical scrapping
(400kg/day)
Manual Scrapping
Scrapped Lac Lac Winnower Lac Washer Lac Grader

(Pashine 2014)
References
Ali, M.E., Das, D.I., Khan, M.I.H. and Ahmad, K. (1979). Investigation on lac. Effect on the composition of lac
due to change of host plants of lac insect. Bangladesh J Scientific and Industrial Research, 14 (1-2): 286-
288.
Alok Kumar, Jaiswal, A.K., Singh, A.K. and Yogi, R.K. (eds.). (2015). Advances in Lac Production,Processing,
Product Development and Value Addition, ICAR-IINRG, Ranchi. 1-206 pp.
Anonymous. (2019). Annual report Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
198 pp.
Jaiswal, A.K. and Sharma, K.K. (2002). Lac insect its development and lifecycle. Model training cource on
‘Advanced lac production, storage and application technology for employment and income generatio’
Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum, Ranchi, pp 20-24.
Jaiswal, A.K. and Bhattacharya, A. (2007). Conventional and Scientific method of lac cultivation. Model
training cource on ‘Advanced lac production, storage and application technology for employment and
income generation’., Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum, Ranchi, pp 26-31.
Jaiswal, A.K. and Bhattacharya, A. (2007). Management of rangeeni lac cultivation on Butea monosperma and
Zizyphus mauritiana (Ber), advanced lac production, storage and application technology for employment
and income generation’. Indian lac research institute namkum, Ranchi, pp 49-56.
Lavhe, N.V., Jangwad, N.P. and Dangore, S.T..(2012). Lakh Sheti. Adivasinche Jivanmaan Unchavnyacha
Paryay. A booklet in Marathi. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gondia & Directorate of Extension Education, Dr.
PDKV,Akola. 12pp.
Kolhe Harshal. (2019). Lac Utpadan Tantradyan. B.Sc.(Hort) Thesis. Yashwantrao Chavan Open University,
Nashik, Maharashtra. 134pp.
Pashine Mayuri. (2014). Lac Utpadan Tantradyan. B.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis Yashwantrao Chavan Open University,
Nashik, Maharashtra. 130pp.
Singh, B.P. (2007). Management of lac cultivation on Flemingia ssp., advanced lac production, storage and
application technology for employment and income generation. Indian lac research institute namkum,
Ranchi, pp 72-80.
Srivastava, S.C. (2007). Advanced lac production, storage and application technology for emplacement and
income generation., Model training cource on Advanced lac production, storage and application technology
for employment and income generation’., Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum, Ranchi, pp 64-67.

EXTENSION
EDUCATION
AGRICULTURAL INTERVENTIONS FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT–
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Sakunthalai, A.
Professor (Agrl. Extension), Department of BE&AS, AEC&RI, Kumulur, Trichy, E-mail: drasextn@gmail.com
W
omen are a vital part of the Indian economy constituting one-third of the national
labour force and a major contributor to the survival of the family. Despite progress
in several key indicators a gender analysis of most social and economic data
demonstrates that women in India continue to be relatively disadvantaged in matters of survival,
health, nutrition, literacy and productivity. Studies on women in agriculture conducted in India reveal
that by and large women are found doing manual, low prestige, hazardous, arduous, monotonous,
repetitive and time consuming jobs viz., transplanting, picking, weeding, harvesting and processing.
In the words of M.S. Swaminathan (1988), despite women’s importance to agricultural production,
women face severe handicaps. They are in fact the largest group of landless labourers with little real
security in case of family break-up, inheritance laws, land reforms and family customs discriminate
against them. Even though, several theoretical concepts and indices to measure empowerment of
women have been identified and proposed worldwide, a very few studies had been conducted
empirically to measure ‘women empowerment’. In the present study, a pioneering attempt has been
made to develop a scale to measure women empowerment. Which was discussed in detail in the
methodology chapter.
Objectives
1. To study the various Agricultural developmental programmes implemented for farm women
empowerment.
2. To conduct Case study analysis to know the critical indicators contributes for women
empowerment.
Methodology
The study was undertaken in the Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu State. Out of 19 blocks of
Coimbatore district, three blocks were selected viz., Karamadai, Periyanaickenpalayam and
Thondamuthur blocks based on the number of women beneficiaries and women developmental
activities viz., Entrepreneurial Development Programmes (EDP). Five revenue villages were selected
at random from each block. Thus, fifteen revenue villages were selected for the study. The major
Farm women oriented Agricultural developmental programmes implemented in this district were (i)
Tamil Nadu Women in Agriculture (TANWA) and (ii) Tamil Nadu Women Development Project
(TNWDP). The efforts made through these programmes for the development of women were
collected from the officials concerned. In this district, in general most of the farms were managed by
the farm women and they were noted for their farm entrepreneurship. No research study of this nature
had been conducted in the study area earlier. Women beneficiaries had adequate access to scientific
institutions, namely Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Avinashilingam University and ICAR
institutions such as Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI) and Central Institute for Cotton Research
(CICR) and the notable non-governmental organisations viz., NERD, Good Shepherd and Shanthi
Ashram which provide need based training and development services to the farm women. By adopting
random sampling with probability proportion to size technique, the respondents were selected. The
sample of the study consisted of 337 farm women. The data were collected using a well structured and
pre-tested interview schedule. A case study was conducted with a broad spectrum of highlighting the
empowerment of women with a significant view of not only reformation and refining their life
towards the egalitarian society but also into the direction of economic achievement of the country.
This study constructed a scale to measure women empowerment. This scale consists of 11indicators
viz., 1.Decision-making 2.Social participation, 3.Economic independence,4. Market intelligence,5.
Political participation, 6.Extension participation, 7.Information seeking behaviour, 8.Practicing
science based technologies, 9.Leadership quality, 10.Awards won and 11. Maintenance of health
status as stated by Seekabeer (2004). These eleven indicators were conceptually grouped into six
major critical indicator categories viz., Extension, Social, Economic, Scientific, Psychological and
Political. For each indicator Women Empowerment Index(WEI) score was arrived. Based on the
Agricultural Interventions for Women Empowerment–A Critical Analysis 207
WEI score arrived at, the respondents were classified into five levels of empowerment viz., very low,
low, medium, high and very high. From the category of “high to very high” level of empowerment,
Mrs. Sarathamani, W/o Saminathan, Chinnamathampalayam village, Periyanayakkanpalayam block,
Coimbatore district was selected as successful farm women and used for this case study analysis.
Mrs. Sarathamani, aged 43, educated upto SSLC had 25 years of farming experience lived
with her husband and two sons. The family members were taken care of by her in all walks of their
life as studied by Shobha Raghuram (2003) Her family occupation was farming. Her residence was 2
km away from Coimbatore-Mettupalayam main road. Her residence was attached with farm. She
maintained 2 cows for the purpose of milk and manures and engaged in the farm and home activities
from dawn to dusk.
She had attended most of the meetings organized by the district officials of TANWA,
Government, Private and NGOs. She never missed to attend the farmers fair organized by TNAU
every year and CODISSIA programs and Agri Index. She was optimistic to attend the Agricultural
developmental activities irrespective of venue, duration and distance. Since she was keenly interested
in farming, She was supported by her family members.
The following are the details on the participation in the extension activities
Sl.No. Extension activities No. Duration
1 Meetings/demonstrations (organized by Government, private and NGOs) 170 Past 10 years
2 Farmer's day 7
3 Field day 5
4 CODISSIA 5
5 AGRI INDEX 5
The participation in the aforesaid extension activities made her to develop skill on modern up
comings and aware of day to day advancements in the technological modifications.
Further more, her family owned 3 acres of irrigated land and 1 acre rainfed land. In the
irrigated land coconut, maize, sugarcane and vegetable crops were cultivated where as the rainfed area
occupies Sorghum inter cropping with Lab-Lab.
She had also attended the demonstration on vermicompost preparation conducted by the
officials of the TANWA. It was the turning point to her to develop interest to prepare vermicompost.
She constructed two cement tanks with the size of 6  3  1½ ft length  breadth  height and
followed by 15 ft length with the same breadth and height. She used two species of earth worms viz.,
Australian and Indian species. Her efficiency gained through skill practices made the recycling of
available resources in the way of using the farm and home wastes for the preparation and
multiplication of vermicompost. The cattle manure was used for the preparation of Enriched Farm
Yard Manure (EFYM) and Panchakavya (Bio extract). As a result of continuous effort made by the
farm women, the earnings by way of selling the worms as well as manure had been escalated. The
cost of 1000 numbers of earth worms were Rs.500/- and the manure cost was Rs.10/kg. She sold
10,000 numbers of worms and 5 tonnes of manure within 2 years. As a result of this venture she got
the net return of Rs.55,000/-.
The economic details are presented below:
S.No. Particulars Cost per unit Quantity sold Amount
(Rs.)
1. Worms Rs.500/1000 nos. 10000 nos. 5000.00
2. Manure Rs.10/Kg 5000 kg 50000.00
Net return 55000.00
Further, she told that the vermicompost preparation was very remunerative. Except the initial
investment, the other maintenance costs were not much. The appreciable increase in the socio-
economic status due to successful entrepreneurial capability she was having scope for further
expansion of the same in still more large scale denotes clearly the 'Economic empowerment' nature
as proposed by Vijayalakshmi Pandit (1997).
She also explained about the advantages by the application of vermicompost. It not only
increase the fertility of the land, increase in the production but also reduce / eliminates the pollution
due to fertilizer residual in soil, in food grains, in drinking water and in the air which ultimately
results the pollution free eco-system. Out of her own interest she was very much attracted by the bio-
village concept as proposed by M.S. Swaminathan (2003). Based on the interest of bringing pollution
free environment she had planned to increase the supply and services of vermicompost to effect the
'organic farming' in the near future. Being a leader of the TANWA group, she advised her group
members and motivated the society towards the organic farming. The sincere efforts made by her in
every success was respected by others. This inspiration shows her 'Social empowerment'.
Since 1998 she was a convenor of Farmer's Discussion Group (FDG) located in this village.
She never failed to attend the meeting organised by the KVK of TNAU every month. This was a boon
for her to aware and update the technical knowledge on modern cultivation methods. She was a
contact farmer for 'weather forecasting forum' organised by the Department of Agricultural
Meteorology of TNAU which provides details on the rainfall pattern, pest and disease incidence etc.
She stated that, if the cropping pattern changed according to weather forecast there was no loss in
production. She emphasised the experience gained in these 'technological advancement' with her
neighbourhood families and the society. Thus, she had been 'empowered technically' also.
The involvement in listening radio, watching TV, subscribing and reading newspapers and
farm magazines regularly shows her interest on information seeking behaviour. She was the regular
subscriber of popular Tamil journal ‘Ulavarin Valarum Velanmai' of Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University and 'Muttram' published by Tamil Nadu Women Development Programme. She had the
habit of taking notes from the mass media programmes and preserving paper clippings for information
retrieval purpose. The gathered information were shared with her group members at the weekend
meeting. Thus she got ‘Extension empowerment’ as spelt out by Abdul Kalam (2003) .
She was highly co-operative with the officials of the developmental organizations. She used
to come forward voluntarily to take active participation in the programmes. It was evident that she
supported many scientists and student researchers of TNAU and other private organizations to
conduct their research trials in her own field.
She attended seven numbers of entrepreneruship trainings such as preparation of detergent,
liquid blue, sambar power, idli and masala powders, jam and jelly and pickle making organised by
TANWA officials through Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP) and KVKs. The
experience gained in the trainings led her to start self employment. She prepared detergents, liquid
blue, sambar, idli and masala powders and sold it at nominal price. She was assisted financially by
Indian bank. She received Rs.40,000/- initially to start the business. For further expansion of the same
she had received Rs.1,50,000. The amount was sanctioned immediately because of her prompt
repayment. She started selling of grocery items at nominal rate as a service to her village since it was
detached from the main city. She marketed the products in the market centres viz., Karamadai,
Periyanaickenpalayam and Coimbatore. The district collector, Coimbatore awarded her for the quality
preparation of masala powders. The successful entrepreneurship led her to attain higher socio-
economic position in the society. She stated that the higher return from the business helped her to
build a house, to provide higher education for their children and to purchase household modern
articles. The scientific way of doing cultivation motivated her to buy the costly books written by the
eminent scientists on nutrient deficiency and remedies, weed management, preparation of milk
products etc. denotes her ‘Scientific empowerment’ as per the words of M.S.Swaminathan (2003).
She performed vital roles in taking decisions on many crucial social problems. She had solved
family disputes. She had arranged many widow's marriages. She is having tendency to help the
helpless and disabled children.
Her significant involvement in the Agricultural developmental activities led her to become a
Para extension worker selected by the state department extension officials. As a result, she was given
chance to attend training programme in Chennai for six days. In addition to this, she was a member of
Scientific Advisory Committee, KVK, TNAU, Coimbatore. The unique qualities of above nature
supported her to receive the following awards.
1. Best FDG convenor award in 2001 by TNAU during farmers day.
2. Best group leader award by TANWA officials.
3. Best programme organizer award.
4. Certificate received for active participation in IPM training.
5. Successful entrepreneur award by Trainers Training Centre, Avinashilingam University,
Coimbatore during Maha Mela function. Her success story was published by the Newsletter of
Tamil Nadu Agricultural university.
Agricultural Interventions for Women Empowerment–A Critical Analysis 209
The appreciation she got brought her status from secondary to primary status. Thus
she obtained ‘Psychological empowerment’ supported by Premavathi (1997). Apart from
this, she maintained the recorded video and audio cassette which were dealt in the training
programmes for future retrieval purpose. She also filed important paper clippings, brochures, folders
etc. She always encouraged the members in political activities. She was interested to hold position in
the Panchayat Raj system also.Thus she attained the ‘Political empowerment’ Sailaja (2002).
It could be inferred from the study that the uniqueness of her intense active participation in
the developmental activities built her self confidence and self responsibility which sustained her
empowerment. The unique qualities of this case, which led her to the required empowerment levels,
are listed below:
 Good leadership quality.
 Active participation in the developmental activities.
 Voluntary participation in the extension activities
 Power of decision making.
 Entrepreneurship behaviour
 Information seeking behaviour
 Efficient marketing behaviour.
Conclusion
It could be concluded from the study that the effective participation in the Agricultural
developmental programmes develops the aforesaid unique qualities. It was true that, the case analysis
identifies so many evidence for her empowerment as explained above. It paved way for multi-
dimensional process which enabled the women to realize their full identity and powers in all spheres
of their life. It also built self-confidence and understanding of the importance of human values, desire
for better tomorrow and knowledge of the methods of achieving the same. It also implied that women
could be responsible for their own lives and decisions. This results were corroborated with the
identified indicators of the study. The uniqueness of the case study supported the farm women who
possessed high degree of empowerment dimensions such as Extension, Social, Economic, scientific,
Psychological and Political through the interventions of Agricultural development programmes. These
dimensions put together reflected in the high to very high level of women empowerment scale.
References
Abdul Kalam, A.P.J.2003.Empowerment will Help Tackle Terrorism. The Hindu, dt: Sept.4,2003.
Premavathi,R 1997. Rural Women in Farm and Home Decision making. Unpub. M.Sc.(Ag) Thesis, TNAU,
Coimbatore.
Sailaja, V. (2002). Empowerment of Rural Women through Participation in Co-operative Institutions of Andhra
Pradesh – An Analysis. Unpub. M.Sc.(Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore.
Seekabeer, N. (2004). Women’s Empowerment in the context of Human Security, 7-8, December, ESCAP,
Bangok, Thailand.
Shobha Raghuram. (2003). The position and condition of women in India; Challenging the Darkness, Restoring
faiths. NSS manual on women’s development and Gender justice, Banglore, India, PP 62-66.
Swaminathan, M.S. (1988). Women and Technological Empowerment. In:Extension Education and Rural
Women. Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 4-5.
Swaminathan, M.S. (2003). Creating the Instruments for a knowledge Revolution in Rural India. MSSRF, The
Hindu dt: 20 July 2003.
Vijayalakshmi Pandit. (1997). Empowerment of women through Distance Education. Book links corporation,
Hyderabad, p.4.

ORGANIC FARMING-SAFE FARMING FOR NATURE
Swatantra Pratap Singh, Abhishek Mishra, and Rajeev Singh
SRF, ICAR-ATARI, Kanpur, E-mail: icarabhishek@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Abhishek Mishra
T he organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient
times. It is a method of a farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land
and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of
organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along
with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable
production in an eco-friendly pollution-free environment. FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is
a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health,
including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by
using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm
inputs”. Traditional farmers are very much concerned about their farming activities. They use local
varieties of seed, manures, and consider the planting time and season based on the local climate.
Fanning is more nature friendly and the produce is more nutritious. The processing of produce is also
done locally.
Definition: It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs,
taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems (Reddy, 2010). This is
accomplished by using wherever possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as
opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system (FAO, 1999;
Reddy, 2010). An integrated farming system that strives for sustainability, the enhancement of soil
fertility and biological diversity while, with rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides,
antibiotics, synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, and growth hormones. “An organic
farm, properly speaking, is not one that uses certain methods and substances and avoids others; it is a
farm whose structure is formed in imitation of the structure of a natural system that has the integrity,
the independence and the benign dependence of an organism” by Wendell Berry, “The Gift of Good
Land”
Concept of Organic Farming: Organic farming endorses the concept that the soil, plant, animals,
and human beings are linked. In philosophical terms, organic farming means “farming in sprits of
organic relationship”. In this system, everything is connected to everything else. Therefore, its goal is
to create an integrated, environmentally sound, safe, and economically sustainable agricultural
production system. Since organic farming means placing farming on an integral relationship, we
should be well aware of the relationship.
 Between the soil, water, and plants,
 Between soil-soil microbes and waste products, between the vegetable kingdom and the animal
kingdom of which the apex animal is the human being,
 Between agriculture and forestry,
 Between soil, water, and atmosphere, etc.
It is the totality of these relationships that is the bedrock of organic farming. The farmer
manages self-regulating ecological and biological processes for the sustainable and economic
production of products. Organic farming systems are based on the development of biological diversity
and the maintenance and replenishment of soil productivity.
Objectives: We have seen that organic farming is not only farming practices without chemicals, but is
also relevant to the environment, agricultural traditions, animal welfare, farming communities,
sensible energy use, and soil and water conservation. It also addresses each one of us, our family, our
health, and our welfare. In this Unit, we will be examining the different organic farming approaches
and the advantages of going in for organic farming. The major objectives of organic farming reside on
the development of a self-sustainable farming system in harmony with nature which delivers
ecologically and economically sustainable pure food with enrichment of surrounding biodiversity and
its entire components.
Principle of Organic Farming: The main principles of organic farming are as follows:
 To work as much as possible within a closed system, and draw upon local resources.
Organic Farming-Safe Farming for Nature 211
 To maintain the long-term fertility of soils.

 To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques.
 To produce foodstuffs of high nutritional quality and sufficient quantity.
 To reduce the use of fossil energy in agricultural practice to a minimum.
 To give livestock conditions of life that confirm their physiological need.
 To make it possible for agricultural producers to earn living through their work and develop their
potentialities as a human being.
The Main Pillars of Organic Farming are-
 Organic threshold standards
 Reliable mechanisms regarding the certification and regulatory affairs
 Technology packages
 Efficient and feasible market network.
Need for Organic Farming: The ever-increasing population as opposed to an ever-decreasing supply
of living resources like food and water has made it necessary to increase agricultural production and
stabilize it in a viable and feasible manner. The benefits of ‘Green Revolution’ credited to Dr. MS
Swami Nathan have now reached a plateau and with diminishing returns, it has become necessary to
devise alternate techniques. Also, the excess use of fertilizers and artificial growth regulators has led
to an issue called ‘pollution’. The need of the hour is a natural balance between life and property for
existence. Keeping in view the fact that fossil fuels are on their way of extinction and are non-
renewable, organic, nature-friendly ways of farming and agriculture has gained importance.
Why India Need Organic Farming?
 The main reason farmer’s state to farm organically is their concern about working with
agricultural chemicals in conventional farming systems.
 As many farm chemicals require energy-intensive manufacturing processes that rely heavily on
fossil fuels, there is an issue with the amount of energy used in agriculture. Organic farmers find
their method of farming to be profitable and personally rewarding.
Sustainable Increase of Farmers Income
Income = (Yield × Price) × Risk factor – Production costs
Stabilize yield
Reduce the risk of production
Value addition
Reduce input costs
Direct/fair market links

Organic price premium
Organic Farming in India: The renewed interest in organic farming in India is mainly due to three
main reasons, reduction in agricultural yield in certain areas as a result of excessive and
indiscriminate use of chemical inputs, decreased soil fertility, and concern regarding the environment.
India holds a unique position among 172 countries practicing organic agriculture: it has 6,50,000
organic producers, 699 exporters and 7,20,000 hectares under cultivation. But, with merely 0.4
percent of total agricultural land under organic cultivation, the industry has a long journey ahead.
Organic agriculture, has always been India’s inherent advantage and strength. The shift in the
global consumption patterns, health awareness among the consumers and the increasing significance
of sustainability is now putting organic products to the forefront both internationally as well as in the
domestic market.
India produced around 1.35 million MT (2015-16) of certified organic products which
includes all verities of food products. The production is not limited to the edible sector but also
produces organic cotton, fiber, functional food products etc. as per the latest available cross-country
statistics, in the year 2015, India ranked first in terms of the number of organic producers among over
170 countries and ninth in terms of the area under organic agriculture. India ranked 11th in organic
product exports in 2015.
India is home to 30 percent of total organic producers in the world, but accounts for just 2.59
percent (1.50 million hectare) of the total organic cultivation area of 57.80 million hectares. However,
it has been observed that when it comes to the area under certified organic cultivation, India
contributes only 2.59 percent, i.e., 1.50 million hectares of the total organic cultivation area of 57.8
hectares. Thus, amongst the regions with the largest area of organically managed agricultural land,
India ranked 9th.
The Government of India has also launched the National Programme for Organic Production
(NPOP) in the year 2001. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation systems have been
recognized by the European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country standards.
Similarly, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has recognized NPOP conformity
assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to those in the US. With these recognitions, the
Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by
the importing countries (Reddy, 2010).
Certifying these farms remains a challenge, however, as many of these farms are
smallholdings (nearly 60% of all farms in India are less than one ha). Smallholders and resource-poor
farmers may not be able to afford the cost of certification, they are illiterate and unable to maintain
necessary records or maybe using indigenous cultivation systems not recognized in organic
certification systems. These farms mainly produce for home consumption and supply to the local
markets in case of irregular surpluses. Such barriers pose difficulties for farms to reap the potential
benefits of organic certification (Reddy, 2010).
Area & Production of Organic Farming
Area: Among the countries, Australia has the highest area under organic agriculture (17.2 m ha),
followed by Argentina (3.1 m ha) and USA (2.2 m ha). Australia alone accounts for around 40per cent
of global area under organic agriculture.
Total area under organic certification process (registered under National Programme for Organic
Production) is 3.56 million Hectare (2017-18). This includes 1.78 million ha (50%) cultivable area
and another 1.78 million Hectare (50%) for wild harvest collection. Among all the states, Madhya
Pradesh has covered largest area under organic certification followed by Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
Uttar Pradesh. During 2016, Sikkim has achieved a remarkable distinction of converting its entire
cultivable land (more than 76000 ha) under organic certification. India’s rank in terms of World’s
Organic Agricultural land was 9th and in terms of total number of producers was 1st as per 2018 data
(Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book 2018).
Production: India produced around 1.70 million tonnes (2017-18) & 2.67 million tonnes (2018-19) of
certified organic products which includes all varieties of food products namely Oil Seeds, Sugar cane,
Cereals & Millets, Cotton, Pulses, Medicinal Plants, Tea, Fruits, Spices, Dry Fruits, Vegetables,
Coffee etc. The production is not limited to the edible sector but also produces organic cotton fiber,
functional food products etc. Among different states Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer followed
by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. In terms of commodities Oil seeds are the
single largest category followed by Sugar crops, Cereals and Millets, Fiber crops, Pulses, Medicinal,
Herbal and Aromatic plants and Spices and Condiments.
Demand for Organic Product: It said the major demands under the organic product category are for
flax seeds, sesame and soybean; pulses such as arhar (red gram), Chana (pigeon pea); and rice, along
with tea and medicinal plants. There is a growing demand from Canada, Taiwan and South Korea in
recent years, Germany is one of the biggest importers of Indian organic products. Now, many new
countries are also taking interest. The demand for organic agricultural products is constantly increase
world-wide as organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical
fertilisers and pesticides. The total area under organic certification process (registered under National
Programme for Organic Production) was 3.56 million Hectare. To further boost demand of Organic
agri products in India and abroad, APEDA will be showcasing India's strength as major hub for
organic food products, ingredients, commodities and processed food at the three-day Biofach India
Consumption & Exports: There is a misconception among masses that organic food is just a
superficial concept and it is meant only for the sake of developed countries. And even if India is
striving hard to emphasize on it, yet the major part of the organic food is meant just for export.
However, this is not true. Though 50% of the organic food production in India is targeted towards
exports, there are many who look towards organic food for domestic consumption.
The main factor that was stopping the masses towards the consumption of organic food was
the concern for the health of children. But now since organic food has been declared as completely
safe for domestic consumption, many parents are willing to pay this higher premium due to the
perceived health benefits of organic food. The increase in organic food consumption in India is
evident from the fact that many organic food stores are mushrooming in India. Today organic food is
an essential part of many retail food stores and restaurants. The pattern of organic food consumption
in India is much different than in developed countries.
India exported organic products worth Rs 5,151 crore in 2018-19, against Rs 3,453 crore in
the previous year, registering an increase of about 49 per cent, according to the Agricultural and
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority. The total volume of export during 2018-19
was 6.14 lakh MT. The organic food export realization was around Rs 5,151 crore (757.49 million
USD). Organic products are exported to USA, European Union, Canada, Switzerland, Australia,
Israel, South Korea, Vietnam, New Zealand, Japan etc. In terms of export value realization Oilseeds
(47.6%) lead among the products followed by Cereals and millets (10.4%), Plantation crop products
such as Tea and Coffee (8.96%), Dry fruits (8.88%), Spices and condiments (7.76%) and others.
Certified Organic: India Organic is a certification mark for organically farmed food products
manufactured in India. The certification mark certifies that an organic food product conforms to the
National Standards for Organic Products established in 2000.
 It is a term given to products produced according to organic standards as certified by one of the
certifying bodies.
 Several certification bodies are operating in India.
 A grower wishing to be certified organic must apply to a certification body requesting an
independent inspection of their farm to verify that the farm meets the organic standards.
 Farmers, processors, and traders are each required to maintain the organic integrity of the product
and to maintain a document trail for audit purposes.
 Products from certified organic farms are labeled and promoted as “certified organic”.
In India, there are, at present, six accreditation agencies approved by the central government’s
Ministry of Commerce (MoC). They are the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA), Coffee Board, Spices Board, Tea Board, Coconut Development
Board and Cocoa & Cashew nut Board.
Certification Bodies in India: In December 2002, the following certification bodies were fully
accredited under the Indian National Program for Organic Production (in alphabetical order):
 ECOCERT International (based in France and Germany, branch office in Aurangabad);
 IMO India Pvt. Ltd. – Institute for Marketecology (based in Switzerland, office in Bangalore);
 INDOCERT (based in India, office in Aluva, Kerala);
 LACON GmbH (based in Germany, office in Aluva, Kerala);
 SGS India Pvt. Ltd. (based in Switzerland, offices in Delhi and other cities);
 SKAL International (based in the Netherlands, branch office in Mumbai).
Economic or Profitability of Organic Farming: India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce
all varieties of organic products due to its various agro climatic regions. In several parts of the
country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the
organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic and export market. The
economics of organic farming, a subfield of agricultural economics, encompasses the entire process
and effects of organic farming in terms of human society, including social costs, opportunity costs,
unintended consequences, information asymmetries, and economies of scale. Although the scope of
economics is broad, agricultural economics tends to focus on maximizing yields and efficiency at the
farm level. Economics takes an anthropocentric approach to the value of the natural world:
biodiversity, for example, is considered beneficial only to the extent that it is valued by people and
increases profits. Some entities such as the European Union subsidize organic farming, in large part
because these countries want to account for the externalities of reduced water use, reduced water
contamination, reduced soil erosion, reduced carbon emissions, increased biodiversity, and assorted
other benefits that result from organic farming.
Advantages of Organic Farming as per Indian Rural Economy: Although, there are several
advantages of switching over to organic farming from conventional farming techniques, yet all the
advantages may not be feasible considering the Indian rural economy. Eventually, it is mandatory to
throw some light on the advantages that are feasible enough to be considered as advantages for Indian
farming conditions. Here are some of the advantages that are relevant in this regard.
a. High Premium: Since the organic food is norm whose ally priced 20 - 30% higher than
conventional food, there is ample scope for a mediocre farmer whose income is just sufficient to feed
his/her family with one meal to get a high premium so that he has a chance to flourish.
b. Low Investment: The capital investment for organic farming is not so high as compared to
traditional chemical farming techniques. Also, there is not a need for any sophisticated techniques for
the production of organic fertilizers. Further, since organic fertilizers and pesticides can be produced
locally, the yearly costs incurred by the farmer are also low.
c. Less Dependence on Money Lenders: Suicides committed by the farmers due to an enormous
debt are widely known in India. Since chemical inputs, which are too expensive are not required in
organic farming, therefore farmers are not dependent on money lenders. As a result, crop failure does
not force the farmer to take an extreme step.
d. Synergy with Life Forms: Organic farming involves synergy with various plant and animal life
forms. Small farmers can understand this synergy easily and hence find it easy to implement them.
e. Traditional Knowledge: The traditional knowledge that the farmers have can be exposed to
organic farming to get fruitful outcomes in terms of successful methodologies in organic farming.
Further, in the case of organic farming, small farmers are not dependent on those who provide
chemical know-how.
Benefits of Organic Farming: The proponents of organic farming are of the view that toxic
chemicals bearing fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides should not be used anymore in agriculture.
Farming as a natural way of farming, biodynamic farming, or organic farming is seen as a viable
option in the long run. In the Indian context, the following benefits are considered important for the
future of organic agriculture development
 The irrigation, new seeds, and fertilizer required high initial investments and, thus, are beyond the
reach of the majority of the small farmers in India. The emphasis on organic practices involving
the use of techniques such as nitrogen-fixing crops and green manures, recycling nutrients
through composting, deep rooting plants, avoiding soil loss, and locally developed pest control
measures allow poor, risk-averse farmers to produce food and generate income for the families on
a sustainable basis.
 Pressure on the cultivated land has led to soil degradation. In many cases, marginal lands have
been put to cultivation by adding considerable quantities of external inputs. In large areas of
cultivated land, environmental damage is being associated with 'modern' agricultural practices.
 The concern for ensuring and enhancing agricultural output with due respect to ecological limits
is significant in organic agriculture. The productivity of natural resources and income distribution
in rural areas are interrelated and impact on poverty. Wherever lands have become unproductive,
it has led to income disparity arid social concern. Farmers who opted for the organic production
system would be free from buying expensive inputs
 Some supermarkets in India have started stocking organic products. There is organic and safe
food bazaar coming up in metros and other cities. This fast pace of rising demand for organic
products will be instrumental in giving a boost to organic agriculture development in India
 The Small and marginal farmers engaged in rain-fed farming produce a variety of crops that does
not require any chemical inputs. These farmers qualify themselves as organic producers.
However, they need to get educated on the scientific aspects of organic production to get their
fields classified as a pure organic farm.
 In many predominantly agricultural areas in India, land productivity is declining even with higher
doses of external inputs. Such farmers on their own began exploring alternatives. Now organic
farming is proved to be a viable option for them because of the increasing demands for organic
food and official support to organic agriculture.
 An increasing number of middle-class consumers and their willingness to pay a premium for
quality food has generated new demand for value-added products. Organically raised and
processed food should find ready acceptance in the markets. This has created a new opportunity
for Agri- entrepreneurs and organic food processors.
 Globalization and World Trade organization regulations are expected to increase competition. On
the other hand, it may also offer an opportunity for organic producers in India to tap the market.
Indian farmers have distinct competitive advantages.,
Conclusions: Organic farming perceptions are quite divergent. But there is a strong consensus on its
eco-friendly nature and inherent ability to protect human health. Also, many studies have revealed
that organic agriculture is productive and sustainable. Organic food production costs are higher in
developed countries as organic farming is labor-intensive and labor is costly in these countries. But in
a country like India, where labor is quite abundant and relatively cheap, organic farming is a great
potential solution to the problem caused by the chemical farming method to the environment and the
health of mankind. Efforts have been made by the government of India on an overall basis to
encourage organic farming. Even different organizations have been set up for the marketing of the
produce of organic farming. The increasing demand for the organic food products in the developed
countries, as well as the policies adopted by the government of India to encourage the exports of the
organic agri- products, are the driving factors responsible for the uprising of the Indian organic food
industries which have the potential to strengthen the Indian economy as well as the health standards of
the Indian masses.
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apeda-119102901200_1.html
https://www.lifegate.com/organic-farming-is-more-profitable

PULSE PRODUCTION IN INDIA: ISSUES AND STRATEGIES
Parveen Kumar1, Kunzang Lamo1 and D. Namgyal2
1
SMS (Ag. Extension and Veg. Science), KVK-Leh, SKUAST-Kashmir, E-mail: pkumar6674@gmail.com and 2Professor and
Head, KVK-Leh, SKUAST-K, Corresponding Author: Parveen Kumar
P ulses often called the poor men’s meat are leguminous crops constituting an important
part of our dietary habit. They are an important source of protein, have high fibre
content with good quantity of vitamins, starch, and minerals. Protein content in pulses
varies from 20-25 per cent. The frequency of pulses consumption is much higher than any other
source of protein; about 89 percent consume pulses at least once a week, while only 35.4 percent of
persons consume fish or chicken/meat at least once a week in India (IIPS, ORC Macro, 2007).While
Pigeon pea originated in Asian continent and is said to be native to India as long as 3000 years ago
(CRN India); Chickpea is another important pulse crop that originated even before 10000 BC. It was
then used by hunter gathering societies for eating and sustaining their communities. The region of
Turkey and ancient city of Jericho domesticated the crop around 7500 BC and since then it started
getting popular.
These have the unique property of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in their root nodules thereby,
enriching the soil with nutrients and increasing the fertility of soils. These are grown in all the three
seasons. The important Kharif pulses are Pigeon Pea, Urad bean, Mung bean and Cow Pea; Chickpea,
Lentils and dry pea are grown in Rabi season. Besides Mung bean and Urad are also grown in Zaid
season. About 60 per cent of the pulses are produced in the Rabi season. These are an important
component to sustain the agriculture production because of their wide adaptability to fit into various
cropping systems, improvement of the soil fertility and physical health of soil while making soil more
porous due to tap root system. By-products of pulses such as leaves, pod coats and bran are also used
as dry fodder for animals. Some other pulse crops like gram, lobia, urad and moong bean are used as
green fodder. In some cases Moong (green gram) is also used as green manure to improve soil health.
Pulses have low water and carbon footprints. Water foot prints for producing one kilogram of meat is
five times higher than that of pulses.. One kilogram of pulses emit 0.5 kilogram in carbon dioxide
equivalent whereas one kilogram of meat produces 9.5 kilogram in carbon dioxide equivalent
(Mohanty and Satyasai, 2015).
The Asian region is home to many pulses. Pigeon pea originated in Asian continent and is
said to be native to India as long as 3000 years ago (CRN India). Chickpea is another important pulse
crop that originated even before 10000 BC. It was then used by hunter gathering societies for eating
and sustaining their communities. The region of Turkey and ancient city of Jericho domesticated the
crop around 7500 BC and since then it started getting popular.
Global Status: Globally, pulses are grown in more than 171 countries. The pulse crops occupied 72.3
million ha area and contributed 64.4 million tons with productivity of 890 Kg/ha in the triennium
ending 2010-11. As far as their productivity is concerned, the highest productivity recorded was of
France (4219 kg/ha) followed by Canada (1936 kg/ha), USA (1882 kg/ha), Russian Federation (1643
kg/ha) and China (1596 kg/ha). The highest area under pulses was contributed by India (32.24 %),
Niger (7%), Myanmar (5.33%), Brazil (5.29%) and Nigeria (4.44%). Similarly, the contribution to
total production of pulses by India was 23.46%, Canada 7.93 %, China 7.09%, Myanmar 6.89% and
Brazil 5.29%. Chickpea is cultivated in 52 countries, Cowpea in 33 countries; Peas dry by 96
countries, Pigeon pea in 21 countries, Lentil in 51 countries. The share to World production of Beans
dry was 33.48 % followed by Peas dry 15.91%, Chickpea 15.51%, Cowpea dry 8.45%, Pigeon pea
5.88%, Lentil 5.87% and others 14.9% (Singh, R.P, 2013)
Table 1: Productivity of Pulses in different countries
S. No Country Productivity
1 France 4219
2 Canada 1936
3 United States of America 1882
4 Russia 1643
5 China 1596
(Singh, R.P, 2014)
Indian Scenario: Today, India is largest producer, consumer and importer of pulses. About 33 per
cent of the world’s area under pulses is in India. Also 25 and 27 per cent of the world’s production
and consumption of pulses is respectively is in India (Table 2). India is also one of the largest
exporters of pulses in the world. Chickpea contributes the largest share in India’s export basket of
pulses registering 97.18 per cent and 85.64 per cent share in total pulses production during 2013-14
and 2014-15 respectively. Chick pea is grown in 22 states and 2 Union territories (UT’s), Pigeon pea
in 24 states and 03 UT’s, Urad bean in 20 states and 01 UT, Mung bean in 19 states, Lentil in 15
states, Field pea in 18 states and Lathyrus in 5 states (Singh, R.P, 2014).
Table 2: Indian position in the world
S. No Parameter Indian position in world
1 Area 33%
2 Production 25%
3 Consumption 27%
4 Imports 3-4 million tonnes per year
Pulses production in the country has been hovering around 13 -15 million tonnes during last
decade, while annual domestic demand has risen to 18-19 million tonnes. This is despite the fact that
pulses can be cultivated in all the three seasons mostly under rain fed conditions (Biyani et al, 2010).
The area under cultivation has increased by 10 to 12 per cent, production has increased by 33 per cent,
and productivity has gone up by 25 per cent. During 2010- 11, the production of pulses in India was
17.29 million tonnes. The previous pulses production record was 14.91 million tonnes during the year
2003-04. But now recently it has reached 22-23 million tonnes. Among Kharif pulses (7.3 million
tonnes), pigeon pea (3.15 million tonnes) and black gram (1.82 million tonnes) production is slated to
hit all time higher. (IIPR, Kanpur). The per capita per day net availability of pulses in India was 47.2
grams (Table 3) in 2014 which is far less than the recommended dietary intake by WHO which stands
at 80 gm per capita per day
Table 3: Per capita per day net availability of pulses in India.
S. No Year Population(in billions) Net availability (million tonnes) Per capita net availability (in grams)
1 2008 1.15 17.6 41.8
2 2009 1.17 15.8 37.0
3 2010 1.18 15.3 35.4
4 2011 1.20 18.9 43.0
5 2012 1.21 18.4 41.7
6 2013 1.23 19.4 43.3
7 2014 1.24 21.4 47.2
Table 4: Area, Production, Productivity and Percentage area under irrigation for pulses over the years
S. No Year Area (million hectares) Production (million Productivity (kg/ha) % age covered
tonnes) under irrigation
1 2008-09 22.1 14.6 659 16.0
2 2009-10 23.3 14.7 630 16.2
3 2010-11 26.4 18.2 691 14.8
4 2011-12 24.5 17.1 699 16.1
5 2012-13 23.5 18.3 789 -
6 2013-14 25.2 19.8 764 -
The area under pulses ranged from 20.35 million ha (2000-01) to 23.50 million ha (2012-13).
The production varied from 11.08 (2000-01) to 18.3 million tons (2012-13) with the corresponding
productivity also increased from 544kg/ha (2000-01) to 789 kg/ha (2012-13). In India the major
pulses producing states are Madhya Pradesh accounting for 25 per cent of production followed by
Uttar Pradesh (13%), Maharashtra (12%), Rajasthan (11%), Andhra Pradesh (9%) and other states
together contributing about 30 per cent of the production during 2012-13 (Table 5). As far as
individual pulses are concerned chickpea contributed 48%, Pigeon pea 17%, black gram 10%, green
gram 7% and other pulses 18% towards total pulses production.
Table 5: Major pulse producing states in India (2012-13)
S. No State % of total production
1 Madhya Pradesh 25
2 Uttar Pradesh 13
3 Maharashtra 12
4 Rajasthan 11
5 Andhra Pradesh 9
6 Rest of states 30
Pulse Production in India: Issues and Strategies 219
Table 6: Percentage share of different pulses in total pulses production

S. No Pulses % of total production
1 Chick pea 48
2 Pigeon Pea 17
3 Black gram 10
4 Green gram 7
5 Other pulses 18
Being rain-fed, pulses often experience drought at critical growth stages. Researchers do
believe that very little biodiversity exist in case of pulses to develop new varieties with desirable
characteristics (Reddy, 2004). But even with available varieties and technologies pulse production can
be doubled (Reddy, 2005). About 400 improved varieties of pulses have been released for cultivation
since inception of All India Coordinated Pulse Improvement programme in 1967, but only 124
varieties are in production chain and only a dozen are popular among the farmer (Reddy, 2009). The
Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur in its vision document states that Indian population
is expected to touch 1.68 billion by 2030 and the pulse requirement for the year 2030 is projected at
32 million tonnes with anticipated annual growth rate of 4.2 per cent. In the last 60 years, neither the
acreage nor the yield has shown any significant increase. Pulses production in India is still facing a lot
of constraints. Here are some of them.
Constraints in Increasing Pulse Production
a. Grown Mostly under Rain Fed Conditions: Pulses being a legume crop are rich in N and P and
this makes them attractive for insect pests. Also most of the pulses in India are grown in rain fed
conditions where fertility of soil is low and weather conditions are aberrant. Also a major portion of
pulses is under rain fed conditions and this is evident from table 7 which shows that more than 87% of
the area under pulses is under rain fed conditions.
Table 7: Percentage area under different crops in irrigated and rain fed conditions
S. No Crop Irrigated Rain fed
1 Paddy 60 40
2 Wheat 86 14
3 Jowar 89 11
4 Pulses 12 88
5 Bajra 10 90
In these rain fed areas, issue of availability of water is very important. Pulses are also a victim
of the government apathy. They have been given little importance to pulses as comparison to cereals
and other staple crops. That is perhaps the reason pulses are treated as secondary crops. Only recently
government has started providing MSP support to pulses viz. Gram, Lentil, Urd, Tur and Moong. The
cost of input in case of pulses is higher in comparison to staple crops. As farmers have low purchasing
power, the first priority of the farming community is staple crops and cash crops. Due to this, pulses
in our country continue to be grown on poor soils with low inputs.
b. Yield Gap: There is a huge yield gap in pulses. The 2010 data revealed that the average yield of
pulses globally was 890 kg/ha, whereas in the same period, the yield of India was 648 kg/ha. That was
a gap of 242 kg which accounted for about 27 per cent. Although the productivity has increased but
still there is a huge gap between actual and potential yield. A huge yield gap ranging from 75 per cent
in Lentil to 224 per cent in Lentil has been reported. Rao et al. (2010) reported that the main
challenges for research and development are to bridge the gap between actual and attainable yield by
enhancing farmers’ access to quality inputs, improved technologies and information. Bridging this
gap would substantially increase country’s pulses production.
Table 8: Yield gap (kg/ha) in different pulses in India
S. No Pulse Crop Existing yield Demonstrations Potential yield Yield gap
1 Black gram 596 890 1300 704
2 Green gram 432 843 1400 968
3 Lentil 797 1047 1400 604
4 Pigeon pea 792 1433 1800 1008
5 Chickpea 1014 1435 1800 786
(Singh and Saxena, 2016)
c. Low Adoption Rate: The adoption rate of pulses technologies is miserably low among the farmers
mainly because of risky crops, low and unstable yields, poor infrastructure and non-availability of
critical inputs like quality seeds in time (IIPR, 2007). Lack of awareness of production technologies is
a critical factor that leads to high yield gaps and low productivity. According to Burman et al. (2010)
the overall gap in adoption of technologies was larger in the rain fed situation than in the irrigated
situation.
d. High Demand and Supply Gap: The pulse production in the country represents a perfect case of a
mismatch between demand and supply. The high demand and deficit in production has already
increased India’s dependence on pulse imports from countries like Canada, Myanmar and Australia.
Following two consecutive poor crops has also resulted in a significant increase in prices. As is
evident from table 8, the production in 2014-15 was 17.3 million tonnes and the import accounted for
4.64 million tonnes.
Table 9: Production and imports of pulses in India
Major Pulses 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
Production (million tonnes) 18.2 17.1 18.3 19.8 17.3 _
Imports (million tonnes) 2.8 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.64 5.50 (Expected)
Imports as % of domestic supply) 13.4 17.1 18.1 15.2 21.2 _
(Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer’s Welfare)
The above data shows that despite being largest producer of pulses, India is dependent on
import of pulses to bridge the demand supply gap.
Table 10: Import of major pulse crops in India
Major Pulses Imports % age change in imports
2013-14 2014-15
Peas 13.30 19.41 45.93
Chickpea 06.97 04.18 -40
Tur 04.65 05.75 23.65
Lentil 07.08 08.16 15.25
Total 36.54 45.84 25.45s
e. Low Seed Replacement Ratio: Pulse productivity is a major constraint in promoting its
cultivation. It is even 60-100 kg per hectare when the weather becomes hostile. Now, this can be
overcome by development of improved varieties of seeds which can withstand weather aberrations
like drought and stress. The Seed Replacement Ratio in pulses is very low. The Seed Replacement
ratio for Chickpea, Uradbean, Mungbean and Pigeon pea was 19, 34, 30 and 22 per cent respectively.
There is an urgent need to increase the seed replacement rate. Although, the seed replacement rate of
different pulses crops has improved; in chickpea it has gone up from 9.87% in 2004-05 to 21.17% in
2012-13, in pigeon pea from 9.80 % in 2004-05 to 21.46% in 2012-13; But still more efforts are
needed to increase the seed replacement ratio in other pulses also.
Table 11: Seed Replacement Ratio for different Pulses (in year 2012-13)
S. No Crop Seed Replacement Ratio (%)
1 Chick Pea 21.17
2 Urd bean 34
3 Mung bean 30
4 Pigeon pea 21.46
f. Lack of Supporting Mechanism: As pointed out by Santa Kumar Committee Report though
Minimum Support Price (MSP) are announced for 23 commodities, but effectively price support
operates primarily in wheat and rice and that too in selected states. This creates highly skewed
incentive structure in favour of wheat and rice and in case of pulses the rates go down the MSP
(Mohanty and Satyasai, 2015). The lack of an effective supporting mechanism for the procurement
and marketing of pulses has been a major hindrance to promote pulses cultivation in the country.
Incentivizing pulse production through the price mechanism can only work when the farmer is
assured of a remunerative price and that the government agencies will procure pulses with the same
priority as it does for rice and wheat.
Strategies to Increase Pulse Production: The total production of pulses in recent years has been
around 22-23 million tonnes. Between 2009 and 2013, average area under pulses production was 29.3
million hectares and this constituted 12-13 per cent of acreage among all crops. Indian import
dependency in pulses is always around 16-20 per cent. The area under pulses is confined to relatively
poor and rain fed land. Pulses sowing still take place as a last resort when there is lack of ideal
conditions for other major crops like grains and oilseeds. Pulses are also seen as high-risk crops. The
prevalent rice-wheat crop rotation in the northern states like Punjab and Haryana has depleted soil and
water resources at an alarming rate. This rice wheat rotation besides being unsustainable and
inefficient is losing precious forex (nearly $2.3 billion) while importing pulses from players such as
Canada and Australia.
The Green revolution that led to phenomenal growth in India’s food grain production bye
passed Pulses. It is evident from the fact that overall growth in yield of pulses since inception of
Green Revolution in 1967 is least among major crops cultivated in the country. It stands at mere
1.14%. On the other hand, wheat, rice, oilseed and maize have respectively witnessed 2.8%, 2.23%,
1.88% and 1.7% compounded annual growth rate (CAGR). In the absence of growth of area and very
sluggish growth in yield, pulses production in India witnessed a very slow growth rate of 0.9%
(CAGR) over the last 5 decades. India has all the potential to achieve much higher pulses production.
There is therefore an urgent need to just eliminate the risks farmers experience in relation to growing
pulses. India can achieve self-sufficiency in production of pulses by appropriate strategies. To meet
the desired target by 2030, it is therefore necessary to analyze the various issues that plague the pulse
production in the country and then accordingly devise suitable strategies. Some strategies for
increasing pulse production in the country are mentioned below:
a. Diversification and Area Expansion: Diversification of the rice-wheat system in the Indo-
Gangetic plains through popularization of short-duration varieties of pigeon pea, chickpea, field pea
and summer moong-bean can bring about sustainability. States like Punjab can take the lead because
of the presence of strong infrastructure including mandis, a well organized PDS network, connectivity
and extension services. The depletion of soil and water resources due to long-term rice-wheat crop
rotation can be addressed by increasing area under pulses. High productivity has been recorded in
pulses in Punjab as compared to other states. Punjab has recorded a productivity of 0.9 t/ha. Punjab is
also a major contributor to PDS granaries, which are overflowing and rotting. A proportionate area
under rice or wheat thus can be diverted towards cultivation of pulses without any adverse effect on
supply of cereal crops. There is also a tremendous scope for area expansion under pulses. Estimates
suggest that about 2.5 million ha additional area can be brought under different pulses through
improvisation of cropping system.
b. Targeting Eastern Region: The eastern region of the country provides yet another opportunity to
augment pulses production in the county. The shortfall in pulse production can be achieved by tapping
into nearly 6-7 million hectares of rice fallows in Eastern India. Rainfed Rice Fallow Lands (RRFL)
also offers an enormous scope for pulse production and chickpea, because of its low water
requirement, is the most suitable second crop (NFSM Progress Report, 2011-12). The RRFL offer
some of the most productive environment for chickpeas; if suitably integrated into rain fed rice
production systems, this can revolutionize chickpea production (Pande, 2012).
We can include chickpea in rice fallows, pigeon pea in rice wheat cropping system and also
pigeon pea at high altitudes. Suitable pulse production technology can be developed for rice fallow in
eastern states like Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar West Bengal and Assam.
Table 12: Potential pulse crops for rice fallows in different states
S. No Potential Pulse crop States
1 Chickpea Jharkhand, Bihar and Chhattisgarh
2 Lentil Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Eastern U.P, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand
4 Pea Madhya Pradesh (Northern region), Uttar Pradesh (Eastern region), Jharkhand
and Chhattisgarh
5 Mung bean Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and
Chhattisgarh
3 Khesari (Lathyrus) Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and Parts of Bihar
6 Urd bean Odisha, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Coastal regions)
7 Cluster bean Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
8 Lablab bean Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
(Kumar and Singh, 2016)
c. Bridging the Yield Gap: According to Piara et al. (2006) location specific integrated approaches
would be needed to bridge the gap of the predominant crops grown in the target regions. By bridging
the yield gap in chickpea and pigeon pea the country has the potential to produce 4.7 and 0.78 million
tonnes of them respectively. This fact has been pointed out by various studies. Estimates suggest that
if 25 per cent of RRFL is brought under chickpea cultivation it can produce 1.8 million tonnes of
chickpea. The replacement of low productive crops like upland rice, millets and barley may also add
0.93 million tonnes pulses. The green gram cultivation in the summer fallows is expected to add 0.47
million tonnes. The technological adoption to bridge the yield gap and extending area under pulses to
various crops will likely to add another 8 million tonnes of pulses to total pulses production of our
country (Kalimuthu, 2014).
d. Provision of Post Harvest Infrastructure and Value Addition: The unshelled pulses have a poor
shelf life and the situation gets further worsened by the lack of adequate storage and milling facilities
to the farmers. In the absence of market linkages the farmers also cannot meet the market demand.
Various pulse processing mills and other facilities can be set up nearby pulse growing regions which
will not only motivate the farmers to grow more pulses but will also promote off farm employment.
Public Private Partnership involving forward and buy back arrangements for supplying inputs and
buying back the produce respectively need to be exploited and promoted. Value addition is another
aspect which needs to be explored and exploited. Presently there is a very little value addition for
pulses. They are mostly consumed wholly or split. Chickpea is an exception which is also consumed
in the form of flour or besan.
e. Increasing Productivity: The average yield per hectare of total pulses has grown by less than one
per cent annually, on average, since 1950s. The growth in pulses has been outstripped by the
corresponding growth in population. Low genetic yield of Indian pulses and their vulnerability to
pests and diseases is a major hindrance to adoption of pulses by farmers.
As most of farmers in India being marginal and small cannot afford to bear the risk of low
productivity or crop failure, pulse production thus becomes a disincentive for farmers. The lack of
drought, insect pest and disease-resistant varieties of pulse seeds also adds to their woes. The need of
the hour is to develop high yield short duration strains which can escape terminal drought. Some short
duration varieties of gram and tur, which can be harvested in 100 days, have been developed. Some
salt-tolerant varieties like JG-11 for south India have also been released. Recently, the International
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) also released high-yielding pigeon pea
hybrid suitable for irrigated areas, which can motivate farmers to take up cultivation of pulses in
irrigated areas, provided there are remunerative prices.
Suitable technological breakthrough is also needed. Recently, genome decoding of the two
major crops, chickpea and pigeon pea has been done and this will definitely help in developing new
cultivars with high yield potential
f. Minimum Support Price (MSP): Although the government announces the procurement prices of
pulses every year, but the reality is that hardly any procurement is made. As compared to the pulses,
the price of cereal crops is higher. The low MSP of pulses further disincentive the farmers to grow
pulse. To incentivize the farmers, the Minimum Support Price of the farmers has to be considerably
raised. Pulses are also largely grown in neglected and marginal lands that are prone to water deficit.
As such offering remunerative prices to the farmers would also induce the farmers in the irrigated
areas to go for pulses cultivation. If, pulses are included in Public Distribution System, it can go a
long way to bring more area under their cultivation thereby improving the food and nutritional
security of the country.
Although, the prices have raised as a result some production has picked up but a lot more
needs to be done. During the year 2012-13, the MSP of pulses increased to Rs 4300 for pigeon pea
and blackgram each, Rs 4500 for green gram and Rs 3000 for chickpea. This increase was little as
compared to the cost of cultivation a farmer incurs while he grows pulses. Presently, National
Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited (NAFED), National Cooperative
Consumers’ Federation (NCCF), Central Warehousing Cooperation (CWC) and Small Farmers Agric-
Business Consortium (SFAC) had been designated agencies for procurement of pulses.
g. Insurance to Farmers: As pulses production is highly risky, its cultivation can be promoted by
providing an insurance cover to pulse growing farmers. Insurance acts as a motivator as well as a
catalyst for the farmers to take up pulses cultivation. Farmers at least feel secure that they will be
adequately compensated in case the crop fails of which there every possibility is given the fragile and
water deficit lands on which they are grown. Another important aspect would be to promote the bio
fertilizers like rhizobium, phosphate solubilising bacteria and others through manufacturers in the
pulse-growing regions of the country by offering capital subsidies, exemption from different taxes and
other their use promoting measures among farmers. .
h. Extension Support: Provision of timely inputs and expert advice is also a prerequisite for
obtaining good yield from crops. Unfortunately in the country the already fragile extension services
have only taken care of cereals leaving pulses to meet the present fate. The strategy has to be changed.
Extension services have to be reoriented to made them pulse specific and by ensuring last mile
delivery of extension services. The country also needs quality extension personnel who should be
trained and equipped with expert knowledge and best practices regarding pulses cultivations. Small
farmers seldom dare to go for pulse cultivation due to the limited land. Also their risk taking capacity
further reduces because of the susceptibility of the pulse to weather aberrations. Therefore the strategy
should be to target large farmers. These large farmers can spare some land for pulse production as
they can bear the risk of their failure. Focus should be on reaching farmers and increasing farmer
income rather than only increasing productivity. Bio fortification is a good option which should be
explored to make pulse cultivation profitable as well as to deal with nutritional deficiencies among
children in India.
i. Improved Agronomic Management: At present the summer pulses are being grown as a bonus
crop in the states like Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The area under pulses can
be increased by promoting as an intercrop with sugarcane and other crops like millets and cotton.
Mung bean and Urad bean can be grown as catch crops in summer/spring under cereal based cropping
system. New cropping systems like Pigeon pea-wheat in north, rice lentil in the east and urad bean-
rice in the southern peninsula can be promoted. Studies have shown that the yield in Chickpea and
Lentil increased linearly with amount of water applied. Therefore a planned and systematic effort to
promote supplemental irrigation to rain fed pulses at least during critical stages of growth can make
the difference in terms of yield. Pulses are harvested manually and currently available varieties of
pulses are not suited to mechanical harvesting. In developed countries such as Australia, Canada,
USA, pulses like Chickpea, Lentils are harvested manually and that makes them more remunerative.
But in India farmers do manual harvesting using their own crude methods which raises the cost of
cultivation ultimately making them non remunerative for the farmers.
The losses due to insect pest and weeds in pulse crops vary from 15 to 20 per cent. The
damage due to Gram Pod borer in Chick pea can range from 10 to 90 per cent. Similarly in Pigeon pea
the loss due to Helicoverpa armigera, Grapholita critica, Blister beetle and other insect pests vary
from 10-40 per cent. Similarly diseases like wilt in Chickpea and Pigeon pea can cause demage to the
extent of 5-10 and 10-25 per cent respectively. This loss can be avoided by proper weed management.
There is also an urgent need to promote use of post emergence herbicides in controlling weeds by
developing herbicide tolerant cultivars. Pulse production can also be raised by improved management
practices. Under a mission to boost productivity of rain fed agriculture through science led
intervention in Karnataka called ‘Bhoochetna’ project, the improved management practices including
application of micronutriesnts increased the yield of Green gram (31-57%), Pigeon pea (26-38%),
Chickpea (27-39%) in 2010-11. Similarly in 2011-12 blackgram and green gram grain yield increased
by 33-42 % in response to improved management practices. Such type of projects can be replicated.
Various Government Initiatives for Pulse Production: The government has also from time to time
launched various programmes to increase pulse production in the country (Table 13). The Accelerated
Pulse Production Programme (A3P) was launched in 2011 with the objective to demonstrate plant
nutrient and plant protection centric improved production technologies of pulse crops. A special plan
to achieve 19+ million tonnes of pulse production in the country has also been launched from Kharif
2012-13
Table 13: Different Government initiatives to raise pulse production in the country
S. No Government’s initiative Year Objectives
1. Pulses Development Scheme 1969-70 to To introduce production technologies
1973-74 and improved varieties of pulses
2. National Pulses Development Project 1985-86 to To increase the production of pulses in
1989-90 irrigated areas, intercropping,
multiplication and use of improved
seeds
4. Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm 2004 To encourage marginal and small
and Maize farmers to grow Maize, Oilseeds, Pulses
5. National Food Security Mission 2007-08 To Restore soil fertility and productivity
at individual farm level, Additional 10,
8 and 2 millions of production for rice,
wheat and pulses, Creating awareness
about the use of improved seed and crop
production technology.
6. Accelerated Pulse Production Programme (A3P) 2011 To demonstrate plant nutrient and plant
protection centric improved
technologies in compact units of 1000

hectares each for five major pulse crops
viz. Bengal gram, Black gram (Urd
bean), Red gram (Arhar), Green gram
(Moong bean), and Lentil (Masur)
7. Special plan to achieve 19+ Million tonnes of Kharif 2012- To utilize new areas through
Pulses production in 16 states 13 intercropping, improving
planting techniques and irrigation use
efficiency for inclusive water
management and use of critical but low
cost inputs
8. Integrated Development of 60000 Pulses villages 2011-12 To increase production and productivity
in Rainfed Areas 2011-12. of pulse crops by disseminating latest
production technologies at the farmers’
field.
Reviving Pulse of Pulses: India’s pulses yield is far below that of best-in-class countries like USA
and Canada which produce about 1,800 kg per hectare. The rice and wheat yield over the years has
witnessed two to three fold increases. This has been as a result of the various government schemes
and the effect of green revolution that brought better seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, support prices,
subsidies, etc within the reach of the farming community. But the green revolution bye passed pulses.
The result is that the yields of pulses have remained at a level of only 6-7 quintals per hectare, low
compared to those of cereals and other crops. The situation is further complicated by the abysmally
mediocre policy intervention together with an equally unimpressive agricultural research budget.
Although the government of India launched various programmes from time to time for
promoting production of pulses (Table 13) but the desired results are yet to be achieved. What is thus
needed is a right approach to revive the pulse production in the country. As pulses are mostly a crop
of dry land regions of the country, it is imperative to introduce short duration, drought resistant pulse
crops varieties to make the production systems profitable and improve soil health. Also easy and
timely availability of critical input should be ensured to the farmers. The concept of community seed
villages should also be familiarized so that quality seeds to farmers are available easily. The relevant
technology related to pulse production should be transferred in a farmer participatory mode so as to
restore the confidence of the farmers in this highly risk prone crop. The country has all the potential to
achieve much higher productivity in pulses. The only need is to tap the available resources in the most
effective way.
The General Assembly of the United Nations on Dec. 21, 2013 has also voted to proclaim
2016 as the International Year of Pulses. This international designation thus means that renewed and
focused attention will be paid to enhance the production of pulses not only to meet the dietary
requirement of protein but also to raise the awareness about pulses for achieving nutritional,
food security and environmental sustainability. Also the international recognition to these largely
neglected crops will act as a galvanizing event to bring together all the key stake holders who can
contribute towards augmenting the pulse production in the country.
References
Burman, R.R. Singh, S.K. Singh, A.K. (2010). Gap in adoption of improved pulse production technologies in
Uttar Pradesh. Indian Research Journal of Extension Education; 10:99-104.
IIPS and ORC Macro. (2007). National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2005-06: International Institute for
Population Sciences. Mumbai, India.
Kalimuthu, I. (2014). Pulses production in India: Challenges and Strategies. Economic Affairs 59(3):403-414
Kumar Dinesh and Singh Bhopinder. (2016). Enhancing Pulses Production. Employment News
Mohanty, S. and Satyasai, K.J. (2015). Feeling the Pulse: Indian Pulse Sector. NABARD Rural Pulse. 10-July-
AugustIssue NABARD publications
Reddy, A. A. (2004). Consumption Pattern, Trade and Production potential of Pulses. Economic and Political
weekly. 39(44):4854-60
Reddy, A. A. (2005). Economics of Pulses production and marketing in India. Agricultural situation in India.
March 2005, pp:875-84
Reddy, A. A. (2009). Pulses production technology: status and way forward. Economic and Political Weekly.
44(52):73-82
Singh, R.P. Status paper on Pulses. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, Govt. of India
Singh, N. P and Saxena, M. C. (2016). Towards self sufficiency of pulses in India. Basic paper for NAAS
brainstorming workshop, April 2016
NFSM-Progress Report No: 5. (2011-12). Enhancing chickpea production in Rainfed Rice Fallow Lands
(RRFL) of Chhattisgarh (CG) and Madhya Pradesh (MP) states of India following Improved Pulse
Production and Protection Technologies (IPPPT).
Pande Suresh. (2012). Farmers participatory introduction and expansion of chickpea in the rainfed rice fallow
lands in India, ICRISAT, Extended summaries: 3rd International Agronomy Congress, Nov. 26-30, 2012,
New Delhi, India.
Piara Singh, Vijaya, D. Srinivas, K. Wani, S.P. (2006). Potential productivity, yield gap, and water balance of
soybean-chickpea sequential systematic selected benchmark sites in India. Journal of SAT Agricultural
Research; 2: 1-50.
Indian Institute of Pulses Research: Vision 2050. Cited at www.iipr.res.in

FOOD
SCIENCE
DIFFERENT TYPE OF FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS
A. Anjaneyulu1, G. Chandrashekhar2, P.Pravalika3 and Vamshi Krishna. S.4
Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
Nadia, West Bengal 741252. E-mail: anjaneyulu9705753099@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: A. Anjaneyulu
K eywords such as “food” and “packaging” relate to variety of new articles,

publications and materials when typed into search bar. Nowadays, the topic of
packaging arises interest seeking more detailed information about different aspects
and influence it has over supply chain and consumer’s attitude. The potential of package itself is still
one of concepts in companies that are not developed to its true extent. The awareness about the issue
is presently rising, and there is growing number of materials to learn from, as this issue taps into every
individual’s life. In addition, it affects companies in multiple various ways starting from presentation
of products to customer, resources apportionment, protecting products, however the materials can also
influence logistics, waste, cost structure and environment as explained further in other chapters. The
packaging industry totally covers 2% of the gross national product (GNP) in developed countries
(Robertson, 2013), having potential to rise in the future because new products enter market every day.
As Coles and Kirwan mentioned in the beginning of the book Food and Beverage Packaging
Technology, there are rising pressures from the public and organizations that attempt to convince
large brands producing physical goods to be conscious about environment and consider their impact
on it by choosing sustainable packaging (Coles and Kirwan, 2011).The technical purposes of
packaging are, to contain foods (to hold the contents and keep them clean and secure without leakage
or breakage until they are used). To protect foods against a range of hazards during distribution and
storage (to provide a barrier to dirt, micro-organisms and other contaminants, and protection against
damage caused by insects, birds and rodents, heat, oxidation, and moisture pickup or loss). To give
convenient handling throughout the production, storage and distribution system, including easy
opening, dispensing and re-sealing, and being suitable for easy disposal, recycling or re-use. To
enable the consumer to identify the food, and give instructions so that the food is stored and used
correctly. The shelf life of a food is the length of time it can be stored before the quality becomes
unacceptable, and this includes the time to distribute food to retailers and store it by the consumer. It
is important to note that the selection of a packaging material for a particular food depends not only
on its technical suitability (i.e. how well the package protects a food for the required shelf life), but
also on the availability and cost in a particular area, and any marketing considerations that favor
choosing a certain type of package. Packaging is important because it aids food distribution, and rapid
and reliable distribution helps remove local food surpluses, allows consumers more choice in the
foods available and helps to reduce malnutrition. Packaging also reduces post harvest losses, which
together with giving access to larger markets, allow producers to increase their incomes. Therefore,
adequate packaging in developing countries has profound effects on both the pattern of food
consumption and the amount of food consumed.
History of Packaging: As opposed to packaging trends of today, the main focus in packaging used to
be on the covering and protection aspects of the product. The goods were placed in reliable, common
materials usually from natural resources such as wood pulp (paper, cardboard) or textiles (flour sacks)
that enabled consumers to enjoy the contents of package at home. For millenniums, the most common
material used to protect goods were paper and glass. People understood the role of package as meant
to protect their product on the way home from market. The manufacturing technology changed the
whole concept of packaging after the Industrial Revolution in eighteenth century when manufacturers
were forced to develop more resilient types of protection so the products could be transported from
factory to shop and later to customer’s home. Unfortunately, even 200 year ago, companies did not
have enough information and research to discover techniques that would expand the shelf life of
products. Plastic and other compounds were not used then, so manufacturers had rather low variety of
materials to choose from. It is commonly acknowledged that the development of the plastic materials
for manufacturing began in the 1860s (Robertson, 2013) by altering hard rubber. Later, synthetic
plastics were gradually invented, starting with Celluloid. Nobel Prize winner Hermann Staudinger
dedicated his career to study polymer science. He invented multiple compounds amongst which was
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used in vast quantities in modern packaging. In the middle of 1940s, further
Different Type of Food Packaging Materials 227
study of synthetic polymers by DuPont chemists synthesized polyethylene terephthalate (known as

PET) used for manufacturing of plastic bottles until this day (Petra, 2015). In twentieth century,
American brewers grew fond of tins manufactured from tinplate and steel coated with chromium
which were previously used in Europe during war, to sell their beverages inside protected atmosphere
(Coles and Kirwan, 2011) but this invention was also attractive for companies producing soup or
preserved fruits (Robertson, 2013). As mentioned in book written by Anne and Henry Emblem,
describing fundamentals of packaging, the first easy-open beverage can was invented in 1962 by
American Ermal Fraze.
Package Functions: Every package has several basic functions that are described by authors and
textbooks in various forms, although they contain similar structure. Fundamentally these functions are
containment, protection, preservation, convenience and information. The list of additional functions
mentioned by publications and organizations include: communication, selling, presentation,
promotion, environmental responsibility and other. Gordon L. Robertson mentions in his book (2013)
also the environment function, previously suggested by Lockhart in 1997. This theory implies that if a
package is designed to fulfill its function, it must endure all basic functions in three environments:
ambient, human and physical. When designing and manufacturing, these functions are taken into
consideration by companies and the output is the specific package found on shelves of retailers.
Packaging functions are all considered necessary for each product even though some are being more
endorsed by certain manufacturers. It often occurs that a package lacks in one or more of the functions
categories. When producing goods, the main focus often shifts from the end consumer. The fact that
package is supposed to fulfill the requirements of customers may conflict with business objectives set
by producers as for example costs, availability, brand image, marketing and therefore the objectives of
society are considered secondary. One of the functions that is rarely mentioned in books when reading
sections about package functions is sustainability. Especially in current state of the environment, this
function should be on the top of manufacturer’s priorities in order to create less waste and enable
consumers to recycle or reuse the package after they consume or un-box their product.
1. Containment: The role of containment is to conceal the product and its parts and prevent them
from spillage and loss, starting from the packing line through transportation phases until it arrives to
customer’s home. Some goods can have dangerous consequences when not contained properly inside
a package- especially liquids and chemicals. Also, if a product which consists of multiple parts does
not contain all of them or the instruction for use when customer opens it, it degrades the product
proving it unusable. Every type of package has its sensitive areas which may get damaged and cause
loss of containment and therefore producers enforce protocols and testing of package to ensure that
the contents are properly contained.
2. Protection: Since ancient times, the products that people used, such as tools, clothes or food, had
to be transported to their homes without the goods being altered by the environment, air, dust,
vibration, weather conditions or animals. The protection function of package represents preventing all
outside forces to intervene with the product inside. Certain products also require special temperature
or humidity levels to preserve their shape or purpose, therefore package should protect the contents
from changing their nature. In order to provide sufficient package that will protect the products, it is
necessary to understand the product’s characteristics and address potential hazards that would tamper
those. It often proves efficient to use a secondary package when protecting larger quantities of
products together and transporting them.
3. Preservation: This function is not universal for all the goods, it should be considered especially
when dealing with food products, pharmaceutics and other perishable products. The importance of
preservation is to keep products in controlled environment so it remains safe to use for longer time
period. The key to correct preservation is to package the product while it is in safe condition and it is
imperial to understand how this state can be sustained inside the package by defining the product-
spoilage mechanisms (Emblem and Emblem, 2012). The package attributes therefore have to address
potential causes of spoilage in order for the product to maintain in desired state. Preservation is
necessary for products that need to maintain certain levels of oxygen, moisture, volatiles or they are
light sensitive (Emblem and Emblem, 2012).
4. Convenience: Based on a fact that package is a tool which helps goods remain in desired condition
when reaching consumers, it also should be convenient for them to carry, transport and open the
package while maintain safe. As known from retail assortment theory, customers make decisions
while shopping and the fundamental choice is which size of product they will buy according to their
needs and convenience. Global performance Management Company Nielsen Holdings PLC based in
United Kingdom provided retailing solution based on sophisticated data from local customer
researches. They also offer consultancy services for large retailers or supermarkets where they assort
the goods based on psychology theory of customer behavior. One of decisions customers tend to make
while shopping is choosing the amount and also size of package either by price or their preference. To
portray an example, when a person needs to buy eggs for a 6-member family that appreciates
omelette, it is unlikely that they would pick the package of 6 eggs. Another available option, package
of 12 or more eggs is much more relevant and convenient. Another example of convenient package is
when customer purchases drink inside tin can for immediate consumption; however he would rather
choose a bottled drink which can be re-opened when planning to continue drinking in a period of
several hours. Different packages offer variety of uses. These examples represent common situations
when convenience is truly important and therefore majority of manufacturers offer their products in
various sizes and shapes to satisfy needs of their customers. The convenience function extends also to
secondary package, the pallets or boxes used when transporting goods are often determined by
equipment and the ability to fit primary packages into secondary one without wasting space based on
resource utilization and easy handling. To improve food quality, intelligent packaging provides
optimization and enhancement of certain foods. The intelligent packaging can include gas absorption
technology or gas emitting to extend shelf life or improve food quality. Another example of intelligent
packaging is including metal structures in package which interact with microwave activity to ensure
the food would become crispy (Yam, at al2005).
5. Information: There are several categories of information included in every package: 1. Tracking
information, 2. Product information, 3. Marketing and brand information Tracking information is
usually in form of bar or matrix code; however, they might be also triple dimensional or chips with
radio frequencies. It includes the metadata of product. This information is not available for end-users
of product, on the contrary it is essential in order for a product to reach customer. Special equipment
such as scanners or detectors are needed to access the information which consists of manufacturer,
basic description, package dimensions and other data regarding product that are not likely to change
over longer period of time. Codes tend to vary across the world, for example UPC code is usually
used in USA while EAN code is used primarily in European retail (Scandit, 2015). Considering that
radio frequency technology is known for more than hundred years, the use in identifying dates to Mr.
Charles A. Walton who patented a radio frequency identifier in 1980 (Walton, 1983). It still remains
quite pricy, even though the price of tag decreased from $1 (in 2003) to around 10 cents (Forbes,
2017). The RFID tags are mostly used for high value items while the warehouses and transportation
companies are required to possess complex technology to access the information coded into chip
which contains extensive amount of data compared to bar codes. The universal tags also diminish
language barriers across supply chain and they revolutionize it (Robertson, 2013). Product
information consists of data describing ingredients and nutrition volumes of food products or
information with technical details for electronic goods. There are several regulations on product
information by government in majority of countries. One of essential information on each product is
the country of origin, manufacturer and distributor. Each product requires different information based
on its nature and purpose. For example, in textile industry the labels that indicate how to handle
clothes when washing and drying are strictly regulated and universal for global distribution. During
recent years, society became intensively interested about products, the content of each product and
materials, moreover, people became more dependent on other person’s opinions about products called
reviews which are shared online on websites and forums. Therefore, manufacturers chose to meet the
new demand for information by attaching and printing smart codes (QR codes) which can be scanned
by smart phones and then detailed product’s description would appear on screen. This technology
enables consumers to access more data about goods they seek without assistance of store workers.
Obviously, every manufacturer wants consumers to continue shopping products from their assortment
and that is the reason why every package in retail store has a distinctive brand logo. Logos, product
names, brand slogans, these are all tools used by companies to signal to customers which product they
buy. In every retail store, people can choose from tens of different brands in every product category,
which makes the competition among brands to impress customer even tougher. Sometimes, even the
package itself can be brand-specific so customers can recognize it quicker. A good example provides
a company manufacturing potato crisps Pringles. Pringles, unlike their competitors, chose to package
crisps neatly into carton tubes instead of traditional plastic or foil bags. Another important
communication distinction on the package is colour. Brands tend to follow strict colour code for their
product lines for easier recognition. In addition, colour is one of tools to describe a sub category of
products as is common in milk section: blue package means low fat milk, while red package suggests
the full fat.
Types of Packaging Materials
1. Traditional Materials: These materials have been used since the earliest times for domestic
storage and local sales of foods. However, with the exception of glazed pottery, they have poor barrier
properties and are only used to contain foods and keep them clean. They are also unsuited to the needs
of commercial production processes and are considered by many customers to be less attractive than
the newer ‘industrial’ materials described below. A summary of the main types of traditional materials
and possible current uses are as follows:
a. Leaves, Vegetable Fibres and Textiles: Leaves are cheap and readily available, and are used as
wrappers for products such as cooked foods that are quickly consumed. Banana or plantain leaves are
used for wrapping traditional cheese and fruit confectionery such as guava cheese. Maize leaves are
used to wrap corn paste or blocks of brown sugar, and 'Pan' leaves are used for wrapping spices in
India. Other examples are green coconut palm, papyrus leaves and bamboo and rattan fibres, which
are woven into bags or baskets and used for carrying meat and vegetables in many parts of the world.
Palmyra palm leaves are used to weave boxes in which cooked foods are transported, and small
banana leaf bags are used to contain coffee beans that are a traditional gift in some parts of Africa.
Some of these have the potential to be developed as niche packaged products for tourist markets.
Fibres from kenaf and sisal plants are mainly used for making ropes, cord and string, which
can be made into net bags to transport hard fruits. They can also be spun into a yarn that is fine
enough to make coarse canvas. Other examples of textile containers are woven jute sacks, which are
used to transport a wide variety of bulk foods including grain, flour, sugar and salt. Plant fibre sacks
are flexible, lightweight and resistant to tearing, have good durability, and may be chemically treated
to prevent them rotting. Their rough surfaces are non-slip, which makes stacking easier compared to
synthetic fibre sacks, and they are bio-degradable. Most textile sacks can be re-used several times
after washing and they are easily marked to indicate the contents. They are still widely used to
transport fresh or dried crops, but they are being replaced as shipping containers by woven
polypropylene or multi-walled paper sacks (below). Calico is a closely woven, strong cotton fabric
that can be made into bags for flour, grains, legumes, coffee beans and sugar. Methods of filling and
sealing sacks and bags are described in Technical Brief: Filling and Sealing Packaged Foods. Muslin
and cheesecloth are open-mesh, light fabrics used both to strain liquid foods during processing and to
wrap foods such as cheeses and processed meats (e.g. smoked ham).
b. Wood: Wooden containers protect foods against crushing; have good stacking characteristics and a
good weight-to-strength ratio. Wooden boxes, trays and crates have traditionally been used as
shipping containers for a wide variety of solid foods including fruits, vegetables and bakery products.
Wooden tea chests are produced more cheaply than other containers in tea-producing countries and
are still widely used. However, in most applications, plastic containers have a lower cost, are more
easily cleaned for reuse, do not risk contaminating foods with splinters, and they have largely replaced
wooden containers in most applications. Small wooden boxes are used to pack tea or spices for tourist
markets in some countries. Wooden barrels have been traditionally used as shipping containers for a
wide range of liquid foods, including cooking oils, wine, beer and juices. They continue to be used for
some wines and spirits because flavour compounds from the wood improve the quality of the
products, but in other applications have been replaced by aluminium, coated steel or plastic barrels.
c. Leather: Leather containers made from camel, pig or kid goat hides have traditionally been used as
flexible, lightweight, non-breakable containers for water, milk and wine. Manioc flour and solidified
sugar were also packed in leather cases and pouches, but the use of leather has now ceased for most
commercial food applications.
d. Earthenware: Pottery is still used domestically for storage of liquid and solid foods such as
yoghurt, beer, dried foods, honey, etc. Corks, wooden lids, wax or plastic stoppers, or combinations of
these are used to seal the pots. If they are glazed and well sealed, they prevent oxygen, moisture and
light from entering the food and they are therefore suitable for storing oils and wines. They also
restrict contamination by micro-organisms, insects and rodents. Unglazed earthenware bowls or pots
are porous and the evaporating moisture makes them suitable for products that need cooling. They are
still used for local sales of curd or yoghurt in parts of Asia. Glass or plastic containers have largely
replaced pottery because of its high weight, fragility, variability in volume when hand-made, and the
difficulty of adequately cleaning pottery containers for re-use.
2. Industrial Materials: These materials have been developed over the last 200-300 years and are the
main types of packaging used by small-scale food processors. The availability of glass, metal or
plastic containers varies considerably in different countries, and this, together with the relative cost of
different materials, determines their uptake by local processing industries. Where these materials have
to be imported, large minimum order sizes can be a significant constraint on the development of a
processing sector.
a. Metal Containers: There are two basic types of metal cans: those that are sealed using a ‘double
seam’ and are used to make canned foods (see Technical Brief: Canning of Foods); and those that
have push-on lids or screw-caps that are used to pack dried foods (e.g. milk or coffee powder, dried
yeast) or cooking oils respectively. Double-seamed cans are made from tinplated steel or aluminium
and are lined with specific lacquers for different types of food. Cans have a number of advantages
over other types of container: when sealed with a double-seam they provide total protection of the
contents; they are tamperproof; and they can be made in a wide range of shapes and sizes. However,
the high cost of metal and the high manufacturing costs make cans expensive compared to other
containers. They are heavier than plastic containers and therefore have higher transport costs. There
are few can-making factories in developing countries and small-scale food processors generally do not
use metal cans because of these disadvantages and/or lack of availability. Larger (200 liter) metal
drums are widely used as shipping containers for oils, juices and other liquid foods, although cheaper
plastic drums are steadily replacing them. Other types of metal containers include aluminium foil cups
and trays, laminated foil pouches as alternatives to cans or jars, collapsible aluminium tubes for
pastes, and aluminium barrels. The advantages of aluminium are that it is impermeable to moisture,
odors, light and micro-organisms, and is an excellent barrier to gases. It has a good weight: strength
ratio and a high quality surface for decorating or printing.
b. Glass: Glass bottles and jars have some of the advantages of metal cans: they are impervious to
micro-organisms, pests, moisture, oxygen and odors they do not react foods or have chemicals that
migrate into foods; they can be heat processed; they are recyclable, and (with new lids) they are re-
useable; they are rigid, to allow stacking without damage; and unlike metal cans, they are transparent
to display the contents. The main disadvantages of glass are: the higher weight than most other types
of packaging, which incurs higher transport costs; containers are easily broken, especially when
transported over rough roads; they have more variable dimensions than metal or plastic containers;
and there are potentially serious hazards from glass splinters or fragments that can contaminate foods
(see Technical Brief: Packaging Foods in Glass). Glass containers are still widely used for foods such
as juices, wines, beers, pickles/chutneys and jams, especially in countries that have a glass-making
factory, but their disadvantages and the high cost for imported containers in other places mean that
they are steadily being replaced by plastic containers.
c. Paper and Cardboard: Paper and boards are made from wood pulp and additives are mixed into
the pulp to give particular properties to the packaging, including:
 Fillers such as china clay, to increase the brightness of paper and improve surface smoothness and
printability.
 Binders, including starches, vegetable gums, and synthetic resins to improve the strength.
 Resin or wax sizing agents to reduce penetration by water or printing inks.
 Pigments to colour the paper and other chemicals to assist in the manufacturing process.
Different types of paper are used to wrap foods: 'sulphate' paper is strong and used for single-
or multi-walled paper sacks for flour, sugar, fruits and vegetables; 'Sulphite' paper is lighter and
weaker and is used for grocery bags and sweet wrappers, as an inner liner for plastic biscuit wrappers
and laminated with plastic films. Greaseproof paper is sulphite paper made resistant to oils and fats,
and used to wrap meat and dairy products. ‘Glassine’ is a greaseproof sulphite paper that is given a
high gloss to make it resistant to water when dry, but it loses its resistance once it becomes wet.
Tissue paper is a soft paper used for example to protect fruits against dust and bruising. Papers are
also treated with wax to provide a moisture barrier and allow the paper to be heat sealed. Wax
coatings are easily damaged and the wax is therefore laminated between layers of paper and/or
polyethylene when used for bread wrappers and inner liners for cereal cartons.
‘Paperboard’ is a term that includes boxboard, chipboard and corrugated or solid fiberboards.
Typically, paperboard has the following structure:
1. A top layer of white material to give surface strength and printability.
2. Middle layers of grey/brown lower grade material.
3. An under-layer of white material to stop the colour of the middle layer showing through.
4. A back layer if strength or printability are required.
All layers are glued together with adhesive. White board is suitable for contact with foods and is often
coated with wax or laminated with plastic to make it heat sealable. It is used for ice cream, chocolate
and frozen food cartons. Chipboard is made from recycled paper and is used for example as the outer
cartons for tea or cereals but not in contact with foods. It may be lined with white board to improve
the appearance and strength. Other types include moulded paperboard trays for eggs, fruit, meat or
fish or for egg cartons. Small paperboard tubs or cans are used for snack foods, confectionery, nuts,
salt, cocoa powder and spices. Larger drums are used as a cheaper alternative to metal drums for
powders and other dry foods and, when lined with polyethylene, for cooking fats. They are
lightweight, resist compression and may be made water resistant for outside storage. Other products
that are handled in lined drums include fruit and vegetable products, peanut butter and sauces.
Corrugated board resists impact, abrasion and compression damage, and is therefore used for shipping
containers. Smaller more numerous corrugations give rigidity, whereas larger corrugations or double-
and triple-wall corrugated material provides cushioning and resists impact damage. Corrugated
cartons are used as shipping containers for bottled, canned or plastic-packaged foods. Wet foods may
be packed by lining the corrugated board with polyethylene or a laminate of wax-coated greaseproof
paper and polyethylene, and used for chilled bulk meat, dairy products and frozen foods.
d. Flexible Plastic Films: In general, flexible plastic films have relatively low cost and good barrier
properties against moisture and gases; they are heat sealable to prevent leakage of contents; they add
little weight to the product and they fit closely to the shape of the food, thereby wasting little space
during storage and distribution; they have wet and dry strength, and they are easy to handle and
convenient for the manufacturer, retailer and consumer. The main disadvantages are that (except
cellulose) they are produced from non-renewable oil reserves and are not biodegradable. Concern over
the environmental effects of non-biodegradable oil-based plastic packaging materials has increased
research into the development of ‘bioplastics’ that are derived from renewable sources, and are
biodegradable. However, these materials are not yet available commercially in developing countries.
There is a very wide choice of plastic films made from different types of plastic polymer. Each can
have ranges of mechanical, optical, thermal and moisture/gas barrier properties. These are produced
by variations in film thickness and the amount and type of additives that are used in their production.
Some films (e.g. polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene) can be ‘oriented’ by stretching the material
to align the molecules in either one direction (uniaxial orientation) or two (biaxial orientation) to
increase their strength, clarity, flexibility and moisture/gas barrier properties. There are thus a very
large number of plastic films and small-scale processors should obtain professional advice when
selecting a material to ensure that it is suitable for the intended product and shelf life. Typically, the
information required includes: type of plastic polymer(s) required; thickness/strength; moisture and
gas permeability; heat seal temperature; printability on one or both sides; and suitability for use on the
intended filling machinery (see also Technical Brief: Filling and Sealing Packaged Foods). A
summary of the main different types of flexible plastic films is as follows:
e. Cellulose: Plain cellulose is a glossy transparent film that is odorless, tasteless and biodegradable
(within approximately 100 days). It is tough and puncture resistant, although it tears easily. It has
dead-folding properties that make it suitable for twist-wrapping (e.g. sugar confectionery). However,
it is not heat sealable and the dimensions and permeability of the film vary with changes in humidity.
It is used for foods that do not require a complete moisture or gas barrier, including fresh bread and
some types of sugar confectionery. Cellulose acetate is a clear, glossy transparent, sparkling film that
is permeable to water vapor, odors and gases and is mainly used as a window material for paperboard
cartons.
f. Polyethylene (or Polythene): Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is heat sealable, inert, odor free
and shrinks when heated. It is a good moisture barrier but is relatively permeable to oxygen and is a
poor odour barrier. It is less expensive than most films and is therefore widely used for bags, for
coating papers or boards and as a component in laminates. LDPE is also used for shrink- or stretch-
wrapping (see Technical Brief: Filling and Sealing Packaged Foods). Stretch-wrapping uses thinner
LDPE (25-38 µm) than shrink-wrapping (45-75 µm), or alternatively, linear low-density polyethylene
is used at thicknesses of 17 - 24 µm. The cling properties of both films are adjusted to increase
adhesion between layers of the film and to reduce adhesion between adjacent packages. High-density
polyethylene (HDPE) is stronger, thicker, less flexible and more brittle than LDPE and a better barrier
to gases and moisture. Sacks made from HDPE have high tear and puncture resistance and have good
seal strength. They are waterproof and chemically resistant and are increasingly used instead of paper
or sisal sacks.
g. Polypropylene: Polypropylene is a clear glossy film with a high strength and puncture resistance.
It has a moderate barrier to moisture, gases and odors, which is not affected by changes in humidity. It
stretches, although less than polyethylene. It is used in similar applications to LDPE. Oriented
polypropylene is a clear glossy film with good optical properties and a high tensile strength and
puncture resistance. It has moderate permeability to gases and odors and a higher barrier to water
vapor, which is not affected by changes in humidity. It is widely used to pack biscuits, snack foods
and dried foods.
h. Other Films: Polyvinylidene chloride is very strong and is therefore used in thin films. It has a
high barrier to gas and water vapor and is heat shrinkable and heat sealable. However, it has a brown
tint which limits its use in some applications. Polyamides (or Nylons) are clear, strong films over a
wide temperature range (from – 60 to 200°C) that have low permeability to gases and are greaseproof.
However, the films are expensive to produce, require high temperatures to heat seal, and the
permeability changes at different storage humidities. They are used with other polymers to make them
heat sealable at lower temperatures and to improve the barrier properties, and are used to pack meats
and cheeses.
i. Coated Films: Films are coated with other polymers or aluminium to improve their barrier
properties or to impart heat seal ability. For example a nitrocellulose coating on both sides of cellulose
film improves the barrier to oxygen, moisture and odors, and enables the film to be heat sealed when
broad seals are used. Packs made from cellulose that has a coating of vinyl acetate are tough,
stretchable and permeable to air, smoke and moisture. They are used for packaging meats before
smoking and cooking. A thin coating of aluminium (termed ‘metallization’) produces a very good
barrier to oils, gases, moisture, odours and light. This metalized film is less expensive and more
flexible than plastic/aluminium foil laminates.
Table: 1. Properties of selected packaging materials
Film Coating Barrier to Strength Clarity Thickness(µm)
Moisture Air/odours
PvDC * *** * *** 21-40
Cellulose
Aluminium *** *** * *** 19-42
Nitro-cellulose *** *** * - 21-42
LDPE - ** * ** * 25-200
HDPE - *** ** *** * 350-1000
- *** *** *** *** 20-40
Polypropylene
PvDC *** *** *** *** 18-34
Aluminium *** *** *** - 20-30
Polyester - ** ** *** ** 12-23
- *** *** *** - 20-30
* = low, ** = medium, *** = high. PvDC = polyvinylidene chloride, LPDE = low density polyethylene, HDPE = High
density polyethylene.
Thicker films of each type have better barrier properties than thinner films.
j. Laminated Films: Lamination (bonding together) of two or more films improves the appearance,
barrier properties or mechanical strength of a package.
Table: 2. Selected laminated films used for food packaging
Laminated film Typical food applications
Polyvinylidene chloride coated polypropylene (2 layers) Crisps, snack foods, confectionery, ice cream, biscuits,
chocolate
Polyvinylidene chloride coated polypropylene- Bakery products, cheeses, confectionery, dried fruit, frozen
polyethylene vegetables
Cellulose-polyethylene-cellulose Pies, crusty bread, bacon, coffee, cooked meats, cheeses
Cellulose acetate-paper-foil-polyethylene Dried soups
Metallised polyester-polyethylene Coffee, dried milk
Polyethylene-aluminium-paper Dried soup, dried vegetables, chocolate
k. Coextruded Films: Coextrusion is the simultaneous extrusion of two or more layers of different
polymers to make a film. Coextruded films have three main advantages over other types of film: they
have very high barrier properties, similar to laminates but produced at a lower cost; they are thinner
than laminates and are therefore easier to use on filling equipment; and the layers do not separate.
There are three main groups of polymers that are coextruded: Low-density and high-density
polyethylene and polypropylene.
 Polystyrene and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene.
 Polyvinyl chloride.
Typically a three-layer co extrusion has an outside layer that has a high gloss and printability,
a middle bulk layer which provides stiffness and strength, and an inner layer which is suitable for heat
sealing. They are used, for example, for confectionery, snack foods, cereals and dried foods. Thicker
co extrusions (75 - 3000 µm) are formed into pots, tubs or trays
Table: 3.Selected applications of coextruded plastic films.
Coextruded film Typical food applications
High impact polystyrene-PET Margarine, butter tubs
Polystyrene-polystyrene-PvDC lystyrene Juice and milk bottles
Polystyrene-polystyrene-PvDC-polyethylene Tubs for butter, cheese, margarine, bottles for coffee, mayonnaise,
sauces.
l. Rigid and Semi-Rigid Plastic Containers: There is a wide range of plastic bottles, pots, jars, trays
and tubs made from single or coextruded plastics that are increasingly used for processed foods, when
they are available in developing countries. The main advantages, compared with glass and metal, are
as follows:
 Lower weight, resulting in savings of up to 40% in transport and distribution costs. Cups, tubs and
trays are tapered (a wider rim than base) for more compact stacking for transport and storage.
 Lower production costs using less energy.
 Tough, unbreakable and easy to seal.
 Very good barrier properties.
 Precisely moulded into a wider range of shapes than glass or metal containers.
 Can be colored for consumer appeal and to give UV-light protection to foods. However, they are
not re-usable, are less rigid than glass or metal for stacking and cannot be heated to the same high
temperatures as glass and metal. They are used for example as:
 Cups or tubs for margarine, processed meats, cheese, spreads, yoghurt, peanut butter, dried foods
or ice cream and desserts (high-nitrile resin copolymers or high-impact polystyrene and
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene).
 Trays for meat products and chocolates, tubs for margarine or jams, and (polyvinyl chloride) -
good oil resistance and low gas permeability.
 Bottles and jars for fruit juices, squashes and juice concentrates, vinegar, cooking oil, milk, wine,
syrup and, and as drums for salt and bulk fruit juices (HDPE, polyvinyl chloride).
 Bottles for carbonated drinks (polyethylene terephthalate (PET) - PET is a very strong transparent
glossy film that is a good moisture and gas barrier. It is biaxially oriented to develop the strength
for use in carbonated drinks bottles.
 Squeezable bottles and pots for mustard, mayonnaise, jams, tomato ketchup and other sauces
(polypropylene coextruded with ethylene vinyl alcohol).
 Trays for chocolates, eggs, or soft fruit.
 Foam cartons or trays for eggs, fresh fruits and takeaway meals (polystyrene).
Packaging Suppliers: A comprehensive list of worldwide packaging suppliers and support
institutions is provided by Packaging International atwww.packaging-int.com/companies/Agents for
packaging companies in the capital city are the best source of information on what is available locally
and the relative costs of different materials. Orders cannot be placed directly with packaging
manufacturers, but their websites have technical information on the range of products that they
produce, for example:
 Polypropylene, company information from Total Petrochemicals
 Tinplate and tin free steel cans, company information from JFE Steel Corporation
 Types of glass, company information from British Glass
Acknowledgement: Zuzana Sedlacekova (Food Packaging Materials: Comparison of Materials Used
for Packaging Purposes).
References
Coles, R. and Kirwan, M. (eds). (2011). Food and Beverage Packaging Technology. 2nd Edition. New Delhi:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Emblem, A. and Emblem, H, (eds). (2012). Packaging Technology: Fundamentals, Materials and Processes.
Cornwall: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
Robertson, G. L., (2013). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice. 3rd ed. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis
Group.
Scandit. (2015). Types of Barcodes: Choosing the Right Barcode.
Walton, C. A. (1983). Portable radio frequency emitting identifier. US Pat. 4384288 A.
Yam, K. L., Takhistov, P.T. and Miltz, J. (2005). Intelligent Packaging: Concepts and Applications. Journal of
Food Science. Vol. 70.

FOOD SUPPLEMENTATION TOWARDS DISADVANTAGED
PREGNANT WOMEN: AN EFFECTUALITY STUDY OF THE
NATIONAL PROGRAMME IN A REMOTEST ISLAND OF THE
SUNDARBANS
Riya Mandal1 and K. Damayanthi2
1
ICAR-SRF, Department of Food, Nutrition and Public Health; Ethelind College of Home Science; Sam Higginbottom
University of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences Naini, Prayagraj, PIN-211007, U.P., India,
E-mail: riyafan14@gmail.com and 2Scientist ‘E’, ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition, MoHFW, Government of India,
E-mail: damayanthik@yahoo.com, Corresponding Author: Riya Mandal
D iet and nutrition in a community depends on the family income, market prices,
individual preferences and beliefs, cultural traditions. All interact, including the
geographical, environmental, social and economic factors, in a complex manner to
shape dietary consumption patterns and clinical status of women. A normal balanced diet must
include daily foods from the various food groups in sufficient amounts to meet the needs of an
individual and to increase immunity. But the dietary intake and nutritional status of Indian rural
women is very poor as found in various studies conducted on them. Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS) scheme supported Supplementary Nutrition Programme (SNP) includes
supplementary feeding and growth monitoring; and prophylaxis against vitamin A deficiency and
control of nutritional anaemia. By providing supplementary feeding, the Anganwadi unit attempts to
bridge the caloric gap between the national recommended and average intake of children and women
in low income and disadvantaged communities.
Supplementary Nutrition Norms: All families in the community are surveyed, to identify children
below the age of six and pregnant & nursing mothers. They avail of supplementary feeding support
for 300 days in a year. The Government of India has recently, revised both, the financial norms and
nutritional norms of supplementary nutrition programme. In case of pregnant women and nursing
mothers these are as follows: Financial Norms- (Pre-revised) Rs.2.30, whereas, (Revised) - Rs.5.00
per beneficiary per day. Nutritional Norms- (Pre-revised) 500 Calories (K Cal) and Protein 15-20 g.,
whereas, in revised norms 600 Calories (K Cal) and Protein 18-20 g.
The Setting: Geo-Location and Coordinates: The Great Sundarbans (Bangladesh and India):
Geographical location of the great Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta between the latitudes 21º30Ń and
22º30Ń, and longitudes 89º00É and 89º55É; The Sundarbans (India-part): 21°56′42″N 88°53′45″E;
The Sagar Island-CD Block: 21.8000° N, 88.1000° E; and Ghoramara Island-Village: 21.9167° N,
88.1333° E. The Ghoramara Island in Sundarban area being an Island Village as well as Gram
Panchayet under Sagar PS in the district of South 24 Parganas (under the jurisdiction of Sundarban
Development Area) situated, almost on the mouth of the River Ganges having an land area of 4.5 km2.
Ghoramara Island is surrounded by the River Hoogly, Nayaachar Island and Haldia Township on its
north, Baratala Khanri (rivulet) of Muriganga River on its east, estuary of the Ganges on its west and
the Ganga-Sagar, the meeting point of the Ganges and “Sagar’- the Bay of Bengal (mythological
name ‘Sagar-Sangam’) on its south.
How ICDS Involved in Ghoramara Island: AW centre in Ghoramara Village Panchayet (locally-
‘gram panchayet’), starting with ‘three’ now has become ‘ten’ having eight AWWs at work. One
Supervisor stays nearby block head quarter situated at Rudranagar of Sagar Island who used to come
to the Island twice or thrice in a year at time of food-stuff delivery to the AWCs. Generally, in the
months of foul weather (March to October) this delivery works are supposed to postpone when
AWWs of the Island, with the help of local panchayet, would run their AWCs ‘food-stuff on
borrowing basis’. But overall, the programme is going in the island.
Study Design: The study was a community-based survey, carried out in all the ten (10- ICDS units)
Anganwadi Centers under the jurisdiction of Ghoramara Gram Panchayet (Village Level Panchayet
Body) of Sagar Panchayet Samity (Block Level Panchayet Body) in South 24 Parganas Zilla Parishad
(District Level Panchayet Body) having a population of 5089 of 1225 families of this Island.
Food Supplementation towards Disadvantaged Pregnant Women: An Effectuality Study………………… 237
Selection of Villages/ Hamlets/ Localities or Paaraa: Khasimara (Part No. 1/1), Bagpara (Part No.
1/2), Roypara (Part No. 2/1), Chunpuri (Part No. 2/2), Hatkhola (Part No. 2/3), Mandirtala North (Part
No. 3) and Mandirtala South (Part No. 4) – all these seven (7) localities or hamlets are popularly
known as ‘village’ but in land settlement records ‘village’ is equivalent to ‘mouza’ of which a
Jurisdiction List No. (JL) is must. Traditionally, a police station or ‘thana’ is sub-divided in several
jurisdictions, each having an identity No. is called ‘Village No.’ or ‘Mouza No.’ or ‘J.L. No.’. Here,
in Ghoramara one mouza namely ‘Ghoramara’ having J.L. No. 2 is present. Due to tremendous land
erosion the area of Island has been decreased from 22,000 bighas (of Pyareemohan’s Lot) to 1,700
bighas present Ghoramara G Panchayet in last 3 decades.
Selection of Sample: The study was restricted to those families which have a pregnant woman, at
least. Thus, all those Anganwadi Centers which are in operation were included in the study. For
selection of actual respondent, all Anganwadi Centers and Health Sub Centers including GP office
records of Ghoramara Island are compiled.
Scope of the Study Sample-Size-Estimation
 No. of Pregnant Women Registered in 10 AWCs of Ghoramara GP in 2013-2014 (as on 31ST
March,2014)- 106
 No. of Pregnant Women Registered in Ghoramara GP, at the beginning of 2014-2015 ( April &
May), as on 31ST May, 2014 - 18
 No. of Reported Premature-Birth(much before EDD) - 12
 No. of Reported Normal-Birth (following EDD) – 25
 No. of Reported Abortion cases - 04
 No. of Migrated PWs to other relatively safety Islands - 09
 No of Registered Pregnant Women as found in Ghoramara GP area during this Survey Work-
(from 17TH to 31ST May, 2014) - 74
Tools: In order to collect the required information and data for the study structured/ proformae
/schedules were devised. The questionnaires are of Closed-Ended-Questions for specified responses.
These are in the form of recording sheets. Besides interview, PRA methods were also used time to
time for collecting information pertaining to delivery of services at Anganwadi level. The available
reports, records, guidelines and other documents from PRA helped to form additional source of
information.
In view of the magnitude of the data collected in the study, were pre-coded to facilitate
computerization of the data which was followed by pre-testing of tools by guide and faculty members
of the Institute. After pre-testing of tools, it was finalized including other operational details. A set of
final questionnaire is annexed here in after.
Ethical Issues: The study work was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) of
National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad. Oral informed consent was obtained from the state, district
and block level competent authority of the concerned departments. Oral informed consent was also
obtained from the head of the selected HHs before collecting household information. Written
informed consent was also obtained from the subjects selected for different measurements in the
dissertation work. The aims and objectives of the study were also explained with the subjects.
Group Interview: Meetings with Panchayet Functionaries, AWWs, NRHM Activists like ASHA and
2ND ANM with ANM, Village Organizers from NGOs followed by different PRAs, for cross-checking
and finalizing the list of pregnant women, were carried out first.
Personal Interview: After enlisting the name (with family head for supplementary information) of
actual beneficiaries, the primary data was collected through Personal Interview of Data Gathering
Technique (DGT) and sometimes, PRA technique for rapid appraisal is also used, for final
compilation, tabulation and analysis.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): It is an approach to data collection that grew out of rural
analysis work for rapid appraisal of a rural society. PRA is widely used since it applies traditional
methods by which communities share information. Sometimes the technique is used either as part of a
group discussion to generate a consensus view of the community's social infrastructure, sometimes
undertaken by individuals to illustrate the different perspectives of, for instance, men versus women,
project staff versus community members, or project participants versus non-participants. This is a
quick and easy way to assess the needs and resources of a rural community prior to planning
activities.
Height-weight Standard Method: Height–Height can be measured after removing the foot wear, the
subject should stand up as straight as possible on a flat floor, or board, by the scale with feet together
& with heels, buttocks, shoulders, & back of the head touching the upright. The feet should be bare,
flat on the floor & with the heels almost together. The legs should be straight & the shoulders relaxed.
The head should be looking straight forward & held comfortably erect, with the lower border of the
orbit in the same horizontal plane as the external auditory meatus (the ‘Frankfort plane’). The arm
should be hanging by the sides in a natural manner (‘stand tall & look straight ahead’). The headpiece,
which can be a metal bar or a wood block, is gently lowered, compressing the hair, & making contact
with the top of the head. If subject has unusually thick hair, it should be taken into account. Weight-
weight can be measured after removing the foot wear; the subject should stand up on the weight
machine with minimum light weight clothing. If clothing is of significant weight, it is necessary, the
weight of ‘standard garments’ should be discovered & subtracted from the individual’s weight.
Theoretically, weighing should not be done after a full meal, or with a full bladder. However, such
precautions are impossible to carry out in field study.
Ensuring Data Quality: The design, scope of the study and tools were planned in consultation with
faculty members and Guide. The modus operandi of data collection work was consultated with guide
time to time during investigation. Procedures of implementing the design, with emphasis on filling up
the schedules and its coding frame were also discussed with the Faculty well in advance.
Data Analysis: The information received in the questionnaires is compiled, processed and analysed.
Various quantitative inputs are compiled. Information of beneficiaries for supplementary nutrition
was taken into consideration.
Coverage: No. of Pregnant Women Registered in 10 AWCs of Ghoramara GP in 2013-2014 (as on
31ST March, 2014) - 106
 Number of Pregnant Women Registered in Ghoramara GP, at the beginning of 2014-2015 ( April
& May), as on 31ST May, 2014 - 18
 Number of Reported Premature-Birth(much before EDD) - 12
 Number of Reported Normal-Birth (following EDD) – 25
 Number of Reported Abortion cases - 04
 Number of Migrated PWs to other relatively safety Islands - 09
No of Registered Pregnant Women as found in Ghoramara GP area during this Survey Work-
(from 17TH to 31ST May, 2014) – 74. From Focus Group Discussion and PRA it was found that 12.16
per cent of PWs have been migrated or shifted to outside Ghoramara Island due to absence of
dependable health center.
Socio-economic Profile
Table 3.1: Distribution of households of the respondents based on socio-economic status
Particulars Category Participants (N = 44) Non participant (N =30)
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
House Type Kacha (No bricks ) 26 59.09 13 43.33
Pakka (Mud + bricks ) 18 40.91 17 56.67
Family type Nuclear 13 29.55 3 10
Joint 16 36.36 17 56.67
Extended 15 34.09 10 33.33
Source of electricity NES (SHLS) 41 93.18 25 83.33
No NES even SHLS 3 6.82 5 16.67
Per capita income in 500-900 4 9.09 2 6.67
month in Rupees 900-1500 18 40.91 10 33.33
1500-2500 22 50 18 60
Religion Hindu 29 65.91 19 63.33
Muslim 15 34.09 11 36.67
Type of House: The type of house is considered as an index of economic status of the household.
About 52.70 per cent of the PWs families are living in exclusively a kaccha house that is Mud/
Thatched wall + Thatched roof and 47.30 per cent in semi-pakka (i.e. Mud + Bricks wall & Thatched
+ Tiled roof) houses. Among 44 Number participant pregnant (P) women, 59.09 per cent having
kaccha houses and 40.91 per cent having semi-pakka type, whereas, 43.33 per cent non-participant
(NP) pregnant women are living in kaccha houses and 56.67 per cent in semi-pakka type (Table 3.1).
Type of Family: About 21.62 per cent of the families are nuclear, 44.59 per cent are joint families
and 33.78 per cent are extended families out of 74 total respondents. In which about 29.55 per cent of
participant respondents are belongs to nuclear family, 36.66 per cent are joint family, and 34.09 per
cent are extended families. Whereas, in case of non-participant pregnant women 10 per cent have
nuclear family, and 56.67 per cent and 33 per cent belongs to joint and extended families respectively
(Table 3.1).
Electrification of the PW Families: There is no traditional power supply in the Island. About 89.19
per cent of the houses are using Solar Home Lighting System (SHLS) from non-conventional energy
sources (NES) and about 10.18 per cent HHs are not using any electricity. Out of which, 93.18 per
cent participant families and 83.33 per cent nonparticipant families are using SHLS whereas 6.82 per
cent of participant families & 16.67 per cent of nonparticipant families are not having electrification at
all (Table 3.1).
Per Capita Monthly Income: In regards to per capita income about 8.11 per cent of the respondent
families having per capita income ranged from Rs.500 to Rs. 900, 37.84 per cent having income
Rs.900 to Rs. 1500 and about 54.05 per cent having Rs. 1500 to 2500 per month. In case of the
families of the participant pregnant women, about 9.09 per cent are of 500-900 category, 40.91 per
cent are of Rs.900 - 1500 category and 50per cent are of 1500-2500 category. Where as in the case of
non-participant PW families about 6.67 per cent are of Rs.500-900 category and 33.33 per cent are of
900-1500 category and 60per cent are of 1500-2500 category (Table 3.1).
Religion of the PW Families: The study reveals that the majority of the household that is 64.86 per
cent of the pregnant women in Ghoramara belonged to Hindu religion and other 35.14 per cent
households belong to Muslims (35.14%). It was found that 65.91 per cent of SNP participants
respondents belongs to Hindu religion where as 34.09 per cent are Muslim. In case of non participant
group 63.33 per cent and 36.67 per cent are belongs to Hindu and Muslim community (Table 3.1).
Table 3.2: Distribution of households of the respondents based on socio-personal status
Particulars Category Participants (N = 44) Non participant (N =30)
Educational Status Read and write 16 36.36 10 33.33
Upto Secondary 22 50 17 56.67
Secondary and above 6 13.64 3 10
Health status from >7 29 65.91 13 43.33
ANC record Hb g/dl >10 15 34.09 17 56.67
>12 0 0 0
Blood Low 31 70.45 24 80
Pressure Normal 13 29.55 6 20
Literacy Status of the Pregnant Women: About 35.14 per cent of the respondent group having the
capability to read and write, about 52.70 per cent up to secondary level and about 12.16 per cent
above secondary level. Among participant PWs 36.36 per cent can read and write , 50 per cent
respondents completed their secondary level and 13.64 per cent are secondary and above level.
Whereas, among non-participant pregnant women 33.33 per cent can read and write , 56.67 per cent
completed their secondary level and 10 per cent secondary and above level (Table 3.2).
Hb Level and Blood Pressure Status: It was found from table 3.2 that, from participant group, 65.91
per cent and 34.09 per cent having Hb level >7 and >10 respectively. Whereas from non participant
group 43.33 per cent and 56.67 per cent having Hb level >7 and >10 respectively. In regards to blood
pressure level majority of the respondents from both group (70.45 per cent from participants group
and 80 per cent from no participant group) having low blood pressure. And, 29.55 per cent and 20 per
cent respondent having normal blood pressure level from participants and non participants group
respectively.
Table 3.3: Distribution of the respondents families according to the presence of sanitary latrine, type of cooking fuel
used & sources of drinking water
SNP Respondent Sanitary Latrine Cooking Fuel Drinking Water
no. (n) (Wood) (Tube Well)
Absent Present but Present and Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
not in use in use
Participants 44 06 13.63 03 6.82 35 79.55 44 100 44 100
Non- 30 04 13.33 01 3.33 25 83.34 44 100 44 100
participants
Sanitary latrine, Cooking Fuel and Drinking Water Facilities: Table 4 shows that 79.55 per cent
of the HHs of SNP participants (44 nos.) have facility of sanitary latrine and they are in use, 6.82 per
cent having the sanitary latrine but not in use and 13.63 per cent have no facility of sanitary latrine. In
case of non-participants (30 nos.) 83.34 per cent have facility of sanitary latrine, 3.33 per cent have
the facility but not in use and 13.33 per cent have no facility of sanitary latrine (Table 3.3). Regarding
the type of cooking fuel used by the PW families, all the respondents both, participant &
nonparticipant, are using local fire-wood and about source of drinking water 100 per cent of the
respondents are using drinking water from deep-tube well (Table 3.3).
Table 3.4: Distribution of respondents’ households on the basis of socio-economic class (using Kuppuswamy’s Socio-
Economic Status Scale)
Socio-economic class HH no of SNP Participants (n = 44) HH no of SNP Non-Participants (n = 30)
Upper Middle (II) 0 0 1 3.33
Middle/Lower middle (III) 3 6.82 5 16.66
Lower/Upper lower (IV) 41 93.18 24 80
Socio-economic Class-strata: By using Kuppuswamy’s socio-economic status scale, based on
education, occupation & income, five socioeconomic classes have been classified. In present study
two categories of respondent are classified into three groups i.e. three socioeconomic classes. There
are only 1HH in upper middle class under SNP non participant group. In this group 16.66 per cent
families are in lower middle class and 80 per cent families in lower socio-economic class. In case of
SNP participant group there is no upper middle class family. In this group 6.82 per cent families in
lower middle class and 93.18 per cent families in lower socio-economic class are found (Table 3.4).
Heath and Nutritional Status
Table 3.5: Mean (+ - SD) Anthropometry measurements of the subjects
Mean+- SD P Value
SNP Participants SNP Non-participants
HEIGHT 150.2+ - 4.97 149.97+- 4.9 NS
WEIGHT 49.50+-6.54 48.81+ - 6.39 NS
BMI 21.93+-2.66 21.74+-2.96 NS
Mean Anthropometric Measurements: The table no. 3.5 shows that the summary of mean
anthropometric measurement. There is no significant difference in between two groups with respect to
height, weight & BMI.
Table 3.6 Prevalence of health symptoms among respondents
Participant (n=44) Non Participant (n=30)
Symptoms Present Absent Present Absent
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Constipation 17 38.64 27 61.36 16 53.33 14 46.67
Dizziness 26 59.09 18 40.91 17 56.67 13 43.33
Nausea 13 29.55 31 70.45 6 20 24 80
Edema 9 20.45 35 79.55 4 13.33 26 86.66
Prevalence of Heath Symptoms: The table 3.6 shows that the overall prevalence of health symptoms
among respondents during their pregnancy including constipation, dizziness, nausea and edema.
Constipation is present in 53.33 per cent and 38.64 per cent respondent nonparticipating and
participating group respectively. Whereas constipation is absent in 46.67 per cent and 61.36 per cent
nonparticipating and participating group respectively. In regards to dizziness, 59.09 per cent and
56.67 per cent respondents having that symptom participant and non participants group respectively
whereas, 40.91 per cent respondents from participants group and 43.33 per cent respondents from
non-participant group not having any symptom. Majority, 70.45 per cent from participant group and
80 per cent from non participant group of the respondents not having nausea. In case of edema, 79.55
per cent from participants and 86.66 per cent from non participants group not having any edema.
Table 3.7: Distribution of pregnant women according to BMI grades by SNP participation and non-participant
groups.
Respondent Sample Average PWs having BMI <18.5 PWs having BMI > 23 PWs having Normal BMI
Size BMI of PWs kg/m2 kg/m2 (18.5 – 22.9 kg/m2 )
(kg/m2) Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Participant 44 21.93 6 13.63 16 36.36 22 50
PWs of
Ghoramara
Island in The
Sundarbans
Non-Participant 30 21.74 5 16.66 12 40 13 43.33
PWs of
Ghoramara
Island in The
Sundarbans
BMI Grades: The average BMI of participant and non-participant pregnant women is 21.93 per cent
and 21.74 per cent respectively. In case of participant PWs, BMI grades are <18.5 kg/m2 is 13.63 per
cent, > 23 kg/m2 is 36.36 per cent and 18.5–22.9 kg/m2 is 50 per cent Whereas in case of non-
participant the BMI grades are, <18.5 kg/m2 is 16.66 per cent, > 23 kg/m2 is 40 per cent and 18.5–
22.9 kg/m2 is 43.33 per cent (Table 3.7).
Table 3.8 Mean nutrient-intake (MNI) of the respondents (Moderate worker) in comparison with their
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
Energy (Kcal) Protein (g) Fat (g) Calcium (mg) Iron (mg)
Mean RD Deficienc Mean RD Deficienc Mean RD Deficienc Mean RD Deficienc Mean RD Deficienc
Intak A y or Intak A y Intak A y or Intak A y or Intak A y
e Surplus e e Surplus e Surplus e
SNP 2380 2580 200 59 78 19 21 30 9 551 1200 649 15.21 35 19.79
Partici
-pants
Non- 2142 2580 438 51 78 27 19 30 11 524 1200 676 14.89 35 20.11
partici
-pants
Mean Intake of Nutrients: The mean intake of energy, protein, fat is not significantly different
between two groups of pregnant women. With regard to micronutrients like calcium, iron, there is no
difference between participant & non- participant pregnant women of Ghoramara. Both the group
participant and non participant are deficient their meal in all nutrients. In case of non participant
respondents the nutrient intake is much lower than participant respondents in compared to RDA.
Energy, Protein, Fat intake is deficient by 438 Kcal, 27g, 11g respectively. Whereas calcium and iron
deficient by 676mg, 20.11 mg respectively. In case of participants respondents Energy, Protein, Fat
intake is deficient by 200 Kcal, 19 g, 9g. Calcium and iron intake is also deficient by, 649mg,
19.79mg respectively.
Reasons Behind Non-participation in SNP: It was stated by 6.66 per cent of the respondents that
quality of food is not good and no need of supplementation, 23.33 per cent respondent agreed that
food is not tasty and quality is not good both reasons for non participation of SNP, 3.33 per cent that
is only one respondent told that quantity of food is not enough and 6.66 per cent for quantity of food
is not enough & family member is not supporting. That family member is not supporting 26.66 per
cent respondents are not participating for this reason, whereas the reason for family members is not
supporting and heavy work load 3.33 per cent not used to take, only for not tasty is 13.33 per cent, for
center is too far is 10 per cent and for heavy work load 6.66 per cent respondents are not participating
in SNP.
Results of PRA: Some important indications have been found in using PRA tools among the
‘subjects’ of the study. Focus group discussion, as an ideal tool of PRA, was used in 12 different sets
of respondents from different locations of the area.
1. The respondents commented on irregularities of food supply especially during foul weather which
is used to prevail more or less from April to October in a year. So, 7 out of 12 months, the
beneficiaries are suffering from irregular food supply of SNP.
2. It is reported in the FG discussion that the ‘take home ration’ has to share with the family
members particularly the age-old in-laws and the children. According social norms PWs are not
allowed to take any food before serving the seniors in a family.
3. More than 12 per cent respondents have been migrated to a safety land outside Ghoramara before
their EDD, as there is no secured facility of child delivery in the Island, as recorded in different
FGD in Participatory Rural Appraisal programme during survey.
4. Snake-bite is a panicked subject during night time to the Islanders. The pregnant women become
more afraid of this during pregnancy. There is a strong ritual in ‘MANASA AKHYAN’ (story of
Goddess of snakes) about pregnancy and child birth, as discussed by the FGD participants.
Scarcity of electricity is an important constraint in this area.
5. ANC check up is mostly by the ANMs. The one only PW of an upper middle class family visited
the medical doctor for check-up. In FGD it is recorded that the Muslim mothers are generally not
attending ANC facilities. Religious reasons may be one of the causes for not availing ANC
facility.
Sources of Respondent’s Family-income: Out of 74 respondents about 44.6 per cent HHs are
engaged in agricultural labour , various homestead farming, apiculture & other contractual labour
jobs. About 28.38 per cent HHs are engaged in various agricultural activities, fishing & fish farming,
small scale animal husbandry shop-keeping small businesses & contractual labour works. About 6.76
per cent families are engaged in fish industry & fishing, business & shop-keeping occupation.
Whereas 2.70 per cent families have their major occupation like animal husbandry, businesses shop-
keeping & other labour works. About 8.10 per cent Househilds are engaged in small business like
shop keeping and about 9.46 per cent in other contractual labour job only. From different FGD it is
noticed that all the pregnant women are house wife by occupation. PWs are generally engaged in all
types of home stead farming, agricultural labour, fishing and animal husbandry. So their role in home
economy is tremendous.
The results indicate that, there is no significant difference between two groups. The
nutritional status of women is same in both the groups. Even though it is envisaged that the nutritional
status will be better in the group of women which are receiving supplementation, but they received
supplement as take home ration was shared with family members. 38.6 per cent women are sharing
their supplementary food with family members. This may be the reason for the less difference in the
nutritional status of women who are participating in SNP and who not participating in the SNP of the
ICDS.
Summary and Conclusion: Ghoramara Island in the Sundarbans area of India is an inaccessible
pocket, where typical remoteness, migration-panic and various socio-economic hazards are present.
The respondents (12%) are migrated before their expected date of delivery to safe place due to lack of
health facilities in the area and problem of commuting facility. An another significant finding is, the
respondents who participating in Anganwadi centre regularly and taking their allotted meal as ‘Take
Home Ration’ carefully were used to share the meal silently to maintain their social custom inside the
home. There, 38.60 per cent of the participants mentioned that they are bound to it. It is concluded
that, in an inaccessible pocket, where typical remoteness, migration-panic and socio-economic
hazards are present among the inhabitant, a national programme like Supplementary Nutrition
Programme of Integrated Child Development Services has no remarkable effect on improving the
nutritional status of pregnant women. A national programme must have a location specific layout in
planning considering location specific situational hazards and needs.
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
GEOGRAPHY
SPATIAL DISPARITIES IN LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT IN EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH
Anamika Singh1 and B.N. Singh2
1
Dr.Anamika Singh, Assistant professor (cont.), Department of Geography, Vasanta College for Women, Rajghat, Varanasi
E-mail: as.vns02@gmail.com and 2Dr.B.N.Singh, Retired Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi-221005, Corresponding Author: Anamika Singh
D evelopment of agricultural sector is an important component of overall economic

development in developing countries like India where agriculture and allied activities
contribute nearly one fourth of country’s national income. The growth in other
sectors and overall economy depends on the performance of agriculture to a considerable extent and
agriculture will continue to be the dominant sector in Indian economy. In order to achieve the goal of
self sufficiency in provision of food supply to its every inhabitants, new agricultural strategy has been
initiated in 1966-67. The fundamental of this strategy was the application of science and technology
for increasing yield per hectare. This strategy, known as Green Revolution, was based on the
extension of high yielding varieties responsive to heavy doses of fertilizers and the package of
improved practices in selected areas with assured rainfall or irrigation facilities (Tripathi and Prasad,
2009). Usually the cropping pattern is influenced by the physical factors such as soil, climate,
technological factors like irrigation, improved varieties of seeds, availability of fertilizers and plant
protection, institutional factors like land reforms, consolidation of land holdings, credit facilities, price
structure, procurement of policies and storage facilities (Banarjee,1986).
Obviously, the performance of agricultural sector in a developing economy is very crucial to
economic growth. The region, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, is also constantly challenged by adverse weather
phenomenon like floods and droughts from year to year. These natural disasters certainly drag the
production and productivity to a certain level. The introduction of new agricultural technology has
brought out changes in the traditional cropping pattern particularly in two prominent food crops wheat
and rice. Later on India Planning Commission realized the significance of agro-climatic spatial
planning in the formulation of agricultural development strategy. In this context the central
government has taken a decision under the Rastriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKVY, 2007) for
improving the productivity of different crops in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Undoubtedly, the contours of
Indian agriculture started showing improvement gradually after the mid-1960s with the introduction
of HYVs of crops ( Tripathy, 2011). Green Revolution in agriculture has made a significance
contribution on aggregate supply of food grains, ensuring food security to the growing population
(Gautam and Bhardwaj, 2011).
Eastern Uttar Pradesh is a well defined geographical unit of the Middle Ganga Plain. The sub-
tropical monsoon climate and flat homogeneous alluvial surface excepting southern Vindhyan upland
provide favourable environment for crop cultivation in the study region. The region is predominantly
agricultural. Agriculture is the main occupation of majority of rural population which significantly
provides livelihood and opportunity of employment for its inhabitants.
In spite of these, the agricultural production has not yet increased at desired level because its
benefits were confined to few large or rich farmers in selected areas of the region. Now a days,
production of food grains for feeding growing population has become a challenge among the policy
makers of India. The share of agriculture in India’s GDP has progressively declined from 23.4 per
cent in 9th five year plan to 17.60 per cent in 2014-15. Agricultural growth rate during 2014-15 is
estimated to be 0.2 percent as against country’s 7.3 percent economic growth rate (Patel, 2016).
Therefore, to achieve and maintain the level of high growth in this sector, it is essential to invest large
sum of money in new agricultural technologies and infrastructure. The modernization of agriculture
by introduction of improved irrigation facilities, canal networks, roads, electrification, infrastructural
facilities, improving the functioning of credit societies, provision of agricultural markets etc. can give
better results in this sector.
Eastern Uttar Pradesh is a developing region. Many programms associated with agricultural
development have been implemented by the government at district level. But the spatial disparities
still exist within the region. Spatial disparities in the levels of development have become a major
concern for any type of spatial planning and development. This is a multi-dimensional phenomenon
Spatial Disparities in Level of Agricultural Development in Eastern Uttar Pradesh 245
which is governed by several factors of an area (Nagraj and Murthy, 2007). The main objective of the
present research paper is to measure the spatial disparities in level of agricultural development and
analyzing the factors responsible for it.
The Study Area: Uttar Pradesh is situated in a sub-tropical interior of well defined geographical
region of the Middle Ganga Plain. It is one of the largest stretches of alluvial deposits of northern
India. Eastern Utter Pradesh occupies somewhat continental location and lies between 230 45’ N. to
28030’ N. latitude and 800 45’ E. to 84046’ E. longitude. The region is bounded by the international
boundary of Nepal in the north while Bihar and Jharkhand states form its eastern boundary. The states
of Chattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh form the southern and south-western boundary with it. Usually
100 m contour delineates its western boundary separating it with the Middle Gangetic Plain. The
region almost touches the tarai areas along its northern boundary and its southern part experiences
rigid plateau region. Eastern Uttar Pradesh covers an area of 85845 sq. km. and includes 27 districts
of the state. It occupies 27.6% of the total land of Uttar Pradesh.
The major relief feature of the area is homogeneous plain and rigid upland. The average
elevation of the plain is 100m from msl. However, many areas of the southern upland are covered by
300 m contour. Physiographically, the major part of the study area is covered by the central plain of
the middle Ganga valley. Eastern Uttar Pradesh exhibits two major relief features, the plains in the
north and the upland in the south. The plains are basically formed by the Gangetic alluvium as a result
of infilling of sedimentation by the fluvial processes of antecedent rivers of the Himalaya since
Pleistocene and sub-recent to the present, whereas the upland forms the north central part of the
peninsular upland of India followed by oldest rock of Archean on the earth.
Data Sources and Methodology: The present study is based on the secondary data sources. The
agriculture statistics have been collected from Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow and District Statistical
Handbooks. To find out the spatial disparities in level of agricultural development, a composite index
has been obtained on the basis of 21 selected indicators associated with agriculture. All the variables
are firstly ranked according to their values. Then ranks obtained by each district are summed up and
divided by the number of variables to get their composite index. Computing the mean and SD for CIs
the Eastern Uttar Pradesh has been divided into three level of agricultural development. The selection
of indicators is based on the criteria of District Agricultural Development Index, NABARD, Central
Statistical Information Department, and some previous studies made by the other scientists. Some of
the indicators which were selected in the previous studies are left in the present study because of non-
availability of data at district level.
Indicators Selected for Measuring Disparities in Level of Agricultural Development:
Development is a multidimensional phenomenon which is governed by several factors of an area
(Tallalli and Ngaraj, 2015). The combined outcomes of modern agricultural technologies along with
physico-climatic determinants have great impact on agricultural productivity consequently on level of
agricultural development of a region. Although green revolution introduced technological innovations
to increase agricultural production but it could not achieved the desired result because the adoption of
these innovations were not in the same tune from farmer to farmer and also from region to region
causing disparities in level of agricultural development. Therefore, here an attempt has been made to
describe the spatial variation in selected indicators at district level in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. The
selected indicators for the present study are listed below:
X1 -Farm Workers (% to Main Workers)
X2 - Rural Literacy (in %)
X3 -Iron Plough (no/100 ha NSA)
X4 - Harrow and Iron Cultivator (no/100 ha NSA)
X5 - Sowing Machines (no/100 ha NSA)
X6 -Tractor (no/100 ha NSA)
X7 -Electricity Consumption in Agricultural Sector ( kw/h/000ha of Cultivated Land)
X8 -Consumption of Fertilizers (kg/ha of GCA)
X9 -Net Sown Area (in % to Reported Area)
X10 - Nationalised, District Co-operative and Rural Banks (no/100km2)
X11 - Primary Agricultural Societies (no/100km2)
X12 - Cold Storage (no/100km2)
X13 - Agriculture Service Centre (no/100km2)
X14 Seed Selling Centre (no/100km2)

X15 Fertilizer Selling Centre (no/100km2)
X16 -Cropping Intensity (in %)
X17 -Length of Canal (km/000ha of NSA)
X18 -Irrigation Area (%)
X19 -Productivity (Rs/ ha of Gross Cropped Area)
X20 -Length of Roads (km/100km2)
X21 -Annual Rainfall (in mm)
Spatial Distribution of Selected Indicators
X1 -Farm Workers: Farm workers include agricultural labourers and cultivators. The distribution of
farm workers varies from time and space on the basis of socio-economic condition of the area. Farm
workers account for 74% of total main workers in the study region. The highest concentration of farm
workers (>80%) is found in the Saryupar plain due to lack of other means of livelihood, low literacy,
poor infrastructural facilities and low pace of urbanization and industrialization. On the other hand
there are eight districts in south of the Ganga- Ghaghara doab and the upland region of Sonpar which
represent low percentage of farm workers (<70%) due to the development of household and other
small scale industries, urbanization and infrastructural development.
X2 - Rural Literacy: Literacy is the base and one of the prominent indicators of overall development
of a region. High level of literacy is a pre-requisite for socio-economic changes (Singh, 1987). It is
considered as a good indicator of awareness and social advancement. The average rural literacy of
Eastern Uttar Pradesh is recorded about 50 percent in 2001. It ranges from 61.9% in Varanasi to
29.1% in Shravasti district. As one of the most important educational centre, Varanasi exhibits high
literacy rate (61.1%) and fall into high category (>60%) followed by Mau (60%) district. Many
districts of Saryupar plain like Sant Kabir Nagar (49.7%) Kushinagar (45.8%), Maharajganj (45.2%),
Siddharthnagar (41.2%), Gonda (40.2%), Bahraich (33.3%), Balrampur (32.1%), Shravasti (29.1%)
and Kaushambi (45.8%) districts of the lower Ganga-Yamuna doab and Sonbhadra of southern upland
occupies low literacy percentage (<50%). Excepting these remaining 15 districts fall into moderate
category of (50-60%) literacy rate.
X3 -Iron Plough: Ploughs are still very popular in traditional farming practices in rural areas. In
Eastern Uttar Pradesh, farmers use iron ploughs for their small arable fields. For the region as whole,
iron ploughs have recorded average density of 12/100 ha NSA in 2007-08. It varies from 32/100 ha
NSA in Azamgarh to 2/100 ha NSA in Kushinagar district. It is found high (>20) in Azamgarh (32),
Bahraich (31), Mau (26), and Shravasti (25) districts. Remaining 7 districts fall into the low category
of <10 per 100 ha NSA.
X4 - Harrow and Iron Cultivator: Adoption of harrow and iron cultivator indicates gradual
improvement in farm technology in the region. For the region as whole, the density of these improved
machines is recorded as 8/100 ha NSA in 2007-08. It varies from 24/100 ha NSA in Shravasti to
1/100 ha NSA in Ballia district. There are 10 districts out of 27 which fall into high category of >10
due to expansion and adoption of new agricultural technologies. However, many districts of the study
region still experience lack of these appliances and fall into moderate (5-10) to low (<5) category.
X5 - Sowing Machines: This device is a new technological development in farming practices. The
intensity of sowing machines is around 3/100 ha NSA for the year 2007-08 in the entire region. The
district of Sonbhadra (14/100 ha NSA) followed by Allahabad (12/100 ha NSA), Mirzapur (9/100 ha
NSA), Maharajganj (6/100 ha NSA), Siddharthnagar (5/100 ha NSA) and Ghazipur (4/100 ha NSA)
district belongs to high category of >4 per 100 ha of NSA whereas Balrampur, Shravasti, Deoria and
Faizabad districts show less than 1 sowing machine /100 ha NSA.
X6 –Tractor: Since Green Revoluation, tractor is playing multi faceted role in various agricultural
operations starting from ploughing the field to transporting the products to market. In the study region
as whole, there are 4 tractors /100 ha NSA in 2007-08. The spatial pattern reveals wide variation
ranging from 2 tractors /100 ha of NSA in five districts namely Kaushambi, Ballia, Deoria, Bahraich
and Shravasti to 7 tractors/100 ha of NSA in Ambedkarnagar district. The spatial variation shows that
there are 18 districts out of 27 which fall into high category (>4) due to changes in socio-economic
condition of farmers. Other remaining 5 districts come into moderate category (2-4 tractors /100 ha
NSA).
X7 -Electricity Consumption in Agricultural Sector (kw/h/000 ha of Cultivated Land): Electricity

is a major power input in modern agricultural activity. Recently, due to rapid mechanization of
agriculture, there has been increasing demand of electricity because it helps to maximize the use of
underground water for irrigation especially in those areas where rainfall is inadequate. The spatio -
temporal variation in electricity consumption primarily depends on the amount of rainfall which
proportionally reduced irrigation requirement as well as electricity consumption. In the study region,
the electricity consumption is found lower in the Saryupar Plain of which all the districts fall into low
category (<250 kw/h/000 ha of cultivated land) (Table 1) along with two districts namely Sonbhadra
(180.1 kw/h/000 ha of cultivated land) of the Southern upland region and Pratapgarh (175.7 kw/h/000
ha of cultivated land) of the Ganga-Ghaghara doab. Apart from these districts, other districts fall in to
high category of electricity consumption (>350 kw/h/000 ha of cultivated land) because high
proportion of tube wells for pumping the ground water irrigational purposes.
SN District x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Districts Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank
1 Allahabad 64.8 23 56.0 12 13 8 6 14.5 11.9 2 5 5 943.6 2 217 5
2 Kaushambi 77.7 11 45.8 19.5 13 8 11 6 2.5 13.5 2 25 545.8 8 141 15
3 Pratapgarh 75.3 14 56.6 8 10 11 4 20 0.6 19.5 3 20.5 175.7 19 168 9
4 Varanasi 42.9 26 61.9 1 9 13.5 2 25 3.1 9 4 12.5 1045.3 1 396 1
5 Chandauli 63.6 24.5 57.9 4.5 6 20.5 3 22.5 0.5 23 4 12.5 562.7 7 151 13
6 Ghazipur 72.2 17 58.3 4.5 19 5 2 25 4.0 6.5 4 12.5 769.2 4 133 22
7 Jaunpur 71.7 18.5 58.7 3 9 13.5 3 22.5 3.5 9 4 12.5 434.3 9 122 18
8 Mirzapur 63.6 24.5 53.0 16 5 23.5 4 20 8.9 3 4 12.5 626.5 6 118 20
9 Sonbhadra 80.0 10 41.1 22.5 4 25.5 5 17 14.3 1 4 12.5 180.1 18 112 17
10 S.R.N. 38.8 27 56.5 8 4 25.5 2 25 0.6 19.5 4 12.5 934.7 3 142 14
11 Azamgarh 72.4 16 55.8 12 32 1 5 17 2.4 13.5 4 12.5 298.8 13 77 26
12 Mau 67.2 22 60.0 2 26 3 4 20 2.3 13.5 4 12.5 638.6 5 162 11
13 Ballia 69.1 20 56.7 8 5 23.5 1 27 3.6 6.5 2 25 411.9 11 109 23
14 Gorakhpur 68.3 21 53.7 15 9 13.5 11 6 0.6 19.5 4 12.5 238.3 14 224 4
15 Maharajganj 82.1 6 45.2 21 12 10 22 2 6.4 4 5 5 69.5 24 179 8
16 Deoria 71.7 18.5 56.9 8 8 16.5 8 12 0.2 25 2 25 168.1 20 199 7
17 Kushinagar 80.2 9 45.8 19.5 2 27 6 14.5 2.4 13.5 6 2.5 33.9 26 163 10
18 Faizabad 77.4 12 56.4 12 17 6 10 9 0.3 24 6 2.5 430.9 10 208 6
19 Ambedkar 76.1 13 57.0 8 6 20.5 10 9 2.3 13.5 7 1 346.2 12 137 16
20 Sultanpur 73.7 15 54.6 14 6 20.5 5 17 2.8 9 4 12.5 215.0 16 270 2
21 Gonda 86.9 5 40.2 24 8 16.5 11 6 1.9 13.5 3 20.5 110.7 22 240 3
22 Balrampur 89.5 2 32.1 26 7 18 9 11 0.0 27 3 20.5 61.8 25 105 24
23 Bahraich 88.1 3 33.2 25 31 2 21 3 0.8 19.5 2 25 158.0 21 117 21
24 Shravasti 89.9 1 29.1 27 25 4 25 1 0.1 26 2 25 15.5 27 27 27
25 Siddharthnagar 87.2 4 41.2 22.5 9 13.5 13 4 5.3 5 3 20.5 73.9 23 160 12
26 Basti 81.3 8 50.9 17 6 20.5 7 13 1.1 19.5 5 5 210.4 17 119 19
27 S.K.N. 81.8 7 49.7 18 13 8 10 9 1.2 19.5 4 12.5 220.0 15 100 25
Continue
S. Districts x17 x18 x19 x20 x21
No. Rank Composite
Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Total Index
1 Allahabad 6.8 3 77.5 18.5 50043 8 102.8 10 920 23.5 265.5 12.6
2 Kaushambi 3.7 12 69.7 22 31056 27 80.1 17 920 23.5 338.0 16.1
3 Pratapgarh 8.1 1 88.3 6.5 60834 6 97.0 12 959 21.5 289.0 13.8
4 Varanasi 2.1 21.5 85.9 9 51412 7 184.6 1 1133 13 184.0 8.8
5 Chandauli 3.9 12 93.3 3.5 44617 20 94.2 15 1133 13 324.5 15.5
6 Ghazipur 5.8 6.5 85.7 9 61024 5 120.8 4 982 20 225.0 10.7
7 Jaunpur 6.1 6.5 87.7 6.5 65229 3 124.9 2 959 21.5 227.5 10.8
8 Mirzapur 6.9 3 63.0 23 45928 17 69.1 20.5 1060 17.5 348.0 16.6
9 Sonbhadra 3.7 12 20.2 27 32315 26 35.7 27 1060 17.5 439.5 20.9
10 S.R.N. 3.3 17 80.6 16 48779 11 119.9 5 1133 13 323.5 15.4
11 Azamgarh 6.2 6.5 94.9 1 68749 1 104.6 8 901 25.5 226.5 10.8
12 Mau 3.1 17 92.9 3.5 45252 19 122.8 3 901 25.5 214.5 10.2
13 Ballia 1.9 21.5 77.5 18.5 48750 12 80.7 16 867 27 298.0 14.2
14 Gorakhpur 1.9 21.5 84.7 11 39450 24 106.0 7 1193 9 225.5 10.7
15 Maharajganj 5.1 9 81.0 16 44051 23 75.5 19 1193 9 277.5 13.2
16 Deoria 2.1 21.5 80.5 16 61967 4 107.8 6 1193 9 274.5 13.1
17 Kushinagar 6.6 3 82.0 14 47411 13 95.4 14 1193 9 262.5 12.5
18 Faizabad 4.0 12 88.7 5 46303 16 96.7 12 1110 15.5 258.5 12.3
19 Ambedkar 4.4 12 94.4 2 44467 21 104.3 9 1110 15.5 254.5 12.1
20 Sultanpur 6.5 6.5 83.6 12.5 45273 18 97.4 12 1013 19 286.0 13.6
21 Gonda 1.0 24.5 85.6 9 39417 25 59.9 22.5 1233 5 315.5 15.0
22 Balrampur 3.0 17 39.7 26 49361 9 50.7 25 1242 2 411.5 19.6
23 Bahraich 0.5 26 57.4 24 47205 15 52.7 24 1242 2 372.0 17.7
24 Shravasti 3.4 17 47.5 25 44053 22 40.4 26 1242 2 373.5 17.8
25 Siddharthnagar 2.6 17 74.5 20 68187 2 60.4 22.5 1233 5 260.0 12.4
26 Basti 0.0 27 73.1 21 47382 14 78.3 18 1233 5 321.0 15.3
27 S.K.N. 0.8 24.5 83.5 12.5 48942 10 68.6 20.5 1193 9 314.5 15.0
Mean = 14; SD= 2.9; Source: Compiled by authors from data collected through different sources;
x1,x2,x3 _ _ _ _ _x21 denotes same indicators as discussed in text.
X8 -Consumption of Fertilizers: The appropriate consumption of chemical fertilisers with provision

of better irrigation facilities, the cultivation of improved varieties of wheat, paddy, sugarcane and
pulses give better yield. For the region as whole the average consumption of NPK is recorded as 159
kg/ha of GCA for the year 2007-08. It varies from 396 kg/ha of GCA in Varanasi to 27 kg/ha of GCA
in Bahraich district. The high consumption of fertilizers is also observed in Sultanpur (270), Gonda
(240), Gorakhpur (224), Allahabad (217) and Faizabad (208) districts in comparison to the spatial
average. There are 13 districts out of 27 which belong to medium category (100-200kg/ha) of
fertilizers consumption. Azamgarh (77) and Shravasti (27) fall into low category (<100).
X9 -Net Sown Area: The distribution of NSA is closely related to physico-climatic diversities of the
area. Obviously the flat homogenous surface of the plain region provides suitable and fertile land for
farming. Average cultivated land is recorded about 67% in 2007-08 in the entire region. The
percentage of cultivated land ranges from 20.4% in Sonbhadra to 80.7% in Siddharth Nagar district.
The districts of Mirzapur (42.3%) and Sonbhadra (20.4%) of the Southern hilly region constitute
lowest percentage of arable land because the agriculture operation is a difficult task due to its
undulating complex terrain and dense forest cover. Altogether 16 districts out of 27 significantly fall
into medium category of NSA (<70%) due to rapid increase in population and expansion of urban
areas and development of infrastructural facilities. Five districts namely Siddharthnagar (80.7%),
Kushinagar (77.2%), Ghazipur (76.4%), Deoria (76.3%) and Basti (75.5%) fall into high category of
NSA (>75%).
X10 - Nationalized, District Co-operative and Rural Banks: Banks are the major source of credits
supply for the farmers in the rural areas. In the study area the average number of banks is 4/100
sq.km. The numbers are observed high (>6) in the districts of Ballia (7), Varanasi (6), Gorakhpur (6)
and Faizabad (6). The distribution are found low (<4) in 10 districts of the study region. Among all
the districts Sonbhadra district possesses single bank in 2008.
X11 - Primary Agricultural Societies: Primary Agricultural Societies provides major facilities related
to agriculture. The average numbers of these societies is observed 4/100 sq.km.in the entire region.
These are observed high (>6) in 6 districts out of 27 in the study region. The districts of Balrampur
and Sonbhadra have no facilities of these societies. Beside these, 8 districts belong to
low(<4)category.
X12 - Cold Storage
In the study region, the average number of cold storage is 0.2/100 sq.km. The spatial
distribution of cold storage shows that 10 districts of the Saryupar Plain alongwith Sonbhadra and
Sant Ravidas Nagar have no cold storage facilities. However, many districts like Ghazipur, Varanasi,
Allahabad, Jaunpur and Gorakhpur have better cold storage facilities (>0.4).
X13 - Agriculture Service Centre: The average number of agriculture service centre is recorded as
4.1/100sq.km in the study region. The districts namely Azamgarh (40.8), Sddharthnagar (14.6), Mau
(9.6), Kushinagar (8.2), and Varanasi (8) fall into high category (>8) due to rapid mechanization of
agriculture. Remaining other districts belong to low category of (<4/ 100sq.km) agriculture service
centre.
X14 Seed Selling Centre: Seed Selling Centre provides improved seed facilities for farmers by
government and public centers. The average distribution of seed centers are 10.5/100 sq.km. The two
districts namely Varanasi (27) and Sravasti (20) fall into high category ( >20/100 sq.km.) Apart from
15 districts remaining 13 districts belong to low category of <10 /100sq.km.
X15 Fertilizer Selling Centre: In the study region, the average distribution of Fertilizer Sale Centre is
20/100 sq.km. It is observed high (>30) in Varanasi (43), Gorakhpur (37), Mau (35), Gonda(35),
Sultanpur (32), Siddharthnagar (32) and Ambedkarnagar, (30) districts. Out of 27 districts, 5 belong
to moderate category (20-30) while remaining 15 districts fall into low category (<20).
X16 -Cropping Intensity: Cropping intensity represents proportion of gross sown area as percentage
of net sown area. It is influenced by physico-climatic characteristics of the region, socio-economic
conditions of the farmers, and technological innovations adopted in agriculture. The cropping
intensity is increasing continuously due to increase in population, introduction of HYVs seeds, use of
fertilizers and pesticides and irrigation facilities. In Eastern Uttar Pradesh, the overall cropping
intensity is found to be 155 % in 2007-08. It varies from 187% in Chandauli to 126.5% in Sonbhadra
district. The two districts namely Chandauli (187%) and Maharajganj (177%) occupy high cropping
intensity and fall into high (>175%) category due to technological development. There are 7 districts
out of 27 belonging to low category (<155%) .
X17 -Length of Canal : Canals are initial sources of surface irrigation in the study region. The average
canal length in 2007-08 is about 3.8km/000ha of NSA. In the study region the length of canal varies
from 0.1km/000ha of NSA in Gonda to 8.1 km /000ha of NSA in Pratapgarh district. This system
plays very significant role in irrigation in upland region among other sources of irrigation. The upland
region has a very good potential to developed canal irrigation due to presence of perennial rivers like
Ken, Betwa, Son, Rihand etc. They provide better capability for irrigation. There are 8 districts out of
27 showing good length of canal (>6) in the study region. Maharajganj (5.1), Ambedkarnagar (4.4)
and Faizabad (4.0) fall into medium category while remaining districts of the region come into low
category of having the canal network.
X18 -Irrigated Area: Whole study region has very good irrigation potential due to good aquifers in
the Ganga-Ghaghara alluvial deposits excepting Southern upland. All type of crops are easily grown
in irrigated condition. In 2007-08, the whole region has approximately 76.8% of NSA under various
sources of irrigation. Three districts of plateau region namely Kaushambi (69.7%) Mirzapur (63%)
and Sonbhadra (20.2%) and six districts of the Saryupar Plain have less than 75 percent of NSA as
irrigated area while remaining other districts represent fairly good irrigation potential in the entire
region. The percentage of irrigated area in relation to NSA varies from 20.2% (Sonbhadra) to 94.9%
in Azamgarh (Table 1).
X19 –Productivity: Agricultural productivity is a measure of the efficiency with which the inputs are
used in agriculture to produce an output (Dayal, 1984). It mostly depends on various socio-economic
and infrastructural elements (Mishra, 1988) along with prevailing agro-climatic conditions, which are
major determining factors for the areal variation in land productivity (Singh, 1990). The spatial
variation in productivity is salient feature of the region. In 2007-008, the average agricultural
productivity is recorded as Rs 49165/ha in the study region. There are 5 districts out of 27 which
represent high productivity and fall into high category (>60,000Rs) whereas 4 districts namely
Gorakhpur (39450), Gonda (39417), Sonbhadra (32315) and Kaushambi (31056) belong to low
productivity category (40,000). Excepting these remaining 17 districts either come into high (60,000-
50,000) or into medium (50,000- 40,000) category of productivity.
X20 -Length of Roads: Transport network is considered as the lifeline for any developing economy. It
plays an important role in the economic development process. Obviously the transport is signed out as
one of the most significant factor for the development of an area because an effective and extensive
transport network can reduce the time and cost of flow of goods and services (Tripathi, 1999). In fact
a better transport network provides good accessibility to the market centre especially in rural areas.
The road is the arteries of the transportation system. Eastern Uttar Pradesh has dense network of roads
due to its physiographical and locational advantages and high density of population. In 2007-08 the
average length of all the roads is about 73223 km with average density of 90 km/100 sq. km. The road
density is found high (>110) in Varanasi (184.6), Jaunpur (124.9) Mau (122.8), Ghazipur (120.8) and
Sant Ravidas Nagar (119.9) districts. Out of the total districts, 12 districts belong to low (90-70) to
very low (<70) road density category. Many districts of the Saryupar Plain and upland region show
very poor road density due to poor economy and complex terrain.
X21 -Annual Rainfall: Rainfall is a major source of moisture supply to soils. The importance of
rainfall study in any area lies in the fact that it controls the humidity and aridity of region and
consequently the agricultural efficiency and further developments in the area concerned (Singh,1977).
The mean annual rainfall for Eastern Uttar Pradesh is observed about 1094.5 mm. It usually ranges
from 867mm at Ballia to 1242mm at Bahraich. The maximum amount of rainfall is recorded in the
tarai region due to its nearness to foothills of the Himalayas. In Varanasi, the amount of rainfall is
relatively higher over the Southern upland region with an average of 1000mm because of occurrence
of monsoon currents in summer season and western disturbances in the winter season. There are six
districts of tarai area which receive higher amount of rainfall ( >1200mm). Besides these, many
districts of the same area experience moderate (1100-1200mm) rainfall. The districts like Allahabad,
Kaushambi, Pratapgarh, Ghazipur Jaunpur, Azamgarh Mau and Ballia receive low (<1000mm)
rainfall.
Disparities in Level of Agricultural Development: Spatial disparities in agricultural development
arise due to variation in institutional, technological, and socio-economic variation of farmers as well
as variation in physico-climatic characteristics of a region. The spatial inequality in the magnitude of

selected variables shows the uneven pattern in their existence. To determine the spatial disparities in
level of agricultural development the indicators were ranked according to their values and composite
index was computed for each district taking into account the average of all the ranks for 21 variables.
The districts have been grouped into three categories i.e. High, Medium and Low (Table 2) level in
spatial perspective taking into account the mean of composite indices of districts and its deviation for
one standard deviation.
High Level of Agricultural Development: There are four districts in the study region which fall into
the high level of agricultural development (CI below 11.1) namely Azamgarh, Mau, Ghazipur and
Jaunpur. They are characterized by high level of agricultural development because of higher rural
literacy, good agricultural extension services, adoption of mechanization, and provision of irrigation
through canals and pump sets leading to large area under double cropping. High rural literacy helps in
awaking the people for adoption of new initiatives in agriculture. Consequently, the region achieved
high productivity. Besides these, Varanasi and Gorakhpur districts also come into this category. Due
to good amount of rainfall as well as sufficient moisture condition and irrigation facilities, increase in
mechanization, increase in fertilizers consumption, better agricultural extension services lead to
intensive farming practices in these districts of the study region (Fig, 1)
Table 2: Level of Agricultural Development in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, 2007-08
Level of Agricultural Development Composite Index Name of the districts
Category
High <11.1 Varanasi, Mau, Gorakhpur. Jaunpur, Azamgarh, Ghazipur
Medium 11.1 - 16.9 Ambedkarnagar, Faizabad, Allahabad, Kushinagar, Deoria,
Maharajganj, Siddharthnagar, Sultanpur, Ballia,
Pratapgarh, Sant Rabidas Nagar, Kaushambi, Chandauli,
Sant Kabir Nagar, Gonda, Basti, Mirzapur
Low > 16.9 Sonbhadra, Balrampur, Shravasti, Bahraich
Medium Level of Agricultural Development: Medium level of agricultural development (CI ranges
between 11.1 - 16.9) has been observed in 17 out of 27 districts in the entire study area. In this
category, 14 districts are found in central moist sub-humid zone because of moderate agricultural
infrastructural facilities and flat topography. Despite of high proportion of net sown area, all the
districts of this category have low proportion of irrigated area thus cropping intensity also. The three
districts namely Siddharthnagar, Maharajganj and Kushinagar are also observed in this category. All
these districts situated in tarai and adjoining area experience a marked rise in agricultural
development due to increase in agricultural inputs like mechanization, agriculture service centers,
high proportion of net sown area (due to land reclamation), good productivity Rs/ha (Siddharthnagar)
and good rainfall. Likewise, two other districts namely Sant Kabir Nagar and Deoria also come into
this category of agricultural development. These two districts show poor to moderate agricultural
infrastructural facilities.
Low Level of Agricultural Development: Despite the introduction of green revoluation and other
agricultural reforms, many districts of the region are lagging behind in agricultural development.
Eastern Uttar Pradesh experiences diverse physico-climatic conditions ranging from marshy land of
Tarai to stony surface of Southern upland. These types of land are not suitable for cultivation. Thus,
three districts of Moist sub- humid Tarai zone namely Bahraich, Shravasti and Balrampur and
Sonbhadra district of Southern upland moist sub-humid zone fall into low level of agricultural
development. Sonbhadra shows poor agricultural infrastructure services, low irrigation, low
proportion of net sown area as well as low cropping intensity, low farm mechanization thus low
productivity. In spite of adequate moisture due to good rainfall, Bahraich, Gonda and Balrampur of
Moist sub- humid tarai zone also have not performed well in agricultural development. It may be
because of low rural literacy, high population density, poor agricultural infrastructure, agricultural
extension services and road density combinedly reflecting low productivity.
Conclusion: On the basis of selected indicators, three categories i.e. high, medium and low level of
agricultural development have been identified in the region. There are six districts namely Azamgarh,
Mau, Jaunpur Varanasi, Ghazipur and Gorakhpur which fall into the high level of agricultural
development (CI below 11.1) in 2007-08 while four districts namely Bahraich, Shravasti, Balrampur
and Sonbhadra fall into low level of agricultural development(>16.9) due to poor agricultural
infrastructural services. To minimize the spatial disparities in level of agricultural development, it is
important make provision of infrastructural facilities, agricultural cradit facilities, strengthening the
provision of road networks in the districts of low level of agricultural development.
References
Banerjee, S. (1986), Spatial Imbalances of Agriculture Development in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Sudha Publication,Varanasi,
p. 29.
Dayal, E. (1984), Agricultural Productivity in India: A Spatial Analysis, Annals, Association of American
Geographers,74(1))pp.98-123) (cited) Mishra, S.P. (1988),Agricultural Production and its Spatial Variation in Eastern
Uttar Pradesh,NGJI,Vol.34,pt.2, p.114.
Gautam. H.R. and Bhardwaj,M.L. (2011), Better Practices for Sustainable Agricultural Production and Better Environment,
Kurukhetra,Vol.59,No.9, p. 3.
Patel, M. (2016), Ground Water Concerns and Irrigation Scenario, Kurukhetra,Vol.64,No.5, p. 47.
Mishra, S.P. (1988), Agricultural Production and its Spatial Variation in Eastern Uttar Pradesh,NGJI,Vol.34,pt.,2,p.113
Nagraj, H. and Murthy, K.(2007),Geographical Analysis of Spatial Disparities-A Case Study of Chitradurga District,
Karnataka, Transactions of IIG,Vol.29,No.1,p.75.
Singh, B.N. (1987), Integrated Rural Area Development and Planning, A Case Study of Backward Area, Anupma
Publication, Delhi, p. 50.
Singh, K. (1977), Water Balance in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Its Bearing on Irrigation and Agriculture Including Future
Prospectus, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, and Varanasi.p38.
Singh, S, (1990), Agricultural Development in India :A Spatial Analysis, Concept Pub,N.Delhi, p.55.
Tallalli, B.G. and Ngaraj, H., (2015), Spatial Disparities in The Levels of Agricultural Development: A Case Study of
Koppal District, Annals of the NAGI, Vol. XXXV, No.1, p.112.
Tripathi, D.K. (1999), ‘Agricultural Development and Faizabad District, Ph.D Thesis,No.108, Department of
Geography,B.H.U.,p.111.
Tripathy, K. K. (2011), India’s Agricultural Growth and Stagnation: A Review, Kurukshetra, Vol.60, No. 2, p.3.
Tripathi, A and. Prasad, A.R. (2009), Agricultural Development in India since Independence: A Study on Progress,
Performance, and Determinants, Journal of Emerging Knowledge on Emerging Markets, Vol. 1, Issue 1, p.63
www.icainstitute.org

WATER QUALITY AND ITS EFFECTS ON CHILD HEALTH
Shweta and Anjana Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Vasanta College for Women, Rajghat, Varanasi
E-mail: shewtavrs@gmail.com, anjanasingh.smart@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Shweta
W ater is the most vital elements for all living being. It is also use for survival for all
living organisms including human, food production, and economic development,
recreational and environmental activities. Today 40% of the world food supply
grown under irrigation and all industry process work on water. One-half and two-thirds of the
global population will be put to severe fresh water crisis within next quarter century, if we
do not change our present wasteful mode of water- use (Barlow and Clarke, 2003). Our
planet is rich in water but about 97.5 % is saline it is unsuitable for drinking or irrigation
while fresh water account for only 2.5% of the total is not readily accessible. Surface water is water
in lake or fresh water wetland. The State is endowed with 7.5 percent of the water resource of
the country and that is becoming increasingly scarce with the uncontrolled growth of
population, expansion of irrigation network and developmental needs. More people throughout
the world are living in the urban area. The trend of urbanization represents the challenges in water
supply in the country. A great challenge for water supply in urban cities is to supply adequate
and reliable safe water to all consumers.
Developing countries struggling with insufficient low water supply. Because high demands
have led the water authorities to resort to intermittent supplies. In urban area Surface and
groundwater are the major sources of supply. The poor sanitation practices have led to the
incidences of many water borne diseases Globally thereby risking the public health. In order
to minimize the supply-demand gap and to assure good quality of water, new techniques or
models can be helpful to manage the water distribution systems (WDS) in a better way.
Expanding urban population without a proportional increase in civic amenities is already
putting pressure on water resource management in urban centres. By 2025, half of India’s
population will live in urban areas and face issues around water (Planning Commission,
2002). UNICEF report on Indian water India has 13 cities over 2 million population, 33 over
one million, and 298 over hundred thousand population. Supplying water to the urban centres
is a major concern due their expanding sizes. The World Health Organization estimates that
97 million Indians lack access to safe water today, second only to China.
Drinking water quality in India: The quality of drinking water is powerful environment for human
health. Assurance of drinking water safety is a foundation for the prevention and control of water
borne diseases. Water which is essential for life, growth and health can also be a source of spread of
disease and cause of ill-health, if contaminated or improperly handled and stored. Safe drinking water
plays a major role in the over all well-being of the people, with a significant bearing on infant
mortality rate, longevity and productivity (Economic Survey, 2003-04). The World Health
Organization (1993) has estimated that in India 21 % of all communicable diseases (11.5 % of all
diseases) are water related. Every year 1.5 millions children under five years of age die of water born
diseases and the country loses 18 millions people per hour (over 200 millions people per day) each
year due to these diseases (Ministry of Rural Department). The UNICEF has warned that 44 millions
people in the country suffer from consequences of drinking contaminated water, thereby seriously
affecting the health of future generations who are growing up due to increasing diarrhea diseases. In
India water availability per capita which was earlier 5000 cubic meters has now dropped to 2200
cubic meters. In fact, the country is fast approaching a phase of extremely stressed water availability
condition. This is also affecting quality of water very seriously with contaminants adverse effect on
the health of the people. As per the 2011 census report, only 74 million households in the country has
a source of drinking water within the houses, 25 millions has the source near the houses while the
remaining 32 millions still has to travel long distance for fresh water. Only 36 % households have
access to tap water and equal percentage drink untreated water from hand-pump. Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) presented a report on, Water in India: Situation and Prospects, is the
first cross-sectoral assessment of the state of water resources in the country. It is estimated that around
Water Quality and its Effects on Child Health 253
37.7 million Indians are affected by water-borne diseases annually, 1.5 million children are estimated
to die of diarrhoea alone, and 73 million working days are lost due to water-borne diseases each year.
In India many stretches of major rivers passing through industrial towns and cities are critically
polluted. In the holy city of Haridwar, the Ganges has been showing the worrying trend of increasing
BOD values from about 2 mg/l in 2002 to almost 5.5 mg/l in 2008. The major pathogenic organisms
responsible for waterborne diseases in India are bacteria (E. coli, Shigella, V cholera), viruses
(Hepatitis A, Polio Virus, Rota Virus) and parasites (E. histolytica, Giardia). Poor waste disposal
facilities also contribute to pollution of water bodies by means of leaching.
The report states that while access to improved drinking water sources in India has increased
over the past decade, the tremendous adverse impact of unsafe water on health continues. Microbial
pollution in water is also responsible for disease burden, especially due to poor sanitation and hygiene
practices. Infectious diseases linked to water can be categorized as waterborne, water-related, water-
based and water-washed diseases. These pathogenic organisms are transmitted mostly due to
contaminated water, improper sanitation and poor hygiene practices exacerbated by large volumes of
untreated sewage generated daily in major cities. In the rural areas, due to the widespread practice of
open defecation (69 per cent of the rural population defecates in open) and poor operation and
maintenance of water sources, microbial contamination occurs in surface and groundwater bodies.
Water Contamination and Children Mortality Statistics: Child mortality data shows that
approximately half of deaths of children under-five occur in only five countries: India, Nigeria,
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Pakistan and China. Among these countries, the
percentage of India is 24 per cent and Nigeria 11 per cent – together account for more than a third of
all under-five deaths. A significant number of people in both countries don’t have access to safe and
clean drinking water. Of the 783 million people worldwide without improved drinking water, there
are 119 million in China; 97 million in India; 66 million in Nigeria; 36 million in DRC; and 15
million in Pakistan.
Contaminants Present in Water: Staying hydrated not only provides essential minerals to the body
but also helps in preventing a number of diseases. Not just the quantity but the quality of water also
plays an essential part in keeping kids healthy. The increasing amounts of groundwater pollution,
rusted pipes, dumping of excessive waste pollute the water extreme levels. Here’s a list of the top
three contaminants present in water.
Lead: Lead is a toxic metal that is harmful to human health; there is no safe level of lead exposure.
The degree of exposure depends on the concentration of lead, route of exposure (air, water, food),
current medical condition, and age. Up to 20 % of the total lead exposure in children is attributed to a
waterborne route, i.e., consuming contaminated water. Infants, foetuses, and young children are
particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning. High levels of lead contamination in children result in
convulsions, major neurological damage, organ failure, coma, and ultimately death. Moderate to low
levels of exposure result in hearing loss, inhibit growth, and learning disabilities
Nitrate: If infants drinking baby formula or water that contains an elevated level of nitrate can lead to
“methemoglobinemia”. Methemoglobinemia is a disorder characterized by the presence of a higher
than normal level of methemoglobin rather than ferrous in the blood. Long-term exposure to nitrates
in drinking water causes the development of cancer.
Manganese: A naturally occurring metal, manganese is found in food and water. Manganese leaches
into drinking water from rocks and soil. Several studies have shown that the presence of high level of
manganese in water affects the IQ level, verbal and behavioral performance in children.
Effect of Drinking Contaminated Water on Children’s Health: The toxic pollutants present in
water are hazardous to children’s health. The reason is children tend to drink more water per pound of
their body weight as compared to adults, thereby exposing them to a greater risk of health problems.
Children are also susceptible to gastrointestinal and stomach illnesses like nausea, vomiting, cramps,
diarrhea and headaches by drinking contaminated water. The health effects of drinking contaminated
water can range from no physical impact to severe illness or even death. As their bodies are still
growing, the harmful contaminants in water cause more harm to their developing tissues and organs.
Considering the alarming situation, it is necessary to check the water quality and install an RO
Purifier to ensure that your children drink safe and pure water.
Waterborne Diseases: Poor water quality becomes inevitable when water gets polluted with
industrial waste, human waste, animal waste, garbage, untreated sewage, chemical effluents, etc.
Drinking or cooking with such polluted water leads to waterborne diseases and infections such as
amoebiasis, giardiasis, and toxoplasmosis.
Contaminated water could carry viruses such as Hepatitis A and E, bacteria like E.coli (E.coli
can be passed from hand to hand, such as via vendors of street food or food handled by someone
carrying E.coli bacteria. It can lead to food poisoning). The result: dangerous diseases like cholera and
typhoid fever. Other waterborne diseases include diarrhoea, dysentery, polio and meningitis.
Polio is Caused by a Virus: The virus can be spread by drinking water with the polio virus in it. It
can also be passed by close contact, such as kissing with an infected person. Polio is a serious disease.
It can cause paralysis or even death. Before the first polio vaccine was developed in the 1950s,
thousands of children got infected with polio every year. Fortunately, the use of the polio vaccine has
made the disease very rare in most parts of the world.
Diarrhoea is the major public health problem caused by unsafe water and lack of sanitation.
To give an indication of the scale of the health problems caused by lack of safe water, there are
approximately 4 billion cases of diarrhoea each year, causing 1.8 million deaths. These deaths occur
mostly among children under the age of 5 years and represent 15% of all deaths in this age group in
developing countries. Waterborne intestinal worms infect nearly 10% of the population of the
developing world, leading to malnutrition, anaemia and retarded growth. Unclean water for washing
can cause skin and infectious eye disease such as Trachoma. Trachoma can lead to visual impairment
or blindness. Rural populations are more at risk from waterborne illnesses, but everyone faces risks of
polluted or contaminated water. Waterborne illness can affect anyone, anywhere. The risk is more for
infants, younger children, the elderly and patients of diabetes, chronic diseases of heart
disease, kidney, etc.
Precautions to Prevent Waterborne Disease
 Ensure the water is visibly clean and free from sand and silt. Filter the water to get rid of visible
dirt.
 Drink only clean and safe water – either portable water or water filtered through water purifiers.
 Get water purifying devices like filters, RO unit, etc., regularly serviced and maintained.
 Ensure stored water is germ-free.
 Add antiseptic liquid, such as Dettol in dubious-looking bathing water.
 Hand hygiene – regularly wash hands with soap after returning home, after using the toilet, before
and after preparing food, before eating or drinking anything.
 Teach hand hygiene to children. Children should make it a habit to always wash hands when
returning home after playing games.
 Ensure food is washed and thoroughly cooked.
 Use disposable glass and plates whenever possible when eating outside food, particularly street
food.
 Avoid eating stale cooked food, unrefrigerated food kept exposed
Conclusion: Water is the most important substance on the planet earth. If there was no water there
would be no life on the earth. It is also the key resources for the sustainable development in urban
area so it is high requirement for timely and regulated supply of water. Health and environment play
a critical role in maintaining and stimulating changes that will ensure children's access to safe water
and protect their health. Although the human play very important role to understand our environment
because to better interactions between nature and human is keep their children healthy. So, as we look
to our political and personal lives to support sustainable development, we can look to our practices for
ways of enhancing the environmental health of our patients. It is also important to inform and educate
our families, colleagues and students didactically, on the importance of water and also water-related
diseases and how to avoid them. The restoration of water quality in the river is certainly a
people’s programme, achievable only through collective responsibility.
References
Ahmad, S.M., Yusafzai, F., Bari, T, et al. (2014): Assessment of heavy metals in surface water of River
PanjkoraDir Lower, KPK Pakistan. J Bio and Env Sci., 5: 144-52.
BIS, (1991), Specifications for Drinking Water, IS: 10500:1991, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
Briggs, D. (2003): Environmental pollution and the global burden of disease. British medical bulletin, 68:1-24.
CGWB. (2000), Ground Water in Urban Environment of India, Central Ground Water Board, Faridabad.
Water Quality and its Effects on Child Health 255
Luxmy Begum, P. Eng. (2015). Water Pollution Causes, Treatments and Solutions,
Health. Information obtained on May 10, 2012 from http://www.water-pollution.org.uk/health.html
Khullar, D.R. (2006). India – A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
Khurana, I, Sen R. (2008). Drinking water quality in rural India: Issues and approaches-Water Aid. India water
Portal.
Landrigan, P.J., Fuller, R., Fisher, S., Suk, W.A., Sly, P., Chiles, T.C., Bose-O'Reilly, S., (2019). Pollution and
children's health,10;650(Pt 2):2389-2394.
National Water Policy. (2002), Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, New Delhi.
Safer water, better health. (2008). Costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote
health. WHO.
UNESCO. (1992). Groundwater UNESCO Environmental and development.
UN-HABITAT. (2006). “Water and human settlements in an urbanizing world”, Water: a shared
responsibility.
UNICEF/WHO. (2008). Progress on drinking water and sanitation. Special focus on sanitation.
Water Contamination Effects. Information obtained on May 10, 2012 from http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/
biochemistry/contamination.html
Water for health. (2001). Taking charge. Geneva, World Health Organization.
WHO. (2004). Report on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Links to Health. Geneva. WHO.
WHO/UNICEF. (2000). Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Global water supply and
sanitation assessment 2000 report. Geneva, World Health Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund.

HORTICULTURE
INFLUENCES OF CANOPY ARCHITECTURE FOR THE HIGH DENSITY
ORCHARD IN TROPICAL FRUITS
M. Kumar1, L. Pugalendhi2 and K.Vanitha3
1
Teaching Assistant (Hort.), Horticultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore-03,
E-mail: kumshorts@gmail.com, 2Dean (Horticulture), Horticultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore-03 and
3
Assistant Professor (Crop Physiology), Department of Crop Physiology, TNAU, Coimbatore-03,
Corresponding Author: M. Kumar
T he area under horticulture crops has increased from 12.8 million ha in 1991-92 to 25.49
million ha in 2018-19 resulting in cumulative increase of 99 % during the last 28 years.
During the same period, total production increased from 96.6 million MT to 313.85
million MT registering a cumulative increase of 223 %. The average productivity also witnessed a
significant increase from 7.5 to 12.33 MT/ha in the same period with cumulative increase of 62%. The
total production and average productivity of horticulture crops would have been much more but for the
large areas under tree fruits, which remain in non-bearing stage for 3-5 years after planting. Canopy
management refers an interpretation of physiology of light penetration and interception which are critical
components of overall tree productivity. Thus, the ultimate goal of canopy managements is to optimize
carbon allocation in fruit sinks without disturbing growth and development in other parts of the tree. The
influence of temperature, light, humidity and tree vigour on the productivity and quality of fruit and
manipulation of tree canopy through training systems, pruning practices and use of growth retardants for
the best utilization and harvest. In the last few years, significant development and strong formation have
taken place in the development of tree canopy forms and new production system. High yield of good
quality fruits produced under such systems are attributable to high light interception and distribution
within the canopy. Therefore, for optimum interception and distribution of light for quality fruit
production, canopy management requires focus on proper stock stem combination, training and pruning
and other management practices to make last use of the space, and to keep the orchard in healthy
condition (Vandana et al.2017). Canopy management is an interrelation of the physiology underlying the
relationship between vegetative growth and production.
1. Orchard architecture largely depends upon orchard production system which is a combination of
variety, rootstock, tree spacing, training and pruning
2. These factors strongly interact to develop a specific production system and determined yield, fruit
quality and longevity of the trees.
3. In perennial fruit crops, cultural practices like nutrition, irrigation, planting density, rootstocks
training system, pruning and growth retardants can be used as potential means to alter the shoot
vigour, size and shape of the canopy and the microclimate at the canopy and thereby increase yield
and quality.
Why Canopy Management: Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the
production of quality fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and
pruning, affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of
leaf area to incoming radiation. An ideal training strategy centers around the arrangement of plant parts,
especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of sunlight and promotes
productivity. Managing a canopy will help to develop a better plant architecture, optimizes the utilization
of sunlight and increasing fruit production and improving fruit quality in long-term. It is important to
manage fruit tree canopies to optimize the balance between vegetative growth and fruit production.
Managing a canopy will help to develop a strong tree that will support heavy crop loads, while increasing
fruit production and improving fruit quality in the long-term (Vivek kumar et al, 2017).
Essential Feature of an Ideal Canopy
 It should have adequate number of fruiting units.
 It allow sufficient light and ventilation in to canopy
 It should support adequate foliage and protect the fruits from sunburn.
Influences of Canopy Architecture for the High Density Orchard in Tropical Fruits 257
 It avoid overlapping of foliage to minimize parasitic leaves.

 It offers scope for effective coverage of sprays.
 It should avoid the buildup of microclimate congenial for pest and disease development.
Objective of Canopy Management
 To get the higher yield with good quality.
 To maintain a good balance between root and shoot growth.
 Formation of strong crotches.
 To remove unwanted, overcrowding, dead disease and pest affected shoots.
 To regulate the tree architecture or form desire shape for high density planting system.
 To facilitate the management practices like spraying, harvesting etc.
 To utilize air, light and temperature efficiently.
 To regulate exposure of plant to light and air.
 To make accessibility to machinery between rows.
Importance of Canopy Management
 In many fruit crops, improved production and fruit quality has come from producing more fruit from
smaller trees.
 Rejuvenation of declining in productivity and fruit quality in large over grown orchards.
 Small trees are better in capturing and converting sunlight in to fruit then large trees.
 Reduction in extra expense in harvesting at large trees.
 Safety risk for the harvest (pickers) of bigger trees.
Use of Genetically Dwarf Scion Varieties: It is easier to establish high density orchards if the trees are
naturally small. Use of genetically dwarf cultivar offers great scope for close plantings, which have the
potential for higher yields and returns than traditional plantings. However, availability of dwarfing scion
cultivars are meager as indicated below. While not dealing properly as rootstocks, it is noteworthy,
however, some examples of the variety/ cultivar of tropical fruit of great commercial expression that has
in the dwarf size of the plants its main phenotypic characteristic
Table 1. Genetically dwarf scion varieties
Crop Dwarf cultivar Desirable characters
Mango Amrapali, Arunika, Paiyur -1 Precocious and regular
bearer
Guava Pant Prabhat Less spreading and high
yielder
Sapota PKM-1, PKM-3 Dwarf stature
Banana Dwarf Cavendish Dwarf stature with high
yield
Papaya Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Nanha Bears at lower height
(Mishra and Goswami, 2016)
Use of Dwarfing Root Stocks: Root stocks are known to have a profound effect on the tree vigour,
precocity, productivity, quality of fruits and longevity of varieties grafted on them. Dwarfing can be due
to the rootstock or the scion, or both. Attempts have made to standardize dwarfing rootstocks especially in
the fruit crops like ber, citrus and grape. However, much choice is not available for most of the tropical
and subtropical fruit crops in comparison to the temperate fruits. Use of graft incompatible scion and
rootstock induces dwarfness in the composite plant. For more than four decades, the usefulness of
dwarfing canopies and rootstocks has been discussed to control the vigor and size of fruit trees, and for
several of them, there was already information about the genetic origin of dwarfism and its application in
fruit growing. For rootstocks, obtaining new varieties should also be evaluated until the trees start bearing
fruits, which requires a long time. The rootstock should be easy to be propagated by seeds or cuttings,
easy to graft, to have a root system that supports the canopy, to induce early and good production, as well
to have a high resistance to cold in some areas.
The effect of rootstocks on fruit trees development. The size of an adult fruit tree - height and
canopy spread - is influenced by several factors and features. The local climate, soil type and fruit species
(mango, citrus, guava and cashew etc.) all play an important role. Among the species some
varieties/cultivars naturally tend to grow more vigorously than the other. However, the most important
determinant of the final size of a fruit tree is the rootstock. Rootstock not only influences the size of the
tree but also provides other characteristics such as earliness in production, some attributes of disease
resistance and resistance to extreme temperatures. Thus, regardless of the species / variety used as
rootstock, obtained plant will reach, at the adult phase, an ever smaller size than the same plant if it were
obtained by seeds (seedling) i.e, through sexual process.
A certain rootstock can be used for a single species or cultivar since different rootstocks confer
different properties, such as vigor, fruit size and precocity while others may be selected by their
characteristics such as drought resistance, pest roots and diseases. Another desirable feature in a rootstock
is its adaptability to environmental conditions among them; tolerance to wet or dry soils, acidity/alkalinity
of the soil or high/low air temperature. In order to give more efficiency to the management and cultivation
in the orchard and, particularly, to facilitate harvesting operation is that the system of planting at high
densities is currently being used in many different fruit species, particularly deciduous fruit trees. This
system, with its advantages and disadvantages, lead, ultimately, to higher yields and consequently higher
profits for the fruit grower. However, this increasing trend in the use of high density in fruit tree crops
lead, necessarily, to the need for increased investment in education and researches in order to develop
dwarfing rootstocks for intensive crops in tropical and subtropical fruit species as well (Stuchi, 2005)
Use of Growth Regulators to Control Tree Growth: Plant growth regulators such as Paclobutrazol,
Alar, Uniconazole, prohexadione- calcium have been used to restrict vegetative growth. Of these
Paclobutrazol treatments in mango at Pantnagar induced flowering and fruiting in new shoots produced in
July after pruning without any loss in fruit quality. September to November treatment was highly
effective in increasing flowering and fruiting besides reducing vegetative growth (30-35%). Growth
regulators have been used since the 1980s to improve the productivity of commercial mango orchards.
Most of theresearch has involved the effect of the triazole, paclobutrazol, which has been registered for
use in many countries (Yadava and Singh, 1998; Saran et al., 2008; Hasan et al., 2013; Shinde et al.,
2015).
Paclobutrazol reduces the size of the leaves, and increases theconcentration of chlorophyll and the
activities of anti-oxidativeenzymes in these tissues. This growth regulator also increases the concentration
of stored carbohydrates in the plant, and alters the sink-source balance of the shoot to favour the fruit
(Kurian et al., 2001; Saxena et al., 2014;Upreti et al., 2014).
Paclobutrazol significantly suppressed the increase in tree height and canopy volume in mango.
Kurian and Iyear (1993). Sarkar et al. (1998) summarized that although suppression of increase in the
girth, spread and number of leaves were recorded and found statistically non significant. Similarly in
grape the spray of paclobutrazol increased berry set, bunch size, yield and quality in respect to T.S.S and
acidity of fruit (Sherawat et al., 1998) .
Essentiality of CCC: Chlorocholine Chloride (CCC) is gibberellins biosynthesis inhibitor involved in the
inhibition of cyclization of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate to copyallyl pyrophosphate. The chemical
control of the plant growth to reduce the size through the use of plant growth regulators is a common
practice to make a plant more compact and commercially more acceptable. A number of synthetic
compounds areknown to manage shoot growth in higher plants without being phytotoxic or causing
malformation or damage.
Achievements of Canopy Management of Tropical Fruits
Mango: Mango is the most important fruit of India which is being grown since antiquity. Consequent
upon the continuous and long span of mango orcharding in the country, a large number of orchards have
become old and unproductive. Rejuvenation of old and unproductive mango orchard through pruning has
already been standardized in traditionally grown vigorous mango cultivars. Severe pruning of old,
nonproductive mango trees coupled with subsequent tip pruning for rapid restoration of orchard
production.
Training: When the plant height reaches 45-60 cm, the terminal bud should be pinched at 5-6 cm below
the apex to encourage growth of auxiliary buds. After the growth from auxiliary buds 2-3 vigorous shoots
are to be retained in different directions at 15-20cm interval which will develop as primary branches.
After 4-6 months growth of primary branches, they should be headed back at 45-60 cm length to allow
further growth of 4-5 secondary shoots on each branch, which in turn will form tertiary shoots in due
course. Ultimately the tree row will form a dome shaped hedge. In many orchards, improper training
especially the formative pruning resulted in overcrowding of branches resulting in more incidences of
hopper, powdery mildew and anthracnose disease etc.
Pruning: Pruning is very essential and critical operation of HDP or UHDP to maintain fruiting shoots
and contain the canopy. Pruning must be completed as soon as possible after harvest preferably before
15th June in Central and Southern India. Tertiary branches have to be headed back in such a way that the
plant height can be maintained at 1.5 m and having 10-15 tertiary shoots. Excess tertiary shoots have to be
thinned out to avoid overcrowding. Cut ends to be pasted with Bordeaux paste or 2% Copper Oxychloride
(COC) suspension. About one month after pruning, thinning of newly emerged shoots is essential to avoid
excess shoots and overcrowding. On each tertiary shoots 3-4 new shoots are to be maintained. Dried
panicle along with 2-3 leaves and dried shoots / branches must be removed at the time of pruning. The
following points are to be borne in mind for new orchard while carrying out canopy management.
 Heading back of plants when they attain the age of one year.
 Heading back should be done with sharp secateurs to give a sharp and smooth cut during October-
December.
 Height of heading back should be 60-70 cm from the ground.
 Heading back results in emergence of new shoots during March-April (spring season).
 For development of ideal open canopy, thinning of excessive shoots is needed during May. Thinning
should be done in such a manner as to retain four well distributed shoots in all directions. These
shoots develop as primary branches.
 If crotch angle of retained shoots is smaller, then bending should be done at this stage to increase the
crotch angle of newly developed shoots. It should be done with a jute rope (use of nylon or poly
threads should be avoided).
 Second cutting is required when these shoots attain maturity. Shoot maturity in mango is determined
by colour change of shoots from green to brown. Generally, this stage comes after 7-8 months of
growth in north India.
 Thus, second cutting of primary branches is done in October-November. This cutting also induces
new growth during ensuing spring season.
 Again, thinning of excessive shoots should be done to ensure 2-3 shoots per primary branch. These
shoots develop as secondary branches.
Canopy Management in Bearing Mango Orchards: TNAU experiments revealed that canopy
management through pruning immediately after harvesting and checking its vegetative growth by
September through soil application of paclobutrazol @ 1 g a.i. per sq m tree canopy is beneficial. Further,
off-season cropping can be induced in mango through appropriate canopy management practices. The
limitation to these techniques is that it can be practiced only under irrigated and well maintained
plantations. As manual method of heading back of the shoots is a laborious one under large scale,
mechanical means to prune the mango tree is to be developed (Kumar et al. 2012)
In the case of bearing trees under UHDP, annual pruning of shoots after harvest is recommended.
Light pruning in one year followed by medium pruning in the next year should be followed in alternate
years to maintain the tree size under control.
Similarly, the problem of large tree size in mango can be tackled by using topping and hedging
because large and crowded trees pose many disadvantages. Appropriate height, topping and hedging,
cutting angles, as well as time and frequency of hedging determined for mango, which are common
practices in Israel, USA, Australia and South Africa, can be used for increased efficiency and production
in India. Shaping the mango tree immediately after planting has its own importance for keeping desirable
plant height at first branching, so that proper clearance for equipment is possible. The following points are
to be borne in mind while carrying out canopy management in bearing orchard.
 In bearing mango trees, for management of canopy and enhancing their productivity, identify
uprightly growing branches in each tree and thin them out for increasing the productivity.
 Remove only one or two uprightly growing branches from centre of tree to reduce tree height
significantly and increase availability of light inside the canopy for better photosynthesis.
 Cutting of uprightly growing branches should be done during October-December from the base of
their origin.
 During removal of branches, first cut should be given on lower side of branch to give a smooth cut
and avoid bark splitting.
 Protect branches with wide crotch angle as they are more productive.
 In bearing mango trees, not more than 25 % biomass should be removed at a time for better canopy
management; otherwise it results in excessive vegetative growth.
 Under high density planting system, remove 10-15 % biomass annually during October-December to
increase light penetration inside the canopy. Removal of 10-15 % biomass should include criss cross
branches, dead wood and diseased shoots (Kumar, 2019).
Bikash Das and Jana, (2013) concluded that pruning at 1.0 m height and 60 cm length of primary
shoot were found to be most appropriate to attain adequate canopy architecture in unproductive mango
plants of cv. Amrapali planted at close spacing. Maintenance of canopy size could later be achieved and
can be maintained through regular shoot tipping after fruit harvesting.
Guava: Guava is a very important tropical fruit crop grown in India. It is hardy, prolific bearer and highly
remunerative fruit crop and also can be grown satisfactorily even in adverse soil and climatic conditions.
Presently the productivity of guava is much below the productive potential, due to following traditional
practices and practices and prevalence of old and unproductive orchards with declining yield efficiency.
Moreover, large trees take several years before they come into bearing and less number of trees per unit
area is author constraints in guava production. Therefore, the main emphasis should be laid on
management of tree canopy in such a way fruits per unit area. Guava is recommended to be planted in the
state at 7.5 × 7.5 m to 6.0 × 3.0 spacing but there is always a scope to increase production and income
from a unit land area by proper management of tree canopies. In the present, high density plantation with
managed canopies is the need of the hour to achieve high productivity per unit area.
Canopy Management in Guava: For managing the canopies of the trees under high density planting
approaches like pruning and use of growth retardants singly or in combinations may be exploited. But
under high density planting system, light and other microclimatic conditions are important aspects which
directly or indirectly affect the vegetative growth, yield and quality of guava fruits. In case of temperate
fruits like apple, pear and peach extensive study have been made but little work has been done on tropical
and sub-tropical fruit crops. As guava tree respond well to canopy modification with respect to vegetative
and reproductive growth (Singh and Canaan, 2005), therefore, modification of canopy through pruning
and use of certain growth regulators in high density orchards may be steps to enhance the production
efficiency. Guava has a higher proportion of ‘shade’ to ‘sun’ leaves and their leaves are found photo
synthetically in inactive under deeper shade and act as unproductive sink (Singh and Singh, 2007).
Therefore, vegetative growth, fruit yield and quality are functions of light interception and translocation
of light energy into chemical energy. Quality fruit is function of absorption of light and light is directly
proportional to the yield of fruit trees (Jackson, 1980; Palmer, 1989). Light interception was more in
guava trees planted, at wider spacing and decrease significantly with the depth of the canopies inspective
of the planting densities (Singh et al., 2005). It is observed that fruit yield and quality of guava fruits
decreased with poor light interception at higher planting densities (Singh and Dhaliwal, 2007). Therefore,
management of canopy under high density planting as must for properlight penetration. Narrow spacing
(6 × 2 m) in guava increased the production per unit area and fruits had significantly higher values for
total soluble solids, vitamin C, sugars and lower values of acidity (Chundawat et al., 1992). Increased
yield of guava per unit area by increasing the plant population has also been reported by Singh et al.,
(1980); Mitra et al., (1984) and Avila’n and Milla’n (1984).
There are several advantages of high density planting such as early production, high returns per
ha, efficient use of fertilizers and irrigation water (Purohit, 1988). The planting density of 132 plants per
hectare (6 × 5 m) is now recommended. Thus, there is a need to determine proper plant population under
high density planting system for producing good quality fruits and to get maximum yield per unit land
area. Now, pruning has emerged as a commercial and alternative method for regulating the crop in guava
(Tiwari et al., 1992). Thus, the pruning may be helpful in reducing the tree size and improving the fruit
quality as well. This gives an opportunity to increase the number of trees per unit area and subsequently
the higher yield.
Training and pruning begins at an early stage of plant growth to develop single trunk trees with
well spaced scaffold branches to from the strong frame work. Apical growth is to be controlled within the
first year of planting for better canopy architecture. Trees are topped to a uniform height of 60-75 cm
from the ground. As a result, new shoots emerge. About 3 to 4 equally spaced shoots are retained around
the stem to form the main scaffold limbs of the tree. These shoots are retained the stem to from the
topping until they attain a length of about 40-50 cm. The selected shoots are further pruned to 50 per cent
of their length for inducing multiple shoots form the buds below the cut ends and again emerged new
shoots. This is mainly done to obtain the desired shape.
The pruning operation continues maximize fruiting during the second year after density planting.
After two years, the short branches within the canopy produce a compact and strong structure. All the
plants are confined to a hedge and May-June of every year (Virendra Pal et al, 2016).
Pruning in Canopy Management of Guava: Tree pruning is an annual practice on Guava farms in India
and is carried out to:
 Manage plant canopy and better plant architecture.
 Direct or control plant growth, to obtain the desired tree canopy.
 Encourage flower and fruit production to maximize production of highquality fruit per unit area.
 Facilitate harvesting and to utilize the bearing area of the tree efficiently and obtain the desired leaf :
fruit ratio.
 Optimize sunlight utilization and air movement in the tree. It is essential for obtaining optimal yield
and high fruit quality. Dense canopies of plants results inadequate air movement promote fungal and
insect pests within the tree.
 Effect rejuvenation by removing dead or excessive wood or shoots.
 Allow spraying and cultural practices to be applied more effectively.
 Extent the production period.
Aonla
Canopy Management in Aonla
Young Non-bearing Orchard: Management and upkeep of young non-bearing orchards is essential
which accelerate growth of the young plant and minimize juvenile period up to 3 years of age. The main
aim of the aonla orchard management is to accelerate the plant growth so as to develop better frame work
which will make platform for the higher production throughout the life span of the plant. Generally,
young aonla plant sprouts once in a year to form canopy with a certain quantity of vegetative growth.
Therefore, newly planted young saplings should be properly nourished to promote better vegetative
growth. It has been anticipated that after attaining the age of 2 years, the plant develops good canopy and
become ready for bearing few fruits. But it is advisable to remove the flowers and fruit of the first two
years. Other management practices like weeding, hoeing, cleaning of plant basins, plant protection and
water management, etc. should be done from time to time to facilitate better growth (Wali et al.2015).
Young Bearing Orchard: Orchard management where more visionary approach should be followed in
skillful manner. During this stage (2-7 years), plant needs more nutrients for proper growth and bearing.
At this stage, the tree keeps enlarging its canopy and produces fruits. Therefore, the management should
be aimed to balance both vegetative and reproductive growths. It is more important because excessive
vegetative growth adversely affects fruit setting, while excessive fruit load reduces proper development of
tree canopy as well as leads limb breakage and encourages fruit drop. Skillful orchard management at this
stage includes maintenance of optimum number of bearing branches as per the nutritional status and
health of the plant. Young trees tend to have more vegetative growth and the fruit production is
suppressed by excessive vegetative flush. Therefore, proper training and pruning is needed.
Training and Pruning: As the branches of aonla trees often break off due to heavy crop load and brittle
nature of the wood, aonla plant should be encouraged to form a shape of medium headed tree. The main
branches should be allowed to appear at a height of 0.75 to 1.0 meter above the ground level. Plants
should be trained to modified central leader system. Two to four branches with wide crotch angle,
appearing in the opposite directions should be encouraged in early years. The unwanted branches need to
be pinched off during March-April. In the subsequent years, 4-6 branches should be allowed to develop.
Regular pruning of bearing aonla tree is not required as per growth habit, shedding of all determinate
shoots (branchlets) encourages new growth in coming season. However, dead, broken, infested,
overlapping or weak branches should be removed regularly.
Manipulation of Vegetative Growth: The new shoots arise on pruned branches of heading back and a
few shoots are retained at proper spacing and growing towards periphery of trees. Successive removal of
unwanted shoots, considering the vigour and growing direction is important. In this technique, only 4 to 6
shoots developing in outer directions on main limbs should be allowed to develop. Proper development of
new canopy in horizontal direction should be kept in mind while practicing thinning of shoots. During
may-June, the selected shoots are further pruned out to about 50 per cent of its total length for emergence
of multiple shoots below the pruning points. This was mainly done to modify the tree structure and
maintain canopy size. Fruiting should be allowed on third year after planting.
Sapota
Canopy Management in Sapota: Sapota is one of the important evergreen fruit crops grown in tropical
regions of the world. Canopy management alters the tree stature, paving the way for better sunlight
penetration and facilitates easy intercultural operation and harvest. Canopy management is a critical
component to improve crop performance by increasing the magnitude of partitioning of dry matter
towards reproductive parts. Management of canopy architecture deals with positioning and maintenance
of plant’s frame work in relation to optimum productivity of quality fruits. In modern fruit production, a
tree, which has not received proper canopy management, becomes inefficient with low productivity. Once
the tree gets occupied their allotted spaces crowding may occur and canopies of adjacent trees begin to
overlap. The horticultural methods commonly known to control tree growth are training and pruning,
dwarf varieties and growth retardants, which have a close bearing on canopy management (Gopu and
Balamohan 2015). The removal of those leader shoots arising above third or fourth tier can be done by
beheading of the growing point will helps to solve the harvesting problem. In general providing proper
architecture to the tree from initial stages and mild pruning of side branches are essential for better
management of sunlight penetration and aeration of the canopy. The regulation of canopy is to promote
more fruiting branches and more penetration of sunlight to the inner parts of the canopy, which encourage
larger bearing area with quality fruits. In sapota the flowers are borne on the terminals of shoots, pruning
is reluctantly advocated in this crop.
Approaches for Canopy Management in Sapota.
A. Canopy Management through Genetically Dwarf Cultivars: The genetic characters like Tree is
dwarf in stature (PKM-1), vertical growth habit (PKM-3) and upright with compact canopy (Co-3) can be
selected.
B. Canopy Management through Training and Pruning: Sapota being an evergreen tree requires no
regular pruning is required for but regulation of vegetative growth to improve productivity and quality of
fruits (Singh, 2010). Sapota grows with a central leader branching in tiers, as the trees grow continuously.
In large trees, the top growth often results in shading of lower branches and by resisting wind penetration
are susceptible to mechanical damages and the productivity is low. Training also helps to maintain the
tree height, which facilitates hand picking of most of the fruits. Judicious pruning of branches check
excessive vegetative growth and reduces the apical dominance of the terminal ends. Pruning also
facilitates light penetration and aeration into canopy that influences the hysiological processes directly or
indirectly to regulate yield and improve fruit quality. Any limbs that have a narrow crotch angle should be
removed because these may break under heavy fruit loads. Most trees are trained in central leader system.
A seedlings tree grows excellently giving a shape of an umbrella. However, plants raised through
inarching require training for appropriate shape. In the beginning, the basal branch helps in developing a
thick central system and hence care must be taken to maintain proper distribution of branches on all sides.
In Sapota, new growth and flowering occur simultaneously and it has a mixed type of bearing habit.
Flowers and fruits appear in the leaf axils in the new growth and hence pruning of branches should not be
done.
During initial year, plants are topped to 60-70 cm above ground level. After emergence of new
shoots below the cut point, 3-4 well spaced scaffold limbs are selected and allowed to grow to make
strong frame work (Singh, 2010). At present pruning in sapota is confined to open the tree to light, and
remove dead and diseased branches. Regular pruning of branches is not done in sapota as flowers and
fruits appear in terminal leaf axils of past season wood. All the growths that appear on the rootstock
below the graft or bud joint must be removed. After 3-4 years from planting, the lower most branches up
to a height of 60- 90 cm may weigh down to ground and become unfruitful. The trees should be kept at
amaximum of about 3.7 to 4.6m. Low branches should not be cut however, unless they touch the soil.
Cultural practices eg., picking, spraying and pruning are easier on small trees (Peiris, 2007). Malshe and
Shinde (2016) reported that, the least percent incidence of phytophthora fruit drop (3.19, 4.13, and 4.25%)
was recorded with center opening and fruit thinning and the maximum fruit yield (104.4 kg plant−1 and
10.4 tones ha−1). Recently, it has been established that centre opening of the grown up trees above 3-4
tiers of scaffold branches is beneficial to get higher yield with quality fruits. Similarly, pruning of side
branches by retaining ½ to 2/3 length encourages new growth, flowering and yield (Kumar, 2010).
Mathew (2007) studied that effect of canopy management under different planting densities in sapota cv.
PKM 1 and reported that mild pruning for centre opening of sapota trees had resulted in lesser height
increment compared to unpruned trees. However, higher production of lateral branches resulted in
increased fruit yield, though there was reduction in the height increment. In general, pruned plants
perform well both under wider spacing and narrow spacing in terms of yield and quality traits. Since,
yield maximization is the prime objectives, the plants under narrow spacing with pruning were found to
be the best. Murugeswari (2007) reported that highest number of fruits and fruit yield per tree were
observed in the training with three tiers and pruning moderately, which had recorded the highest number
of flowers per cluster and fruit set percentage also. Compared to control, pruned trees recorded higher
yield and good quality fruits.
Moreover height control is achieved and ill effects to plants were not observed even intrees that
were trained to 3 tiers and pruned severely. Besids training and pruning facilitates easy hand picking of
fruits and easier intercultural practices. Hence training to three tier and moderate pruning could form a
recommendation for sapota growers.
Pradeepha (2004) recorded the highest tree height in control and the lowest tree height with
medium pruning in sapota cv. PKM 1. Sathiya (2005) observed that the sapota ‘PKM (Sa) 4’ increment in
tree height was highest in control trees against pruning treatments and the mean fruit weight, length,
breadth and girth of the fruits were significantly higher in severely pruned trees. Acidity level and
ascorbic content was also found to be influenced by canopy management. Sathiya (2005) observed that in
sapota cv. PKM (Sa) 4, the fruit quality attributes such as TSS, total sugar, reducing sugar, non - reducing
sugars and ascorbic acid were significantly higher in
severe pruning. On the other hand, acid content was found to decrease with increase in severity of pruning
in sapota (Pradeepa, 2004 and Sathiya 2005).
C. Canopy Management through Plant Growth Retardants: Agrawal and Dikshit (2008) made a
study on the effect of plant growth regulators on growth and yield of sapota cv. cricket ball and
application of CCC 400 ppm at flower bud differentiation, NAA 100 ppm at flowering as well as at pea
stage of fruit development gave better response in growth and yield application of cycocel at Fruit bud
differentiation stage resulted in the suppression of vegetative growth and was found effect in reducing the
shoot length in sapota cv. Cricket Ball.
Conclusion: Desirable plant architecture, proper canopy management annually to encourage vegetative
growth immediate after harvest for HDP or UHDP orchard, the related technologies like training and
pruning, plant growth regulators and use of dwarfing rootstocks to develop proper plant architecture and
annual canopy management to be followed. Besides, providing optimum irrigation through drip to
replenish moisture loss through evapo-transpiration and proper fertigation practices to provide balanced
vegetative growth and fruiting, are highly essential so as to get higher yield. If these practices are
followed, the management of pests and diseases would be very effective.
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
RECENT TRENDS IN HOST PLANT RESISTANCE TO YELLOW
STEM BORER, Scirpophaga incertulas W. IN RICE, Oryza sativa L.
Soundararajan, R.P. and Chandrasekaran, M.
Horticultural College and Research Institute for Women, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Navalur Kuttapattu, Trichy- 620 027, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: sound73insect@gmail.com,
Corresponding Author: Soundararajan, R.P.
Y ellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas Walker is a major insect pests causes
serious economic loss in rice crop grown in India as well as rice growing regions of
Asia. The loss caused by the borers are more than any other insect pest of rice, leads
to 3 to 95 per cent yield losses in India (Senapati and Panda, 1999) and accounts for 50 per cent of all
the insecticides used in rice field (Huesing and English, 2004). Use of alternate strategies and
avoiding inorganic chemical insecticides are encouraged to provide eco-friendly and feasible control
methods. Yellow stem borer attacks the crop from the seedling up to harvest stage and thus cause
complete loss of yield (Salim and Masir, 1987). Rice crops planted during January and February
recorded highest damage by yellow stem borer (Soundararajan and Jeyaprakash, 2018). Identification
and use of resistant varieties to yellow stem borer is gaining importance as there was very few
resistant sources available for development of resistant varieties.
Screening for Resistance to Yellow Stem Borer in Rice: Though several resistant varieties are
identified and released for stem borers promising and stable resistance is not observed to counteract
the insect damage. Starting from 1970 at IRRI several screening programmes conducted to identify
resistant sources for yellow stem borer. Heinrichs et al.(1985) identified ARC 10346, ARC 10379,
ARC 10386, ARC 10528, ARC 10958, ARC 11313, ARC 11537, ARC 5920, ARC 6033, ARC 6184,
ARC 7119, ARC 7132, ARC 7137, ARC 7312, ARC 7316 as yellow stem borer resistant varieties.
Rustamani et al. (2002) examined 5 coarse grain rice varieties and 5 fine grain varieties to determine
the oviposition preference and infestation of yellow stem borer. It was observed that among the coarse
grain varieties Shadab was comparatively less susceptible and among the fine grain varieties Basmati-
370 and Sonahri Sugdasi suffererd less damage of borer. Kumar et al. (2003) revealed that the rice
varieties W1263 and CO43 were selected as resistant and susceptible parents respectively for yellow
stem borer infestation. Subudhi et al. (2007) identified Shravani, Rajeswari, Banja, Jajati, Mahalaxmi,
Pratikhya, Mahanadi, Khira and Prachi having field resistance to YSB.
Subudhi and Padhi (2008) carried out a field evaluation of 92 rice cultivars against the yellow
stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Wlk.). The varieties, viz., Tara, Punshi, Triveni, CSR-30,
Saktiman, Kshira, Tripti, Seema, Mahalaxmi, Ambika, CSR-10, PR-115,Saket-4, VLD- 221, Indira,
Mandira and Mahamaya showed field resistance (SES Score-1) over the seasons. Khan et al. (2010)
studied the relative resistance of rice varieties Basmati – 385, IRRI – 6, Basmati Super, Basmati –
370, DR – 83 and KSK – 282 against yellow stem borer. Visalakshmi et al. (2014) screened rice
germplasm for resistance to yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas Walker and reported culture
CR 2711-76 and CR 3005-230-5 as resistant cultures at reproductive stage. Nalini and Baskaran
(2013) screened the rice genotypes for resistance to yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas. The
genotype CB 08504 had the lowest dead heart incidence (1.48%) with the resistance rating of 1
(resistant) with regard to white ear incidence AD 08142 had the lowest incidence of 1.25%. At both
vegetative and reproductive crop phases, AD 08142 and ADT(R) 46 recorded the scale of 1
(resistant). As a whole, the experiment manifested that AD 08142, CB 08504, TM 08610, CB 06651
and TNRH 206 (hybrid) can be promoted as they possessed yellow stem borer resistance is addition to
good yield. Rana et al. (2017) evaluated 100 basmati rice germplasm to identify resistant source
against rice yellow stem borer. The evaluation indicated that 6 germplasms viz., NP-973-3, RP Bio
5477 – NH 686, Pusa 1718-19-8-152, CR 2829-PLN-36,CR 2829-PLN-97 and RP 5919-HP-9-IR
94293 were found a constant damage rating scale ‘0’ which were highly resistant (HR). While
germplasms NP-9685 and SJR 70-3-2 was found moderately resistant (MR) with scale ‘3’ and
moderately susceptible (MS) with scale ‘5’ respectively, at vegetative as well as reproductive stage.
Sarao et al. (2013) evaluated 62 wild rice germplasm accessions and observed CR100316 (O.nivara)
as the one that show low stem borer damage. Brar et al. (2005) reported that O. longistaminata
accessions were tolerant to yellow stem borer S.incertulas. Padmakumari and Ram (2012) identified
Recent Trends in Host Plant Resistance to Yellow Stem Borer, Scirpophaga incertulas W. in Rice………. 267
donors for rice yellow stem borer tolerance in O. rufipogon and O. glaberrima accessions. Earlier,
Mohankumar et al. (2003) screened varieties like W1263, CO 43, ASD 7, CO 32, CO 25, ASD 12,
GEB 24, ASD 10, ASD 13, TKM 10 and SR-26-B along with the standard checks TKM 6 (resistant)
and TN 1 (Susceptible) to select resistant and susceptible parents for hybridization and observed
W1263 and TKM 6 as resistant varieties. W1263 showed more resistance compared to TKM 6. Wild
rice magic population (WRM), a derivative of crosses from six species viz., Oryza rufipogon,
O.nivara, O.meridionalis, O.gumaepatula, O.barthi, O.gaberrima, O.longistaminata and O.sativa
were screened under field condition and results revealed that entries WRM 2, WRM 6, WRM 10,
WRM 12, WRM 14, WRM 43, WRM 44, WRM 45 and WRM 76 were moderately resistant to yellow
stem borer. The morphological characters of the entries were recorded and correlated with stem borer
damage. It revealed a significant negative correlation for plant height and top internode length for
their resistant to yellow stem borer (Reuolin et al., 2019).
Artificial Screening / Glasshouse Screening for Resistance to Yellow Stem Borer: The data
derived from the field screening has to be confirmed through artificial screening under glass house
condition to verify the resistance for its stability and durability. However, artificial screening is
difficult in case of yellow stem borer. Continuous mass culturing of yellow stem borer is a difficult
task though IRRI developed the mass culturing methodology. The success rate in the mass culture of
YSB is very low since it is an internal feeder. The development of larva and then proceed to next
pupal stage is not able to ensure. It makes mass culturing become difficult and maintaining continuous
generation of yellow stem borer population in glass house. The peculiar feeding behaviour of yellow
stem borer was noticed while mass culturing in the glass house (Soundararajan, 2018a). During
rearing of yellow stem borer in susceptible var. Pusa basmati plants when the plants started drying (at
> 60 per cent damage), the third instar larva came out of the plants and silken webs are formed to
hung down above water surface. The larvae form tubular cases by using leaf bits and wandering in the
cages. When new green plants were kept in the cages, the larva along with tubular case bore the stem
to enter inside. The bore holes are visible after entering the larvae. Usually the first instar or neonate
larva enter inside the stem through gap in leaf whorl attached to the stem portion since the young
larva may not bore from outside. But the third instar larva form a bore hole like any borers and
leaving the tubular case outside. The empty tubular cases spread in the platform of the insect cage.
The typical behaviour was noticed throughout the period in the mass culturing programme. This type
of larval migration or movement pattern was not noticed above fourth instar larval stage probably the
advanced stage larvae may not able to come and move freely outside the plants.
By using field collected adults or eggs and culturing for one generation and the larva obtained
can be used for artificial screening experiments. Field simulated condition can be created in glass
house to screen and identify good resistant sources. The age of plants for inoculation of larva in the
test varieties were standardized (Soundararajan, 2018b).
The main drawback of field screening is occurrence, abundance of the insect pest and pest
complexity. Screen house screening ensures that pest load is disseminated evenly and the genotype is
devoid of other pest and diseases. Investigations that pertain to field resistance of genotypes has been
reported by several authors (Khan et al., 2010). Several studies have been carried out earlier for
morphological, physiological and biochemical factors associated with resistance, each controlled by
different sets of genes. Identification of varietal resistance has been in progress for the past three
decades. Many cultivars are susceptible to YSB, very high levels of resistance have not been found
yet and there is continuous variation for this trait among rice varieties, from highly susceptible to
moderately resistant. Even moderate resistance is desirable for breeding resistance varieties under
artificial screening trials.
It is well-known fact that the degree of susceptibility and nutritional suitability of the host
plant play a dominant role for varietal resistance (Pathak and Khan, 1994). The results of free choice
and no choice experiments revealed that the reported resistant varieties viz., TKM 6 and W 1263
recorded 28.0 and 32.0 per cent dead heart respectively in no choice method, whereas 64.33 and 74.18
per cent respectively in the free choice method (Devasena et al., 2018). In no choice method of
screening, only minimum larva were released whereas in free choice method all emerged larvae from
the egg mass were allowed to bore the rice stems. The pest load is more in the second method and
hence the two designated stem borer resistant varieties exhibits more dead heart in the free choice
screening method. TKM 6 is well known old stem borer resistant donor and was released during 1952.
The mechanisms of resistance were attributed to a comparatively broad and thick sclerenchymatous
hypodermis in the stem to the narrow central lumen in the culm, narrow and hairy leaves (Prasad et
al., 2015; Rubia et al., 1996). TKM 6 is less susceptible at both vegetative and heading stages against
yellow stem borer (Rustamani et al., 2002). The variety is known for their field resistance (Sarwar,
2013). When adults tested for antixenosis for oviposition, two genotypes RG 53 and RG 74 were
moderately resistant in the no choice method, very less preference for oviposition with the dead heart
damage of 53.57 and 50.00 per cent in the choice method. Among the two hybrids taken in the study,
CORH 4, a bold grain type was moderately resistant with less ovipositional preference. The hybrid
CORH 3, a fine grain type exhibited less ovipositional preference but was categorized as moderately
susceptible in both methods. The two aromatic genotypes viz., Pusa Basmati 1 and GEB 24 were
grouped in the highly susceptible and moderately susceptible respectively (Devasena et al., 2018).
Similar findings were reported wherein the aromatic types were highly susceptible to the yellow stem
borer compared to the coarse varieties (Zhu et al., 2002; Saroja et al., 1993).
Breeding for Yellow Stem Borer Resistance: Even though no high level of resistance against YSB
was reported in the primary gene pool of rice, conventional breeding has led to development of rice
varieties like Ratna, Sasyasree, and Vikas which derive moderate level of resistance from the donor
source TKM6. Efforts were made to develop markers associated with YSB resistance using W1263 as
the donor parent. More recently attempts are being made to introgress YSB resistance from wild
species like O. longistaminata. However, no product has so far been released for cultivation (Makkar
and Bentur, 2017). In India, IR62 was the first transgenic rice-expressing Bt gene (Nayak et al. 1997).
Subsequently, various transgenic Bt (Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac) rice varieties (IR64, Karnal Local, etc.)
resistant to YSB have been produced (Khanna and Raina, 2002; Ramesh et al. 2004a; however, Cry
proteins are ineffective against sap feeders. But currently, no GM rice variety has been commercially
released in India. The rice stem borer, mainly YSB, association has come to an evolutionary
equilibrium with YSB attaining monophagous status and adopting ‘k’ strategy of population structure.
In other words, rice offers no threat to the insect, and insect in turn does not challenge the plant’s
survival. It is “live and let others live” equilibrium. Superimposed on this state is the mankind’s
demand for food which does not compromise on even a marginal yield loss due to the stem borers.
While classical breeding approach did not provide high level of host plant resistance, mainly due to
the evolutionary equilibrium, novel biotechnological approaches outlined in the text above are more
likely to bring “success.” This would mean an unprecedented selection pressure on the insect. It
would certainly be naive to undermine the insect’s genetic plasticity to respond to this pressure.
Studies have clearly shown high frequency of alleles conferring resistance against Cry toxins in
populations of YSB in the Philippines (Bentur et al., 2000) and SSB populations in China even
without deployment of Bt rice. It is thus imperative also to invest on development of effective
deployment strategies along with focus on transgenic and other approaches for stem borer resistance.
Screening Methodologies for Yellow Stem Borer Resistance: Host plant resistant studies for stem
borers mainly depend on field screening as the artificial screening or mass screening under controlled
condition is limited due to lack of efficient mass culturing technique. As these insects are internal
feeder mass culturing and success rate for advancement of generation under controlled condition is
very low. However, artificial screening can be made with field collected population of adults or egg
masses.
a. Field Screening: The layout of the screening experiments consists of test entries in two rows with
minimum of 20 plants in each rows. At every 10 test entries a susceptible entry can be included. TN-
1/Pusa basmati-1 is the susceptible entry usually taken up along with test entry. The susceptible
entries can be planted as 3-5 rows in the border to increase the incidence in the trial plots. The
resistant check TKM 6/ W1263 can also be included. Screening trials should be insecticide free and
other agronomic practice can be followed as per the schedule.
The observations on the dead heart incidence have to be taken on 35 th and 55th days after
planting. Totally 10 plants in each entry has to be observed for dead heart and convert the data in to
mean per cent dead heart damage. The percentage of dead heart was computed for each genotype
using the formula
No. of dead hearts
Percent of dead hearts = x 100
Total no. of tillers
D values were calculated using the formula

Percent dead hearts in test genotype
D= x 100
Percent dead hearts in susceptible check
Similarly white ear counts are taken during maturity stage.

No. of white headed tillers
Percent of white ear = x 100
Total no. of productive tillers
Totally 10 plants in each entry has to be observed for dead heart / white ear and convert the
data in to mean per cent damage.
Observe the dead heart /white ear incidence in the susceptible check entry also to calculate the
D value (Adjustment factor).
Transform the D value in to 0-9 scale by following SES method.
Scale D value (dead heart) D value (white ear)
0 None None
1 1-20 1-10
3 21-40 11-25
5 41-60 26-40
7 61-80 41-60
9 81-100 61-100
(Heinrichs et al., 1983)
b. Artificial Screening or Screen House Screening: The identified entries showing resistant or
moderately resistant in the field experiments can be used for artificial screening experiments to
confirm its level of resistance.
i. No Choice Method: Pot culture plants have to be raised in the glass house. Freshly collected moths
were reared in oviposition cages planted with susceptible variety Taichung Native-1 (TN 1). The adult
moths lay the egg mass at 1/3 away from the leaf tip or at the base of stem. The egg masses were
collected on 4th day and placed in Petriplates lined with moist filter paper. The freshly emerged larvae
were released carefully using camel hair brush on 25-30 day old plants which were trimmed to five
tillers per plant for infestation. The larva at the rate of 2 per tiller (10 per plant) was released at the
base of leaf near the auricle region [9]. The seedling was covered with mylar cage to avoid infestation
by other pest and disease and escape of released larvae. The symptom for dead heart was observed
after 11-14 days after release of larva. The stem with dead heart was observed for feeding symptom of
larva. The damage scale was calculated by comparing with the susceptible check TN 1. Five
replications were maintained for each genotype. Similar to field screening the data on D factor has to
arrive and same SES system has to follow for grading the each entry for dead heart damage.
ii. Free Choice Method: A set of potted plants of different genotypes along with TN 1 plants were
placed in a cage of size 2’ x 2’ x 2.5’ to accommodate 12 potted plants. Fresh adult moths emerged
from pupa were released on 35-40 days old seedlings @ one pair per plant and allowed for
oviposition. The moths have free choice to select the genotypes for oviposition. Two replications were
maintained for each genotype. The number of egg masses on the seedlings was counted. The first
instar larvae were allowed to feed on the tillers till the appearance of dead heart symptom. The
damage symptom was counted on 14 -18 days after oviposition and per cent dead heart damage was
worked out.
Biotechnological Approaches for Stem Borer Resistance: Development of transgenic rice and
biotechnological tools offers a potent, cost-effective and environmentally safe method. Genetic
transformation techniques based on recombinant DNA technology have is a successful mode for
incorporation of resistance genes from unrelated sources into commercially important crop plants
(Bennett, 1994; Dhaliwal et al., 1998). The crystal proteins (Cry toxins or delta-endotoxins) coded by
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes show high insecticidal activity and toxicity to Lepidopterans
(Whiteley and Schnepf, 1986; Cohen et al., 2000), Dipterans (Andrews et al., 1987 and Coleopterans
(Krieg et al., 1983; Herrnstadt et al., 1986). Bt Cry proteins are toxic to insects and nontoxic to
humans and other animals. The first Bt toxin gene was discovered in 1901 by Ishiwaki in silkworms
and genetically engineered into japonica and indica rice plants. Field evaluations of Bt rice have been
reported and primarily focus on cry1A genes (Tu et al., 2000). Shu et al. (2002) reported a line KMD1
transformed with a synthetic cry1Ab gene, conferring resistance to eight lepidopteran pest species,
including YSB under laboratory as well as under natural infestation. Since then several rice lines
expressing insecticidal genes (cry1Aa, cry1Ab, cry1Ac, cry1Ab/Ac, cry1C, cry2A, CpTI (cowpea
trypsin inhibitor, etc.) against Lepidopteran insects, snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin)
gna gene and Pinellia ternata agglutinin – pta against hemipteran insects have been developed.
The first country to release Bt rice for commercial cultivation in 2004 was Iran whereas,
China permitted the commercial production of Bt rice lines Huahui No. 1 (CMS restorer line) and Bt
Shanyou 63 (a hybrid of Huahui No.1 and Zhenshan 97A, a CMS line), both lines expressing
cry1Ab/Ac fusion gene, which contains a copy of the synthetic DNA sequence with two genes, the
CRY1AB and the CRY1AC (Chen et al., 2011). These genes encode the respective Bt toxins, lethal to
Lepidoptera, whereas Bt Shanyou 63 provides resistance to rice stem borer and leaffolder (Tu et al.,
2000).
In India, IR62 was the first transgenic rice-expressing Bt gene (Nayak et al., 1997).
Subsequently, various transgenic Bt (Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac) rice varieties (IR64, Karnal Local, etc.)
resistant to YSB have been produced (Khanna and Raina 2002; Ramesh et al., 2004b) however, Cry
proteins are ineffective against sap feeders. But currently, no GM rice variety has been commercially
released in India.
Apart from Bt, other insecticidal proteins like protease inhibitors, ribosome-inactivating
proteins, lectins and insect peptide hormones provides options for deriving resistance from sources.
Plants which contain these protein may act as source of these non-Bt genes with insecticidal activity
(Sharma et al., 2003). Protease inhibitors are antimetabolites acting against a wide range of insect
pests and the genes encoding for these are a component of plant’s natural defense system against
insect damage. Several transgenic rice plants expressing protease inhibitors have been field tested
including those with synthetic gene coding for winged bean trypsin inhibitors WTI-1B (Mochizuki et
al., 1999), oryzacystatin, cowpea trypsin inhibitors, potato proteinase inhibitors II and soybean Kunitz
trypsin inhibitors (Sharma et al., 2004). Transgenic rice plants with barley trypsin inhibitor BTI-CMe
have also been tested for resistance against storage pest rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae (Alfonso-Rubi
et al., 2003). Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTi) transgene has also been used for deriving resistance to
stem borer (Brar and Khush, 2007). Likewise, plant lectin (heterogeneous group of sugar-binding
proteins) genes have shown protection in particular to homopterans (sap-sucking insects: BPH,
WBPH, GLH), apart from lepidopterans and coleopterans.
In another recent biotechnological strategy is RNA interference (RNAi) or RNA silencing
which control the expression of resistance to key insect genes. Kola et al. (2016) reported that YSB
larvae fed on dsRNA (double standard RNA) designed from two genes of rice yellow stem borer
(YSB), cytochrome P450 derivative (CYP6) and Aminopeptidase N (APN) have detrimental effect on
larval growth and development of the insect. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (cytochrome P450s)
is found in all living organisms (Kola et al., 2015) and is have a important role in the metabolism of
xenobiotics such as drugs, pesticides, and plant toxins (Scott 2008). In insects, cytochrome P450s play
a predominant role in the metabolism of insecticides results in the development of insecticide
resistance in insect populations (Zhou et al., 2010). Aminopeptidase N (APN) group of exopeptidases
are abundant on the midgut brush border of insect larva (Adang 2013). These APNs in lepidopteran
insects received initial attention because they function as receptors for Bt Cry1 insecticidal toxins. It
plays an important physiological role in dietary protein digestion (Marchler-Bauer et al., 2015).
Inhibition of its activity in the midgut can result in detrimental effect on larval growth and
development which finally lead to mortality (Reed et al., 1999). Expression of APNs was found high
in midgut and malpighian tubules (Wang et al., 2014). These genes can be deployed to develop YSB
resistance in rice using RNAi approach.
Conclusion: Identification and evaluation of stem borer resistance is primary task for the
development of resistant varieties. Though controlled screening methods for stem borer resistance is
time consuming and laborious, artificial screening provides solid and valid information on varietal
resistance. Use of molecular tools and molecular markers for genotypic in the crossed or introgressed
lines will ease the selection of good and stable resistant sources. However, phenotyping and
methodology to screen stem borer resistant should be strong and reliable for further development of
resistant varieties.
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
BIOFORTIFICATION IN FRUIT CROPS–POTENTIAL SOLUTION FOR
NUTRITIONAL SECURITY
Vinayak B. Shinde1, Prashant B. Kardile2 and Sarika S. Wandre3
1
Assistant Professor, Section of Horticulture, Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon, Tal. Vaijapur, Dist.
Aurangabad, Maharashtra State, 2Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Physiology), Department of Agricultural Botany, College of
Agriculture, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani, Maharashtra State. E-mail: kardile24@gmail.com
and 3Assistant Professor, Section of Agricultural Engineering, Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon, Tal.
Vaijapur, Dist. Aurangabad, Maharashtra State, Corresponding Author: Prashant B. Kardile
G
reek word ‘bios’ means ‘life’ and Latin word ‘fortificare’ means ‘make strong.
Biofortification is the process of adding nutritional value to the crop.It refers to
nutrient enrichment of crops to address the negative economic and health
consequences of vitamin and mineral deficiencies in humans.
Need for Biofortification: Humans require around 40 known nutrients in adequate amountsto live
healthy and productive lives. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is an important health concern in
developing countries among children and women of childbearing age and is estimated to account for
>600,000 deaths each year globally among children <5 years of age.According to Government of
India statistics provided to the World Health Organization (WHO) 62% of all preschool-age children
are VAD. Iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se) deficiencies are serious public health issues and
important soil constraints to crop production, particularly in the developing countries.Apart from
under nutrition, growing incidence of overnutrition leading to problems of overweight and in
particular, high rate of diabetes is a matter of concern. Consequently, biofortification is also directed
toward enhancing the contents of desired micronutrients in the edible portion of crop plants.
Nutritional targets for biofortification include elevated mineral content, improved vitamin content,
increased essential amino acid levels, better fatty acid composition, and heightened antioxidant levels
in crops. Biofortification of crop plants can provide enough calories to meet the energy needs along
with providing all the essential nutrients needed for sound health. Furthermore, biofortifying the crops
which are consumed by the poor population of the world can significantly improve the amount of
nutrients consumed by this target population.
Fig. 1: Global Hunger Index by Severity (2019), Source : Wikipedia

Methods of Biofortification
A. Conventional plant breeding
B. Genetic engineering
C. Agronomic biofortification
A. Conventional Plant Breeding: Traditional breeding mainly focused on yield attributes and
resistance breeding from last four decades and lack of priority on nutritional aspects lead’s to
decreased amount of nutrient status in the existed varieties. Examples of minerals that their mean
concentration in the dry matter has declined in several plant-based foods are Fe, Zn, Cu and Mg.
Recent progress in conventional plant breeding has given emphasis on fortification of important
Biofortification in Fruit Crops–Potential Solution for Nutritional Security 275
vitamins, antioxidants and micronutrients. The potential to increase the micronutrient density of staple
foods by conventional breeding requires adequate genetic variation in concentrations of β-carotene,
other functional carotenoids, iron, zinc, and other minerals exists among cultivars, making selection of
nutritionally appropriate breeding materials possible.
1. Banana: Breeding banana is difficult and expensive, as commercial varieties are sterile triploids
(3×) and also a high degree of cross incompatibility can exist among the fertile groups. For combating
this problem, large scale screening of several banana germplasm for the identification of high levels
of provitamin A has been carried out in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Burundi by
Biodiversity International (BI) in collaboration with HarvestPlus. In this program, they released five
varieties (Apantu, Bira, Pelipita, Lai, and To’o) rich in provitamin A in Eastern DRC and Burundi.
2. Mango: Mango offers a natural source of beta-carotene, vitamin C, and valuable antioxidants but
their nutrient levels vary with mango variety. It has been observed that most of the mango varieties
provide more than recommended daily value of vitamin C and beta-carotene. Mango also contains a
variety of phenolics like ellagic acid, gallotannin, and mangiferin. The Mexican- grown Ataulfo
variety ranked highest in both vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and beta-carotene (USDA’s Agricultural
Research Service). In India, IARI introduced many varieties with enhanced nutritional and
agronomical important characters.
3. Grape: Grapes have high mineral content, including high vitamins C and K, and are a natural
source of antioxidants and other polyphenols, and offer a variety of additional health benefits.
Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of different grape cultivars grown in China have been
assessed. The Indian Agricultural Institute has released an improved variety, i.e., PusaNavrang which
contains higher amount of total soluble solids (carbohydrates, organic acids, proteins, fats, and
minerals) and antioxidants.
4. Pomegranate: Pomegranate juice is rich in antioxidant polyphenols, which can reverse
atherosclerosis as well as vascular inflammation, and thereby lower blood pressure. But it has other
anti-inflammatory effects. ICAR-National Research Centre on Pomegranate, Solapur, M.S.
Developed, Solapur Lal- Hybrid which is biofortified. High iron (5.6-6.1 mg/100g), zinc (0.64-0.69
mg/100g) and vitamin C (19.4 -19.8 mg/100 g) in fresh arils in comparison to 2.7-3.2 mg/ 100g, 0.50-
0.54 mg/100g and 14.2-14.6 mg/100g, respectively in popular variety Ganesh. Fruit yield: 23.0-27.0
t/ha. Adaptation: Semi-arid regions of the country.
B. Genetic Engineering: Lack of sufficient variation among the genotypes for the desired
character/trait within the species, or when the crop itself is not suitable for conventional plant
breeding (due to lack of sexuality; e.g. banana) then genetic engineering offers a valid alternative for
increasing the concentration and bioavailability of micro nutrients in the edible crop tissues. One of
the main concerns is the so-called ‘gene flow’ environmental problem, i.e. the concern of transfer of
foreign genes to non-target species. Targets for trans genes include, redistributing micronutrients
between tissues, increasing the efficiency of biochemical pathways in edible tissues, or even the
reconstruction of selected pathways. Some strategies involved in the removal of ‘ant nutrients’. For
Instance, one of the first bio fortified crops was golden rice, which was engineered to produce beta-
carotene or provitamin A in the edible portion of the grain. Since then, there have been similar
successes with other crops, giving us a variety of carotenoid-enriched foods as well as crops enriched
with other micronutrients such as vitamin E and folate. In the same way this approach is also being
applied to other crops, including maize, orange cauliflower, tomato, yellow potatoes and golden
canola. Feeding trials by demonstrated that calcium absorption was significantly increased in both
mice and humans by biofortified carrots. The genetic engineering has moved into a new phase that
aims at (i.e. ‘multigene transfer’) Ex: ‘Multivitamin corn’ Which is engineered to produce higher
levels of provitamin A, vitaminB9, and vitamin C (b-carotene, folate, and ascorbate). Promising lines
has been identified which contained 169-fold more b -carotene, 6.1-fold more ascorbate, and double
the amount of folate as found in endosperm. Micronutrient powders, popularly known under the
iroriginal name of Sprinkles, are a form of ‘home fortification’ that also provide several nutrients at
once. In sachets for a single serving, they are sprinkled on top of normal foods. Beginning with just,
encapsulated iron, they have now developed numerous varieties, with as many as 15 vitamins and
minerals, appropriate for the nutritional problems ofspecific areas.
1. Apple (Malus domestica): Apple has long been recognized as a great source of antioxidants. Apple
has been bioengineered with a stilbene synthase gene from the grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) thereby
leading to synthesis of resveratrol in transgenic apple, thereby, expanding the antioxidant capacity.
2. Banana (Musa acuminata): The banana, a fourth most important food crop of the developing
countries, has been predominantly targeted for beta-carotene. This has been achieved by developing
transgenic banana (Super Banana) by expressing PSY gene (PSY2a) of Asupina banana, which is
naturally high in beta-carotene.
C. Agronomic Biofortification: Application of fertilizers to increase the micronutrients in edible
parts. The degree of success in agronomic biofortification is proportional to the mobility of mineral
element in the soil as well as in the plant. Most suitable micronutrients for agronomic bio fortification
Zinc, (foliar applications of ZnSO4),Iodine(Soil application of iodide or iodate), Selenium(as
selenate). The application of inorganic Se fertilizers resulted in over 10-fold increase in Se
concentrations. The use of inorganic I and Zn also had an impact on plant enrichment at a country
scale in China and Thailand. Fe (FeSO4) shows a low mobility in soil due to conversion of Fe+3 which
is unavailable to plant roots. Bottleneck of Phyto-availability, to overcome this, Synthetic metal
chelators (e.g. EDTA- Fe- and Zn-chelates which were effective in increasing mineral concentration
in edible vegetable and fruit tissues). Foliar application is the quick and easy method of nutrient
application to fortification of micro nutrients (Fe,Zn, Cu etc.)in plants. Several studies have found that
the mycorrhizal associations increase Fe, Se, Zn and Cu concentrations in crop plants. AM-fungi
increases the uptake and efficiency of micronutrients like Zn, Cu, Fe etc.
Table1 : SWOT analysis of bio fortification method
Methods of Strengths Weakness Opportunities Threats
Biofortification
Conventional plant Successful for minerals Long development time, Wide public Requires genetic
Breeding and vitamins, one-off cost, Success limited to minerals acceptance, simple variation
easier distribution, Long available in the soil. legal frame work
term strategy
Genetic engineering Successful for minerals Long development time, Fast 'omics' Low public
and vitamins, one-off cost, Success limited to minerals developments acceptance, high
easier distribution, long available in the soil, socio-political
term strategy, speed up interactions among problems,
process of transgenes (may limit the Environmental
conventional plant process) impact (gene flow)
breeding.
Agronomic Bio Comparatively simple Success limited to minerals Often used as a Negative
fortification method than other and dependent on several compliment to other environmental
methods and suitable for factors, Needs regular strategies impact, reverse
immediate results application of nutrients, exhaustion
expensive and difficult to (Eg: Se)
distribution
Table 2: Tabulation of crops, nutrients, research status, and concerned publications on biofortification through
breeding.
Fig. 2:Nutri banana(yellow colour) (Provitamin-A rich)

Limitations of Biofortification
A. Conventional Breeding Methods: The design of conventional plant breeding programs to
improve micronutrient content has proved to be successful and is a sustainable and cost-effective
solution in the long run; however, there are limitations with respect to the amount of genetic
variability for the micronutrients in the plant gene pool and the time needed to generate cultivars with
the desired trait(s). In some cases, this can be overcome by crossing to distant relatives and thus
introgressing traits into commercial cultivars, but in manyoccasions, it would be impossible to breed
for a specific trait using conventional means, and the timescale and effort involved may be quite
unrealistic, e.g., improving Se concentration in wheat grains and improvement of oleic, linoleic, and
linolenic fatty acid content in soybean. In general, improvement in oil quality has been targeted with
better results with transgenic-basedapproach due to limited variability, heritability, and linkage drag.
B. Genetic Engineering: Transgenic crops overcome the limitation of restricted genetic variation
among plants as in the case of conventional breeding but the major limitation of this method is its low
acceptance among masses. It is very important that the biofortified crops be readily adapted by
farmers and community in significant enough numbers to improve the general nutritional health of a
given community. Another limitation is that different countries have adopted different regulatory
processes for the acceptance and commercialization of these transgenic crops. Regrettably, the current
political and economic landscape is not receptive to this technology. Furthermore, these regulatory
processes are very expensive and time consuming. Let us take the example of Bt Brinjal. It has been
initially developed by Mahyco, an Indian seed company. Unfortunately, it was not released in Indian
because some of the scientists, farmers, and anti-GMO activists, raised concerns and a moratorium on
its release was imposed, until further tests were conducted. However, four varieties of Bt Brinjal were
given approval for commercial release in Bangladesh in 2013–2014. Although the research efforts
devotedto the transgenic-based approach are quite higher compared with breeding based, its success
rate in terms of cultivar releasein very lowdue to time required from target trait and gene
identification, modification, expression, and assessment of agronomical traits to understanding the
possible effect on other life forms. For example, after 8 years project, the scientific detailsof the
Golden rice were first published in Science in 2000,and since then different groups, including
International Rice Research Institute scientists are working on it, but Golden Riceis still not ready for
farmers due to issues with its yield. Its dissemination is also being held back due to inability to get
approval from Governments.
C. Agronomic Biofortification: Application of fertilizers fortified with micronutrients is the simplest
method among all biofortification methods. But the success of agronomical biofortification is highly
variable due to the differences in mineral mobility, mineral accumulation among plant species, soil
compositions in the specific geographical location of each crop. For example, a study involving
diverse rice genotypes indicated that, in the phosphate deficient soils due to reduction in the root
biomass, differences in the phosphate uptake among the genotypes were as high as 20-fold. Soil
composition analysis has indicated that almost 1/2 of the agricultural soils of India, 1/3 of China, 14
Mha of Turkey, 8 Mha of Australia are zinc deficient. Agronomic biofortification is less cost-effective
and labour intensive as it demands continuous inputs, through the application of micronutrient to the
soil or plant regularly. Furthermore, it is not always possible to target the micronutrient into edible
plant parts like seed or fruit and can sometimes result in the accumulation of desired nutrients in the
leaves or other non-edible portions of plants; therefore, this technique is only successful in certain
minerals and specific plant species. For instance, higher zinc efficiency in cereals grown in zinc
deficient soils in Turkey was associated with higher uptake of zinc from the soil, but not with
increased accumulation of zinc in the grain. Furthermore, mineral bioavailability hindered by
antinutrient compound like phytic acid is another major challenge. In addition, the biggest of all
constraints is that the fertilizers accumulation in soil and water poses adverse environmental effects.
D.Other Limitations: The postharvest processing of each crop must be considered to optimize
biofortification strategies. For example, the seeds of many cereals are often consumed after milling or
polishing. Although the concentrations of some essential mineral elements, such as Se and S, are
highest in the embryo, others, such as iron, zinc, and copper, are highest in the bran. Milling or
polishing cereal seeds can, therefore, remove large quantities of minerals from the diet; the extent of
these losses is genotype dependent. In addition, the presence of certain antinutrients in crops reduces
the bioavailability of certain nutrients in crops. For examples, antinutrients like phytate, tannins,
oxalate, fiber, and hemaglutinins reduce the bioavailability of minerals inhuman gut. Furthermore, in
the context of global environmental change, approaches for improving food production,
improvements in a crop’s ability to maintain yields with lower water supply and quality will be
critical. In addition, numerous genes are involved in controlling the amount of a mineral element that
is absorbed by roots, translocated to shoot, remobilized from vegetative tissues, and deposited in
edible portions of seeds and grains in forms that are utilizable in persons consuming the crop.
Considerations must also include the micronutrient concentrations in the edible portions of crops, and
the amount of nutrients that can be absorbed by the consumer, after processing and cooking.
Conclusion: Biofortification is a cost-effective, feasible mean of reaching populations who may have
limited availability and access to diverse diets, supplements, or commercially fortified foods. Because
biofortification combines increased micronutrient content with preferred agronomic, quality, and
market traits, biofortified varieties match or outperform the usual varieties that farmers grow and
consume. Marketed surpluses of biofortified crops make their way into retail outlets in both rural and
urban areas, reaching additional populations who may be likely to suffer from micronutrient
deficiency. A one-time investment in plant breeding yields micronutrient-rich varieties for farmers to
grow for years to come, and the same varieties can be evaluated in other target geographies with
similar agro-ecological conditions, thus multiplying the benefit of the initial investment.
Biofortification is one solution among many that are needed to solve the complex problem of
micronutrient deficiency, and it complements existing interventions. While the right mix of
interventions is country, we can scaling up the use of biofortified crops has the potential to benefit
millions of people.
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
NOVEL TECHNOLOGIES IN FRUIT PRESERVATION
K. Antony Prajwala1 and J. Aresh2
1
Ph.D scholar, Fruit Science, College of Horticulture, Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari District, A.P.,
E-mail: kaprajwala1994@gmail.com and 2Ph.D scholar, Post Harvest Technology, UBKV, Pundibari, West Bengal,
Corresponding Author: K. Antony Prajwala
Fruit products are consumed as whole fresh fruits, fresh cut fruits and in minimally processed
or processed ready-to-eat or ready-to-drink forms. The main role of processing technology is to
control microbiological, chemical and biochemical changes occurred as a result of microbial and
enzymatic activities, oxidation reactions that can lead to safety, color, flavor, taste, and texture
problems. During this day processing technologies that do not significantly alter the organoleptic or
nutritional qualities of the fruits and do not form any undesirable chemical compounds in the product
would have obvious advantages. Minimal processing technologies led to the development of non-
thermal or mild heat high technical methods that have a potential to replace traditional thermal
preservation techniques with better quality and longer shelf-life as well as higher nutritional value or
products with health benefits (Bhat and Stamminger 2015; Jimenez-Sanchez et al., 2017). In this
respect, the following chapter summarizes some of novel technologies which not only extend the shelf
life of fruits but also sensorial and nutritional quality and bioactivity of the constituents present in
fruits and their products.
Pressurized Inert Gases: Pressurized inert gases have been successfully used for the preservation of
some fresh and fresh-cut fruits in recent years (Ma et al., 2017). The principle involved in this method
is that inert gases such as xenon (Xe), neon (Ne), krypton (Kr), argon (Ar) and nitrogen (N2) can
form ice-like crystal called clathrate hydrate when dissolved in water under higher pressure (Ando, et
al., 2009). The gas molecules are trapped in a cage-like structure by water molecules through physical
bonding via vander Waals forces. Clathrate crystals can easily developed into visible size, and they
are stable at temperatures above 0°C under certain pressure (Reid and Fennema, 2008).
In this method fresh-cut fruits are pressurized by the mixed inert gases (argon, nitrogen and
xenon) to reach the pressure of between 20 and 25 MPa and are processed for 30 to 60 minutes, and
water molecules on fresh-cut surfaces form gas hydrates, so the activity of the water molecules in the
fruits and the activity of enzymes are inhibited, and 15 to 20 percent of inert gas-containing micro air
holes are formed in tissue to achieve the better subsequent refreshing effect. By this method, the
metabolic loss and microbial contamination during the storage of the fresh-cut fruits is reduced, the
enzymatic browning and tissue softening of the fresh-cut fruits is inhibited, the organoleptic quality
and nutritive value of the fresh-cut fruits was better, the shelf life of the fresh-cut fruits is prolonged
by 10 to 15 days under the condition of cold storage, and the shelf storage life of the fresh-cut fruits is
prolonged by 7 to 8 days at room temperature. Some notable studies on application of pressurized
inert gases (hyperbaric treatment) to preserve fresh fruits were mentioned in table-1.
Table1: Studies on application of pressurized inert gases (hyperbaric treatment) to preserve fresh fruits
Fresh Inert gases Process conditions Results References
produce
Pineapples Ar 1.8 MPa, 4ºC, 60 min Maintained the color and firmness, Wu et al., 2013
delayed the microbial growth, and
extended the shelf life by 6 days.
Pineapples Ar 10MPa, 4 ºC, 20 min Markedly reduced the respiration rate Wu et al., 2012
and ethylene production. The rate of
browning was reduced.
Apples and Ar:Xe= 2:9 1.8 MPa, 4 ºC, 96 h High pressure (Ar + Xe) mixed gas Wu et al., 2013
pineapple treatment promoted the wound
healing response and enhanced
resistance against the infection of E.
coli and S. cerevisiae.
Pulsed Light: Pulsed light technology appears to be one of the best alternatives to conventional
thermal and chemical decontamination process. The technology not only effective in decontamination
of the produce or packaging but also in maintenance of the nutritional and sensory properties of fresh-
cut fruits (Abida et al., 2014).
Novel Technologies in Fruit Preservation 281
It is the non thermal method of food preservation that depends on the principle of generating
the pulsed light with gradually increasing from low to high energy and then releasing the highly
concentrated energy as broad spectrum bursts, to ensure microbial decontamination on the surface of
foods and packaging foods. Within fraction of second, the electromagnetic energy gets stored in the
capacitor and is then released in the form of light within a billionth of a second, which results in
power amplification and minimum additional energy consumption (Green et al., 2005). The
inactivation efficiency of pulsed light depends upon intensity (measured in Joule/cm-2) and the
number of pulses delivered. Pulsed light processing technique has been commercialized and there
have been many reports (table-2) on the wide spectrum application of this technology.
Table 2: Application of pulsed light in fresh-cut fruits
Products Treatment Result References
Fresh-cut apple 11.9 Jcm-2 Higher microbial reduction of Listeria innocua, Gomez et al., 2012
Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
and maintenance of color
Fresh-cut apple 23.9 Jcm-2 combined Effective in inhibition of browning and microbial Gomez et al., 2012
with pretreatment of growth
ascorbic acid(1%)
and calcium
chloride(0.1%)
Fresh-cut mangoes 8 Jcm-2 Maintenance of the firmness, color and Charles et al.,
nutritional quality (carotenoid content, phenol 2013
and total ascorbic acid)
Fresh-cut apple 17.5 Jcm-2 Effective maintenance in color; no significant Ignat et al., 2014
changes in firmness
Fresh-cut apple 14 Jcm-2 combined Effective retardation of microbiological Moreira et al.,
with gellan-gum deterioration and maintenance in sensory quality 2015
based (0.5% w/v)
edible coatings
Cold Plasma: Cold plasma is a novel, nonthermal, low-cost, environment-friendly technology with
potential applications in the food industry. Cold plasma has shown promising results for shelf life
extension by microbial decontamination and sterilization of food products including fruit juices, food
packaging materials, equipment cleaning and biofilm control (Pankaj et al., 2018., Phan et al., 2017).
Plasma is the fourth state of matter, primarily composed of photons, ions, and free electrons
as well as atoms in their fundamental or excited states with a net neutral charge (Pankaj et al., 2014).
In fruit industry plasma can be generated at low temperature typically by applying a voltage to a gas.
The electric field generated from the applied voltage can accelerate any free electrons in the gas.
Accelerated electrons collide with gas atoms to excite or ionize them. Ionization of gas atoms releases
more electrons, this cascaded reaction can generate a rich abundance of highly reactive chemical
species which are capable of inactivating a wide range of microorganisms including food borne
pathogens and spoilage organisms. Any kind of energy can be used for ionization of gases, e.g.
electrical, thermal, optical (e.g., UV light), radioactive (e.g., gamma radiation), X-rays, etc. However,
the most useful ionization tools are electric or electromagnetic fields (Bardos and Barankova, 2010).
The plasma reactive species could be generated at an electrode by means of a radiofrequency,
microwave or dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) power sources (Pankaj et al., 2014). Different types
of systems for cold plasma generation at low pressure and atmospheric pressure have reviewed in
table -3.
Table3: Applications of cold plasma in fruit processing
Products Dosage Quality Observation Reference
Orange Juice DBD, Air/MA65 (65% O2, 30% Reduction of microbial Xu et al., 2017
CO2, 5% N2), 90 kV, 30–120 s spoilage and retention of color
Pomegranate juice Plasma jet, 25 kHz, Ar, 0.75–1.25 Increase in total anthocyanin Kovacevic et al., 2016
dm3/min, 3–7 min content. No visual differences
in color
Blueberry DBD, 50 Hz, 60–80 kV, 0–5 min, Significant increase in total Sarangapani, et al.,
air soluble solid 2017
Strawberry DBD, 60 kV, 50 Hz, 65% O2 + 16% Strawberries in high oxygen Misra et al., 2014
N2 + 19% CO2 and 90% N2 + 10% mixture showed higher
O2, 5 min, indirect exposure firmness with similar
respiration rates
Mandarins Microwave plasma, 2.45 GHz, Increased total phenolic content Won et al., 2017
900W, 1 L/min, 0.7 kPa, N2, He, N2 and antioxidant activity
+ O2 (4:1), 10 min
Kiwifruit DBD, 15 kV, 10–20 min Improved color retention and Ramazzina et al., 2015
reduced darkened area
formation during storage
Golden delicious Gliding arc plasma, 60 Hz, air, 10– No changes in color and texture Niemira et al., 2008
apples 40 L/min, 1–3 min
Fig DBD, 7 KHz, 30s Significant shelf life Abbaszadeh et al., 2018
improvement
Pulsed Electric Fields: Pulsed electric field (PEF) is a novel technique able to permeabilize cells
presented in fruit tissues without an important increase of the product temperature and avoiding an
excessive deterioration of the tissue. The basic principle of PEF treatments involve the intermittent
(<300 Hz) application of direct current high voltage pulses (<50 kV) of very short width (from a few
microseconds to several milliseconds) to a target food through electrode. This creates a potential
difference between the electrodes that consequently results in the application of pulsed electric fields
to the food, ranging from 0.1 to 50 kV/cm or even more in function of the voltage, the distance
between the electrodes, and the general configuration of the treatment reactor (Puertolas et al., 2016).
The process is based on pulsed electrical currents delivered to a product placed between a set
of electrodes, the distance between electrodes is termed as the treatment gap of the PEF chamber, the
electric field may be applied in the form of exponentially decaying, square wave, bipolar, or
oscillatory pulses and at ambient, sub-ambient, or slightly above-ambient temperature. Food is
capable of transferring electricity because of the presence of several ions, giving the product a certain
degree of electrical conductivity. So, when an electrical field is applied, electrical current flows into
the liquid food and is transferred to each point in the liquid because of the charged molecules present.
The applied high voltage results in an electric field that causes microbial inactivation. After the
treatment, the food is packaged aseptically and stored under refrigeration (Kasri and Piah, 2018).
Table- 4 provides a comprehensive summary of the outcomes of recent studies on this technology.
Table 4: Application of pulsed electric field on fresh and processed fruits.
Product Condition Results Reference
Apple Juice 16 Hz; 0 to 35 kV/cm; 0.2 The content of ascorbic acid decreased Bi et al., 2013
and 2 μs; 75 μs; <42 °C significantly during PEF treatment.
Amla Juice 1 Hz; 26 kV/cm; 1 μs; 500 5.1 log reduction of Z. bailii. 63% and Bansal et al., 2015
μs; <41°C 88.9% retention of ascorbic acid and
antioxidant capacity.
100 Hz; 35 kV/cm; 4 μs; Beneficial effect on turbidity, soluble Mtaoua et al., 2017
Date Juice 1,000 μs; <35 °C solids and pH. The content of total phenols
increased after treatment compared to
untreated juice.
Longan Juice 10 Hz; 32 kV/cm; 3 μs; 90 High retention of ascorbic acid and flavor Zhang et al., 2010
s; <40 °C compounds.
Apple Juice 300-500 pulses; 30 kV / The results showed that PEF did not affect Dziadek et al., 2019
cm; 15 mins; 4 oC the content of bioactive compounds. PEF-
treated juice did not show changes in the
amount of vitamin C and total polyphenols
during the storage for 72 h under
refrigeration.
High Hydrostatic Pressure: High hydrostatic pressure treatment (HHP) is a nonchemical treatment
that has been reported to inactivate microorganisms through membrane disruption. High-pressure
treatment is used in various fruits processing industries for the inactivation of microorganisms and
enzymes, for extending the shelf life and maintaining better organoleptic, sensory, and nutritional
properties (Gopal et al., 2017).
In this method the product to be treated at high pressure is packaged in a flexible container
and placed inside a pressure vessel submerged in liquid medium (mostly water), which transmits the
pressure. The effect of HHP are uniform and nearly instantaneous throughout the food and, thus,
independent of food geometry and equipment size. Once the desired pressure is achieved, the pump or
piston is stopped, the valves are closed and the pressure can be maintained without further energy
input. After the required hold time has elapsed, the system is depressurized, the vessel opened and the
product taken out. Generally High-pressure processing conditions are typically in the range of 300–
800 MPa, combined with different time periods, at a temperature range of 35-55 ºC (Perera et al.,
2010).
Table5: Applications of High Hydrostatic Pressure in fresh and processed fruit preservation
Product Conditions Results References
Gooseberry pulp 300-500MPa per 3-5min. Maximum retention of total phenolic Galvez et al., 2014
content is observed
Strawberry 600 MPa at 20°C per Significant difference was observed Terefe et al., 2013
puree 5min. with increased shelf life when
compared to thermal treatment
Avocado paste 600 MPa for 3 minutes Reported a decrease in Velazquez and Hernandez,
and stored for 45 days at polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and 2010
4°C. lipoxygenase (LOX) in avocado
paste. Lactic acid bacteria counts
were very low during storage.
Apple, banana, 350 MPa at 5 min per 10 The microbial quality of smoothies Hurtado et al., 2017
blackberry, °C was adequately controlled.
gooseberry, grape,
lime, orange,
strawberry smoothie
Cranberry Prebiotic 450 MPa per 5 min at 11.5 The treatment preserved FOS Gomes et al., 2017
juice fortified °C maintaining the prebiotic property of
with Fructo the juice.
oligosaccharides
(FOS)
Mango Juice blend 600 MPa per 5 min at 25 HHP did not cause a change in the Moreira et al., 2017
°C anthocyanin content. High sensory
acceptance.
Apple, mint, 400 to 600 MPa for 0 to The largest decrease of patulin in Hao et al., 2016
pineapple Juice 300 s at 11 °C juice blend was 48 ppb (0.31μM)
blend when treated at 600 MPa for 300 s.
Banana Smoothie 350 to 550 MPa for 2 to Significant microbial reductions. Li et al., 2015
10 min at 20 °C
Pomegranate 400 MPa at 5°C per 5min 63% of anthocyanins retained and Ferrari et al., 2011
Juice shelf life has been increased
apricot, peach, and 600MPa per 5 min Remarkably extend the shelf-life of Anthoula et al., 2014
pear these fresh products, with minor
changes on their color and firmness.
Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology has been considered as one of the cutting- edge technologies of
the 21st century (Ma et al., 2017). Application of nanotechnology to fruits shelf life extension field
may overcome the shortcomings of traditional preservation technologies (Liu et al., 2019).
Nanomaterials are defined as materials in which at least one dimension of the structure is less than
100nm (Peters et al. 2016). Owing to materials downsize from macroscale to nanoscale,
nanomaterials exhibit a series of unique attributes, such as excellent hardness, barrier and optical
properties, etc., that are different from their macroscopic state. These unique material characteristics
are the basic principles for the application of nanomaterials to fruits preservation.
Recently, there have been many studies on the application of nanomaterials in preservation of
fruits (table -6). Typical examples of application of nanomaterials in fruits includes metal ionic nano-
antimicrobial particles such as Ag, Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Fe and Al, in various natural or synthetic mineral
nano-carriers (Brody et al., 2011) and oxide photocatalytic antimicrobial nanomaterials Nano-TiO2
etc. which prevent microbial contamination of fresh produce (Rossi et al., 2014), The intelligent
labels (carbon nanotubes, nano titanium dioxide, Au nanorods and nanocrystalline SnO 2)that are
mostly used in shelf life prolongation of fruits include freshness indicators, time-temperature
indicators and gas indicators and in active packing as antioxidant film (Ramos et al., 2014),
antimicrobial film (Meira et al., 2017) and nanocomposite-based packaging that containing nano-
silver, nano-titanium dioxide and montmorillonite was used to extend shelf life of ethylene mature
fruits (Fang et al., 2016).
Table 6: Application of nanotechnology in fruit preservation.
Products Nano-components Results References
Apple Nano-ZnO The storage period of fresh-cut apples packed Li et al.. 2011
with nano-packaging was prolonged by 6 days.
Kiwifruit Nano-ZnO With nano Zinc Oxide coating, the kiwifruit Meng et al., 2014
product assumed a lower ethylene content and

water loss meanwhile maintain the texture in
comparison with control treatment.
Strawberries Nano-ZnO Nano-ZnO could inhibited microbial growth, Sogvar et al., 2016
delayed weight loss and maintained the
functional nutrients of strawberries.
Pomegranate Nano-ZnO Nanoscale coating could decreased total yeast Saba and Amini, 2017
mold and weight loss
Longan fruit Nano-silica Nano silica could inhibited the activities of Shi et al., 2013
polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase as well as
the nutrient substance such as total soluble
solids and vitamin C had been better retained.
Conclusions: Heat treatments still remain the most used approach to assure quality and safety of
juices and beverages; however, they might have some detrimental effects on the nutritional as well as
sensory quality, a possibility to this is the use of nonthermal approach. This chapter offers on
overview of the most recent advanced non thermal technologies like Pressurized inert gases, Pulsed
light, Cold plasma, Pulsed electric field, High Hydrostatic Pressure and Nanotechnology with a
special focus on the retention of bioactive compounds, inactivation of enzymes and spoiling
microorganisms as well as pathogens. Some approaches are currently used for industrial applications
(for example high pressure) while others are still at laboratory level, Therefore, further efforts are
required to implement these methodologies and evaluate the nutritional quality, potential toxicity and
the economicity of the process, as the high cost is the main drawback and limits the use of these
approaches.
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
DRAGON FRUIT-A POTENTIAL HIGH VALUE CROP OF FUTURE
Sanchita Brahma1 and Nayanmoni Buragohain2
1
Assistant Professor, SCSCA, AAU, Dhubri (Assam), E-mail: brahma.sanchita@gmail.com and 2Assistant Professor, BNCA,
AAU, Bishwanath Chariali (Assam), Corresponding Author: Sanchita Brahma
D ragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.) is an exotic and remunerative high value fruit crop
recently introduced in the Indian market. It is also called as strawberry pear or pitaya
or pitahaya because of the bracts or scales present on the fruit skin meaning “the
scaly fruit”. It is the most nutritious and wonderful exotic fruit, which is getting tremendous
popularity among the growers because of the attractive fruit colour. Being a naturally low-calorie
food, it has attracted growers from different parts of the country not because of its red or pink flesh
colour and high economic value but also valued for its high antioxidant, vitamins and minerals
content. Cultivation of this crop on commercial scale has already started in different parts of the
country. The crop provides quick return, with economic production from 14-15 months after planting
of stem cuttings (Perween et al., 2018), and full production within three – five years. Planted once, it
will continue giving economic production for about 20 years with long crop cycle from May-
December in different flushes every year (Perween et al., 2018). However the bearing time may vary
in different locality for different climatic conditions. Pitahayas has been domesticated recently and the
first published references to cultivation practices date back only to around fifteen year (Barbeau,
1990). The crop is hardy and can survive in any type of soil and climatic conditions. It is considered
as a fruit crop for future (Pushpakumara et al., 2006).
Botanical Name : Hylocereus spp
Family : Cactaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=22
Origin : Mexico, Central and South America
Common Name : Dragon fruit or strawberry pear or pitaya or pitahaya
Origin and Distribution: The crop is a long-day plant of tropical origin. Most Hylocereus spp.
generally originated in Mexico, Central and South America (Mizrahi et al., 1997) with others possibly
from West Indies (Briton, 1963) . Hylocereus species are found distributed in both tropical and sub-
tropical regions, but Hylocereus undatus is the most cosmopolitian species. The crop was introduced
in India during the late 90’s and the area under its cultivation is gradually increasing Due to hardy
nature of the crop, it can survive adverse climatic conditions of arid and semi-arid regions of India.
The species normally prefer to grow in the partial shade conditions, but H. Undatus, H. costaricensis
and H. purpusii can be grown in full sunshine conditions. Very hot and insufficient water may lead to
burning of stem (Bellec. et al., 2006). In the Neveg Desert in Israel, the most favourable conditions
for growth and fruit production were found to be 30% shade for H. polyrhizus (Raveh et al., 1998).
In Karnataka, Kerela, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam
Andhra Pradesh, Andaman & Nicobar Islands cultivation of dragon fruit has already started. Majority
of the dragon fruits presently available in Indian markets are imported from Vietnam, Thailand,
Malaysia, and Srilanka (Karunakaran et al., 2019). In Vietnam Hylocereus undatus has undergone
extensive development with nearly 2000 ha under cultivation (Daubresse, 1999). Elsewhere pitahayas
are considered as new fruit with promising future and are cultivated on a large scale in Australia
(Jacobs, 1998), Israil (Nerd and Mirzahi, 1997) and Reunion Island (Le Bellec and Judith, 2002). The
robustness of Hylocereus species enables them to prosper under different ecological conditions
Uses and Nutraceutical Values: The fruit pulp is mostly eaten fresh when ripe and also used for
making jam, jelly, wines, ice cream preparations etc.. Young stems of H. undatus and fresh flower
buds are consumed as vegetables. Luders and Mc Mahon (2006) reported that the dragon fruit is
widely used in juice making and in fruit salads at restaurants. A syrup made of the whole fruit is used
to color pastries and candy. The fruit possesses medicinal properties and known to prevent colon
cancer and diabetes, reduces cholesterol and high blood pressure. It improves digestion and helps to
manage blood sugar. Regular consumption helps in fighting against cough and asthama. The fruits
contain vitamins, minerals, fiber and antioxidants that have beneficial qualities. Vitamin C content
ranges from 4-10 mg/100g (Karunakaran et al., 2019), which plays an important role to enhance
immune system and also to stimulate the activity of other antioxidant in the body. Fruits with pink/red
flesh have higher phenolics and flavanoids content and antioxidant activity compared to white fleshed
fruits (Karunakaran et al., 2019). Besides dragon fruit is also rich in B vitamin (B1, B2 and B3),
phosphorus and calcium. Proximate nutraceutical values in g or mg per 100g edible portion of white -
flesh dragon fruit are as follows (Jaffar et al., 2009):
Principle Nutritive value
1) Moisture : 85.3%
2) Carbohydrate : 11.20 mg
3) Protein : 1.10 mg
4) Fat : 0.57 mg
5) Crude fibre : 1.34 mg
6) Energy : 67.70 Kcal
7) Glucose : 5.70 mg
8) Fructose : 3.20 mg
9) Vitamin A : 0.01 mg
10) Vitamin C : 3.00 mg
11) Niacin : 2.80 mg
12) Calcium : 10.20 g
13) Iron : 3.37 g
14) Phosphorus : 27.75 g
15) Potassium : 272.0 mg
16) Magnesium : 38.90 g
17) Sodium : 8.90 mg
18) Zinc : 0.35 mg
Botany: Dragon fruit belongs to the genus Hylocereus of botanical family Cactaceae. The genus
Hylocereus comprises of 16 species, which are endemic to Latin America and not very well-known
and recently been the subject of studies. Hylocereus spp. are diploid (2n=22) (De Dios, 2004 and
Lichtenzveig, et al., 2000). Cactacae family mainly has ornamental value, but it also includes nearly
about 250 cultivated species of fruit-bearing and industrial crop (Fouque, 1969). Pitaya is a fast
growing, perennial, climbing vine-like cacti with most beautiful fruit in the family Cactaceae. The
plants have triangular (3-sided) green, fleshy, jointed, many branched stems. The stems has three
sided, green, fleshy, flat, wavy wings, with corneous margins and may have 1-3 small spines, or are
spineless. The stems may reach 20 ft (6 m) in length. The aerial roots are produced from the stems,
which adhere to the surface upon which they grow or climb. The pitaya flower is large, showy (15-
22cm), white in colour, fragrant and bell shaped, which also have ornamental value. The flowers
bloom at night and that is why it is also nicknamed as “Queen of the Night”. The fruit is a fleshy
berry, with red and yellow scaly peel. The fruit has a mouth melting pulp with red, violet or white
coloured flesh depending on the species and numerous small black coloured edible seeds are found
embedded within the fruit pulp. Hylocereus species differ with respect to the flesh and skin colour of
fruits as follows:
1. Hylocereus undatus- (Pitaya blanca or white-fleshed pitaya) has pink-skinned fruit with white
flesh. This is the most commonly seen "dragon fruit"
2. Hylocereus polyrhizus- (Pitaya roja or red-fleshed pitaya) has pink-skinned fruit with red flesh.
3. Hylocereus costaricencis – has violet red flesh and pink skin.
4. Hylocereus megalanthus (Pitaya amarilla or yellow pitaya, also known as Selenicerus
megalanthus) has yellow-skinned fruit with white flesh.
Fig. 1 Hylocereus costaricencis Fig. 2 Hylocereus undatus

Dragon Fruit-A Potential High Value Crop of Future 289
Fig. 3. H. undatus Fig. 4. H. megalanthus Fig. 5. H. costaricencis

Briton and Rose (1963) classified the genus Hylocereus into five species. These species differ
with respect to skin & pulp colours.
1. Hylocereus purpusii (weing.) Briton and Rose: Has very large (25cm) flowers with margins;
outer perianth segments are more or less reddish; middle perianth segments golden and inner perianth
segments white. It presents scarlet, oblong fruit covered with large scales (length: 10-15 cm; weight:
150-400g); red flesh with many small black seeds; pleasant flesh texture, but not very pronounced.
2. Hylocereus polyrhizus (Web.) Briton and Rose: Has very long (25-30cm) flowers with margins;
outer reddish perianth segments, especially at the tips; and rather short and yellowish stigma lobes. Its
scarlet fruit (length: 10-12cm; weight: 130-350g) is oblong and covered with scales that vary in size;
it has a red flesh with many small black seeds, pleasant flesh texture and good taste.
3. Hylocereus costaricencis (Web.) Briton and Rose: Represented by vigorous vines, perhaps the
stoutest of this genus. Stems are waxy white and flowers are nearly the same as H. polyrhizus; its
scarlet fruit (diameter: 10-15 cm; weight: 250-600g) is ovoid and covered with scales that vary in
size; it has a red purple flesh with many small black seeds, pleasant flesh texture and good taste.
4. Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Briton and Rose: Has long and green stems, more or less horny in the
age margins. Flowers are very long (up to 29 cm), outer perianth segments are green (or yellow-
green) and inner perianth segments pure white. Its rosy-red fruit (length: 15-22cm; weight: 300-800g)
is oblong and covered with large and long scales, red and green at the tips; it has a white flesh with
many small black seeds, pleasant flesh texture and a good taste.
5. Hylocereus trigonous (Haw.) Saff: Represented by slender, green with margins, not horny stems.
The aeroles are located on the top of the rib’s undulation. Spines, at first greenish, soon turn dark
brown. Its red fruit (diameter: 7-9cm; weight: 120-150 g) is ovoid or oblong, becoming nearly
smooth; the white flesh has many small black seeds and pleasant flesh texture, but not a very
pronounced flavour.
Soil: Dragon fruits can be grown in a wide range of soils from sandy loam to clay loam provided it is
well-drained. However, the ideal soil type is well drained sandy loam soil, rich in organic matter and
slightly acidic in nature.
Climate: The dry tropical regions are best for the cultivation of the crop. Dragon fruit requires
adequate water because they originated from tropical rain forest unlike other cacti which are of desert
origin. Hence, Indian climatic conditions are also suitable for pitaya cultivation except less rainfall
area. It needs an annual rainfall of 1145-2540 mm/yr. The optimum temperature requirement is 200C
– 300C, but can withstand temperatures of 38-400C and as low as 0oC for short periods (Karunakaran,
et al., 2014). At temperatures above 40oC , the plants will be damaged due to yellow stem. Provision
of shade should be made in areas receiving high sunlight for better yield. High rainfall areas are not
suitable for the crop, as excessive rain causes flower and fruit drop (Karunakaran and Arivalagan,
2019). Dragon fruit cultivation prefers full sunlight with open area. The shady areas are not suitable
for dragon fruit planting. Being a cactus family and requiring long day for flowering, dragon fruit
cultivation is well suited in the agro-climatic regions of Southern, Western and North-Eastern region
that are dry and frost free.
Propagation: The pitahaya fruits can be propagated by seeds as well as by stem cuttings. The seed
propagation studies carried out that seedlings remain smaller with thin stem even after one year of
planting. Further the plants produced from seeds are not true to type and there is there lot of
variability among the plants. Thus seed are generally not used for commercial multiplication of
dragon fruit (Tripathi, et al., 2014).
Stem cuttings are best for cultivation of dragon fruits as it allows reliable production of the
variety and also the fruiting stage is reached more rapidly, less than 1year after planting. H. undatus
and H. costaricencis can be multiplied naturally and very easily by cutting off the stem as soon as it
touches the ground (Fouque, 1969). Generally 20-25cm long stem cuttings are selected from 2-3 years
old strong dark green branches after the fruiting season. The cuttings should be prepared one-two days
prior to planting and the latex oozing out from the cut surface is allowed to dry. The stem cuttings
should be treated with fungicides to prevent diseases.
Before planting, the cuttings should be treated with root hormones like IBA and can be
planted in 12 x 30cm size polythene bags, filled with 1:1:1 ratio of soil: FYM: sand. The polythene
bags are kept in a shady place for rooting and excess moisture should be for prevention of rotting. The
cuttings root profusely and becomes ready for planting within 5-6 months (Tripathi et al., 2014). Stem
cuttings will grow rapidly and may produce fruits 6-9 months after planting depending on location
and climatic conditions. For planting directly in the field, stem cuttings are prepared by giving a
slanting cut at the stem base and left in a shaded area for about 5-6 days to dry and heal before
planting.
Method of Planting: Dragon fruit or Pitahaya are semi-epiphytic plants, which, climb and attach
naturally to any natural or artificial support they meet like trees, wood or cement posts, stone walls,
etc. (Rodon, 1998), due to the presence of their aerial roots. Growing them flat on the ground is not
recommended, firstly because it makes cultivation more difficult (pollination, harvest, etc.), secondly
because contact with the ground causes damage to the vines [39]. Pitahaya are thus best grown on
living or dead supports [De Dios et al., 2000 and Barbeau, 1990). Different types of support like
vertical supports made of wood or cement/concrete and iron posts are mainly used (N’Guyen, 1996),
and horizontal and inclined supports. The concrete pillars are supported by a square or round metal or
concrete structure in the top to train the vine for bearing purpose. The vine spread on the round metal
structure in the top in a balanced way. Plant growth is rapid and continuous, though possibly with a
vegetative rest period when the climatic conditions are unfavorable (drought and very low
temperatures).
Generally in single post vertical system planting is done at 3 m x 3 m distance. Height of
different types of supports. should be between 1.5 m to 2 m for single post vertical support (is at
which point they are allowed to branch and hang down) and between 1-1.2m for horizontal and
inclined supports to facilitate management of the crop. The Dragon fruit may be planted near the poles
to enable them to climb easily.
The cured or rooted cuttings should be planted in the field at a depth of at least 1.5-2 inches.
At least 2-4 numbers of cuttings are planted at 3 x 3m distance around each concrete pillar (single
pole vertical support) depending on the climatic condition. Lateral shoots must be limited and 2-3
main stems are allowed to grow. Lateral shoots must be removed from time to time. The media
consisted of the soil enriched with organic inputs like farmyard manure, coir compost and vermi-
compost along with biofertilizers.
Studies conducted at IIHR, Bangaluru (Karunakaran et al., 2019), Karnataka reveals that
single pole vertical system with ring type of trellis showed better performance in growth and yield
when compared with other trellis system. Single pole with ring type of trellis that can support the
weight of the plants and allow easy access to flower and fruit development, will work for commercial
production. The wooden poles are hard but their durability is least compare to cement poles. It is not
possible to change the poles in between because of the growth and entangled branches. Though cost
may be high for cement pole but they are durable and can be used for many years.
Training and Pruning: The Dragon fruit plants are fast growing vines and produces thick dense
branches during the initial stage. When vertical and horizontal supports are used, pruning is important
and the stems should be selected in such a way as to force the plant to climb over the entire support.
All lateral growth and parts of the plant facing the ground should be removed, while the main stems
and branch stems are kept, except those that touch the ground.
Once vines reaches up to the top of the stands the branches are then allowed to grow. The
removal of tip of main stem is done to allow growth of new shoots to grow laterally and climb at the
ring to form an umbrella like structure of vines where flowers will emanate and develop into fruits
which would induce lateral branching. This pruning referred as structural pruning or making a
structure on the trellis. The well grown vine may produce 30 to 50 branches in one year and may be
more than 100 branches in-four years
Regular pruning of the plants helps to obtain an open and manageable umbrella shape canopy
which will induce new shoots for the next cropping season (Karunakaran, et. al., 2014). Major
pruning is carried out in the first year after planting. Whatever the support used, the stem must be
attached to it with a clip. The aim of maintenance pruning is to limit bunch growth and this should be
carried out as early as the second year after planting. In practice, the extent of pruning depends on the
type of support and its strength. Pruning consists of removing all the damaged stems from the plant in
addition to those that are entangled with one another. The post-harvest pruning encourages the growth
of new young shoots that will bear flowers the following year.
Flowering: The flower first appears with small spiral button type structures at the stem margins.
These develop to form flower buds in 10-15 days. The beautiful hermaphrodite flowers are 25-30cm
long, white inside and greenish yellow with purple dyes on the outside (Fig.3.) They are scented and
only blooms at night and last only for one night. Flower production generally takes place during May
-August and fruit is harvested 30-40 days after fruits set. Quality of the fruit does vary between
varieties, but harvest time has a much greater effect on quality than varietal differences. There is
considerable variation in fruit size and shape between the varieties. At present very little knowledge is
available on varietal and production aspects of dragon fruits (Karunakaran and Arivalagan, 2019).
Pollination: In certain production areas, mannual cross-pollination is needed due to lack of genetic
diversity and/or the absence of pollinating agents to ensure fruit set and development (Weiss et al.,
1994; Le Bellec F., 2004 and Castello et al., 2003). Manual pollination is simple and this operation is
facilitated by the floral characteristics of Hylocereus spp., as the different floral parts are huge.
Manual pollination may be carried out before anthesis of the flower from 4:30 P.M. until 11:00 A.M.
the next day. These manual pollinations are worth undertaking and the fruits obtained are of excellent
quality (Le Bellec, 2004). Pollination is accomplished by opening the flower by pinching the bulging
part. This reveals the stigmata, which are then covered with pollen with a brush. Alternatively, the
anthers can be directly deposited (with minimal pressure) on the stigmata with the fingers. The pollen
can be removed from a flower of a different clone (or from another species) and stored in a box until
needed. The pollen removed from two flowers will be enough for around 100 pollinations with a
brush. It can be stored for (3 to 9) months at –18 °C to – 196 °C without risk. The quality of fruits
obtained from natural pollination is generally lower than that of those obtained by manual cross-
pollination (Le Bellec, 2004).
Nutrient Management: Proper nutrient requirement is needed for better yield performance of the
crop. The root system of dragon fruit plant is superficial and distributed within 15-30cm of soil depth
which can rapidly assimilate even the smallest quantity of nutrients. Combination of mineral and
organic nutrition is advantageous for the crop. An experiment conducted in BCKV, Kolkata, India for
different combination of N, P, K fertilizer doses revealed the dose of N 450: P2O5 350: K2O 300 produced
best result for yield and quality. The nutrients were supplied as per treatment schedule in four split
doses to each pillar having four plants @ 10, 10 and 30% of total, before flowering, 20, 40 and 25% at
fruit set, 30, 20 and 30% at harvest and finally 40, 30 and 15 % of total N, P2O5 and K2O after two
months of harvest (Anon, 2017).
A combination of organic manure with neem cake and 100g of complete fertilizer (19-19-19)
may be applied every three to four months (Karunakaran et al., 2019)
Irrigation & Weeding: Dragon fruit plants can survive with very low rainfall, but a regular water
supply is needed for proper fruit development. The root system is shallow and distributed in 15 to 30
cm of soil depth. Hence irrigation should be insured to provide sufficient water during dry season.
Excessive irrigation may cause fungal disease. Therefore proper drainage should be provided during
rainy season. Frequent dry period without irrigation reduces the yield and quality of fruits.
Approximately 2-4 litres of water weekly twice per plant is sufficient through drip irrigation during
the summer/dry days.
Weed control is an important operation in dragon fruit cultivation and the use of weed mat
efficiently reduced the weeds growth and also aids in soil moisture conservation (www.icar.org.in). In
about 8 months after planting the dragon fruit forms a thick dense mass of vines on top of the trellis
which lies drooping to the ground.
Harvesting: The pitahaya plant starts yielding after 12-15 months from the date of planting and
becomes ready for harvesting in 25-30 days after flowering depending on the species. The maturity
index of the fruit is colour breaking stage from bright green colour to red colour (ICAR). The fruit
skin develops colors very late in the maturation stage, changing from green to red or rosy-pink within
25 or 27 days (depending on the species) after anthesis (Nerd, et al., 1999). Proper time of harvesting
was found after seven days of colour transition. The plants yield the fruits in the months between June
to September, and harvest could be done three to four times in a month, The fruit weight ranged
between 300-800g, and the average yield from the single post is realized about 30 to 35 kgs from the
three years old planting.
Fruit Quality Parameters: Pitahaya fruit has excellent taste and texture. Study conducted by
Karunakaran and Arivalagan (2019) found that among the two red and white pulp cultivars evaluated,
average fruit weight (g) was recorded higher in white pulped (457.0 g) than the red pulped cultivar
(331.0 g), the maximum fruits per pole was recorded in red pulped (22.40) compared to white pulped
(14.40) in one year old plants. They also found that the cultivar having deep red or purple color pulp
the values of TSS (11.54 0B) was higher as compared to the one having white colour pulp (9.75 0B),
which is an important parameter related with fruit quality.
Sun Burn Injury: Symptoms of sun burn injuries appears during the month of March and April when
the day and night temperature recorded wide variation, particularly when the temperature crosses
above 38ºC. In this regard, experiments has been conducted for growing dragon fruit under shade net
house and spraying anti-transpirants to control the sun burn injury on dragon fruit plants. Further,
addition of filler crop also were tried to control the physiological injury (Karunakaran et al., 2019).
Diseases and Insect-pests of Dragon Fruit: In general dragon fruit is tolerant to major pests and
diseases. Important diseases that affect dragon fruit crop are anthracnose, brown spots, stem rots and
bacterial rot (fungal and bacterial pathogens) etc. Heavy rainfall and overwatering or waterlogged
conditions predispose the crop for these diseases.
1. Anthracnose: The disease has been reported in India from Andaman islands (Abirami et al.
(2019).
Causal Organism: It is caused by Coletotrichum siamense.
Symptoms: Reddish or organge brown concentric lesions with ascervuli (black colored pin heads).
Starts near ribs of vine generally at points where spines emerge from the edge. Attack fruits too
Control: Preventive spray with Chlorothalonil / mancozeb at 2g/L and curative spray with
carbendazim at 1g/L.
2. Bacterial Rot: caused by Xanthomonas campestris and Erwinia carotovora.
Casual Organism: Too much of light makes the plant vulnerable to bacterial rot. Sun burn and Ca
deficiency aggravates the disease.
Control: Copperoxy chloride (at 0.2%) can be used for managing this disease.
Few pests have been recorded on Hylocereus species. Ants belonging to the genera Atta
(Barbeau, 1990) and Solenopsis (N’ Guyen, 1996 and Le Bellec, 2004) are very notorious pest and
can cause major damage to the plants as well as to the flowers and fruits. Cotinus mutabilis perforates
the stem and Leptoglossus zonatus sucks the sap, leaving stains and some deformations (Barbeau,
1990). In addition different species of aphids and scales have also been observed on fruits and
flowers. Rats and birds can cause serious damage, mainly to flowers (Le Bellec, 2003) and fruits (N’
Guyen, 1996) as well as ripe fruits.
Conclusion: Dragon fruit is an exotic fruit crop of India having high nutritive and remunerative
potential. In near future, marketability of dragon fruit is expected to be very high because of limited
number of commercial producers, high demand, attractive shape and fruit colour having excellent
nutritional value. It is a fast growing perennial fruit crop. The red flesh varieties are naturally rich in
phenolics and flavanoides content. In addition Hylocereus costaricensis are additionally rich in
betalains, meeting the increasing trade demand for antioxidant and natural food colourants. Fruits are
found to keep well under room temperature. Besides taking it fresh, several processed products can
also be made from the fruit pulp. The crop is hardy and can survive in any type of agro-climatic
conditions. In general dragon fruits provide quick return in its first year of planting depending on the
agro-ecological conditions and desirable cultural and management practices. Single pole vertical
system with ring type of trellis showed better performance in growth and yield of the crop when
compared with other trellis system. Although, the initial investment is relatively high, but profit is
substantial within 4-5 years of production. The crop once planted will continue giving economic yield
for about 20 years if properly managed.
References
Abirami, K., Sakthivel, K., Sheoran, N., Baskaran, V., Gautam, R.K., Jerard, B.A. and Kumar, A. (2019).
Occurrence of Anthracnose Disease Caused by Colletotrichum siamense on Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus
undatus) in Andaman Islands, India. Plant Disease, 103(4), pp. 768-768.
Anonymous Perween, T. (2017). Thesis entitled Studies on the effect of nutrient application in vegetative and
reproductive phenology of dragon fruit submitted to the Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur
West Bengal, India, 29 - 44.
Anonymous. Dragon fruit-a potential high value crop for diversification in Bay Islands. ICAR- Central Island
Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare). Available at
www.icar.org.in
Barbeau, G. (1990). La pitahaya rouge, un nouveau fruit exotique. Fruits, 45:141-174.
Britton, N.L., Rose, J.N. (1963). Descriptions and illustrations of plants of the cactus family, Vol. I and II,
Dover Publ., Inc., New York, USA, 1963, pp. 183–195.
Castillo, R.M., Livera, M.M., Alicia, E., Brechú, F. (2003). Márquez-Guzmán J., Compatibilidad sexual entre
dos tipos de Hylocereus (Cactaceae), Rev. Bio. Trop. 51: 699–706.
Daubresse Balayer, M. (1999). Le pitahaya, Fruits Oubliés. 1999; 1:15-17.
De Dios, H.C. (2004). Distribución geográfica de las pitahaya (Hylocereus) en la República Mexicana, Cact.
Suc. Mex. 2004; 49:4-23.
Fouqué, A. (1969). Espèces fruitières d’Amérique tropicale, famille des Cactaceae, IFAC, Paris, France, pp. 25–
34.
Jacobs, D. (1998) Pitaya, Hylocereus undatus, a potential new crop for Australia, Rare Fruit Counc. Aust. Inc.
Newsl. 107: 3–7.
Jaafar, R.A., Rahman, A.R.B.A,, Mahmod, N.Z.C., Vasudevan, R. (2009). Proximate analysis of dragon fruit
(Hylocereus polyrhizus). Amer. J App. Sci., 6(7):1341-1346.
Karunakaran, G., Tripathi, P.C., Sankar, V., Sakthivel, T. and Senthilkumar, R. (2014). Dragon Fruit – A new
introduction crop to India: A potential market with promising future. Abstract In proceeding: National
Seminar on Strategies for conservation, Improvement and utilization of underutilized fruits on 1-3rd
December, Karnataka, India, pp. 138-139.
Karunakaran, G. and Arivalagan. M. (2019). Dragon Fruit - A New Introduction Crop with Promising market.
Indian Horticulture 63(1):8-11
Karunakaran, G., Arivalagan, M. and Sriram, S. (2019). Dragon Fruit Country Report From India. FFTC
Agricultural Policy Platform (FFTC-AP) (Available at http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/index.php)
Lichtenzveig, J., Abbo, S., Nerd, A., Tel-Zur, N. and Mizrahi, Y. (2000). Cytology and mating systems in the
climbing cacti Hylocereus and Selenicereus. Amer. J Bot., 87:1058-1065.
Le Bellec, F., Judith, R.C., (2002). La pitaya (Hylocereus sp.) en culture de diversification à l’île de la Réunion :
stratégie d’accompagnement de son développement, Fruits 57: 219–229.
Le Bellec, F., Vaillant, F. and Imbart, E. (2006). Pitahaya (Hylocereus spp.): a new fruit crop, a market with a
future. Fruits, 61:. 237-250
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Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines, Northern Territory Government, Australia,
(Available at: www. nt. gov. au /d/ Content/ File/ p/ Fruit/ 778. pdf).
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Nerd, A., Mizrahi, Y. (1997) Reproductive biology of cactus fruit crops, Hortic. Rev.18:321–346.
N’ Guyen, V.K. (1996). Floral induction study of dragon fruit crop (Hylocereus undatus) by using chemicals,
Univ. Agric. Forest., Fac. Agron., Hô Chi Minh-ville, Vietnam, 54.
Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Gunasena, H.P.M., Kariayawasam, M. (2006) Flowering and fruiting phenology,
pollination agents and Breeding system in Hylocereus spp. (dragon fruit). Proc Peradeniya University
Research Sessions. Sri Lanka, 11:15.
Raveh, E., Nerd, A., Mizrahi, Y. (1998) Responses of two hemi epiphytic fruit crop cacti to different degrees of
shade, Sci. Hortic., 73: 151–164.
Perween, T., Mandal, K. K. and Hasan, M.A. (2018). Dragon fruit: An exotic super future fruit of India. J.
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 7(2):1022-1026.
Tripathi, P.C., Karunakaran, G., Sankar, V. and Kumar, R. Senthil. (2014). Dragon fruit: Nutritive and
Ruminative Fruit, Technical Bulletin No. 11/2014, pp1-9. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bengaluru, India
Weiss, J., Nerd, A., Mizrahi, Y. (1994). Flowering behavior and pollination requirements in climbing cacti with
fruit crop potential, Hort Sci. 29:1487–1492.

NEW AGE MODERN TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Prashant B. Kardile1, Vinayak B. Shinde2 and G.S. Pawar3
1
Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Physiology), Department of Agricultural Botany, College of Agriculture, VNMKV, Parbhani-
431602 (M.S.), E-mail: kardile24@gmail.com, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Dadasaheb Patil College
of Agriculture, Dahegaon, Tal-Vaijapur, District- Aurangabad, (Affiliated to VNMKV, Parbhani-431602, M.S.), and
3
Seed Research Officer, Seed technology Research Unit & Breeder Seed Production Unit, VNMKV, Parbhani-431602
(M.S.), Corresponding Author: Prashant. B. Kardile
I t was emphasized that climate change (projected increases in temperatures, changes in

precipitation patterns, changes in extreme weather events, and reductions in water
availability) remains a threat to food security and nutrition by reducing horticultural
productivity. It can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality. The last
four years (2016-2019) have been the warmest on record worldwide, according to World
Meteorological Organisation. Every increase in average global temperature interferes with our
ability to access fresh water for agriculture, eventually leading to food shortages. Forecasts from
WMO suggest that 2020 would likely be warmer than 2019. So many countries experienced
climate shocks in 2016 after enduring two-to-three years of drought. Worse still, extreme weather
conditions – resulting in heavy rains and thunderstorms–were experienced causing flooding and soil
erosion, which damaged food crops. These climate shocks caused widespread food shortages, which
affected millions of people in many countries. These modern systems will also helps to face the
challenges of climate change and also help in production system management for efficient
utilization of natural resources and mitigating malnutrition (Butler & Oebker, 2006).
Based on recent estimates by FAO, a staggering 257 million people on the continent are
undernourished–compared to 241 million and 237 million undernourished people in 2016 and 2017,
respectively. Addressing these growing hunger statistics in the face of climatic factors will certainly
be more difficult but not impossible. What is required is for to adopt innovative, efficient and
sustainable methods of producing food to maximise limited resources like land and water, especially
at a time when land degradation, desertification and water scarcity are on the increase. In addition,
Open field cultivation is difficult as it involves large space, requires more labor and large volume of
water. In most urban and industrial areas, there is lack of fertile cultivable arable lands due to their
unfavorable geographical or topographical conditions (Beibel, 1960). Under such conditions, soil-
less culture can be introduced successfully (Butler & Oebker, 2006). Soilless culture is the technique
of growing plants in soil-less condition with their roots immersed in nutrient solution (Maharana &
koul, 2011). Some examples of sustainable and innovative methods of food production are
hydroponics and aquaponics. These are existing soil-less food production techniques that could
significantly save us from the scourging effects of extreme weather conditions. Soilless culture
could be applied to growing some popular local crops with the application of food safety standards
and at a reasonable price (Pual, 2000). In this some cultural practices are avoided, and land not
suitable for soil cultivation can be used (Polycarpou et al., 2005).
Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil. In this case, the plant roots are in a
water-based solution. The solution is usually nutrient-rich and there is provision for an inlet for
oxygen. With these, the plants can grow without soil. In a hydroponic system, temperature, pH and
other conditions are well monitored (Hussain et al., 2004).
Basics of Hydroponics: To be able to produce vegetables successfully year after year, one needs to
be familiar with the basics of hydroponics in term of the plant, growing medium, water and
nutrients.
Growing Mediums: The most popular mediums are hydroton (honeycomb clay pebbles with a
ceramic shells), Rockwool (melted balsamic rock spun into fibers), and Perlite (heated silica that has
expanded). Hydroton is popular because it is light, holds moisture, stays put, can be sterilized and
reused. The main drawback of hydroton is that it’s expensive and filling multiple cups can be costly.
Rockwool also has its advantages because it maintains a reservoir of nutrients in the root zone along
with a high percentage of pore space. Rockwool is preferable when you are turning your irrigation
system on and off or watering a few times a day. Perlite is similar to hydroton in the sense that it’s
New Age Modern Technologies for Sustainable Vegetable Production 295
reusable, and light. The advantage perlite has over hydroton is that it’s inexpensive. Perlite is used
when you are growing plants with larger root zones because of its cheaper cost. The drawback of
using perlite is that pieces of it tend to be pulled with the water and can clog pumps, filters, and
emitters. An effective way to combat the flow of perlite is to place paint strainers on the buckets
before you insert the perlite. The paint strainers act as a filter and keep the perlite from traveling
through your system.
Mineral Nutrients: There are approximately seventeen elements required for proper growth of
hydroponic plants.
A. Macro-nutrients: Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Sulfur
B. Micro-nutrients: Iron, Boron, Chlorine, Copper, Manganese, Zinc, Molybdenum, Cobalt. Other
elements like Sodium, Nickel and Silicon can also be used.
Nutrient Solution: Most herbs grow well with a basic nutrient solution. Many readymade choices
are available. Care must be taken to avoid minor nutrient deficiencies. Several different herbs may
be grown in a single nutrient solution.
Elements
N P K Ca Mg Mn Fe Cu B Zn Ma
210 70 300 180 67 1.25 3.0 0.26 0.5 0.40 0.06
The E.C. (Electrical Conductivity) of this formula should be approximately 2.5 and the pH
adjusted to 5.5 - 6.5. If the day length is below 11 hours, the E.C. should be increased to 3.0- 3.6, but
the concentration of nitrogen kept at 210 ppm. Under these conditions, a smaller root system
develops and more energy is available for shoot (vegetative) growth. The higher E.C. ensures
adequate nutrition even with a smaller root system. Following seeding or root cuttings, the first
watering should be with a half-strength nutrient solution, pH 5.8; however, the phosphorous
concentration should be maintained at 80 ppm. Following germination, or after the first root initiate
on the cuttings, the full strength nutrient solution should be used. It was demonstrated that in
tomatoes (Lycopersicon lycopersicum cv. Counter) N concentrations of 57 mmol-1 and EC of 5.3 dS
m-1 improved the quality and earliness in hydroponic tomato. The plants absorbed different amounts
of N depending on the EC level. The N content in all plant organs increased with increasing EC.
Total uptake per growing area showed its maximum at EC 5.3 dS m-1. With higher EC levels the
uptake decreased due to the lower yield and, consequently, biomass production. Generally, bacterial
populations declined with increasing EC (> 1.6 dS m-1) independent of their function in the N cycle,
except for denitrifying bacteria.
Simplified Hydroponics: Simplified Hydroponics is a suitable technological package that can be
easily adapted to the conditions of urban areas and the urban periphery, in the following ways: First,
the production system is isolated from the soil. Planting takes place at a convenient height, where
soil pollution has no impact. It allows for vegetables to be produced “without land” and in small
physical spaces. Plants are grown in water containers or in low–cost natural substrates (sand, rice
husk, pumice, etc.). With this system, it is possible to grow a vast range of vegetables. For example:
lettuce, tomatoes, carrots, celery, watercress, eggplants, beans, parsley, wild radish, leeks,
strawberries, melons, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. use of limited space. One the main
advantages of Simplified Hydroponics is the possibility of using urban spaces which, until now, had
not been considered adequate for growing food (patios, small gardens, party walls, balconies,
rooftops). High efficiency in the use of irrigation water, where water is recycled and does not pollute
the environment. Pest, disease and weed controlled by natural herbal methods. Moreover, neither the
produce nor the environments are contaminated by chemicals. Higher yield and shorter times
between harvests. Hence, total output is greater than the case of conventional soil systems. Easy to
learn – the technique is easy to understand, it does not require prior knowledge and concrete results
are achieved quickly. Simplified Hydroponics is not highly technological and requires only
household labor. Use of recycled materials – it is possible to use recycled materials to build
growing systems.
Commercial Hydroponics: Successful application of hydroponics techniques in the 1930s the
technique shifts in crop production from conventional geoponics or cultivation in soil to
hydroponics or soil less cultivation. The first crops to be commercially harvested with hydroponics
included tomatoes and peppers, but the techniques were soon successfully extended to other crops
such as P – 294 lettuce, cucumbers and others. It was not long before hydroponics techniques were
successfully adapted even to cut flowers production; in fact any plant can today be grown
hydroponically.
Commercial System Overview: Commercial hydroponics systems can be classified into bare root
systems comprising Nutrient Film Technique (NFT), Deep flow and Aeroponics systems and
Substrate systems. Bare root systems do not use media to anchor the plant roots; the roots are left
bare while in substrate systems plant roots are anchored in media such as Perlite, Vermiculite,
Sawdust, Peat etc. Hydroponics is basically all about growing plants in a controlled environment and
this is best provided outdoors in greenhouses that can incorporate several means to monitor, regulate
and control the environment inside them. For instance, the air entering the greenhouse can be
filtered to exclude entry to pests and parasites that can harm plant growth. Such means help provide
optimal conditions for plant growth both in and out of season. Hydroponics allows cultivation
throughout the year which makes for year round availability of hydroponically grown produce at all
major supermarkets across North America.
Fig.1. Hydroponics System

How do Hydroponic Systems Work?: Fundamentally, hydroponic systems work by applying an
engineered nutrient solution to the root system of a plant. This can occur by using any, or a mix, of
the following sample methods
Static Solution Culture: A set-up that positions plant root systems directly into a container of
nutrient solution, which is either aerated or kept at a low enough level to provide adequate oxygen to
the roots. After a certain level of nutrients have been absorbed, the solution is changed out or
replenished to ensure maximum growth.
Continuous-flow Solution Culture: In this set-up, root systems of plants are constantly exposed to
a flowing nutrient solution, as opposed to simply being submersed in it. This enables large-scale
maintenance of nutrient levels and conditions, as the vast majority of the solution is stored in a
reservoir tank at any given point.
A particularly notable example of Continuous-Flow Solution Culture is the Nutrient Film
Technique (NFT). The NFT places plants on a sloped grow-tray with their roots in a watertight mat
beneath. A thin, highly oxygenated stream of nutrient solution is then continuously pumped up to
the top of the channel, traveling down to either be absorbed by the roots or recycled in the reservoir
tank. This process enables the roots to be bare, meaning that little-to-no growing medium is
required.
Aeroponics: A slight departure from traditional hydroponics, the aeroponics set-up utilizes a mist of
solution to deliver nutrients to the plant root systems. The unabsorbed mist then condenses and
returns via gravity to a reservoir tank for recycling.
Fig.2. Aeroponics System

Aeroponics is the science of plant cultivation without incorporation of the soil or a substrate
culture. Where plant grows in the air with the assistance of an artificial support and no soil or
substrate is required to support the plant (Osvald et al. 2001). Basically, it is an air water culture
cultivation system, the roots of plant are hanged inside a sealed container under darkness and openly
exposed in the air to get water nutrient-rich spray through atomizers. The upper portion of the plant
leaves and crown extend above the wet zone. The root and canopy of the plant are separated by the
artificially provided structure. The system uses the nutrient-enriched spray in the air with the help of
pressure nozzles or foggers to sustain hyper growth under controlled conditions (Nir 1982;
Engenhart 1984; Zsoldos et al., 1987; Barak et al., 1996; Mbiyu et al., 2012).
It was defined that aeroponics system provides many advantages for agricultural research
and production as a modern research tool. However, the concept and idea of plant cultivation in the
air by providing artificial support and environment is not much old. The researchers acquired the
idea to see the most of the growing plants on rocks near the waterfalls. They frequently observed
that plants were successfully grown on rocks near the waterfalls. Although, the roots of plants are
openly hanged in the air, it was the logical extension for plant growing in air under spray mist
condition.
Aquaponics: A more efficient use of the hydroponic system is in aquaponics. Defined The
integration of: Aquaculture–Growing fish in a re-circulating system Ponos–The Greek word for
growing. This is a technique for growing fish (and other aquatic lives such as crabs and prawns) and
plants together in a controlled and re-circulating environment. It combines aquaculture (or
aquafarming) with hydroponics.
Fig.3. Aquaponics System

Why is it Considered Sustainable?: Like hydroponics, the method does not require soil and uses
70 percent less water than the traditional method of growing crops. Water is also efficiently recycled
and made available for both fish and plants. Aquaponics is often done in a greenhouse, which
protects the system from unfavourable weather conditions. A farmer operating an aquaponic system
creates a symbiotic condition whereby the plants utilise waste products from the aquatic animals as a
source of nutrients. And in return, the plants purify the water, thereby keeping both the fish and
plants alive, and they are a source of food for aquatic lives.
The system also allows the growth of the type of bacteria that convert the ammonia from
fish waste to nitrate. Plants then absorb the nitrate in the water through their roots to make protein,
which are very important for healthy growth in humans and other animals. In essence, this technique
grows substantially more food with less water, land and labour. Vegetables such as lettuce, kale,
okra, spring onions, spinach, herbs and mint can be conveniently grown in an aquaponic system.
Other crops such as tomato, cabbage, broccoli, cucumber, beans and cauliflower can also be grown
in a more advanced aquaponic system. Since vegetables are the major crops grown in an aquaponic
farm, scaling up this system of farming in developing countries, could help increase the production
and consumption of vegetables. The increase in production of veggies will expand the sources of
dietary fibre, vitamins and minerals. Furthermore, fish production will become easier and less
expensive. This means more fish would be produced, thereby translating to more sources of protein
for everyone, especially children. Potentially, the beneficial outcome of adopting hydroponic and
aquaponic farming would be a reduction in the Prevalence of Undernourishment (POU).
The use of controlled environments in farming–as enabled by these techniques–also protects
crops and aquatic animals from pests and disease attacks or outbreaks. Unlike the conventional
method of farming, hydroponics and aquaponics are not affected by soil degradation. They also
mitigate the effects of climate change. The systems also eliminate the use of toxic pesticides,
fertilizers and antibodies required by conventional, large-scale agriculture. In addition, they are eco-
friendly and sustainable.
Uses a fraction of the water, about 10% of soil growing, No need to purchase, store and
apply fertilizer. No soil-borne diseases, no tilling, no weeds, Grow two food products together,
protein and produce, High fish stocking density, high crop yield. No waste – hydroponics waste
solution, aquaculture waste, fish solids–aquaponics all waste is used, No pesticides or herbicides,
only fish fertilizer, Food security, grow your own food, indoors, year- round, Works in draught or
places with poor soil quality.
Vertical Farming: Another benefit of these techniques is the opportunity they provide for vertical
farming. Vertical growing systems have revolutionized many hydroponic farms across the globe,
allowing for major increases in production per area. Vertical growing is a perfect solution for dense
urban areas where space is limited. More vertical hydroponic systems are being built onto the sides
of buildings and other structures and this trend will only increase in scope. Vertical farming is a
more sustainable method of farming whereby food can be produced on multiple surfaces or layers
instead of using only one surface. Instead of having a single on-ground hydroponic or aquaponic
system, vertical farms allow several layers of crops stacked vertically. In places where there is
scarcity of water, a vertical farming technique that could be adopted to make use of very little water
and no soil is aeroponics. This system allows plants to grow in the air or in mist environments with
very little water. It uses a dumbfounding 90 percent less amount of water than most hydroponic
systems. The beauty of vertical farms is that they can be effectively done indoors. The major
challenge, however, is the initial cost of setting them up. However, once the initial start-up cost
barrier is broken, the farms can generate returns on the investment to offset the initial cost. The
system also produces more nutritious, protein-rich foods that are cultivated in a safe and
environmentally-friendly manner.
Hybrid systems, which combine the benefits of multiple hydroponic systems, will also climb
in popularity. Systems that focus on maximizing oxygen to the roots, along with effectively
delivering nutrients, will continue to shape the future of hydroponic systems. Another shift to look
for in the next few years is more kits that contain everything a gardener needs to begin growing,
including lighting and nutrients. These systems are already popular, but will become even more so
as more people try hydroponics for the first time. Self-contained hydroponic gardens that can be
built into kitchens are also something to look for. These self-contained “appliances” will be hard-
wired, plumbed in and will look just like a dishwasher. As more people start to understand the
immense benefits of growing their own food, the need for these types of complete hydroponic
systems designed for use in the home will increase.
Fig.4. Vertical Farming System

These sustainable farming methods can potentially help to grow our economy, boost food
security in the region and mitigate the impact of climate change on agriculture. For some countries
to feed its fast-growing population there must be a strong commitment to adopt modern farming
innovations to maximize depleting resources.
Benefits of Modern Vegetable Cultivation: Field Versus Soil-less Grown: Open field: Farmer
has no control on environment, Yields are not accurately predicted and Budgeting is ineffective.
Cannot always ensure adequate aeration of the root zone.
Soil-less Grown: Gives grower effective control over the environment, Yields are very predictable,
Budgeting is easier and Root zone aeration as well as adequate porosity of medium is ensured.
Plant Nutrition: modern technology nutrient solutions can be tailored to the plant’s requirements,
whereas in the field there is a tendency to over or under-fertilise. Hydroponic produce has all the
macro-micronutrients that are needed by the human body. Nutrients in the soil are often fixed as
insoluble compounds that are not available to plants and therefore a loss to the grower. Uneven
nutrition is ensured by virtue of leaching and sloping of land gradients.
Microbial Diseases: Fungal disease can be significantly reduced through controlled humidity. The
modern systems will reduce the amount of exposed moisture in the growing environment and will
effectively prevent wetting of the leaf surfaces which, in normal agriculture, provides the fungal
spores with the perfect medium to proliferate. Hydroponics eliminates the possibilities of root
diseases by allowing sufficient porosity for drainage of excess water as well as increases oxygen
availability to the root zone. Root zone temperatures are maintained as is ideal to ensure good
growth of the plant.
Labour: Weeds are a major problem in soil cultivation and calls for the use of harmful herbicides.
Most farmers spend an enormous amount of money on labor for weeding. All labour inputs
associated with soil management, such as digging and weeding are eliminated with modern
technologies. Substrates being sterile and inert do not influence or allow weeds to flourish.
Pest Management: The use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in protected environments is
ideally suited to hydroponic growing techniques, especially when carried out in a protected
environment such as a glasshouse or plastic/polythene tunnels. The use of IPM can virtually
eliminate the need to use toxic and expensive chemical pesticides.Whereas IPM is much more
difficult in soil cultivation and calls for near total use of dangerous, life threatening chemical
pesticides. Diseases and pests from neighboring farms can cause spread of diseases in one’s field
crops.
Future thrust of these modern systems is efficient production utilizing indoor facilities and
greenhouses. Closed-loop system able to recycle nutrients and correct mineral deficiencies. 95% less
water usage than regular farming with solutions for water recycling, 100% independence from the
national electricity grid because of installation of solar panels throughout the entire roof of the
building and wind turbines No pesticides, no herbicides and no insects, 100% Organic use of all
fertilizer. Media to hold the roots and also water geothermal for heating as well as cooling.
Conclusion: People are starting to realize our health is directly related to our diet. This, in turn,
creates the demand for more fresh produce from our markets and restaurants. Hydroponic gardening
is a practical solution for providing fresh food in dense urban areas. Whether it be on the rooftop or
the outside wall of a building, we are sure to see lots of hydro gardens popping up in cities over the
next few years. An increasing number of commercial farmers are unlocking the potential
hydroponics offers as well. Over the next 10 years, we will see more commercial hydroponic farms
established to meet the increasing demand for local, fresh produce. More people are taking their
health and food production into their own hands by setting up some sort of home garden. For many,
the only option is a hydroponic system that can produce food in a small space. Home hydroponic
systems, especially those that fit on a countertop or in a kitchen window, will eventually become
commonplace. With all the benefits hydroponics offers, especially in urban areas, there is no doubt
hydroponic gardening will be a major part of our society’s food production in the future.
References
Barak, P.. Smith, J.D.. Krueger, A.R.. Peterson, L.A. (1996). Measurement of short-term nutrient uptake rates
in cranberry by aeroponics. Plant, Cell and Environment. 19:237-242.
Beibel, J.P. (1960). Hydroponics-The science of growing crops without soil. Florida Department of
Agriculture. 114:135-45.
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61801): Information Office, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois.
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hydroponics and aeroponics. Flora. 175: 273–282
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http://www.homehydrosystems.com/ph_tds_ppm/ph_vegetables_page.html
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Physiologia Plantarum. 71:359–364.

PLANT
PHYSIOLOGY
REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURE & FOOD
SECURITY
Prashant. B. Kardile1 and Ram M. More2
1
Ph.D. Scholar (Plant Physiology), Department of Agricultural Botany, College of Agriculture, VNMKV, Parbhani-431602
(M.S.), E-mail: kardile24@gmail.com and 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil & Water Conservation Engineering, College
of Agricultural Engineering & Technology, VNMKV, Parbhani-431602 (M.S.), Corresponding Author: Prashant. B. Kardile
A
gricultural production strategies have changed dramatically over the past decade.
Many of these changes have been driven by economic decisions to reduce inputs and
maximize profits and by environmental guidelines mandating more efficient and safer
use of agricultural chemicals. However, growers now have a heightened sensitivity to concerns over
the quality, nutritional value, and safety of agricultural products. They are selecting cultivars and
adjusting planting dates to accommodate anticipated patterns in weather, e.g., El Nino events (Jones et
al.,2000). They are also relying on biotechnological innovations for suppressing pests, e.g., insect
protected (Bt Cotton crop). The possibility for selling carbon credits to industry is breathing new life
into on-farm conservation tillage practices that enhance carbon sequestration. Perhaps the most
significant change in agriculture during the past ten years is the shift towards precision, or site
specific, crop management. Growers have long recognized within-field variability in potential
productivity. Now, at the beginning of the 21st Century, they are seeking new ways to exploit that
variability. In the process, they are discovering they need more information on soil and plant
conditions than was required a decade ago. Not only does this information need to be accurate and
consistent across their farm and from year to year, it must also be available at temporal and spatial
scales that match rapidly evolving capabilities to vary cultural procedures, irrigations, and
agrochemical inputs.
A very large body of research spanning almost four decades has demonstrated that much of
this required information is available remotely, via aircraft- and satellite based sensor systems. When
combined with remarkable advances in Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, microcomputers,
geographic information systems (GIS), yield monitors, and enhanced crop simulation models, remote
sensing technology has the potential to transform the ways that growers manage their lands and
implement precision farming techniques. Remote sensing is the science of collecting information
about the objects or area of the real world at a distance without coming into direct physical contact
with the object under study. It is a phenomenon that has numerous applications including
photography, surveying, geology, forestry and many more. But it is in the field of
agriculture that remote sensing has found significant use. There are very many applications
of remote sensing in the agricultural sector. During the early stages of the satellite remote
sensing, most researchers are focused on the use of data for classification of land cover types with
crop types being a major focus among those interested in agricultural applications. In recent years, the
work in agricultural remote sensing has focused more on characterization of plant biophysical
properties. Remote sensing has long been used in monitoring and analyzing of agricultural activities.
Remote sensing of agricultural canopies has provided valuable insights into various agronomic
parameters. The advantage of remote sensing is its ability to provide repeated information without
destructive sampling of the crop, which can be used for providing valuable information for precision
agricultural applications. Remote sensing provides a cheap alternative for data acquisition over large
geographical areas (Debeurs and Townsend, 2008).
In India, the satellite remote sensing is mainly used for the crop acreage and production
estimation of agricultural crops. Remote sensing technology has the potential of revolutionizing the
detection and characterization of agricultural productivity based on biophysical attributes of crops
and/or soils. Data recorded by remote sensing satellites can be used for yield estimation (Bernerdes et
al.,2012), crop phenological information (Sakamoto et al., 2005), detection of stress situations (Gu et
al., 2007) and disturbances. During the last two decades, remote sensing techniques are applied to
explore agricultural applications such as crop discrimination, crop acreage estimation, crop condition
assessment, soil moisture estimation, yield estimation, precision agriculture, soil survey, agriculture
water management, agro meteorological and agro advisories. The application of remote sensing in
agriculture, i.e. in crops and soils is extremely complex because of highly dynamic and inherent
complexity of biological materials and soils. However, remote-sensing technology provides many
advantages over the traditional methods in agricultural resources survey. The advantages include (a)
capability of synoptic view, (b) potential for fast survey, (c) capability of repetitive coverage to detect
the changes, (d)low cost involvement, (e) higher accuracy, and, (f) use of hyperspectral data for
increased information. As mentioned, there are many applications of remote sensing in the
agricultural sector. Below is a summary of these applications
Fig. 1. Mechanism of remote sensing technology

Remote sensing along with GIS is highly beneficial for creating spatio-temporal basic
informative layers which can be successfully applied to diverse fields including flood plain mapping,
hydrological modelling, surface energy flux, urban development, land use changes, crop growth
monitoring and stress detection (Kingra et al., 2016). The advances in the use of remote sensing
methods are due to the introduction of narrow band or hyperspectral sensors and increased spatial
resolution of aircraft or satellite mounted sensors. Hyperspectral remote sensing has also helped to
enhance more detailed analysis of crop classification. Thenkabail et al., (2004) performed rigorous
analysis of hyperspectral sensors (from 400 to 2500 nm) for crop classification based on data mining
techniques consisting of principal components analysis, lambda–lambda models, stepwise
discriminant analysis and derivative greenness vegetation indices. Many investigations have included
different types of sensors which are capable of providing the reliable data on a timely basis ona
fraction of the cost of traditional method of data gathering.
Major Advantages of Remote Sensing Technology-
 Capability of synoptic view,
 Potential for fast survey,
 Capability of repetitive coverage to detect the changes,
 Low cost involvement,
 Higher accuracy
 Use of hyperspectral data for increased information.
 Reduced labor cost
 Temporal and spatial study possible
 Large number of plants under large area can be studied in a short time
Why Remote Sensing for Agro-Biodeiversity -
 Need for better understanding of the distribution of agro-biodiversity.
 Need to identify high priority areas for conservation and to help maintain essential ecosystem
goods and services.
 Traditional in situ biodiversity monitoring is limited in time and space and is usually a costly and
time-consuming enterprise.
 Remote sensing can provide data over a large area in a consistent, objective manner and has been
used to detect plant biodiversity in a range of ecosystems, typically based on relating spectral
properties to the distribution of habitat, species or functional groups.
Remote Sensing Technology for Agriculture & Food Security 303
 Recent years have witnessed the emergence of methods using imaging spectroscopy to assess
biodiversity via plant traits or spectral information content.
Fig.2. Spectral image for digital mapping of Agricultural and forest land
A. Applications of Remote Sensing Technology in Agriculture
1. Crop Production Forecasting: Remote sensing is used to forecast the expected crop production
and yield over a given area and determine how much of the crop will be harvested under specific
conditions. Researchers can be able to predict the quantity of crop that will be produced in a given
farmland over a given period of time.
2. Horticulture, Cropping Systems Analysis: Remote sensing technology has also been instrumental
in the analysis of various crop planting systems. This technology has mainly been in use in the
horticulture industry where flower growth patterns can be analyzed and a prediction made out of the
analysis.
3. Crop Identification: Remote sensing has also played an important role in crop identification
especially in cases where the crop under observation is mysterious or shows some mysterious
characteristics. The data from the crop is collected and taken to the labs where various aspects of the
crop including the crop culture are studied.
4. Crop Acreage Estimation: Remote sensing has also played a very important role in the estimation
of the farmland on which a crop has been planted. This is usually a cumbersome procedure if it is
carried out manually because of the vast sizes of the lands being estimated.
5. Identification of Planting and Harvesting Dates: Because of the predictive nature of the remote
sensing technology, farmers can now use remote sensing to observe a variety of factors including the
weather patterns and the soil types to predict the planting and harvesting seasons of each crop.
6. Crop Yield Modelling and Estimation: Remote sensing also allows farmers and experts to predict
the expected crop yield from a given farmland by estimating the quality of the crop and the extent of
the farmland. This is then used to determine the overall expected yield of the crop. Remote sensing
has been used to forecast crop yields based primarily upon statistical–empirical relationships between
yield and vegetation indices (Thenkabail et al., 2002; Casa and Jones, 2005). Information on expected
yield is very important for government agencies, commodity traders and producers in planning
harvest, storage, transportation and marketing activities. The sooner this information is available, the
lower the economic risk, translating into greater efficiency and increased return on investments.
7. Detection, Diagnosis and Control of Pests and Disease Infestation: Remote sensing
technology also plays a significant role in the identification of pests in farmland and gives
data on the right pests control mechanism to be used to get rid of the pests and diseases on
the farm.In addition to identifying plants under stress from lack of nutrients or water, remote sensing
can also assist in protecting the plants from potential attacks of pests, fungi or bacteria. By combining
agricultural knowledge with remotely sensed data, it is possible to have early warning and prevent a
pest or a disease from affecting the crops, by taking appropriate action at an early stage. Hyper-
spectral remote sensing helps to detect crops diseases at early stages and facilitates the targeted
delivery of the necessary treatments. This leads to a reduction in the total leaf area and as a result, the
reduction of the plant's capacity for photosynthesis. As we are able to estimate the Leaf Area Index
(LAI) of a group of plants, it is possible to identify an insect attack at an early stage and warn the
farmers to take the appropriate measures. The study conducted by Apan et al. (2004) demonstrated
that Hyperion satellite hyperspectral imagery could be used to detect orange rust (Pucciniakuehnii)
disease in sugarcane.
8. Soil Analysis: For decades, scientists have used high-resolution reflectance spectra of minerals
and soils to determine soil mineralogy, and to assess soil physical properties. A major breakthrough in
these studies has been the use of visible-near infrared spectroscopy to develop quantitative
calibrations for rapid characterization of soil nutrients and various physical properties of soils. The
coupling of this technology with remote sensing data, geo-referenced ground surveys, and new spatial
statistical methods has resulted in the improved capability for large area soil assessments. Remote
sensing gives the soil moisture data and helps in determining the quantity of moisture i n
the soil and hence the type of crop that can be grown in the soil. Remote sensing has also
played a very important role in the identification of problematic soils that have a problem
in sustaining optimum crop yield throughout a planting season.
9. Irrigation Monitoring and Management: Remote sensing gives information on the moisture
quantity of soils. This information is used to determine whether a particular soil is moisture deficient
or not and helps in planning the irrigation needs of the soil.
10. Soil Mapping: Soil mapping is one of the most common yet most important uses of remote
sensing. Through soil mapping, farmers are able to tell what soils are ideal for which crops and what
soil require irrigation and which ones do not. This information helps in precision agriculture.
11. Land Cover and Land Degradation Mapping: Remote sensing has been used by experts to map
out the land cover of a given area. Experts can now tell what areas of the land have been degraded and
which areas are still intact. This also helps them in implementing measures to curb land degradation
Fig.3. Applications of Remote Sensing Technology in Agriculture

12. Reflectance Modeling: Remote sensing technology is just about the only technology that can
provide data on crop reflectance. Crop reflectance will depend on the amount of moisture in the soil
and the nutrients in the crop which may also have a significant impact on the overall crop yield.
13. Crop Yield Forecasting: Remote sensing technology can give accurate estimates of the expected
crop yield in a planting season using various crop information such as the crop quality, the moisture
level in the soil and in the crop and the crop cover of the land. When all of this data is combined it
gives almost accurate estimates of the crop yield.
14. Weed Identification and Management: Precision weed management technique helps in carrying
out the better weed management practices. Remote sensing coupled with precision agriculture is a
promising technology in nowadays. Though, ground surveying methods for mapping site–specific
information about weeds are very time–consuming and labor–intensive. However, image–based
remote sensing has potential applications in weed detection for site–specific weed management
(Johnson et al.,1997; Moran et al., 1997; Lamb et al., 1999).Based on the difference in the spectral
reflectance properties between weeds and crop, remote sensing technology provides a mean for
identifying the weeds in the crop stand and further helps in the development of weed maps in the field
so that site specific and need based herbicide can be applied for the management of weeds.
15. Flood Mapping and Monitoring: Using remote sensing technology, farmers and agricultural
experts can be able to map out the areas that are likely to be hit by floods and the areas that lack
proper drainage. This data can then be used to avert any flood disaster in future.
16. Collection of Past and Current Weather Data: Remote sensing technology is ideal for
collection and storing of past and current weather data which can be used for future decision making
and prediction.
17. Crop Intensification: Remote sensing can be used for crop intensification that includes collection
of important crop data such as the cropping pattern, crop rotation needs and crop diversity over a
given soil.
18. Water Resources Mapping: Remote sensing is instrumental in the mapping of water resources
that can be used for agriculture over a given farmland. Through remote sensing, farmers can tell what
water resources are available for use over a given land and whether the resources are adequate.
Fig.4. Remote Sensing for Watershed management & soil water conservation.
19. Precision Farming: Remote sensing has played a very vital role in precision agriculture.
Precision agriculture has resulted in the cultivation of healthy crops that guarantees farmers optimum
harvests over a given period of time. The main aim of precision farming is reduced cost of cultivation,
improved control and improved resource use efficiency with the help of information received by the
sensors fitted in the farm machineries. Variable rate technology (VRT) is the most advanced
component of precision farming. Sensors are mounted on the moving farm machineries containing a
computer which provides input recommendation maps and thereby controls the application of inputs
based on the information received from GPS receiver (NRC, 1997). The advantage of precision
farming is the acquisition of information on crops at temporal frequency and spatial resolution
required for making management decisions. Remote sensing is a no doubt valuable tool for providing
such informations. (Casa et al., 2005) used multi spectral remote sensing for site specific nitrogen
fertilizer management. Satellite imagery from the advanced space borne thermal emission and
reflection radiometer (Aster) was acquired in a 23 ha corn-planted area in Iran.
20. Compliance Monitoring: For the agricultural experts and other farmers, remote sensing is
important in keeping track of the farming practices by all farmers and ensuring compliance by all
farmers. This helps in ensuring that all farmers follow the correct procedures when planting and when
harvesting crops.
21. Air Moisture Estimation: Remote sensing technology is used in the estimation of air moisture
which determines the humidity of the area. The level of humidity determines the type of crops to be
grown within the area.
22. Land Mapping: Remote sensing helps in mapping land for use for various purposes such as crop
growing and landscaping. The mapping technology used helps in precision agriculture where specific
land soils are used for specific purposes.
B. Remote Sensing Technology & its Role in Climate Change Impact and Approach
for Mitigating Crop Abiotic Stresses
1. Crop Condition Assessment and Stress Detection: Remote sensing technology plays an
important role in the assessment of the health condition of each crop and the extent to which the crop
has withstood stress. This data is then used to determine the quality of the crop. Remote sensing
technology is used to monitor the weather patterns including the drought patterns over a given area.
The information can be used to predict the rainfall patterns of an area and also tell the time difference
between the current rainfall and the next rainfall which helps to keep track of the drought. Chlorophyll
is an essential part of the process of photosynthesis. It absorbs solar energy in order to provide power
for the process of photosynthesis. Depending on the visible and near-infrared reflectance, the
produced vegetation indices give us an indication on the amount of chlorophyll present in the plants.
With this information we can estimate if and how much stress the plants are under.
2. Abiotic Stress Study: Like many organisms, plants require water to survive. In addition to the
water being used in essential biochemical processes, water is the "means of transportation" for
nutrients from the soil to every part of the plant. Water enters the plant through the roots, travels
through the main stalk and the branches, eventually reaching the leaves. From there, through the leaf
pores known as stomata, it is released in the atmosphere. This process is known as transpiration. All
the biological processes taking place within a plant produce heat. The transpiring water captures that
heat and removes it from the plant when it transpires through the leaves. When there is not enough
water and the plant is under stress, it cannot lose heat through transpiration fast enough and as a
result, the plant's temperature increases. This increase in temperature can be detected with remote
sensing, by using parts of the spectrum that are sensitive to heat. One of the problems with this
method is partial vegetation cover. When vegetation does not completely cover the soil, the soil
temperature is affecting the thermal signal recorded by the sensor.. A crop evapo-transpiration rate
decrease is an indicator of crop water stress or other crop problems such as plant disease or insect
infestation. Remote sensing images have been combined with a crop water stress index ("CWSI")
model to measure field variations (Moran et al., 1997).
3. Crop Evapo-Transpiration Study: The decline in the productivity of crops is due to irregularities
in rainfall, increase in the temperature rate etc., which causes a decrease in the soil moisture. Drought
is a situation which can be defined as a long-term average condition of the balance between
precipitation and evapo-transpiration in a particular area, which also depends on the timely onset of
monsoon as well as its potency Wilhite and Glantz, (1985). In turn, vegetation indices such as CWSI
(Crop Water Stress Index) (Jackson et al., 1981), ST (Surface Temperature) (Jackson 1986), WDI
(Water Deficit Index) (Moran et al., 1994), and SI (Stress Index) (Vidal et al., 1994) describe the
relationship existing between water stress and thermal characteristics of plants. Sruthi et al., (2015)
analyzed the vegetation stress in the Raichur district of Karnataka by using the MODIS data for
calculating NDVI values of the particular study area and its correlation with the land surface
temperatures (LST).
Fig.5. Remote sensing for Agricultural crop field drought monitoring

The LST when correlated with the vegetation index can be used to detect agricultural drought of a
region and provides early warning systems to the farmers. Estimation of evapo-transpiration is
essential for assessing the irrigation scheduling, water and energy balance computations, determining
crop water stress index (CWSI), climatological and meteorological purposes. The energy emitted
from cropped area has been useful in assessing the crop water stress as the temperature of the plants
are mediated by the soil water availability and crop evapo-transpiration. Batra et al., (2006) estimated
evaporative fraction (EF), defined as the ratio of ET and available radiant energy, by successfully
using AVHRR and MODIS data. Dutta et al., (2015) used NOAA-AVHRR NDVI data for monitoring
the spatio-temporal extent of agricultural drought in Rajasthan state. Neale et al., (2005) provide an
historical perspective on high resolution airborne remote sensing ofcrop coefficients for obtaining
actual crop evapo-transpiration.
4. Crop Nutrient Deficiency Detection: Remote sensing technology has also helped farmers and
other agricultural experts to determine the extent of crop nutrients deficiency and come up with
remedies that would increase the nutrients level in crops hence increasing the overall crop yield.
5. Climate Change Monitoring: Plant Physiology is the study of Morphological, physiological &
biochemical behavior of plants in relation to its surrounding environmental conditions. Remote
sensing technology is important in monitoring of climate change and keeping track of the climatic
conditions which play an important role in the determination of what crops can be grown where.
Fig.6. Remote sensing for Weather forecasting related to Agriculture.

Remote Sensing Technology and Food Security: Knowledge of yield, production and area index for
these crops in the Indo-Gangetic basin has further provided the evidence that soil moisture deficit
state has an interim effect on the total crop production annually. There is also an interrelationship
between area and production index, as it is observed that even though area remains the same or is
reduced, the production has increased, but the question is, whether this rise in crop production is
meeting the present demands. The policies which are already in use should be revised by considering
farmers’ daily and seasonal needs and objectives. The present groundwater pumping system used in
irrigation is either not used because of high fuel cost or used in an irregular fashion leading to highly
inefficient irrigation structure. Also a lack of availability of canal network everywhere deteriorates the
situation which needs to be upgraded. Rainwater harvesting and efficient groundwater replenishment
are highly required during monsoon season. Availability of real-time meteorological and forecast
information to farmers, soil scientists and hydrologists will help in irrigation at day-to-day level.
The information about the estimate of amount of crop being produced in previous years and
the present year at the farm (individual) and district level has to be provided along with its pricing
according to national and international standards. A proper warning system has to be installed which
directs meteorologists and farmers about an extreme event such as, droughts and floods, at near real-
time and in the future with necessary mitigation measures for the same. Lack of such information has
had a tremendous effect on the storage of food stock. Further, employment of modern equipment and
field instruments from sowing to harvesting will accentuate crop production and reduce wastage.
Remote sensing certainly plays a crucial role in delivering the information, building a proper system
for increased crop production by understanding time-varying meteorological parameters for
sustainable use in irrigation and crop management in the Indo-Gangetic basin and this can be
implemented for other micro- and macro-level basins in India and globally.
Conclusion: In the face of the rising population and decreasing crop production due to climate
change, the global challenge of increasing productivity requires the latest discoveries in the field of
plant genomics to be brought to the farm gate. Integrative plant biology requires that we scale from
the gene to the biochemical process, the plant, the whole plant, and, ultimately, the canopy and crop.
Correlations among gene function, environmental responses, and plant performance need to be
studied with a rapid pace and high resolution. The ever-increasing capacity of next-generation spatial
and digital technology platforms will assist researchers to deepen their knowledge on plant stress
responses. The emerging tools and techniques in remote sensing hold immense potential with respect
to study and research of crop genotypes with enhanced resilience which is much-needed development.
References
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Hyperion hyperspectral imagery. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 25: 489-498.
Batra, N., Islam, S., Venturini, V., Bisht, G. and Jiang, L. (2006). Estimation and comparison of
evapotranspiration from MODIS and AVHRR sensors for clear sky days over the Southern Great Plains.
Remote Sens Environ., 103: 1-15.
De beurs, K. and Townsend, P. (2008). Estimating the effect of gypsy moth defoliation using MODIS. Remote
Sens Environ., 112: 3983-90.
Bernardes, T., Meriera, M. A., Adami, M., Giarolle, A. and Rudorff, B. F. T. (2012). Monitoring biennial
bearing effect on coffee yield using MODIS remote sensing imagery. Remote Sens., 4: 2492 – 2509
Casa, R. and Jones, H.G. (2005). LAI retrieval from multiangular image classification and inversion of a ray
tracing model. Remote Sens Environ., 98: 414–428.
Dutta, D., Kundu, A., Patel, N.R., Saha,S.K. and Siddiqui, A.R.(2015). The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing
and Space Sciences, 18: 53-63.
Gu, Y., Brown, J. F., Verdin, J. P. and Wardlow, B. (2007). A five year analysis of Modis Ndvi And Ndwi for
grassland drought assessment over the central great plains of the United States. Geophys Res Lett., p. 34.
Jackson, R.D. (1986). Remote sensing of biotic and abiotic plant stress. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 24:
265–286.
Johnson, G. A., Cardina, J. and Mortensen, D. A. (1997). Site–specific weed management: Current and future
direction. In The State of Site–Specific Management for Agriculture, pp. 131–147
Kingra, P. K., Majumder, D. and Singh, S.P. (2016). Application of Remote Sensing And GIS in Agriculture
and Natural Resource Management Under Changing Climatic Conditions. Agric Res J., 53 (3): 295-302.
Lamb, D. W., Weedon, M. M. and Rew, L. J. (1999). Evaluating the accuracy of mapping weeds in seeding
crops using airborne digital imaging: Avena spp. in seeding triticale. Weed Research, 39(6): 481–492
Moran, M. S., Inoue, Y. and Barnes, E. M. (1997). Opportunities andlimitations for image–based remote sensing
in precision crop management. Remote Sens Environ., 61(3): 319–246.
Moran, M.S., Clarke, T.R., Inoue, Y. and Vidal, A. (1994). Estimating crop water deficit using the relation
between surface-air temperature and spectral vegetation index. Remote Sens Environ., 49: 246– 263.
Neale, C. M. U., Jayanthi, H. and Wright, J.L. (2005). Irrigation water management using high resolution
airborne remote sensing. Irrigation and Drainage Systems, 19(3–4): 321–336.
Sakamoto, T., Yokozawa, M., Toritani, H., Shibayama, M., Ishitsuka, N. and Ohno, H. (2005). A crop
phenology detection method using time series MODIS data. Remote Sens Environ., 96: 366–74.
Sruthi, S. and Mohammed Aslam., M.A. (2015). Agricultural Drought Analysis Using the NDVI and Land
Surface Temperature Data; a Case Study of Raichur District. International Conference On Water Resources,
Coastal And Ocean Engineering, 4: 1252-1264.
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Water International, 10: 111-120.

PLANT
PATHOLOGY
STRATEGIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES OF ALLIUMS
Smita Tiwari and I.K.Tiwari
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Sagar-470002, M.P., E-mail: smitapatho@gmail.com,
Corresponding Author: Smita Tiwari
A
llium cepa (Onion), Allium ascalonicum (shallot), Allium porrum (leek), Allium
schoenoprasum (chives) and Allium sativum (garlic) are important Allium crops
widely grown all over the world. Onion and garlic are major allium crops
commonly cultivated in India. These are basic part of many India dishes and curries. In our country it
is cultivated in three season’s viz. Kharif, late kharif and rabi. However, onion is cultivated in most of
the states of India; Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P., Bihar, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are having
maximum share in area under cultivation and production. The productivity of onion and garlic could
be affected by number of abiotic (soil type and condition, environment, irrigation, cultural practices)
and biotic factors including genotypes, diseases and pests. Onion is cultivated by seeding in the
nursery and later on seedlings are transplanted in the fields. Garlic is grown by vegetative
propagation, by means of planting cloves and vegetative propagation results in many disease
problems. Many diseases have been recorded in Allium crops namely Allium cepa (onion), Allium
sativum (garlic), namely, purple blotch, leaf spots, blights etc. which causes huge yield losses (Gupta
et al., 1994; Boff, 1996; Cova and Rodriguez, 2003). Fungal pathogens are responsible to cause major
diseases in these crops; bacteria, nematode and virus also cause diseases of minor importance in
different growing conditions. Onion and garlic are seasonal crops with low storage ability. For these
crops, bulbs are stored until the harvest of new crop become available. Significant losses in quality
and yield (quantity) take place during storage. In fact, post harvest losses in onion cultivation are
approximately 25 to 30 per cent. Some important diseases of onion and garlic are described as
follows:
A. Fungal Diseases
1. Purple Blotch: It is a very common and destructive disease of onions, garlic, shallots, and leeks. It
can defoliate the crop prematurely, reduce bulb quality and can result in storage rot caused by
secondary bacterial pathogens. This disease appears as lesions with whitish, sunken areas that
elongate and develop brown or purplish centres surrounded by a yellow halo. Under favourable
conditions (i.e. warm with wet leaves), the lesions become large and oval with concentric rings of
dark brown spores. The lesions may merge, girdle and kill entire leaves; and cause tip dieback. Older
leaves are more susceptible than younger leaves. This pathogen may also cause watery rot at the neck
of onions or garlic and lead to poor storage life. It is caused by a fungal plant pathogen, Alternaria
porri. This pathogen survives in crop residue of previous years and infested residue is the main source
of inoculum in the late kharif. The fungal mycelia and conidia (spores) persist as long as crop debris
leftovers in the field or in cull piles. Infected tissues produced new conidia after 15 hours when
relative humidity is more than or equal to 90 percent. These conidia spread to new crop by rain
splashes, irrigation water or blown by wind. Symptoms may appear within a week after germination,
and new spores are produced quickly. Warm and wet climatic conditions predispose the disease.
There must be moisture present on the leaves for the spores to germinate, and germination is very
quick i.e. within 45-60 minutes at (82-97 F). Fungal growth is favored by temperatures of 43-93 F
with an optimum temperature of 77 F.
2. Damping Off: This is a very common disease in almost all onion and garlic-growing pockets
around the world. The disease often appears in small patches in various areas of the seedbeds and
fields. Damping off is more common during Kharif season when temperature and humidity are high.
It has been reported that this disease causes up to 65-70% yield losses in Eastern and Northern parts
of the country during rainy season. In onion and garlic crops, both types of damping off disease take
place, pre-emergence and post emergence. In the case of pre-emergence damping off, seeds and
seedlings are killed before they reach the soil surface; it is more prominent in onion nursery. Seeds of
the infected plants become water soaked, soft or squashy and rot quickly. Roots of infected seedlings
become water soaked, grayish and after emergence they collapse and die. Post emergence damping
off is characterised by the toppling of seedlings anytime after they emerge from the soil. Sometimes
disease appears after transplanting of seedlings in the field and it rarely kills the plants but results in
Strategies for the Management of Diseases of Alliums 311
growth stunting and yellowing. In severely infected plants yellowing of leaves occurred. Older leaves
become profoundly infected with yellowing spreads from leaf tip towards its base. The roots of the
infected plants become water soaked, rot eventually and covered with white mycelium. However, the
cortex disintegrates but typical discoloration of roots is not found as the epidermis and stele remains
intact. A number of Pythium sp. is reported from different parts of the world is the main causal
organism of damping off of alliums. Most common are Pythium irregulare, P.coloratum,
P.mamillatum, P.paroecandrum, P.rostratum, P.spinosum, P.sylvaticum, P.torulosum, P.ultimum, and
P.vexans (Bruckart and Lorbeer, 1982), Sclerotium rolfsii and S. cepivorum and Colletotrichum sp.
etc. are also found to be associated with damping off of these crops. Most of the Pythium species
produce oospores, sporangia and hyphal swellings (act as chlamydospores under unfavourable
conditions) as long-term survival structures. Oospores germinate either directly or through zoospores.
Zoospores swim in the water film in the soil, encysted near the plant roots, later on produces hyphae
to infect and colonize the root cells. Whereas Sclerotium spp. and Colletotrichum spp. produce
sclerotia as resting structure. Under favourable conditions these scelrotia germinate to produce
mycelium mat of the pathogen which further infects the root tissues and seedlings. Damping off
disease is favoured by heavy soils, low pH, heavy seeding resulting in dense planting, low light and
presence of weeds. Spread of damping-off disease depends primarily on the mechanical transfer of
mycelia, sclerotia or resting spores in infested soil particles or infected plant tissue through farm
equipments, boots, run-off water splashes and irrigation water etc. Excessive soil moisture and
moderate temperature along with high humidity especially in the rainy season leads to the
development of the disease. Poor water drainage in the field results in damping off disease (Schwartz
and Mohan, 1995).
3. Basal Rot: This disease is worldwide in occurrence and could begin in the field and continue on
developing during storage. This is an important disease of onion and garlic. It appears during any
stage of crop maturity. On onion plants, initial symptoms of this disease appear as curving, yellowing
and/or die-back of leaves. Yellowing begins at the tips and proceeds downward. Affected plants wilt
and die and could be pulled easily from the soil. Injury on roots due to mechanical means and insects
feeding make them more susceptible to infection. Infection results in development of tan to pink-
brown rot forms at the base of the bulb and scales. Under moist conditions, white mycelium may grow
around the rotting area, making it look a bit like white rot. This disease is caused by a specialized
ubiquitous soil- soil-borne fungus,Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cepae. The f. sp. cepae attacks onions,
garlic, leeks, shallots, and chives. Fusarium may also cause tan spots with white centres on the sides
of garlic cloves. Bulbs of garlic eventually become spongy or sunken, later on turn brown and watery
when cut open. Fungal growth of white, light pink or reddish colour appears on cloves or inside the
decaying cavities. Deep cracks appear in garlic cloves, followed by disintegration of clove tissues,
resulting in crinkled cloves that are a fraction of their original size. The disease does not commonly
spread from bulb to bulb in storage. This pathogen overwinters as chlamydospores (thick-walled
survival spores) in the soil or on crop residue for many years and can be spread by water, tools,
equipment, and garlic seed or onion sets. During optimal soil temperatures (25-29°C/77-84°F),
chlamydospores germinate and invade tissues of susceptible hosts, especially when tissues have been
damaged by machinery or insects (especially onion maggot). Other insects, including seed-corn
maggot, are attracted to infected bulbs in the field and can cause secondary damage to bulbs. Warm,
moist soil favours development of the disease. If infection is late in the season, symptoms of the
disease may not appear until bulbs are put in storage.
4. Stemphylium Blight: This disease is very common in Northern and Eastern India. Severity of this
disease varies from 5 to 50 % and is more severe in Rabi than Kharif crop during March and April. It
is characterized by the occurrence of small yellow to pale orange spots or streaks develop on middle
of leaves stalk on one side. The spots subsequently coalesce into extended patches to cover the entire
foliage (Rao and Pavgi, 1975; Miller et al., 1978; Shishkoff and Lorbeer, 1989). In seed crop, the
disease damages inflorescence stalk severely. Isolation of the fungal isolates from infected samples
and pathogenicity tests confirmed Stemphylium vesicarium as the causal agent. Pseudothecia of the
teleomorph stage, Pleospora sp., were found on leaf debris from affected plants (Ureba et al., 1999).
Conidiophores of S. vesicarium arising from stroma varied in number and were cylindrical,
unbranched, light brown, with enlarged dark brown apical cells and proliferated frequently by
production of new conidiophores from the apices of old ones. Mature conidia were brown, oblong to
oval, 25–42 × 12–19 μm, and were 25–48 × 12–22 μm, 1–3 transverse constrictions, 1–3 (and up to
4) complete series of longitudinal septa and a variable number of transverse septa. Leaf wetness
duration on disease severity in this study indicates that periods > 24 h are required to produce disease
levels higher than 1 lesion cm−2 . This was previously reported for leaf spots on onions and asparagus
(Miller et al., 1978; Falloon et al., 1987; Shishkoff and Lorbeer, 1989) as well as pear fruits infected
by S. vesicarium (Montesinos et al., 1995b). In contrast to a decrease in susceptibility with increased
fruit age reported on pears infected by S. vesicarium (Montesinos et al., 1995a), the results in suggest
a slightly higher disease susceptibility in older plants following wetness periods over 48 h.
5. Pink Root: Pink root is a disease of minor importance but it could bring huge losses to onion
production when it is followed by basal root rot disease. Pink root affects onions but not other Allium
crops. Sometimes infections are limited, and only a few roots show symptoms. In a severely infected
plant, all of the roots are damaged, and leaves will either yellow and wilt or turn yellow with a red
hue. Severe infections can reduce bulb size and yield. The fungus, Phoma terrestris is a soil borne
fungus. It is basically a saprophyte and a weak pathogen. The pathogen could survive for many years
in the soil, even in the absence of host and found in upto 45 cm depth, usually infects weak or stressed
plants or follows injury or infection by another root pathogen. The hyphae of the fungus invade the
roots, and the infected root turns pink and may shrivel and die (Seebold et al., 2003). The pathogen
has a very wide host range. It is well adapted to sub-temperate, temperate and tropical climates due to
its ability to survive well in many soil types and on a wide range of temperature and pH.
6. Downy Mildew: Downy mildew occurs only sporadically in the northeast, but disease development
can be explosive, and epidemics can develop rapidly. The first symptom, often appears first on older
leaves is pale green to brownish-yellow oval or circular shaped areas on the leaves, which may appear
velvety. Leaves become girdled at the site of the lesion, fold over, and die from the affected point
toward the tip. Dead leaves do not support further spore production. Downy mildew seldom kills the
plant, but yields and storage quality are greatly reduced. Pernospora destructor, a fungus-like water
mold (not a true fungus). Spores are produced on nights with high humidity and temperatures between
39 and 77°F. The infected area appears violet in the morning, but most of the spores are dispersed by
wind during the day, leaving a whitish mycelial growth. This pathogen overwinters as mycelia in
diseased tissue, primarily on volunteer onion plants, bulbs left in fields for seed production, cull piles,
or in perennial varieties of onions. During favourable conditions, the mycelia produce spores that
spread the pathogen to the new crop. The newly infected plants produce spores that are windblown
and further spread the pathogen. Under favorable conditions (cool temperatures and high humidity), it
takes only 10-16 days for a new lesion to produce spores, so an epidemic in a field can develop
quickly. It can also overwinter as thick-walled oospores in the soil, which germinate and systemically
infect seedling onions planted the following year.
Integrated Management: Integrated disease management of onion is very important for obtaining
good quality, yield and highly marketable bulbs. Integrated management strategies includes resistant
varieties or disease free seeds, good field preparation, proper sanitation and rouging, crop rotation,
soil fumigation, soil solarisation, seed treatments, soil drenching (nursery), transplant dips, and foliar
sprays.
Resistant Varieties: Use of resistant varieties is the most feasible method of disease control but until
now only a few commercial onion cultivars are resistance to most seed-, soil-, and airborne diseases.
Use of several onion cultivars resistant to diseases pink root, Fusarium basal rot, and Botrytis brown
stain along with IDM practices when applicable would result in high yield and less disease incidence.
Varieties like Agrifound Dark Red, Arka Kalyan, N-53, Baswant-780, Bheema Raj and Bheema Red
are resistant to damping off for north Indian regions and Agrifound Red, Co-1, Co-2, Co-3, Co-4 and
Co-On-5 are suitable for Southern areas.
Cultural Practices: In the case of soil borne diseases and stem and bulb nematode, 3–4 year crop
rotation to non host crops (lettuce) is very useful in reducing the inoculum of pathogens. Soil
fumigants and solarisation effectively control nematode diseases and pink root. In the nursery crop
should be grown in raised beds with plastic mulch. Soil solarisation using 250-gauge polythene for 10
days before sowing of nursery beds should be done before seed sowing. Other soil treatments like
flooding, dipping transplant onions in fungicide/ bioagents solutions have been utilized to control
white rot. Application of vermicompost at 2.0 tonnes/ha in nursery beds provides proper nutrition to
the plants. Sanitation is very important in limiting spread of the disease. Infected crop debris i.e.
Strategies for the Management of Diseases of Alliums 313
foliage and fruits of diseased plants should be removed by destroying or burning it after harvest. Cull
piles should also be eliminated.
Chemical Management: When symptoms of damping off disease are visible, the drenching should
be done immediately with Carbendazim at 0.1 per cent or Thiram at 0.25 per cent in onion nursery to
control the damping off. Prior to transplanting, seedlings roots should be dipped in 0.1% Carbendazim
+ 0.025% Carbosulfan solution for two hours to reduce the incidence of fungal diseases and thrips
damage till 30-40 days after transplanting (NHRDF, 2015).
 Seed treatments with fungicides i.e. Carbendazim @ 1-2 g/kg seed and application of bioagents
i.e. Trichoderma viride @ 1250 g/ha control seed borne Botrytis neck rot, smut, and damping-off
diseases.
 Treatment of top soil of nursery with thiram @ 5 g/m² area and soil drenching with fungicides @
2 g/litre of water at fortnightly interval is helpful in controlling Fusarium and Pythium damping
off and onion smut. Foliar sprays of fungicide control Botrytis and Stemphylium leaf blights,
Botrytis flower blight, Alternaria purple blotch, and downy mildew. Sprays of copper and
antibiotic may reduce bacterial leaf blights and bulb decays.
Biological Management: Soil treatment with fungal bio-agents like Trichoderma viride/T.harzianum
at 5 kg/ha mixed with of well rotten FYM or vermicompost in nursery bed is advised. Seed treatment
with fungal bio-agent T. viride at 5g/kg seed or Thiram at 2.5g/kg seed is advised. It is also reported
that seed treatment with T. harzianum decreased Fusarium basal rot disease incidence in both pot and
field experiments (Coşkuntuna and Ozer, 2008).
References
Boff, P. (1996). Survey of onion pathogens in Santa Catrina State, Brazil. Fitopatologia Braseileira, 21: 110-
114.
Cova, J., and Rodriguez, D. (2003). Fungi associated with leaf blight of onion (Allium cepa L.) in Lara State,
Venezuela. Bioagro, 15: 157-163.
Gupta, R. P., Srivastava, K. J., Pandey, U. B., and Midmore, D. J. (1994). Diseases and insect pests of onion in
India. Acta Horticulturae, 358: 265-269.
Hafez, S. I.I. A., Elyousr, K. A.M. A. and Rahim, I.R. A.(2015). Fungicidal activity of extracellular products of
cyanobacteria against Alternaria porri. European Journal of Phycology. 50(2): 239-245.
National Horticultural Research and Development Foundation. (2015). Available at http://nhrdf.org/en-
us/AreaAndProductiionReport.
Schwartz, H. F. and Mohan, S. K. (1995). Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases. American
Phytopathological Society.
Seebold, K. W., Boyhan, G. E., Torrance, R. L., and Cook, M. J. (2003). Screening cultivars of sweet onion for
susceptibility to pink root, 2002. BandC Tests, 18:V024. doi:10.1094/BC18.

ECO-FRIENDLY MANAGEMENT OF FINGER MILLET BLAST IN
CURRENT SCENARIO TOWARDS FOOD SECURITY
M. Rajesh, A. Nirmalakumari and A. Sudha
Centre of Excellence in Millets, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Athiyandal, Tamil Nadu, India-606603,
E-mail: mrajeshpath@yahoo.co.in, Corresponding Author: M.Rajesh
F inger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn) is a staple food crop grown by subsistence
farmers in the semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics of the world under rainfed conditions
(Thilakarathna and Raizada, 2015). The name is derived from the seedhead, which has
the shape of human fingers. Shisanya et al., (2011) reported that locally, the crop is called ragi
(India), koddo (Nepal), dagussa tokuso, barankiya (Ethiopia), wimbi, mugimbi (Kenya); bulo
(Uganda); kambale, lupoko, mawale, majolothi, amale, bule (Zambia); rapoko, zviyo, njera, rukweza,
mazhovole, uphoko, poho (Zimbabwe); mwimbi, mbege (Tanzania) and kurakkan (Sri Lanka). It is a
seeded annual cereal crop that belongs to the grass family, Poaceae and sub-family Chloridoideae
(Soreng et al., 2015). Finger millet originated from the highlands of Ethiopia to Uganda where it was
first domesticated and has been cultivated in the region for more than five thousand years and
thereafter introduced to other parts of the world notably to the Asian continent specifically India is
well documented (de Wet et al., 1984).
Finger millet plays an important role in the dietary habits and economy of subsistence
farmers. Staple foods prepared from the grain are major sources of minerals and nutrients and are
especially important for pregnant women, nursing mothers and children (Mitaru et al., 1993). Finger
millet is 3-5 times nutritionally superior to the widely promoted rice and wheat in terms of proteins,
minerals and vitamins (Bhohale, 2013). There is a growing concern globally about the impact of plant
diseases on food and nutrition security particularly in the context of human and animal health,
economic growth and environmental sustainability (Fisher et al., 2016). At present there are over 815
million people living with hunger and by 2050 the world population is expected to be around 9
billion. Increasing demand for more food production combined with the threat of climate change pose
a growing stress on the agro-ecosystems.
Finger millet cultivation faces with some constraints that continue to lower its production. It
is affected by some economically important diseases that drastically reduce its production. Fungal
pathogens that cause diseases on finger millet include blast (Pyricularia grisea), rust (Puccinia
substriatia), downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola), seedling and leaf blight (Helminthospororium
nodulosum), Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora pennisetic), Cylindrosporium leaf spot
(Cylindrosporium species) and tar spot (Phyllachora eleusines). Finger millet is also susceptible to
bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv eleusines). Of all these biotic constraints, blast is
considered the most damaging and economically significant disease of finger millet (Owere et al.,
2014). In addition, blast disease affects other major staple food crops such as rice and wheat that are
paramount to food security and has been considered the most economically important pathogenic
fungal disease in the world (Dean et al., 2012). The extent of damage depends on the severity and
time of onset of disease in finger millet. The average loss due to finger millet blast has been reported
to be around 28% and reported as high as 80-90% in endemic areas. Finger millet blast disease is by
far the most devastating, causing over 50% yield loss. According to McRae (1922) the grain loss due
to blast could be over 56 per cent, while, Venkatarayan (1947) reported more than 80 per cent yield
loss in Mysore. The ultimate loss in grain yield is due to the cumulative effect of reduction in grain
number and weight as well as enhanced spikelet sterility (Nagaraja et al., 2007).
Pathogen: Pyricularia grisea (Cke.) Sacc.–Finger millet
It has been reported to be as Pyricularia eleusinis in some records. Park (1932) reported P.
oryzae on finger millet in Uganda. In Malaya also P. oryzae has been recorded on this host. The
isolate from finger millet does not infect rice. Ramakrishnan (1948) recorded it to be a race of P.
oryzae. Wallace & Wallace (1948) also reported P. oryzae from Tanzania on finger millet. The blast
disease is caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae (M. oryzae) B. Couch (anamorph: Pyricularia
oryzae Cavara); synonym Magnaporthe grisea (M. grisea) (Hebert Barr) (Zhang et al., 2016). The
fungal species has been classified into two distinct groups M. oryzae and M. grisea based on
Eco-friendly Management of Finger Millet Blast in Current Scenario Towards Food Security 315
molecular analysis involving some ortholog genes that were able to distinguish the evolutionary
relationship of pathogens affecting major cereal crops including some grasses and other hosts typified
by Digitaria species, respectively (Luo et al., 2015). These two species are indistinguishable in
conidium, perithecium and ascospore morphology (Klaaubauf et al., 2014). Strains affecting cereal
crops are now classified as M. oryzae, while strains affecting some wild hosts and certain grasses are
classified as M. grisea. M. oryzae belongs to the genus Magnaporthe, family Magnaporthaceae, order
Magnaporthales, class Sordariomycetes within the phylum Ascomycota (Zhang et al., 2016). Other
species in this genus include M. poae, M. salvinii and M. rhizophilia (Luo et al., 2015). M. oryzae is a
hemibiotrophic filamentous ascomycete fungus (Koeck et al., 2011). Hemibiotrophic fungal plant
pathogens require living tissue for a phase during the infection process to survive and complete their
life cycle. Hemibiotrophic fungi include major pathogens that cause huge crop losses, threatening
global economy and food security (Koeck et al., 2011).
Young hyphae are hyaline and septate, older hyphae are brown coloured. The length of the
cells varies from 1.5-6.0µ. Numerous conidiophores and conidia are formed in the middle portions of the
lesions in humid conditions. The upper surface is darker than lower surface. The conidiophores
emerge through epidermal cells or stomata. They are septate, straight, sub-hyaline at the tip and dark
coloured at the base. The conidia are hyaline, thin walled and subpyriform. The size of the conidia
varies, being 19-31 µ x 10-15 µ. Each spore is three celled, the middle cell being darker and broader
than others. They are formed acrogenously one after another, by the sympodial growth of the
condiophore, only end cells form germ tube. On germination in culture media, the fungus produces
olive brown to dark brown, globose, chlamydospores, 4-10 µ in diameter. These may be terminal or
intercalalry.
The pathogen grows on various media in the laboratory and produces a dark grey aerial
growth. It grows well on the extracts of the host material. Optimum temperature for the growth of the
finger millet isolate on culture media was 29.50C (Thomas, 1940). Maximum growth of finger millet
isolate was obtained on solid media at 300C (Ramakrishnan, 1948). There was no significant
difference in mat weights between the growths at 20 and 300C. The minimum and maximum
temperature for the fungus were 5 and 360C respectively. According to Thomas (1940), the optimum
reaction of the medium was between pH 5 and 6. Ramakrishnan (1948) recorded the best growth of the
fungus at pH 7. The pH of the medium was changed to about 5 and 6, during the growth of the fungus.
The spores die when exposed for five minutes at 48-490C.
Finger millet isolate easily utilized the different carbon source. The best sources of carbon are
fructose, mannose, sucrose and glucose. The nitrogen sources are inorganic nitrate nitrogen, organic
amide and amino nitrogen. According to Suryanarayanan (1958), ammonium oxalate, asparagine,
ammonium tartrate, urea, potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate are the best sources. Fungus produces
several enzymes such as lipase, inulase, amidase, diastasem sucrose, erepsin, lactase and trypsin
(Ramakrishnan, 1948).
According to Sadasivan and Subramanian (1954), the fungus was heterotrophic for thiamine
and biotin. Suryanarayanan (1958) also reported that the fungus had total deficiency for biotin and
thiamine. Kulkarni and Govindu (1976) reported similar results, Pyridoxine, inositol and nicotinic
acid slightly stimulated the growth. The neck isolate responded more to vitamins than did the leaf
isolate.
Symptoms: Pyricularia grisea attacks finger millet and other crop hosts at different stages of
development from seedling to the panicle formation by developing lesions on the infected plant parts.
These include leaves, leaf collars, neck, panicles, seeds, pedicels and even the roots of the susceptible
hosts (Babu et al., 2013). The most obvious symptoms of this disease appear on the leaves and the
neck (De Datta, 1981). The centre of the lesion has dull grey green or pale green with a dark brown
outer rim that appears soaked and the centre gradually becomes grey or almost straw colour. The
lesions on the neck or on the nodes of the panicles near the base of the panicle are the most striking
symptoms and the destructive form of the disease leading to yield loss (De Datta, 1981). The
appearance of blast lesions on the leaves of the susceptible host plants depends largely on the age of
the host plant, the environmental condition and the level at which the host varieties can resist the
disease.
Lesions develop on leaf blades of the adult plants. The lesions are like those on the seedlings
and are about 0.3-0.5 cm in breadth and 1-2 cm in length. The apices of the infected leaves beyond
the lesions hang down and sometimes break. Stem infection causes blackening of the nodal region,
penetrating into the tissues. Maximum damage is caused by the neck infection. The neck region turns
black and shrunk. An olive grey growth of fungus is seen over this area. The ear hangs down from the
stalk and sometimes it may break away. Infections may also occur at the basal portions of the panicle
branches including the fingers, the affected portions turn brown. Infected ears become generally
chaffy and a few shriveled grains may be formed, the effected portions of the earhead become black.
The loss in grain yield depends upon the time of infection.
Infection Cycle: The conidia of the fungus M. oryzae are primarily transmitted through seeds
(Tanaka et al., 2009). Thomas (1940) reported that spores were found on shriveled seeds. Kato et al.
(1977) also recorded the fungus on the seeds and through rain splash or plant-to-plant contact (Chen
et al., 2013). In India and Africa, seed is considered as the primary source and mode of transmission
(Sere et al., 2011). There are five recognised steps in the fungal infection process. The process
includes attachment to the plant (leaf) surface, germination on the plant surface, formation of
infection structures, penetration of the host and colonisation of the host tissue (Schafer, 1994). The
mechanism of M. oryzae infection process for finger millet is not yet available, but it is thought to be
similar to the process reported on rice that has been well studied (Sakulkoo et al., 2018). After
successful attachment of the spore to the surface of the leaf, the germ tube emerges across leaf surface
and the germ tube then forms an appressorium (a specialised infection structure). The appressorium
then penetrates the leaf cuticle by rupture using enormous turgor pressure followed by invasive
growth. Successful colonisation of the leaf produces disease lesions from where the fungus sporulates
and spreads to new parts of plant (Chen et al., 2013). However, the overall infection process largely
depends on the environmental and developmental cues (Ribot et al., 2008). The infection stages
involve certain genes, proteins and structures and the function of these components in relation to the
blast pathogen and rice host interactions have been well studied (DeZwaan et al., 1999).
The fungus enters the host by piercing through the epidermal cells or through stomata. The
incubation period varies from 4-6 days. Intensity of the disease depends on the weather conditions.
The crop which is sown in June - July is being worst affected because they are exposed to high
humidity due to monsoon rains. If there are continuous rains during the time of earhead formation,
then there is heavy loss to the crop. Thomas (1941) reported heavy infections of the neck and ear
when sowings were done in June (69-81%). No infections was recorded in the crops sown in January
to April or October to December, in the year 1941 and 31% of infection was recorded in October
sowing. Seedlings are more susceptible than mature plants. No correlation was seen between intensity
of seedling infection and that of ear infection.
Favourable Environmental Factors: The availability of free water as dew favours all the vital
processes of the blast fungus disease cycle, such as spore production, release, adhesion, germination
and host infection (Ou, 1985). Free moisture on the surface of the host plant for up to 24 hours is
essential for M. oryzae infection on rye-grass and rapid expansion of the lesion on the surface of the
host plant (Trevathan et al., 1994). Another report on the rye-grass blast showed that increase in the
duration of leaf wetness at temperatures from 20OC to 29OC increased blast incidence and severity
(Uddin et al., 2003). Besides dew, some common meteorological conditions that favour severe
epidemics of rice blast include long periods of drizzling rain, lack of sunshine, moderate temperature,
slow wind and high humidity, but heavy rain could be a limiting factor (Calvero, 1994). Temperature
has however been identified as the most important determinant of the disease and affects the
interaction between the host and the pathogen. In fact, it is a critical factor in the blast disease triangle
of the environment, host and pathogen (Scholthof, 2007). Another important factor favouring the
disease is the nitrogen level applied to the host plant. Higher levels of nitrogenous material either
present in soil or applied as fertilizer lead to increased incidence of blast and predispose the plant to
the disease (Osuna-Canizalez et al., 1991; Long et al., 2000). It has been reported that favourable
weather conditions increased the epidemic of the blast fungus M. oryzae on finger millet (Patel and
Tripathi, 1998). Continuous wetness and high humidity over 16 to 24 hours favour maximum
infection of rice and finger millet at 22OC - 30OC (Patel and Tripathi, 1998).
Management: Plant disease resistance though remains the most effective strategy of disease
management at the end of farmers, yet sources of stable resistance to the pathogen remain elusive.
Plant protection measures are uneconomical and hence, are not quite often considered by resource
poor farmers. Also, their irrelevant and indiscriminative use may enhance resistance in
phytopathogens and cause environmental and groundwater pollution. Traces of such chemicals have
been reported to get deposited in agricultural produce (Gurusubramanian et al., 2008). Consumption
of such contaminated produces may cause serious health problems in human beings (Singh et al.,
2008). The disease is mainly managed through cultural methods, planting of resistant varieties and
use of biological control agents.
Cultural Practices: Planting of blast free certified seeds, manipulation of planting time and optimum
amount of fertilizer application after soil losing have been found useful by farmers (Sood and Babu,
2016). Managing seed rates, increasing the spacing and weeding of the finger millet fields two or
three times a season to eliminate alternate weedy hosts are known to reduce finger millet blast disease
levels (Oduori, 2008). Crop rotation also aids blast disease management. Intercropping system is
another form of cultural practice that has been effectively used to manage blast disease (Mudita et al.,
2008). For example, finger millet planted with pigeon pea, produced good yields. This result was
attributed to differences in growth cycles and increased competition for nitrogen (Adipala et al.,
1994). Growing resistant varieties is not only economical for minimizing the losses caused by the
disease, at the best time of sowing and variety for maximizing yield and reduction of blast disease
incidence. It is also an environmental friendly method. The crop sown during early season escaped
incidence of leaf, neck and finger blast in all the varieties tested. The crop sown late in the season
showed severe incidence of leaf, neck and finger blast in all the varieties. Resistant varieties viz.,
GPU 28 and GPU 48 showed lower incidence of blast as compared to susceptible varieties viz.,
KM252 and K7 in all the dates of sowing. Grain yield was the maximum in crops sown in July when
compared to September sown crop. Varieties that had lower blast incidence recorded higher yield as
compared to varieties with higher leaf, neck and finger blast incidences (Senthil et al., 2012). Similar
studies reported by Viswanath et al. (1986), Jena and Patnaik (1987) indicated that resistant varieties
recorded less disease incidence even under high disease occurrence irrespective of climatic variation.
Ravikumar et al. (1990) evaluated 316 ragi accessions over four seasons and indicated that seven
genotypes; GE 75, GE 669, GE 866, GE 1309, GE 1407 and GE 1409 showed resistance to both neck
and finger blast across environments. The early dates of sowing favoured less blast disease (Rath and
Swain, 1978; Pall and Nema, 1979; Pall, 1991 and Rajesh et al., 2020).
Biological Control: In view of the environmental concerns associated with chemical fungicides,
efforts are continued to develop alternative control measures also in the context of peoples’ health
(Law et al., 2017). Biological control offers scope as a practical and economic alternative for the
management of plant diseases including blast (Manidipa et al., 2013). Most of the microbes that have
been successfully used in controlling plant diseases employ mechanisms such as competition,
suppression, antibiosis, mycoparasitism, hypervirulence and induced resistance (Karthikeyan and
Gnanamanickan, 2008; Law et al., 2017). Some commonly used biological agents (bio-inoculant) to
control fungal crop diseases include Pseudomonas species (Karthikeyan and Gnanamanickan, 2008;
Dorjey et al., 2017), Bacillus species (Karthikeyan and Gnanamanickan, 2008; Prasanna Kumar et al.,
2017), Trichoderma species (Kumar et al., 2016; Waghunde et al., 2016) and Streptomyces species
(Boukaew and Prasertsan, 2014). For example, finger millet, foxtail millet and rice seeds treated with
Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf7-14 showed good response and suppressed blast infection at high
percentage of 80-88% and reduced rice blast severity by 21 to 68.5 % (Karthikeyan and
Gnanamanickan, 2008). Similar reports from two different research groups in Iran and Egypt, showed
effectiveness of Streptomyces species to antagonise blast disease on rice plant (Zarandi et al., 2009;
Khalil et al., 2014). Additionally, studies have shown the capability of bio-inoculants to increase the
root and shoot growth as well as flowering and maturity of the crop plants through symbiotic
association (Karthikeyan and Gnanamanickan, 2008; Singh et al., 2016; Amruta et al., 2018).
Nonetheless, weather condition is a major determinant for the effectiveness of a biological control
agent as unfavourable conditions can render it ineffective. Furthermore, the possibility of the
pathogen developing resistance rendering the treatment non-effective and non-economic needs to be
carefully considered (Suprapta, 2012; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2014).
Plant extracts have been known for their medicinal and antimicrobial properties since ancient
times (Lalitha et al., 2010). They offer a greater scope than synthetic chemicals as they are relatively
safe, easily biodegradable and ecofriendly (Gurjar et al., 2012). Also reported that plant extracts from
Azadirachta indica, A. Juss., Allium sativum, Linn., Eucalyptus globulus, Labill., Curcuma longa,
Linn., Nicotiana tabacum, Linn and Zingibar officinale, Rose inhibited growth of pathogens such as
Phytopthora infestans, Alternaria alternate, Rhizoctonia solani and Curvularia lunata. Natural
chemicals from plants are cheap, readily available and cost-effective in developing countries where
synthetic fungicides are scarce and expensive for resource-poor farmers (Mossini et al., 2004). The
crude aqueous extracts of Oxalis latifolia can be used as an effective, economical and viable option
for control of finger millet blast at farm level, especially under low input and/or organic farming
conditions (Deeksha Joshi et al., 2012).
The fungal pathogens of rice, Pyricularia oryzae, was controlled effectively by neem oil and
neem seed kernel extracts (Mariappan et al., 1995). Hubert et al. (2015) determined the effect of
aqueous extracts of Aloe vera, Allium sativum, Annona muricata, Azadirachta indica, Bidens pilosa,
Camellia sinensis, Chrysanthemum coccineum, processed Coffee arabica, Datura stramonium,
Nicotiana tabacum and Zingiber officinalis for control of Pyricularia grisea under in-vitro and in-
vivo conditions.
Several scientific studies have identified plant species with more than 2400 bioactive
compounds having insecticidal and anti-pathogenic properties, commonly referred as ‘green
pesticides’, which are more compatible with environmental components compared to synthetic
pesticides (Karunamoorthi, 2012). Application of plant derived commercial products Achook,
Neemazal, Neemgold and Wanis were found promising in reducing the severity of paddy leaf blast up
to 40 to 44% (Muralidharan et al., 2003).
Host Resistance: Host resistance is the ability of a host plant to hinder or resist colonization by a
pathogen (Robinson, 1969). Generally, the host plant relies on the innate immunity of each cell and
systematic signals emanating from the infection site introduced by the pathogens (Jones and Dangl,
2006). Host plants do this using two modes of resistance (Cook et al., 2015). The first mode
recognises and responds to molecules common to many classes of microbes including non-pathogens
and utilises transmembrane pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that respond to slowly evolving
microbial or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs or PAMPs). On the other hand, the
second mode recognises and responds to pathogen virulence factors either directly or indirectly
through their effects on host targets. This mode acts predominantly inside the cell, using the
polymorphic nucleotide binding (NB)-leucine rich repeat (LRR) protein products encoded by most R
genes, and are broadly characterised based on the NB and LRR domains (Cook et al., 2015).
Examples of this second mode are the gene for gene (direct) and guard (indirect) hypotheses.
Several reports have recommended the use of resistant seed varieties as the most
advantageous and environmental friendly method for blast management on rice (e.g. Sere et al., 2011;
Miah et al., 2017). Qualitative resistance (also referred to as vertical or complete resistance) and
quantitative resistance (also referred to as horizontal or partial resistance) (Marone et al., 2013; Pilet-
Nayel et al., 2017) are the two major type of resistances recognized and used in rice resistance
development programs. While qualitative resistance is conferred by the host resistance genes (R
genes), which recognise and interact with the pathogen avirulence AVR genes, quantitative resistance
is mediated by quantitative traits loci (QTL) that confer durable non-race specific resistance.
Generally, qualitative resistance is pathogen race-specific and its durability is limited by strong
selection pressure imposed on the pathogen. More than 70 genes and 347 QTLs involved in M. oryzae
-rice interactions have been identified using a range of molecular techniques (Koide et al., 2009;
Debnath et al., 2018).
Planting disease-resistant varieties is recognised as the most economic and effective means of
combating M. oryzae causing blast on finger millet (Babu et al., 2013). Deshkar et al. (1973) reported
varieties PR 722 and PR202 as moderately resistant. Pall and Nema (1978) recorded two varieties
viz., TAH 91-1 and TAH 14-8 as moderately resistant. Studies on three forms of blast in finger millet
by Neeraja et al. (2015) revealed that from 25 finger millet genotypes KMR 502, GPU67, DHWFM
11-3, KOPN 930, TNEC 1277, TNEC 1269, GPU 45, PRSW 43 and DHFM 103 were moderately
resistant / moderately susceptible against leaf blast. Whereas, PR 10-51, KMR 346 and DHFM 103
were moderately resistant / moderately susceptible genotypes against both neck and finger blast.
Patro et al. (2019) 3000 finger millet lines were assessed against neck and finger blast during
kharif, 2013 to 2018 resulted that among all the 3000 lines 112 lines shown resistant reaction under
high disease pressure field conditions during kharif 2013. However, only 50 varieties have shown
consistent reaction during all the years (2014-2018). The minimum neck incidence was recorded in
VR 1062 and VR 1104 with 2.5 per cent and VR 1080 recorded 0.0 per cent of finger blast.
Growing resistant varieties is not only economical for minimizing the losses caused by the
disease, at the best time of sowing and variety for maximizing yield and reduction of blast disease
incidence. It is also an environmentally friendly method. The early dates of sowing favoured less
disease (Rath and Swain, 1978; Pall and Nema, 1979; Pall, 1991). They also observed that early
sowing favoured less disease development in comparison with late (September) sowing. Development
of blast was less in July, where the temperature was comparatively higher and relative humidity was
lower. The lower temperature and higher humidity was favourable for disease severity for all the three
blast diseases. Minimum temperature (15-20°C), more number of rainy days, higher rainfall and
relative humidity were the most important factors favouring blast development (Bhatt and Chauhan,
1985).
Bijender Kumar and J Kumar (2012) reveled that the 1:1 mixture of PRM 1 (V1) and VL 149
(V2) varieties, was best, wherein incidence of neck blast (0.84%) and finger blast (10.42%) diseases
was lesser than both the varieties, individually. Consumption of finger millet as mixture should not
have social problem. If one were to consider advantage of blast management through varietal
mixtures, and not through the use of chemical, which is rarely, practiced anywhere, use of varietal
mixture to ward of blast hold promise in finger millet crop. This would at the same time be necessary
to extend life span of a variety which succumbs to blast in a couple of years as also it provide a means
to the farmers to be able to use his preferred variety in spite of its high susceptibility to blast.
Conclusion: Finger millet is no more called a coarse cereal rather referred as a nutri-cereal or as a
nutraceutical crop and is seen as a potential solution for malnutrition and hidden hunger worldwide.
Apart from its excellent nutritional value, its ability to resist pathogens makes it an excellent model
for exploring vast genetic and genomic potential of this otherwise important crop and related cereal
grasses. Development of a super cereal in the future may also be possible by incorporating various
important traits into the genome of a single finger millet genotype. Thus utilization of current
advances in molecular breeding and genetic engineering together with advanced Omics technologies
will definitely prove useful in improving the present scenario of research in finger millet resistance.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to ICAR-IIMR, Hyderabad and many more pioneers
whose contributions are immense to these crops that served as the basis for this chapter.
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
THE BIOLOGY, MANAGEMENT AND IMPACTS OF SORGHUM
ERGOT DISEASE
A. Sudha1, D. Kavithamani3 and M. Rajesh2
1 &2
Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), E-mail: sudhaa1981@gmail.com and 3Assistant Professor (Plant Breeding and
Genetics), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Corresponding Author: A. Sudha
S
orghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench is an important cereal crop ranking fourth after
rice, wheat and maize and is grown for food in semi-arid tropics and sub-arids,
throughout the world. As a drought resistant crop, sorghum is adapted to a wide range
of ecological conditions and produces reasonable yields in soil unsuitable for most other cereals
(Rosewich, 1996). The total area under sorghum cultivation is 44.82 million hectares with a
production of 65.81 million tons and productivity of 1468 kg/ha respectively (FAO, 2009). It is
cultivated mainly for food, feed, beverages and fodder. The production of sorghum in India is about
8.71 million tonnes. In Tamil Nadu it is cultivated in an area of 4.01 lakh hectare with
a productivity of 612 kg /ha. The production amounts to about 4.6 lakh tones (www.apeda.gov.in).
The major sorghum growing areas are spread in, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Rajasthan (Fig.1.). Increase in sorghum production and
productivity over years, is mainly due to the cultivation of high yielding hybrids. Sorghum is a tough
crop, it still suffers from various abiotic and biotic stresses. It is subjected to many fungal, bacterial
and viral diseases at different stages of crop growth and development.
Fig.1. Indian Production of Jowar ( HSCODE-1004)
Source: National Horticulture Board (NHB)

The major diseases which affect sorghum production are downy mildew, leaf blight, smuts,
rust, anthracnose , charcoal rot, grain mold (complex etiology), ergot or sugary disease and stripe
disease (a tenui virus transmitted by Perigrinus maidis). Sorghum ergot, commonly known as “sugary
disease”, is caused by the pathogen Claviceps sorghi. Ergot results from the Colonization of
individual ovaries, replacing the infected ovary with fungal tissue, preventing seed development in the
affected florets (Fredericksen and Odvody, 2000). It is a serious threat for the production of hybrids
and hybrid seeds particularly if ‘nicking’ is poor or seed set is delayed in male sterile lines. In India,
particularly in Maharashtra state, where primarily hybrids are grown and several seed companies are
located, 10-80 percent losses in seed yield have been reported due to this ergot (Sangitrao et al.1997).
The genus Claviceps is a fungi species that can be found in the ovaries of grasses and rye (as
well as other related plants). This has been shown to be the primary characteristic of this species. Well
over 40 species of genus sclerotia have been identified with some of the most important species
including the following: Claviceps purpurea, Claviceps fusiformis, Claviceps paspali and Claviceps
Africana. Along with a number of other species (e.g. C. sorghi and C.cynodontis), these organisms
belong to a group of fungi that are referred to as ergot fungi. As such, they can be found growing on a
variety of grasses where they produce alkaloids.
Enhanced geographic distribution and the resurgence in importance of the disease in countries
with near total dependence on hybrid seeds have escalated the insist for research on ergot, the
unfolding ergot story in Asia, Australia and America and response of the sorghum research has shown
the independence of the sorghum research worldwide. Since, this disease pressurizes quarantine and
confines global seed trade, economics of sorghum production, international seed exchange and policy
considerations will get influenced by ergot. In this chapter the biology, management and impact of
ergot severity in cattles and human beings were discussed.
Identification of the Pathogenic Fungi: The fungi C.africana was identified based on morphological
characters. In culture the fungal colony was initially white cottony with profuse aerial mycelium
which gradually turned to light yellow to pink with small puckering. Mycelium produced three types
of conidia viz, micro conidia, macro conidia and secondary conidia. Micro conidia were hyaline
aseptate, spherical to subspherical, 2.4-5 µm in diameter. Macroconidia were hyaline, aseptate, oval,
8.9-16.2 × 5-8.9 µm in size and slightly contracted at centre. Secondary conidia were hyaline,
aseptate, pear shaped, 11.2-18.8 × 5-7.4 µm in size.
Symptomatology: Ergot pathogen infected unfertilized ovaries. A few or all ovaries within florets on
a panicle were individually infected. There were two obvious symptoms of infection in the field. The
first and most noticeable was the production of sugary fluid (honeydew) from infected florets. The
second was the presence of fungal sphacelia or sclerotia between the lemma and palea of infected
florets. Honeydew was thin or viscous, sweet and very sticky. With time, honeydew became
uniformly yellow-brown in colour. It remained as integral droplets, or drip onto uninfected florets,
seeds, leaves, and the ground. Honeydew contained the infectious conidia and it was the germination
of conidia on the droplet surface that produces secondary conidia which had white coloration. The
fungal sclerotia of C.africana were not very noticeable prior to production of honeydew. The
sphacelium developed some times in place of seed even before honeydew was produced. At maturity,
it was difficult to differentiate sphacelia /sclerotium from healthy seed coated with honeydew and
saprophytic fungi.
Tonapi et al. (2002) have reported that viability of sclerotia in the range of three to ten years.
Sorghum ergot can also severely affect grain quality. Alkaloid production by Claviceps species is well
known as quality problem in some grains such as wheat and rye (Secale cereale subsp. cereale). All
these pathogens can affect sorghum grain quality by direct discolouration of the grain or by the
production of toxic compounds. Also, the honeydew exuded to the panicles contains not only the
macro and micro conidia of C.africana but also high concentrations of sugars.
Life Cycle of the Pathogen
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of female ascogonia and male
antheridia, karyogamy to form diploid nuclei, which is followed by meiosis to return to the haploid
state. This results in the production of sexual fruiting bodies called perithecia that contain multiple
asci, each of which contain eight filiform ascospores that are up to 2 µm in diameter and 60-70 µm
long. Ascospores are ejected from the asci and perithecia into the air in an explosive manner (to a
height of 7-15 cm) and are disseminated by air currents or by insects. Each sclerotium produces up to
one million ascospores. Only those ascospores that land on a host stigma or ovary can cause infection.
The stigma of a grass flower is large and featherlike to trap windborne pollen. This same feature traps
the airborne ascospores. Ascospores, which are the primary (initial) inoculum, germinate and infect
the ovary within 24 h.(Fig.2.)
Fig.2. Sexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction: A germinated ascospore produces a long filamentous hypha that colonizes
the ovary of the host plant flower. As the hyphae grow longer and more numerous, they are called a
mycelium. Fungal mycelium produces numerous asexual conidia (secondary inoculum) from palisade
conidiophores within a sweet, yellowish, mucilaginous substance called honeydew. This stage is also
called the sphacelia or honeydew stage. The honeydew attracts insects to the wind-pollinated flowers.
Insects contaminated with conidia may visit healthy flowers where new infections are initiated.
The Biology, Management and Impacts of Sorghum Ergot Disease 325
Splashing raindrops also aid in the dispersal of the conidia. Conidia from ergot-infected wild grasses,
particularly in fence rows, can be the primary inoculum in cereal and grass seed production fields.
Over time, hyphae consume the entire ovary and hyphal threads become thicker and interwoven.
Meanwhile, conidia and honeydew production ceases. Mutual pressure of the ever-growing hyphae
causes production of dense mass of compact tissue called pseudoparenchyma, which eventually
develops into a hard, dark colored sclerotium, or ergot.
Disease Cycle: The sclerotium (or ergot) is the survival or overwintering structure of C. purpurea. At
harvest, a portion of sclerotia is harvested all along with the grain and another portion falls on the
ground. Sclerotia lie dormant until they are exposed to favorable weather conditions. Four to eight
weeks of 0 – 10°C temperatures is required for vernalization of the sclerotia before germination.
Sclerotia germinate in the spring, just prior to flowering in the cereals and grasses, and give rise to a
stroma (stromata plural), formed in mushroom-like fashion on stipes with spherical capitula. It is
within these stromata that sexual reproduction occurs
Conditions Favouring Infection of Ergot: Claviceps purpurea is common in temperate climates in
which the cold period required for sclerotial germination is met. Rainfall or high soil moisture is
required for stroma formation and ascospore production. In cereal grains and many of the grasses,
resistance to infection develops after fertilization. Thus, conditions that delay or interfere with
pollination, such as cool, wet weather, can increase the period of susceptibility.
Conidia are an important means of secondary spread. Any transfer of honeydew from infected
to healthy flowers can lead to infection. Secondary spread can occur through any means that moves
conidia to healthy flowers, including rain splash, insects, head-to-head contact, and moving
equipment.
What are Toxic Ergot Levels in Grain and Crops?: Sclerotes of C.africana contain toxic
chemicals, in particular the alkaloid dihydroergosine. Feeding trials have established that sorghum
contaminated with sclerotes can affect milk production in cows and sows, and weight gain in cattle.
There is a large variation in the levels of alkaloids (and toxicity) between ergot-contaminated grain
samples, which is caused by differences in the maturity of the sclerotes and perhaps other factors
such as weather and variety. Most commonly, a sorghum sample containing 0.3% sclerote will
contain about 1 mg alkaloid/kg (1 ppm), and all experimental results quoted below relate to that
alkaloid concentration. However, because the alkaloid concentration can vary, it will be advisable to
minimise ergot wherever possible. Floatation techniques (see section on Estimating sclerote levels in
grain) can be useful for quickly counting sclerotes, and analytical tests can be used to quantify
alkaloid levels (see Marketing options section).
Estimating Sclerote Levels in Grain: Spread out about half a cupful (100g) on a clean piece of white
paper, and begin to divide the components. After removing sound grain, look for small, grey/white
bodies. Sclerotes look a bit like immature sorghum grain, but are more elongated and darker in colour,
with a scaly surface, and often with a small black tip where the Cerebella fungus is taking hold. A
small magnifying glass costing a couple of dollars is very helpful in this process. If less than 30
sclerotes are found the sample should contain less than 0.3% by weight, and if less than 10 scierotes
are found the sample should be less than 0.1%. Another quick method to evaluator the general quality
of the grain and to separate sclerotes is to float off the lighter material in a salt solution. To do this,
dissolve 20g of common table salt in 200ml of tap water. Add 100 g of the grain and stir briskly. Take
off the material that floats with a spoon and dry on absorbent paper. Examine as described above.
The material that floats will include sclerotes, ergots with Cerebella, immature grains, weed seeds and
glumes/chaff.
Impact on Animals: Milk production in lactating cows and sows can be seriously reduced if there is
>0.3% by weight of ergot sclerotes in sorghum grain. Weight gains in feedlot cattle can be
significantly impaired by even lower ergot levels of 0.1%. Limits set on ergot-infected sorghum grain
intended for stockfeed reflect these critical levels (QDAF 2011b)
How Ergot Affects the Crop: The disease reduces yield through poor seed set and can cause
harvesting difficulties from the sticky honeydew on the heads. Honeydew is modified plant sap, so it
will be produced from infected heads for as long as the plant is alive. Fungal bodies, called sclerotes,
which replace the seed, are toxic to livestock, particularly cows, sows and beef cattle (QDAF 2011a).
There is no known resistance to ergot in grain sorghum hybrids, and fungicide control is not practical
because of the high cost of the effective fungicides. Therefore, management relies on good agronomic
practices.
Cultural Practices
Cleaning Seed: Even though this is labor intensive and expensive, most ergots can be removed from
grain by gravity-based cleaning equipment or flotation in brine (e.g., a 20% salt solution).
Planting Clean Seed: There are no effective seed treatments against ergot, so only ergot-free seed
should be planted. Use of certified seed can greatly reduce the risk of planting ergot infected seed.
Before Sowing: Minimise Uneven Flowering by
 Planting in a paddock with even soil type and preparation
 Sowing on a good soil moisture profile
 Ensuring correct soil nutrition levels
 Using high quality seed.
At Sowing: Sow during the optimum planting window in lower yield situations plant wider rows (1m
or skip) ensuring the same plant population per hectare, as this will reduce tillering.
Ensure Uniform Stands: Only seed with a good germination percentage should be used. Seed
should be sown at a consistent depth, following a balanced fertilizer program and other recommended
agronomic practices. Non-uniform stands within a region can result in a prolonged flowering period,
which in turn increases the spread of the disease within the field or from one field to another.
Late tillers and side shoots flowering outside the pollination period of main crop are more
affected by ergot than the main shoots, especially when the crop stand is thin due to poor growing
conditions. This is because they do not receive enough pollen and they still produce honeydew even
after the main crop is mature, thus contributing considerably to the secondary spread.
The best crop husbandry practices against ergot are those that ensure a well-developed, well-
nourished crop stand. Thus, adequate seed density and fertilization are very important. Adequate
copper fertilization is known to play a role in the control of ergot in wheat. Evidence also exists that
copper deficiency produces small anthers and enhances pollen sterility. If the flower stays open for
long without pollination, it is susceptible to ergot infection by spores of the fungus for a longer time.
Sanitation: weedy and wild, grasses and cereal volunteers that are within or outside the field should
be eradicated before heading. These volunteers could be the first source of ergot inoculum from
overwintered sclerotia or as a source of honeydew if produced prior to crop flowering.
Deep Plowing: Ascospores from stromata cannot be discharged into the air if sclerotia are buried in
the soil through deep plowing. Although deep plowing buries the ergots, many cereal crops are now
grown with "no-till" practices in which the new crop is seeded directly into the stubble from the
previous crop to reduce soil erosion. Crop rotation is even more important when deep plowing is not
practiced.
Crop Rotation: As ergots (sclerotia) do not usually survive for more than one year, rotation with
non-susceptible host plants is a viable management tactic for annual crops.
Harvesting Techniques: Ergot is often more severe around the edges of a field, because spores are
transported from roadside grasses by wind and active insects. Prior to harvest, fields should be
scouted to determine heavily infected areas and the plants in those areas should be harvested
separately.
Field Burning: Ergot is one of the most important diseases in grass seed production. As many of the
grass species are perennial, tillage and crop rotation are not management options.
Post-harvest field burning has been practiced to manage ergot and other diseases and pests.
During Crop Growth: Honeydew in tillers can pose a threat to harvesting operations especially if
harvesting is delayed, or if the crop is planted late. Killing tillers with a herbicide such as glyphosate
is an option. Glyphosate can only be applied when the seeds in the main head are at or beyond the
"dough stage"; that is, less than 25-30% grain moisture and when a small black layer appears at the
base of the seed. Honeydew in sprayed tillers will dry up rapidly after the tillers die. Follow herbicide
label directions closely.
After Harvest
 The sclerote limit of 0.3% by weight in a grain sorghum sample is equivalent to approximately
1% (or 20) of the grains in a sorghum head, assuming 2,000 seeds per head and no reduction in
sclerote numbers during harvest.
The Biology, Management and Impacts of Sorghum Ergot Disease 327
 Sclerotes are much lighter than grain, so during harvesting a high proportion (30-90%) is blown
from the back of the header. Increasing the fan speed can increase the percentage of sclerotes that
are ejected, but must be selected to ensure that small-sized, clean grain is not lost.
 Higher levels of ergot infection tend to occur at the edges of crops, and where flowering has been
uneven. Infected areas can be harvested separately from the rest of the crop and either discarded
or diluted with uncontaminated grain.
 Grain with high levels of sclerote contamination can be mixed with grain with no or very low
levels of contamination, to reduce the sclerote level to less than 0.3% by weight or 0.1% by
weight, depending on the intended enduse
 Using sieve and/or gravity table graders can reduce ergot levels significantly, depending on the
size of sclerotes in the sample and size of grain.
Case Study on Management of Sorghum Ergot under Invitro Condition
Efficacy of Antagonist against Claviceps sorghi: About 20 ml of PDA was poured into sterile
Petriplates and allowed to solidify. From previously grown young cultures of both fungal bio agents
and host pathogen 0.5 cm fungal disc of test fungus and respective bio agents were transferred
aseptically to Petriplates simultaneously by leaving sufficient space in between two discs. Mycelial
discs of the fungus were kept at opposite ends and bacteria streaked at the center to evaluate bacterial
bioagents. Three replications were maintained for each treatment. The Petriplates were incubated at
25±10C till the growth of colony touches the periphery in the control plate. Colony diameters of both
the test fungus and bio agents were measured and per cent inhibition was calculated. Data were
analyzed statistically
Six bioagents were tested against C.sorghi. The antagonists used in the study namely viz.,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Streptomyces sp. and four virulent species of Bacillus spp. The result
revealed that the bioagents significantly reduced the growth of C. sorghi either by competition (over
growing) or by antibiosis (exhibiting inhibition zones). The maximum reduction in colony growth of
Claviceps sorghi was observed with Streptomyces sp. (56.87) which was significantly superior to all
other bioagents tested. Followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens (56.25%) and followed by Bacillus sp.
4 (50.00%), Bacillus sp. 2 (46.87%). Least inhibition was observed with Bacillus sp.1 (26.38%).
Conclusion
Though few studies have been carried out on the pathogen and management of the disease,
information regarding the intensity of disease, effective plant extracts, neem based products,
biological and chemical management studies are limited. Hence there is a need to study all these
aspects in detail to suggest an effective management strategy to the farmers and basic aspects of the
disease.
References
Frederiksen, R. and Odvody, G. (2000). Compendium of Sorghum Diseases. Second edition. P. 40-42. Amer,
Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.
QDAF. (2011a). Wet summers increase ergot risk in sorghum. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry Queensland, http://www. daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/
sorghum/disease-management/wet-summers-increase-ergot-riskin-sorghum
QDAF. (2011b). Wet summers increase ergot risk in sorghum. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry Queensland, http://www. daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/
sorghum/disease-management/wet-summers-increase-ergot-riskin-sorghum
Nageshwar, T.G., Narayana, Y.D. and Seetharama, N. (2006). Survey of the incidence of Diseases in Karnataka
during Rainy season of 2005. ISMN 47:64-65.
Rosewich, U. L. (1996). The population genitics of Colletotrichum graminicola from different ecosystems of
sorghum. Ph. D. Thesis, Texas A&M University , USA, 150 pp.
Sangitaro, C. S., Indira, S. and Bandyopadhyay, R. (1997). Sorghum ergot in India. Pages 41- 54. In
Proceedings of Global conference on Ergot of Sorghum, June 1-8 1997, Sete lagaos, Brazil.
Statistics from National Horticulture Board
Tonapi, V., M Ryley, Vic Galea, Bhuiyan, S. and Weraing, A. (2002). Influence of Temperature and Relative
Humidity on Pollen Traits and Ergot Severity in Sorghum. ISMN.43:74-76.
www.apeda.gov.in

SOIL
SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY OF CADMIUM IN SOILS AND ITS IMPACT ON PLANT
GROWTH
Kondareddy, A. N.1, Dambale, A. S.2, Lekhika, B.3 and Prarthana, P. H.4
1,3 & 4
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-13,
E-mail: kondareddyank37@gmail.com and 2 Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural University,
Jorhat-13, Corresponding Author: Kondareddy, A. N.
E nvironmental pollution by heavy metals became extensive as mining and industrial

activities increased in 19th and 20th century. Heavy metals are defined as metals
having a density higher than 5 g cm3. Among naturally occurring elements, 53
elements are considered as heavy metals (Weast and Astle, 1984) and few of them are biological
importance. Among total heavy metals, seventeen metals may be available to plants and organisms
under some physiological conditions due to their solubility (Weast and Astle, 1984). Among the
heavy metals Zn, Ni, Cu, V, Co, W and Cr are nontoxic heavy elements at low concentration. Some
heavy metals viz. As, Hg, Ag, Sb, Cd and Pb have no significant function as nutrients and seems to be
more or less toxic to plants and microorganisms.
Cadmium is a chemical element having symbol Cd, atomic number 48 and atomic weight
112.4. This is silvery-white, soft metal and chemically having similarity with other stable metals
of group 12viz. Zn and Hg. Cadmium and its relativehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congener_
(chemistry) in group 12 are often not regarded as transition metals, in that they don’t have relatively
filled d or f electron shells in oxidation states.
Cadmium derives from the Greek word kadmeiaand the Latin word cadmia. Cd was
discovered by Friedrich Stromeyer in 1817. It exists naturally in the earth’s crust and can be added to
the soil through natural activities (volcanic activity and weathering of rocks) and anthropogenic
activities (Mining and smelting of Zn bearing ores, Fossil fuel combustion, Waste addition, Sewage
sludge, Irrigation waters, manures and Fertilizers originated from phosphate rock). By the application
of fertilizers, animal wastes and fungicides into the soil not only supply the essential nutrients but also
enrich the soil with the heavy metals and the concentration of Cd content in soils decreases with depth
(Table.1).
Table.1 Heavy metals contamination of tea estates soil in Sivasagar and Dibrugarh districts of Assam (Nath, 2013)
Sample Surface (0-15)cm Subsurface I (15-30)cm Subsurface II (30-60)cm
1 2.19 1.9 1.83
2 2.48 2.3 2.29
3 2.4 2.25 2.14
4 2.31 2.11 1.97
5 2.11 1.86 1.71
6 1.78 1.57 1.44
7 2.73 2.51 2.47
8 2.82 2.69 2.61
9 1.65 1.51 1.4
10 2.67 2.45 2.4
11 2.06 1.79 1.62
12 2.83 2.8 2.69
13 1.61 1.43 1.26
14 2.8 2.59 2.54
15 2.57 2.38 2.33
16 1.52 1.28 1.19
17 2.27 2.06 1.87
18 1.86 1.66 1.5
19 1.98 1.76 1.56
20 2.35 2.16 2.06
control 1.42 1.06 0.96
The average concentration of Cd in Earth's crust in the range of 0.1-0.5 ppm. Its abundance is
fairly similar in both igneous and sedimentary rocks. Cadmium occasionally exists in pure form in
nature. Cd containing minerals are greenockite (CdS), octavite (CdSe), and mentoponite (CdO).
Cadmium associated with zinc and lead ore deposits, and it’s some host minerals viz.sphalerite,
biotite, amphiboles and smithosonite.
Chemistry of Cadmium in Soils and its Impact on Plant Growth 329
Cadmium have similar ionic structures, electro negativities and chemical properties of zinc.
Different forms Cd viz.CdO, Cd(OH)2 and CdF2 were produced during weathering processes and are
easily mobile in sedimentary processes. They are easily soluble, exchangeable and associated with
hydrous oxides, adsorbed to organic matter and residual form. Cadmium has a high phyto-
accumulation index due to its low adsorption coefficient and high soil-plant mobility, hence Cd easily
enters the food chain.Plant will uptake Cd mainly through roots by specific and non-specific
transporters of essential nutrients.Cadmium causes phytotoxicity in plants by
 Decreases nutrient uptake
 Reduces photosynthesis and respiration
 lipid oxidation induces
 It’s changes the antioxidant system and alters the functioning of membranes
The rock phosphate supplied soils are reported to have higher cadmium content compare to
phosphate fertilized soils. The P-fertilizer contains Cd in the range of 22.7-36.8 mgkg-1. Due to high
concentration of cadmium in rice people of Jintsu valley in Japan affected by a diseaseItai-Itai.
According to US EPA the International water quality standards of cadmium was <0.005 mg/L for
human consumption. Rowe and Abdel (1995) gave that water quality of Cd for irrigation is 0.01
mgL1. WHO recommended threshold limits Cd for drinking water in the range of 0.002-0.01 mg/L.
Ismael et. al.(2019) considered cadmium concentration in leaf tissue in the range 0.05-0.2 mg kg1 DW
as normal. The maximum contaminant level of Cd was 0.003 mg/L.
Sorption of Cadmium in Soil: Sorption of cadmium in a soil is very fast process. The maximum Cd
adsorption takes place within ten minutes and reaching equilibrium in an one hour and that the soil is
having very high affinity for cadmium at pH 6 (Christensen, 1984). It is most important mechanism in
soil and it maintains the content of Cd in soil solution. Sorption influences the Cd availability to
plants and lost to ground water by leaching. Sorption of Cd can be statistically estimated by using
Langmuir and Freundlich sorption equations.
1. Langmuir Equation: C/(x/m) = (1/kb) + (C/b)
2. Freundlich Equation: log (x/m) = log Kf + 1/n log C
Where,
 C is the equilibrium Cd 2+ concentration (µM/L)
 x/m is the amount of Cd 2+ adsorbed by soil (µM/g)
 b = sorption maxima (µM/g)
 Kf and 1/n = Freundlich constants
 k = bonding energy coefficient (L/mg).
The soils with relatively higher clay content, CEC, free oxides and organic carbon ceded
higher Cd sorption. Obviously soils with higher CEC were found to have higher sorption under
identical conditions and this was evident in all the soils studied (Table.2 & Table.3).
Table.2 Physico - Chemical properties of selected soils (Maria et al. 2013)
Soils pH OC (g/kg) CEC (cmol(p+) /kg) Clay (%)
Balehonnur (K.A) 5.6 17 10.4 15.3
Chundale (Kerala) 6.1 29 11.1 15.4
R V Nagar (A.P) 6.8 26 17.6 20.2
Thandigudu (T.N) 5.2 62 12.3 24.4
Table.3 Adsorption of Cd in different soils (Maria et al. 2013)
Equilibrating Cd adsorbed in Cd adsorbed in Cd adsorbed in R V Cd adsorbed in
concentration (µM/ L ) Balehonnur (µ M/g) Chundale (µ M/g ) Nagar (µ M/g ) Thandigudu (µ M/g )
10 2.2 4.7 5.8 6.1
25 3.1 8.0 12.3 8.7
50 4.3 16.5 19.8 18.8
100 12.8 22.3 24.4 24.4
150 15.9 30.6 29.3 29.9
200 17.5 34.8 32.8 36.3
The impact of soil pH in moderating the amount of sorption was conspicuous in majority of
cases. The soils with higher pH resulted in higher sorption owing to enhanced pH-dependent charges
and consequently reduced competition from hydronium (H3O+) ions (Swarupet al. 1995). The
adsorption maxima closely followed the trend of soil pH in all the cases except in that of Thandigudi.
In case of Thandigudi, the adsorption maximum was next to that of RV Nagar soils despite having
lowest pH. This can be attributed to the presence of higher organic matter (62 g kg-1) and its relatively
higher share to CEC compared to remaining similar soils.
Vertic Ustochrepts and Eutrochrept soils having rnaxirnurn Cd sorption capacity compared to
Ustipsalfrnent, Haplustalf and Ustothent (Table.5&Table.6). Such differences in Cd sorption capacity
were related to differences in soil physicochemical properties (Table.4). Sorption mapamma (b) and
Freundlich constant (K1) of cadmium were positively correlated to CEC, clay, CaCO3 and pH.
Table.4 Initial properties of the soils (Adhikari and Singh, 2000)
Sample site Soil type pH O. C (g/kg) CaCO3 (%) DTPA-Cd (mg/kg)
TypicEutrochrept
Varanasi 7.55 5.2 1.89 0.10
(sandy clay loam)
TypicUstipsamment
Hisar 7.25 4. 2 1.65 0.06
(Sandy loam)
TypicUstochrept
Ludhiyana 6.95 4.0 1.50 0.08
(Sandy loam)
TypicHaplustalf
Raipur 6.05 4.0 1.30 0.08
(red lateritic Sandy loam)
TypicUstorthrent
Sagar 5.22 3.8 1.23 0.04
(yellow sandy loam)
VerticUstochrept
Amreli 7.65 5.5 6.20 0.13
(clay loam)
Table.5 Langmuir and Freundlich equations of different soils for Cd sorption (Adhikari and Singh, 2000)
Soil type Langmuir equation R2 Freundlich equation R2
Typic Eutrochrept C/(x/m) =0.12+0.013 C 0.88** log x/m = 0.390 + 0.37 logC 0.87 **
Typic Ustipsamment C/(x/m)= 0.12+ 0.014C 0.85 ** log x/m = 0.362+ 0.37 logC 0.84**
Typic Ustochrept C/(x/m)= 0.15+0.015 C 0.88** log x/m = 0.360 + 0.35 logC 0.83 **
Typic Haplustalf C/(x/m)= 0.19+0.017C 0.86** log x/m = 0.35 + 0.33 logC 0.81**
Typic Ustorthrent C/(x/m)= 0.31 +0.018C 0.71** log x/m = 0.29 + 0.32 logC 0.84**
Vertic Ustochrept C/(x/m)= 0.09 +0.11C 0.71** log x/m =0.50+ 0.36 logC 0.88**
Table.6 Adsorption maxima (b) and bonding energy coefficient (K) for two terms based on modified Langmuir
sorption of Cd in soils (Adhikari and Singh, 2000)
Soil type b1 (mg/hg) K1 (L/mg) b11 (mg/hg) K11 (L/ mg) b1 / b11 K1 / K11
Typic Eutrochrept 20.83 2.52 90.90 0.071 4.36 36
Typic Ustipsamment 18.86 2.10 80.64 0.064 4.27 33
Typic Ustochrept 17.85 1.93 71.42 0.077 4.00 25
Typic Haplustalf 15.87 1.86 59.00 0.080 3.71 23
Typic Ustorthrent 11.62 1.75 40.90 0.090 3.44 19
Vertic Ustochrept 23.80 4.37 116.20 0.055 4.88 79
Absorption and Transport of Cd: Cd is considered as a nonessential element for metabolic
processes, but it is effectively absorbed by both root and leaf systems. Absorption of Cd occurs as
inorganic complexes of Cd such as CdCl+, CdCl2, CdSO4, etc. or as organic complexes such as
phytometallophore complexes Cd. It is absorbed by both passively and metabolically. Cd can be
easily transported within plants in the form of metallo-organic complexes. Cadmium is known to
compete with several essential elements. The potential antagonists are Zn and Cu which also compete
with Fe and Ca transporters and channels to get pass to the cytoplasm. The mechanisms of uptake,
translocation and accumulation depend upon the soil pH, temperature, redox potential and
concentration of other elements. Cd can easily penetrate the root system through the apoplastic and/or
symplastic pathway and reach tissues of aerial parts of the plants through xylem.
Cadmium is much more mobile air and water than in in soils. Manure helps to mobilize soil
Cd making it more available to plants (Table.7 & Table.8). The important factors which regulates the
cadmium transformation are sorption, desorption, pH, soluble organic matter content, hydrous metal
oxides, type and amount of clay, organic and inorganic ligands and competition of other elements.
Table.7 Effect of SSP, lime and FYM along with Cd levels on the DTPA-extractable Cd (mg kg1) after the harvest of
crops (Dattaet. al. 2007)
Cd (0 mg/kg) Cd (10 mg/kg)
Amendments
Radish Sunflower Mustard Mean Radish Sun flower Mustard Mean
Control 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.09 6.44 6.93 5.91 6.42
SSP(332gkg-1) 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.09 6.32 6.71 7.09 6.70
CaCO3 (5%) 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.08 4.42 4.48 3.96 4.28
FYM (1%) 0.17 0.14 0.19 0.17 6.89 7.89 7.05 7.28
Mean 0.10 0.10 0.13 6.02 6.50 6.00
Mean (Cd) 0.11 6.17
Mean (crop) 3.03 3.30 3.07
CD ( p = 0.01) Crop (C) Cd (M) Amend (A) CxM CxA MxA C x Mx A
NS 0.26 0.36 NS NS
Table.8 Effect of SSP, lime and FYM along with Cd levels on the Cd content in plants (mg kg-1) (Dattaet. al. 2007)
Cd (0 mg/kg) Cd (10 mg/kg)
Amendments
Radish Sunflower Mustard Mean Radish Sunflower Mustard Mean
Control 0.32 0.51 0.75 0.53 14.39 12.10 12.50 6.76
SSP(332gkg-1) 0.40 0.74 0.68 0.60 13.58 13.09 11.44 6.65
CaCO3 (5%) 0.28 0.57 0.45 0.43 9.16 5.34 4.88 3.44
FYM (1%) 0.50 0.76 0.84 0.70 18.74 15.71 14.0 8.42
Mean 0.37 0.64 0.68 13.96 11.50 10.70
Mean (Cd) 0.59 12.07
Mean (crop) 7.17 6.10 5.69
CD (p= 0.01) Crop (C) Cd (M) Amend (A) CxM CxA MxA CxMxA
0.65 0.53 0.76 0.93 NS 1.07 NS
The highest Cd content (8.42 mg/kg) in plantamended with FYM (1%) compare to other
amendments and lowest (3.44 mg/kg) in plant amended with CaCO3 (5%) compare to other
amendments. This may be due to soil amended with FYM, which helps in mobilization and
availability of Cd. Calcium might be competitive for absorption of Cd by crops.
Factors Affecting Cd Uptake: The Cd accumulation by crops is more related to its availability due
to soil, crop management and environment condition than the total Cd present in the soil. Soil pH is
usually regarded as the most significant variable influencing Cd uptake from the soil (Table.9 &
Table.10). Decreasing pH (increasing acidity) increases Cd uptake by plants, thus liming will reduce
Cd bioavailability.
Table.9 Physicochemical characteristics of experimental soils (Ramachandra and D’soza, 1999)
Characteristics Ultisol Alfisol Entisol Vertisol
Texture Sandy loam Sandy loam Silt loam Clay loam
pH 5.1 6.4 6.6 8.2
EC (d S/m) 0.16 0.16 0.10 0.28
CEC (cmol (p+)/kg ) 10.5 13.0 31.6 60.7
OC (%) 1.36 0.12 1.36 1.32
CaCO3 (%) 1.00 0.50 3.00 6.75
Total Cd ( µg/g) 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5
Available Cd (mg/kg) - - - -
Cd – DTPA in sewage sludge (mg/kg) 0.72
Table.10 Forage Yields and Cadmium Content of Maize Grown on Four Soils Amended with Cd-Enriched Sewage
Sludge (Duration of Plant Growth: 6 Weeks) (Ramachandra and D’soza, 1999)
Treatment Dry Matter Yield (g pot-1) Cd Content (mg g-1 Dry Shoots)
Ultisol Alfisol Entisol Vertisol Ultisol Alfisol Entisol Vertisol
Soil (control) 3.6a* 14.5cd 7.7c 5.7a ND ND ND ND
Soil+sludge (A) 3.7ab 11.7c 8.2c 10.5c ND ND ND ND
A+5 ppm Cd 5.5b 16.0d 5.1b 10.9c 27.9a 20.5a 3.6a 12.0a
A+10 ppm Cd 5.1ab 12.8cd 4.5b 10.4c 37.1a 57.5b 8.9a 14.8a
A+20 ppm Cd 5.0ab 11.1bc 5.0b 9.2bc 53.3b 71.9b 16.3b 22.1b
A+40 ppm Cd 4.6ab 7.9b 3.7ab 7.8b 75.4c 117.6c 22.1b 36.1c
A+80 ppm Cd 4.9ab 4.4a 2.4a 4.9a 100.4d 128.0c 35.5c 42.3c
The Cd content of maize grown on Ultisol and Alfisol was greater than that of plants grown
on Entisol and Vertisol, which may be due to the low pH and low CEC of the former soils.As
compared to Ultisol and Alfisol, the free CaCO3 content of Entisol and Vertisol was quite high. The
reduced Cd uptake from Entisol and Vertisol could be due to the competitive effect of Ca on Cd
absorption processes. The sewage sludge, by virtue of protons released from organic matter
decomposition, may have lowered the soil pH, thereby rendering the metal Cd more available for
plant uptake especially in Ultisol and Alfisol. Supplement of sewage sludge significantly increased
growth and yield of rice. Higher yields were got along with higher application of sewage sludge, but it
also increased heavy metals build up in soil and plants (Table.11, 12 & 13).
Treatments S0 (t/ha) S10 (t/ha) S20 (t/ha) S30 (t/ha) S40(t/ha)
F0 30 30.1 35.6 39.2 55.5
F25 33.8 33.8 44.3 48.0 56.0
F50 40.5 44.3 45.4 50.6 58.4
F75 43.4 47.8 51.7 54.7 59.3
F100 44.7 53.2 55.2 59.1 63.3
S. Em ± C.D (p=0.05)
Sludge 1.79 3.60
RDF 1.79 3.60
Sludge x RDF 4.01 NS
Table.11 Effect of sewage sludge on grain yield of rice (g/pot)(Latare and Singh, 2013)
Table.12 Effect of sewage sludge and fertilizers on cadmium concentration (mg kg -1) in straw and grains of rice
(Latare and Singh, 2013)
Straw (mg kg -1 ) Grain (mg kg -1 )
S20 S30 S40
Treatments S0 (t/ha) S10(t/ha) S20 (t/ha) S30 (t/ha) S40 (t/ha) S0 (t/ha) S10 (t/ha)
(t/ha) (t/ha) (t/ha)
F0 0.86 2.36 2.87 4.16 5.31 0.36 1.28 1.65 1.80 2.28
F25 0.81 2.31 2.80 4.39 5.61 0.35 1.38 1.64 1.87 2.40
F50 0.74 2.29 2.91 4.29 5.89 0.42 1.36 1.76 1.99 2.33
F75 0.79 2.51 3.14 4.53 5.59 0.45 1.39 1.76 1.94 2.36
F100 0.88 2.24 2.87 4.75 5.75 0.30 1.31 1.71 2.03 2.37
S.Em C.D (p=0.05 ) S.Em C.D (p=0.05 )
Sludge 0.06 0.13 0.05 0.10
RDF 0.06 0.13 0.05 NS
Sludge x RDF 0.14 0.29 0.11 NS
Table.13 Effect of sewage sludge and fertilizer application on available Cd (mg/kg) in post-harvest soil (Latare and
Singh, 2013)
Treatments S0 (t/ha) S10 (t/ha) S20 (t/ha) S30 (t/ha) S40 (t/ha)
F0 0.99 1.47 2.00 2.91 3.57
F25 0.81 1.47 2.28 3.13 3.73
F50 0.71 1.52 2.20 3.57 3.77
F75 0.83 1.52 2.31 3.40 4.32
F100 0.84 1.50 2.46 3.44 3.80
S.Em C.D (p=0.05 )
Sludge 0.12 0.25
RDF 0.12 NS
Sludge x RDF 0.28 NS
The Cd content in straw and grain showed a significant effect with graded application of RDF
and sewage sludge. Its content in rice straw varied between 0.74 to 5.89 mg kg-1, maximum was
recorded in F50S40 and minimum in F50S0. As regard to Cd content in rice grain, the maximum (2.40
mg kg-1) was recorded in F25S40 and minimum (0.30 mg kg-1) in F100S0. Subsequent addition of sewage
sludge by 10, 20, 30 and 40 t ha-1 increased the DTPA-extractable Cd in soil by 33, 50, 66 and 72%,
respectively over control.
Soil organic matter and adding organic matter to soils also influences Cd bioavailability. Soils
with higher organic matter have higher cation exchange capacity, which increases Cd absorption.Soil
chloride increases the mobility of Cd through the formation of Cd-Cl complexes resulting in increased
Cd absorption by plants in saline soils or soils irrigated with high Cl water. Soil temperature, redox-
potential and application NPK and micronutrients also affect plant uptake of Cd (Table. 14 &
Table.15).
Table.14 Effect of applied cadmium levels on Cd Content (µg g-1 dry matter) of crops (Khurana and Shalini, 2013)
Cd levels (mg kg-1 soil) Maize Raya Berseem Spinach
0 1.71 3.50 0.73 1.25
10 7.11 43.75 5.48 19.17
20 16.42 60.17 10.81 39.92
40 31.50 75.33 21.29 58.75
CD (5%) 14.19 45.69 9.58 29.77
Table.15 Effect of Cd on Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe content (µg g-1 dry matter) in Raya and Berseem (Khurana and Shalini,
2013)
Zinc Copper Manganese Iron
Cd level (mg kg-1 soil)
Raya Berseem Raya Berseem Raya Berseem Raya Berseem
0 48.4 21.4 11.0 9.0 65.0 58.4 155 76
10 53.2 25.9 8.9 8.2 64.6 48.1 152 70
20 56.8 20.8 10.5 8.7 59.4 43.4 162 64
40 54.4 19.4 9.7 8.5 58.4 41.2 156 60
CD (5%) 3.7 4.0 NS NS 3.4 3.5 NS 5.3
There was a consonant increase in the zinc content with increase in cadmium level in raya at
higher rates (20 and 40 mg kg-1 soil) inhibited Zn concentration in berseem. This showed that low
levels of Cd had synergistic effect on Zn concentration in shoots, while high levels had antagonistic
effect in case of berseem. Increase in shoot Zn concentration with Cd application up to 20 mg kg-1 soil
may be due to the concentration effect, because the dry matter yield was reduced due to Cd
application. Decrease in Zn concentration in plants at higher levels of Cd might be due to competition
of these metals for the same absorption sites on the plant root surface, resulting in low uptake of Zn,
as Cd and Zn ions have similar charges and possibly use the same carrier sites. Copper and iron
concentrations were showed contrary trend with increasing levels of cadmium in shoots of the crops,
thereby showing no correlation between the Cu and Fe. Manganese content in shoots of the crops
decreases with cadmium application showed an inverse relationship, this might be due to cadmium
competitively lowers Mn absorption.
Conclusion: Cadmium accumulation in plants inhibits photosynthesis, respirations, affects cell
membranes and lipid oxidation. Adsorption of Cd is best fitted with Langmuir sorption equation and
it’s easy to describe cadmium adsorption in soils. Prevalence of Cd toxicity will be low in Vertic
Ustochrept and Typic Eutrochrept than in Haplustafs and Ustorthents. Sorption of cadmium occurs in
the order: Vertic Ustochrept (clay loam soil) >Typic Eutrochrept (sandy clay loam soil) >Typic
Ustochrept (Sandy loam soil) >Typic Haplustaf (red lateritic Sandy loam soil)>Typic Ustorthent
(yellow sandy loam soil). Supplement of sewage sludge significantly increased growth and yield of
rice. Higher yields were got along with higher application of sewage sludge, but it also increased
heavy metals build up in soil and plants. In order to provide the fertilizers, application of low doses of
sewage sludge appear to be a good proposition under frequent surveillance of heavy metal build-up in
soil-plant system. Absorption of cadmium content was highest in Alflisol and Ultisol compare to
Entisol and Vertisol. Cadmium content and uptake by crops decreased in the following order: Raya >
Spinach > Maize >Berseem. Raya was most resistant and berseem was most sensitive to high levels of
cadmium compare to spinach and maize. Thus, for edible purposes raya should not be grown on
sewage supplemented soils or soil with cadmium contamination, but for phytoremediation raya crop
should be preferred.
References
Adhikari, T. and Singh, M. V. (2000). Cadmium sorption characteristics of major soils of India in relation to soil
properties. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 48(4): 757-762.
Christensen, T. H. (1984). Cadmium soil sorption at low concentrations: II. Reversibility, effect of changes in solute
composition, and effect of soil aging. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 21(1): 115-125.
Datta, S. P., Rattan, R. K. and Chandra, S. (2007). Influence of different amendments on the availability of cadmium to
crops in the sewage-irrigated soil. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 55(1): 86-89.
Ismael, A. M., Elyamine, M. A., Moussa, G. M., Cai, M., Zhao, X. and Hu, C. (2019).Cadmium in plants: uptake,
toxicity, and its interactions with selenium fertilizers. Metallomics, 11(2): 255-277.
Khurana, M. P. S. and Shalini, J. (2013). Influence of cadmium on dry matter yield, micronutrient content and its
uptake in some crops. Journal of Environmental biology, 35(5): 865.
Latare, A. M. and Singh, S. K. (2013). Effect of sewage sludge and fertilizers application on accumulation of heavy
metals and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in an Inceptisol of Varanasi. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil
Science, 61(3): 219-225.
Maria, D. V., Sherigara, B. S. and Prasanna, S. M. (2011). Cadmium Sorption Behaviour of Coffee-growing Soils of
South India. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 59(4): 349-354.
Nath, T. N. (2013). Heavy metals contamination of tea estates soil in Sivasagar and Dibrugarh district of Assam,
India. International Journal of Advanced Scientific and technical Research, 2(4): 2278-7763.
Ramachandran, V. and D'Souza, T. J. (1999). Plant uptake of cadmium, zinc and manganese from soils amended with
increasing levels of Cd-enriched sewage sludges and city composts. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil
Science, 47(4): 7 38-743.
Rowe, D. R. and Abdel-Magid, I. M. (1995). Handbook of wastewater reclamation and reuse. CRC press.
Swarup, A., Beeseand, F. and Ulrich, B. (1995). Sorption and desorption of Zn, Pb and Cd by soil under forest. Journal
of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 43: 38-42.
Weast, R. C. and Astle, M. J. (1984). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, 64 edn. CRC, Boca Raton.

CRYSTAL SYSTEM AND CLAY MINERALS IN SOIL ENVIRONMENT
Zade S.P.1, Gourkhede P.H.2, Vaidya P. H.3 and Shilewant S. S.4
1
Assistant Professor, 2Assistant Professor, 3Professor, 4Agriculture Assistant Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra, E-mail: pathrikar2012@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Gourkhede P.H.
T he word "crystal" comes from the Ancient Greeks κρύσταλλος (crustallos, or

phonetically kroos'-tal-los = cold + drop), who used the word crystal to refer to the
mineral quartz, meaning both “ice” and “rock crystal”, that is cold and hard. It has
seen that one of the principal attributes of a mineral is the possession of a regular crystalline form,
characteristic of each species. The crystalline form is the outward expression of a definite internal
structural arrangement of the atoms of which the mineral is composed and this structural pattern, in
both its symmetry and its dimensions, is one of the essential characters that defines a mineral. To the
geometric frame work of crystals (structural arrangement of atoms) must be added the dynamic aspect
of the forces of cohesion between atoms which is derive from chemistry i.e , the nature of the
chemical bond. These two aspects of crystal structure constantly interact and can , together lead to an
understanding of the crystallographic form.
In its origins, Crystallography was dedicated exclusively to the study and description of the
external appearance (morphology) of crystals, mainly minerals. The word crystallography defines the
science that "deals with the shapes and structures of crystals". Over time it was found that crystals
are ordered matter, ie, made up of atoms, ions and/or molecules perfectly stacked, as one can normally
see pieces of fruit in a market. This packing is responsible for the striking forms that crystals normally
show externally. Today Crystallography still deals with crystals, but its interest is mainly focused on
their internal structure, not in their external shape A crystal is an arrangement of ions an atoms that is
repeated at regular crystal interval in three dimensions consist of a large number of repetitions of
basic pattern of atoms. This orderly arrangement of atoms is the most fundamental fact of crystals. By
connecting identical points of the crystals with a line, a serial of formed from an almost infinite
number of atoms arranged in a there three dimensional pattern called “LATTICE”.
Optical properties of crystal lead to develop the concept of lattice arrangement within
minerals 230 spare groups are possible under the laws on symmetry. These 230 spare grouped can be
reduced to 121 space lattice. Repetitions of these space lattice result in a crystal of one of the 32
classes of the six crystal system. Only one space lattice will occur in a given mineral species.
The Bravais Lattices: The Bravais lattice are the distinct lattice types which when repeated can fill
the whole space. The lattice can therefore be generated by three unit vectors, a1, a2 and a3 and a set of
integers k, l and m so that each lattice point, identified by a vector r, can be obtained from:
r = k a1 + l a2 + m a3
In two dimensions there are five distinct Bravais lattices, while in three dimensions there are fourteen.
These fourteen lattices are further classified as shown in the table below where a1, a2 and a3 are the
magnitudes of the unit vectors and , β and  are the angles between the unit vectors.
The Six Crystal System
Cubic: a=b=c, =β= =90
Tetragonal: a=b= c,
Hexagonal: a=b
Orthorhombic: a=b=c,
Monoclinic: a
Triclinic: a &
Crystal System
1. Cubic/Isometric-: Three mutually perpendicular axis of equal length. a=b=c,
2. Tetragonal System-: three mutually perpendicular axis two horizontal axis of equal length. The
vertical either longer or shorter.
3. Orthorhombic system -: Three mutually perpendicular axes of equal length
Crystal System and Clay Minerals in Soil Environment 335
a
=90
4. Monoclinic system -: Two axes obliged. The plane of other two unequal length.
a=b=c
5. Triclinic system -: Tree equal axis with mutually oblique interactions.

a
6. Hexagonal system -: Two horizontal axis of equal length which takes angles of 60
with each other. One vertical axis perpendicular to plane of other three.
Pauling's rules are five rules published by Linus Pauling in 1929 for predicting and
rationalizing the crystal structures of ionic compounds
First Rule: The radius ratio rule for typical ionic solids, the cations are smaller than the anions, and
each cation is surrounded by coordinated anions which form a polyhedron. The sum of the ionic
radii determines the cation-anion distance, while the cation-anion radius ratio determines
the coordination number (C.N.) of the cation, as well as the shape of the coordinated polyhedron of
anions. For the coordination numbers and corresponding polyhedra in the table below, Pauling
mathematically derived the minimum radius ratio for which the cation is in contact with the given
number of anions (considering the ions as rigid spheres). If the cation is smaller, it will not be in
contact with the anions which results in instability leading to a lower coordination number.
Polyhedron and minimum radius ratio for each coordination number
C.N. Polyhedron Radius ratio
3 triangular 0.155
4 tetrahedron 0.225
6 octahedron 0.414
7 capped octahedron 0.592
8 square antiprism (anticube) 0.645
8 cube 0.732
9 triaugmented triangular prism0. 732
12 cuboctahedron 1.00
Second Rule: The electrostatic valence rule for a given cation, Pauling definedhttps://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules-cite_note-Pauling1960-2 the electrostatic bond strength to
each coordinated anion as, where z is the cation charge and ν is the cation coordination number. A
stable ionic structure is arranged to preserve local electroneutrality, so that the sum of the strengths of
the electrostatic bonds to an anion equals the charge on that anion. where is the anion charge and the
summation is over the adjacent cations. For simple solids, the are equal for all cations coordinated to
a given anion, so that the anion coordination number is the anion charge divided by each electrostatic
bond strength. Some examples are given in the table.
Cations with Oxide O2− ion
Electrostatic
Cation Radius ratio Cation C.N. Anion C.N.
bond strength
+
Li 0.34 4 0.25 8
Mg2+ 0.47 6 0.33 6
Sc3+ 0.60 6 0.5 4
Third Rule: Sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces the sharing of edges and particularly
faces by two anion polyhedra decreases the stability of an ionic structure. Sharing of corners does not
decrease stability as much, so (for example) octahedra may share corners with one another.The
decrease in stability is due to the fact that sharing edges and faces places cations in closer proximity to
each other, so that cation-cation electrostatic repulsion is increased. The effect is largest for cations
with high charge and low C.N. (especially when r+/r- approaches the lower limit of the polyhedral
stability).As one example, Pauling considered the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide, each with a
coordination number of 6 for the Ti4+ cations. The most stable (and most abundant) form is rutile, in
which the coordination octahedra are arranged so that each one shares only two edges (and no faces)
with adjoining octahedra. The other two, less stable, forms are brookite and anatase, in which each
octahedron shares three and four edges respectively with adjoining octahedra.
Fourth Rule: Crystals containing different cations in a crystal containing different cations, those of
high valency and small coordination number tend not to share polyhedron elements with one another.
This rule tends to increase the distance between highly charged cations, so as to reduce the
electrostatic repulsion between them. One of Pauling's examples is olivine, M2SiO4, where M is a
mixture of Mg2+ at some sites and Fe2+ at others. The structure contains distinct SiO4 tetrahedra which
do not share any oxygens (at corners, edges or faces) with each other. The lower-valence Mg2+ and
Fe2+ cations are surrounded by polyhedra which do share oxygens.
Fifth Rule: The rule of parsimony the number of essentially different kinds of constituents in a
crystal tends to be small. The repeating units will tend to be identical because each atom in the
structure is most stable in a specific environment. There may be two or three types of polyhedra, such
as tetrahedra or octahedra, but there will not be many different types.
The Atomic Structure of Matter: Because minerals are chemical compounds and because so much
of geology is related to the history and movement of these compounds it is necessary to understand a
few basic concepts of chemistry. You probably learned almost all of this in 8th Grade Science so this
should just be a review. All of the chemistry that we will deal with is based on the structure of the
atom. The atom was originally defined as the smallest possible unit of any material but today we
understand that atoms are made up of three fundamental particles. Physicists have shown that other
subatomic particles also exist but we do not need to consider them in this discussion.
The Structure of Atoms a first glance at an atom reveals a nucleus at the center with a fuzzy
cloud of electrons orbiting around it. Atom's are composed of three types of subatomic particles:
1. Electrons are incredibly tiny masses that orbit in a cloud around the nucleus. In spite of their
diminutive appearance, they have an electrical charge that is designated (-1) negative). The
shorthand for an electron is e-. It is so tiny that its mass is essentially zero for our purposes.
2. Protons are one of two particle types found in the nucleus. They have a +1 electrical charge
(positive) that is equal and opposite of the electron's charge. The shorthand for a proton is p.
Protons are arbitrarily given a mass of 1.
Neutrons are the other particle type found in the nucleus. They carry no electrical charge
because they are essentially composed of 1 e- + 1 p. The shorthand for a neutron is n. It is not
surprising that neutrons also have a mass of 1.
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass: Each element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus.
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom is referred to as its atomic number.
If we sum all of the particles in the nucleus, we get the atomic mass. For instance, most
oxygen has 8 protons and 8 neutrons in its nucleus giving it an atomic mass of 16 while its atomic
number is 8. We would write this as O-16. Sometimes, however, we might find an. oxygen that has 7,
9, or 10 neutrons in the nucleus giving us O-15, O-17, or O-18. These variations are called isotopes.
Because the different isotopes of an element often occur in nature in a constant proportion, they have
become extremely useful tools for geologists.
Chemical Reactions: The structure of the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus of an atom is
extremely complicated. Fortunately, it can be viewed, for our purposes, using the relatively simple
model proposed by Danish physicist Nils Bohr in 1915. Bohr later became one of the "founding
fathers" of the atomic age after escaping Nazi-occupied Denmark in 1943 and working with scientists
in the United States.
The Bohr Model: The Bohr Model places the nucleus at the center of the atom. Instead of being
surround by the complicated orbits within the fuzzy cloud of electrons, Bohr surrounded the nucleus
with circular shells. Each cell has a maximum number of electrons which can occupy it. The
innermost K-shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, the next L-shell 8, the M-shell 16, the N-shell
32, then the O-shell can also hold 32. Generally the next innermost shell needs to fill before the
outermost shell can begin to fill. For instance, the K-shell has to fill before electrons can start to
occupy the L-shell.
The Bohr Model presents a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons surrounded by shells
of electrons. The number of electrons in each shell are K = 2, L = 8, and M = 16.
Using the Bohr Model to Visualize Chemical Reactions
No self-respecting atom wants to be caught with an unfilled outer electron shell but most are
created with just that sort of structure. Take sodium (Na), for instance. It has an atomic number of 11
so it can fill its K and L shells but the last electron is left to orbit in the M-shell on its own. Chlorine
(Cl), with an atomic number of 17, fills its K and L shells but the M-shell is one short of being filled.
If these two could get together, we could see some chemistry!
Some atoms donate their outer shell electrons so that the next outermost shell, which is filled,
becomes the outermost shell. Other atoms accept these donated electrons to fill a nearly completed
outer shell. Chemical compounds strive to be electrically neutral so in a chemical reaction the same
number of electrons are donated and accepted. This reaction bonds the atoms of different elements
together in several ways. Some compounds share an electron while others physically transfer one or
more electrons to a recipient atom.
Chemical Bonds: The different chemical bonds constitute the different ways that matter is held
together. They are briefly described below.
Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds are the simplest and most common form of bonding. Many common
compounds are bound together ionically. A good example is halite or table salt which is sodium
chloride (NaCl). The Na donates a negatively charged electron so it becomes an ion or charged
particle with a charge of +1 (Na+). Likewise, the Cl receives the extra electron so it becomes an ion
with a charge of -1 (Cl-). We call positively charge ions cations and negatively charged ions are
anions. The charges (+1 and -1, in this case) are often referred to as the valence of the atoms. These
compounds are held together electrostatically with the positive ions attracting the negative ions and
vice versa.
Metallic Bonds: -Metallic bonds are sort of super covalent bonds. Electrons are shared, not just with
neighboring atoms but with all similar atoms. In other words, electron can flow freely around the
mass of metal, jumping from one atom to another. Electricity id defined as a flow of electrons.
Metallic bonds allow this flow. Not surprisingly, most metals are good electrical conductors.
Hydrogen Bonds: Hydrogen bonds pertain to water (H2O). Water has many unusual properties, most
of which relate back to its atomic structure. Because like charges repel each other, one would expect
that a water molecule would have a water molecule in the center and the two hydrogen atoms
positioned 180º from each other, trying to stay as far away from each other as possible. But the angle
between the two H atoms is not 180º, instead, they are separated by a 105º angle. This asymmetry
gives the water molecule a side which has a slightly positive charge because of the two hydrogens.
The opposite side is slightly negative. We call water a polarized molecule. The main effect that we
see in our everyday life is that things get wet. Residual static electricity on clothing, skin, and almost
anything else cause water to cling to the charge. Ice is held together almost entirely by hydrogen
bonds between the different water molecule. Water is a liquid at room temperature because some of
those bonds still remain as do even weaker bonds called van der Waals bonds.
van der Waals Bonds--Like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals bonds are weak electrostatic forces. These
minute forces result from the instantaneous position of the electrons in their orbits .
Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds are those bonds in which an electron is shared between two different
elements in order to achieve electrostatic neutrality. These bonds are generally stronger than ionic
bonds. Diamonds, the hardest substance known, are bonded covalently. Each carbon atom in a
diamond shares an electron with four neighboring carbon atoms. The geometry of this configuration is
that of a tetrahedron, four triangles put together in a three-dimensional form.
The Dative (Coordinate) Bond: In conjunction with the covalent bond we must mention a bond
which, like the covalent bond, results from the sharing of a pair of electrons between the atoms; but
both shared electrons come from one atom. Such a bond is found in many complex ions organic
chemistry, and chemists call compounds involving such ions ‘coordination compounds’. In
mineralogy, however, we use the word coordination in a wider sense, so well speak of this dative
bond, signifying that one atom gives two electrons to be shared between it and its partner. It is usually
two paired outer shell electrons that do not take part in other bonds
Covalent and Dative Bonds in Minerals: Amongst minerals, dominantly covalent bonds are found
amongst the native non-metallic elements (diamond, sulphur) and the sulphides. There are many
cases, however, where a degree of covalency exists in the bonding, and this has important effects
upon physical properties of minerals. The carbonate, nitrate, sulphate, phosphate and silicate ionic
groups, which possess a definite shape and do not dissociate in solution, are also to be formulated in
terms of covalent or covalent and dative bonds. CO32- and NO3-are plane triangular groups and
SO42-, PO43- and SiO44- are tetrahedral. In all cases the interatomic distances are intermediate
between those appropriate to a double and single bond between the atoms and suggest resonance
between different structures
Clay Minerals in Soil Environment: Minerals are, literally, the building blocks of rocks. Most rocks
contain combinations of several minerals but some are monomineralic, having only a single mineral
constituent. Examples of monomineralic rocks are limestone, marble, and serpentine. The definition
of a mineral has five distinct components:
1. Naturally Occurring: A mineral must be found in nature. Any compound created in a laboratory
or by industrial processes is not a mineral. This includes synthetic gemstones such as diamonds,
rubies, and sapphires. Natural diamonds, rubies, and sapphires are minerals.
2. Solid: All minerals are solids. Ice is a mineral; water is not. Petroleum and natural gas are not
minerals.
3. Crystalline Substance: Minerals must possess a specific, repeating, internal arrangement of their
constituent atoms. Solids that do not exhibit such order are said to be amorphous. Glass is an example
of an amorphous substance. It cooled from its molten state too quickly for crystallization to occur.
4. Generally Inorganic: Minerals are not composed of organic compounds. Coal, for instance, is
almost totally organic (nearly pure carbon) and is not a mineral whereas diamond and graphite are
pure carbon, inorganic substances that are minerals. Some organisms secrete minerals, however. Most
of the calcite in limestone was secreted by calcite-secreting algae and invertebrate organisms. Other
invertebrates secrete chert, a microcrystalline form of quartz. Most vertebrates secrete the mineral
apatite to give strength and hardness to their bones.
5. Specific Chemical Composition: All minerals have either a distinct chemical composition or a
specified range of compositions. Quartz always has one silicon atom for every two oxygen atoms,
giving it the chemical formula SiO2. Olivine, a mineral common in the mantle always exhibits a
specific ration of two iron and/or magnesium to everyone silicon, and four oxygens, although the
amount of iron and magnesium to give it the formula (Mg, Fe)2SiO4. In other words it can vary from
pure Mg2SiO4 to pure Fe2SiO4.
A. The Atomic Structure of Minerals: We tend to think of minerals in their megascopic form, that
is, crystals that we can hold in our hands. We can describe the number of faces, their geometry, and
the angles between the faces as well as other properties of the crystal. Crystal geometry repeats itself
to smaller and smaller dimensions all the way down to the atomic level. Look at a few grains of salt
from a salt shaker. You will see that they are tiny cubes. That cubic structure reflects the way that the
atoms are arranged in the smallest possible salt crystal at the molecular level.
Minerals form through crystallization. A solid grows under the proper temperature and
pressure conditions from solids, liquids, and gases that have the appropriate chemical constituents.
Crystallization occurs through several common mechanisms:
 From a melt--When magma cools, crystals start to form and grow. Different minerals begin to
crystallize at different temperatures. The slower the magma cools, the bigger the crystals grow.
 From chemicals dissolved in water--In nature, all water contains some dissolved chemicals.
Seawater is a good example since it is, on average, 3.4% dissolved minerals If seawater is left in a
shallow basin under a hot sun, the water evaporates and the concentration of the dissolved
minerals gets so high that minerals start to precipitate out of the water. Since ancient times
numerous cultures have collected salt using this technique.
 During changes of pressure and temperature--Pressure and temperature changes cause some
minerals to become unstable. When this happens new minerals have to crystallize to use up the
components of the unstable mineral. For instance, graphite and diamond are both pure carbon but
they have different crystal structures. Graphite is the relatively low pressure and temperature
form. It is not a hard mineral which is why it is used as pencil lead. Diamond is the high
temperature and pressure form of carbon and is extremely hard When two minerals have the same
chemical formula but different chemical structures, we call them polymorphs.
Classification of Minerals
Silicates: All silicate minerals are formed from combination of the cations with silicate anions
[(SiO4)-4]. In other words the silicate ion is the basic building block of this large family of minerals.
To understand the differences in these minerals, we need to examine the structure of the silicate anion.
The principal building element of the layer silicates are two dimensional structure of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral and of aluminium or magnesium –oxygen-hydroxyl octahedral. The silicon-oxygen sheet
in which silicon atoms are co-ordinated with four oxygen atoms is called ‘tetrahedral sheet’ or ‘silica
sheet’. Three of the four oxygen atoms of each tetrahedron are shared by three neighbouring
tetrahedral. The fourth oxygen atom of each tetrahedron is not shared. This arrangement gives
hexagonal symmetry to the sheet, in which rings of six oxygen atoms appear.
Fig. A) The silica tetrahedron is composed of four large oxygen atoms stacked in a tetrahedron. A smaller silicon
atom fits in the open space between the four oxygens.
B) The silica tetrahedra with triangles and the cations with blue circles.
In the Al, Mg-O-OH sheets, the Alor Mg atoms are coordinated by oxygen atoms or OH groups,
forming octahedral. The oxygen and OH groups lie in two parallel planes with Al or Mg atoms
between two planes forms a hexagonal close packing. The sheet is called as octahedral sheet and is
also called as gibbsite layer or brucite layer.
Gibbsite sheet: Al3+

Al2(OH)6, 2/3 cationic spaces are filled One OH is surrounded by 2 Al: Dioctahedral sheet
Brucite sheet: Mg2+

Mg3(OH)6, all cationic spaces are filled One OH is surrounded by 3 Mg: Trioctahedral sheet
The silicate anion is unlike the other common anions found in minerals because the apical
oxygens from one tetrahedron can bond with those of other tetrahedra in a process called
polymerization. The different polymer configurations constitute the different classes of silicate
minerals which are described and illustrated below.
Isolated Tetrahedra: -In this class of silicates, known as nesosilicates, isolated tetrahedra are bonded
to cations at all four apical oxygens so there is no polymerization in these minerals. The cations are
bonded to oxygens of other tetrahedra to build a three-dimensional structure. Olivine and garnet are
two relatively common minerals that are nesosilicates. These minerals have the typical SiO4 anion
configuration.
Double Tetrahedra:-In this minor class of silicates, the sorosilicates, cations are bonded with three
of the apical oxygens but the fourth oxygen is polymerized with another tetrahedra through a covalent
bond. As a result, the complex anion changes into an Si2 O7 (-6) arrangement. The most common
mineral in this group is epidote
Ring Linkages: In organic chemistry ring structures are one of the predominant geometries. In
mineral chemistry the cyclosilicates are another relatively minor group. In these minerals, two apical
oxygens are covalently bonded to oxygens of other tetrahedra and the other two are bonded to cations.
The linked tetrahedra are twisted into a six-sided ring. They have an Si6O18 silicate anion.
Tourmaline and beryl are two minerals you might be familiar with. Both have gem varieties. The gem
varieties of beryl are known as emerald and aquamarine.
Single-Chain Linkages--The two varieties of chain silicates discussed here are grouped into the
inosilicates. The straight, single-chain variety forms an important family of rock-forming minerals
known as the pyroxenes. If the tetrahedra are not aligned in a straight line but are curved instead, we
call the mineral a pyroxenoid. They tend to concentrate in mantle and oceanic crustal rocks but can
also be found in continental volcanic rocks. The pyroxenes have two linked apical oxygens that are
aligned in a straight chain. Their silicate anions are written as Si2O6 or SiO3. Augite is the most
common pyroxene.
Double-Chain Linkages: The other inosilicate group has a double chain structure. Note that some of
the silica tetrahedra have two linked apical oxygens but every other one has a third linked oxygen that
connects it to an adjacent chain. As with the pyroxenes the tetrahedral chains are linked together by
cations. The double-chain inosilicate variety forms another important family of rock-forming minerals
known as the amphiboles. Note the large hexagonal voids within the double-chain structure. Sufficient
positive charges are left over to allow a hydroxide ion (OH-) to fit into the structure to achieve
electrostatic neutrality. Amphibole silicate anions are typically written as Si8O22 (OH)2 . Hornblende
is the most common amphibole.
A) Amphiboles form double-chained silicates. Some tetrahedra in amphiboles have three polymerized
corners while others have only two. This creates a double chain structure with voids large enough to
accommodate the large hydroxide ions needed to balance the charges in the structure. Not all voids
are filled, however. B) Like the pyroxenes, individual amphibole chains are joined together by shared
cations.
Sheet Linkages: The sheet silicates, known as phyllosilicates, exhibit three shared apical oxygens
with all of the fourth oxygens sticking up in the same direction to bond with cations. These minerals
have distinct layers of silica tetrahedra and cations. The phyllosilicates arguably have more individual
crystals on Earth than any other group. This is because not only are all mica minerals phyllosilicates
but so are all clay minerals. Phyllosilicates are divided into two groups, 1:1 and 2:1-type minerals
based on the number of tetrahedral and octahedral sheete in the layer structure.
1:1 Layer Structure. The 1:1 layer structure consists of a unit made up of one octahedral and one
tetrahedral sheet, with the apical O2-ions of the tetrahedral sheets being shared withand part of) the
octahedral sheet. There are three planes of anions. One plane consists of the basal O2- ions of the
tetrahedral sheet, the second consists of O2- ions common to both the tetrahedral and octahedral
sheets plus OH- belonging to the octahedral sheet, and the third consists only of OH- belonging to the
octahedral sheet.
Basal spacing is 7.2

Å
Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

1:1 Minerals-Kaolinite
2:1 Layer Structure. The 2:1 minerals differ from the 1:1 through the addition of a second silica
sheet which sandwiches the octahedral layer. As in the case of the 1:1 minerals the hydroxyls of the
octahedral layer are replaced with apical oxygens from the silica sheets.
Illite Vermiculite Montmorillonite Mica

Bonding between successive 2:1 units can vary from very weak Van der Waal’s Bonds in the case of
montmorillonite to the very strong bond arising from the interlayer potassium ions in the case of the
illites.
Frameworks: Framework silicates, or tectosilicates, share all four apical oxygens with other silica
tetrahedra. Quartz (SiO2) is the best example of a tectosilicate. You may wonder, "How can there be
any other minerals but quartz? If all of the apical oxygens are used, there is nothing left to bond to a
cation." Yet, the feldspar group makes up the biggest percentage of the continental crust and they are
all tectosilicates with different chemical compositions.
Framework silicates are polymerized on all four apical oxygens building a 3-Dimensional framework.
Theoretically, SiO2 should be the only framework mineral suite. Because of ionic substitution, other
minerals can form, most importantly the feldspar group.
Non-Silicates: Some major rock-forming minerals are not silicates but are composed with other
anions. In this section the different major groups of non-silicate minerals are introduced as are the
important minerals.
Native Gold Native Copper
Native Elements: Although there are abundant chemical reactions, some native elements are found as
minerals, that is they have a single element for their mineral composition. We have already mentioned
the carbon polymorphs graphite and diamond. Sulfur (S) is another nonmetal that occurs as a native
element. Civilizations have had a long fascination with the native elements copper (Cu), silver (Ag),
gold (Au), and platinum (Pt). Because it reacts with oxygen so quickly, iron (Fe) is only found in the
native state in some meteorites. None of these minerals are considered to be major rock-forming
minerals.
Carbonates: Calcite (CaCO3) is the most important non-silicate rock-forming mineral. It is usually
the only mineral found in limestone. The carbonate ion has a tiny carbon cation in the middle of three
larger oxygens arranged in a triangle. Most limestones were produced by organic activity on which
carbon dioxide from the air and water was reacted with calcium and oxygen in the water to produce a
shell to protect invertebrate organisms or as a tiny needle to give support to marine plants. Dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2) is another important rock-forming mineral. It forms by the reaction between seawater
percolating through sediment that comes in contact with a buried limestone.
Calcite
Halides: Halides have either chlorine (Cl-) or fluorine (F-) as their anions. When a body of water
evaporates, salts are left behind. We call these evaporite minerals. Some calcite is considered to be an
evaporite. Halite (NaCl) is an important halide rock-forming mineral. It forms when a lake or marine
basin dries up. Sylvite (KCL) is another variety but is only associated with the drying of marine
basins. When these two minerals are found together, we use the term rock salt. Fluorite (CaF2) is the
only important fluoride mineral.
Halite Sylvite
Oxides: Oxygen is extremely reactive. Because iron is so abundant in the crust, oxygen reacts with it
readily to form two important iron oxide minerals. Hematite (Fe2O3) is, essentially, rust. Most red
rocks and soils have some hematite within them. Surprisingly little is necessary to turn a rock or a soil
reddish. Because of its excellent pigmentation properties, Renaissance artists sought hematite to make
their red and orange paints. The other important iron oxide mineral is magnetite (Fe3O4). Magnetite
occurs in almost all rocks in minor quantities. As its name suggests, it is a strongly magnetic mineral
and is responsible for much of the remanent magnetization that was discussed in our chapter on plate
tectonics. Hematite is very weakly magnetic but also makes important contributions to the
preservation of remanent magnetization.
Gypsum
Sulfates: All sulfate minerals contain the sulfate (SO4)-2 anion. Only two minerals from this group
are abundant enough to be considered rock-forming minerals. Both are usually found as evaporite
minerals. Gypsum (CaSO4 * 2H2O) is the hydrous form and anhydrite (CaSO4) is the anhydrous
form as its name suggests. Gypsum is used in plaster of Paris. Alabaster is a variety of gypsum that
sculptors have turned into art for millennia.
Sulfides: Ore minerals of base metals are most often found as sulfides which uses sulfur (S) as anion.
Pyrite (FeS2) is, by far, the most abundant sulfide mineral and is the only one that comes close to
being a rock-forming mineral. It is often referred to as "fool's gold" because of its brassy color. It
forms in environments where there is little oxygen such as coal swamps and hot water systems
flushing through rocks. Important sulfide ore minerals are, for copper--chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), for
zinc--sphalerite (ZnS), and for lead--galena (PbS). Cinnabar (HgS) is an important source of mercury.
It was also used as the source for red pigment by Renaissance artists.
Mineral Occurrences and Environments: In addition to physical properties, one of the most
diagnostic features of a mineral is the geologi cal environment in which it is occurs. Learning to
recognize different types of geological environ ments can be thus be very helpful in recognizing the
common minerals. For the purposes of aiding mineral identification, we have developed a very rough
classification of geological environments, most of which can be visited locally.
1. Igneous Minerals: Minerals in igneous rocks must have high melting points and be able to co-exist
with, or crystallize from, silicate melts at temperatures above 800 º C. Igneous rocks can be generally
classed according to their silica content with low-silica (<< 50 % SiO2) igneous rocks being termed
basic or mafic, and high-silica igneous rocks being termed silicic or acidic. Basic igneous rocks (BIR)
include basalts, dolerites, gabbros, kimberlites, and peridotites, and abundant minerals in such rocks
include olivine, pyroxenes, Ca-feldspar (plagioclase), amphiboles, and biotite. The abundance of Fe in
these rocks causes them to be dark-colored. Silicic igneous rocks (SIR) include granites,
granodiorites, and rhyolites, and abundant minerals include quartz, muscovite, and alkali feldspars.
These are commonly light-colored although color is not always diagnostic. In addition to basic and
silicic igneous rocks, a third igneous mineral environment representing the final stages of igneous
fractionation is called a pegmatite (PEG) which is typically very coarse-grained and similar in
composition to silicic igneous rocks (i.e. high in silica). Elements that do not readily substitute into
the abundant minerals are called incompatible elements, and these typically accumulate to form their
own minerals in pegmatite’s. Minerals containing the incompatible elements, Li, Be, B, P, Rb, Sr, Y,
Nb, rare earths, Cs, and Ta are typical and characteristic of pegmatite’s.
2. Metamorphic Minerals: Minerals in metamorphic rocks have crystallized from other minerals
rather than from melts and need not be stable to such high temperatures as igneous minerals. In a very
general way, metamorphic environments may be classified as low-grade metamorphic (LGM)
(temperatures of 60 º to 400 º C and pressures << .5 GPa (=15km depth) and high-grade meta morphic
(HGM) (temperatures > 400 º and/or pressures > .5GPa). Minerals characteristic of low- grade
metamorphic environments include the zeolites, chlorites, and andalusite. Minerals character istic of
high grade metamorphic environments include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, epidote, and
amphiboles.
3. Sedimentary Minerals: Minerals in sedimentary rocks are either stable in low-tempera ture
hydrous environments (e.g. clays) or are high temperature minerals that are extremely resistant to
chemical weathering (e.g. quartz). One can think of sedimentary minerals as exhibiting a range of
solubilities so that the most insoluble minerals such as quartz gold, and diamond accumulate in the
coarsest detrital sedimentary rocks, less resistant minerals such as feldspars, which weather to clays,
accumulate in finer grained siltstones and mudstones, and the most soluble minerals such as calcite
and halite (rock-salt) are chemically precipitated in evaporite deposits. Accordingly, I would classify
sedimentary minerals into detrital sediments (DSD) and evaporites (EVP). Detrital sedimentary
minerals include quartz, gold, diamond, apatite and other phosphates, calcite, and clays. Evaporite
sedimentary minerals include calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and sylvite, plus some of the borate
minerals.
4. Hydrothermal Minerals: The fourth major mineral environment is hydrothermal, minerals
precipitated from hot aqueous solutions associated with emplacement of intrusive igneous rocks. This
environment is commonly grouped with metamorphic environments, but the minerals that form by
this process and the elements that they contain are so distinct from contact or regional metamorphic
rocks that it us useful to consider them as a separate group. These may be sub-classified as high
temperature hydrothermal (HTH), low temperature hydrothermal (LTH), and oxidized hydrothermal
(OXH). Metals of the center and right-hand side of the periodic table (e.g. Cu, Zn, Sb, As, Pb, Sn, Cd,
Hg, Ag) most commonly occur in sulfide minerals and are termed the chalcophile elements. Sulfides
may occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks, but are most typically hydrothermal. High temperature
hydrothermal minerals include gold, silver, tungstate minerals, chalcopyrite, bornite, the tellurides,
and molybdenite. Low temperature hydrothermal minerals include barite, gold, cinnabar, pyrite, and
cassiterite. Sulfide minerals are not stable in atmospheric oxygen and will weather by oxidation to
form oxides, sulfates and carbonates of the chalcophile metals, and these minerals are characteristic of
oxidized hydrothermal deposits. Such deposits are called gossans and are marked by yellow-red iron
oxide stains on rock surfaces.
References
Brady, N. (1990). Soil Colloids: Their Nature and Practical Significance. The Nature and Properties of Soils,
10th Ed.; Macmillan Publishing Co.: New York, 177-212.
Grim, R. (1968). Clay Mineralogy, 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co.: New York, 1968.
Kerr, P.F. (1952). Formation and Occurrence of Clay Minerals. Clays Clay Miner. 1: 19–32.
Pal, D.K.,T. Bhattacharyya, S.B. Deshpande, V.A.K. Sarma and Velayutham, M. (2000). Significance of
Minerals in Soil Environment of India. NBSS Review series 1, 68 pp. ISBN 81 85460 57 4.
Philippa M. Black. (1972) Mineralogy for Students by M. H. Battey, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1972. 323 p.,
236 fig. Price £4. ISBN 0 05002243 1, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 15(3): 503-504,

EFFECTS OF SILICON SOURCES AND LEVELS ON GROWTH
PARAMETERS OF RICE (Oryzasativa L.) UNDER LATERITIC SOIL
OF JHARKHAND
Neeraj Kumar Vaishya1&3, Sanjay Kumar Shahi1 and Pramod Kumar Sharma2
1
Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Udai Pratap Autonomous College, Varanasi, U.P., India, Mob. No.
+91-9334326632, +91-9431513034, E-mail: neerajkvk97@gmail.com, 2Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P., India; 3Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Gumla, Vikas Bharti Bishunpur, Jharkhand, India, Corresponding Author: Neeraj Kumar Vaishya
W
ith approximately 154 million hectares of area, rice is one of the most essential
cereal crops in the world. It is the main source of calorie consumption and staple
food for more than three billion people in world (Datta et al., 2017; Ullah et al.,
2017). The demand for rice is steadily increasing due to an increase in global population. Asian
countries are the largest consumer of rice where more than 1.3 billion people consider rice as the
staple food (Cuong et al., 2017). Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) is the most important crop in India and it
occupies 22.15 percent of gross cropped area of the country, contributes 40.86 per cent of total food
grain and 44.51 per cent of total cereal production (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
Govt. of India, 2018-19).
Rice is considered as silicon (Si) accumulating plant, and application of Si fertilizers increase
the straw and grain yield through increasing photosynthesis and plant growth (Sandhya and Prakash,
2019). Even though Silicon is not an essential element, it is linked with numerous beneficial effects
for different plants, mostly in relieving damage caused by biotic and abiotic stress (Azeem et al., 2015
and Guo et al., 2016).Also, Silicon increases the resistance or tolerance of rice to biotic and abiotic
stresses (Mukthar et al., 2013) in acidic soil. Silicon is also recognized for its importance in
alleviating the adverse stress effects on various plant species (Cuong et al., 2017).Silica is one of the
most common elements in the earth’s crust and in the plant’s ash (Aqaei et al., 2020) and is the
second most abundant element in soil, being existing in the form of silicate or aluminum silicate
(Geerdink et al., 2020). It may be easily absorbed into root system from soil solution, where it is
found in the form of monomeric or monosilicic acid (H4SiO4) (Chen et al., 2018; Luyckx et al.,
2017).Silicon content in latosols or latosolic red soils (highly weathered soil) of tropical zone may be
less than 1% owing to presence of immensely active desilification and fersialitization processes
(Liang et al., 2015). In soil, Silicon mainly presents in various categories of aluminosilicates and
quartz (SiO2), which consist of up to 75%–95% of soil inorganic constituents (Meharg and Meharg,
2015).Plant available Silicon in the soils of tropical and subtropical areas is usually low (Meena et al.,
2014). Silicon fertilizer has been used in various countries for improving rice yield (Guntzer et al.,
2012). About 20 kg/hm2 SiO2 is being removed from the soil to produce every 100 kg brown rice
(Cuong et al., 2017). Many farmers disseminate Silicon from fields through eliminating straw
residues with harvest and exogenous application of Silicon in rice cultivation is often ignored. This
recommends that Silicon may become a yield-limiting element for rice production;hence, application
ofSilicon fertilizer might be essential for an economic and sustainable rice production system (Ning et
al., 2014).There are variousSilicon sources for agricultural use, which range from natural minerals to
chemical products and by-products of steel and iron industries. All these products are shown to be
effective in improving crop growth and yield (Liang et al., 2015).
However several sources of Siliconare reported to be effective, for field application an ideal
Silicon source should possess attributes such as easily available in locality,a relatively high content of
silicon, cost-effectiveness, provide sufficient water-soluble silicon, easy to handle, have a physical
nature that facilitates storage as well as application, improve plant-available Silicon and not contain
ingredients that pollute the soil with improving crop growth and yield (Sandhya and Prakash, 2019).
However, only a few sources meet all of these requirements. Crop residues especially of silicon-
accumulating plant such as rice are used as silicon sources either intentionally or unintentionally. In
view of the above facts, the present investigation has been taken under the effects of indigenous
sources of silicon; Paddy straw and Fly Ash and calcium silicate at differentlevels on effect on growth
of rice (Oryza sativa L.) under lateritic soil of Jharkhand.
Effects of Silicon Sources and Levels on Growth Parameters of Rice (Oryzasativa L.) under Lateritic…... 347
Material and Methods

Field experiments were conducted during kharif season of2017-18 and 2018-19 at the
Agricultural Research Farm of KrishiVigyan Kendra, Gumla, VikasBharti, Bishunpur (Jharkhand).
Three doses of silica were applied at the rate of 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg Silicon ha−1 through calcium
silicate, fly ash and paddy straw.The experiment was arranged in randomized complete block design
(RCBD) having 10treatments viz., T1 : Control (RDF), T2 : RDF + 50 Kg Silicon ha-1 by Calcium
Silicate, T3 : RDF + 100 Kg Silicon ha-1 by Calcium Silicate, T4 : RDF +150 Kg Silicon ha-1by
Calcium Silicate, T5 : RDF + 50 Kg Si ha-1by Fly ash, T6 : RDF + 100 Kg Si ha-1 by Fly ash, T7 : RDF
+150 Kg Si ha-1 by Fly ash, T8 : RDF + 50 Kg Si ha-1 by paddy straw, T9 : RDF + 100 Kg Si ha-1 by
Paddy straw, T10: RDF + 150 Kg Si ha-1 by Paddy straw. Different silicon sources such as Calcium
Silicate, F l y Ash, and Paddy Straw were applied as basal dose at effective root zone, 30 days prior
to trans planting. There commended fertilizers dose of 120:60:40;N: P2O5: K2Okgha-1 was applied. A
basal dose of 40:60:40;N: P2O5: K2Okgha-1 was applied at the time of transplanting through urea, DAP
and muriate of potash in all treatments including control. The second split dose of nitrogen i.
e.40kgNha -1 was applied at tillering stage 30 days after transplanting) and third split dose of nitrogen
i.e. 40 kgNha-1 was applied at panicle initiation stage (60 days after transplanting) through urea.
The height of plants was measured with the help of meter scale from the base of the plant to
the tip of the uppermost fully opened leaf. After panicle emergence, the height was measured up to the
tip of the panicle. Total number of tillers hill-1 and productive tillers hill-1 were counted from each pot.
The numbers of leaves per plant and numbers of branches were recorded from each pot and average
numbers of leaves were calculated on per plant basis.
For determining the significance between the treatment means and to draw valid conclusion,
statistical analysis was made. The difference of the treatments mean was tested using critical
difference (CD) at 5% level of probability (Gomez and Gomez, 1984) by following the Randomized
Complete Block Design (RCBD) to draw the valid differences among the treatments.
Results
Effect of Sources and Levels of Siliconon Plant Height: It is evident from the data that the plant
height increased as the growth progressed (table 1). It was observed that increasing silicon levels
increased plant height with all sources at all the crop growth stages in both the years. The greatest
magnitudes of increased plant height were recorded in the treatment T4 where Si was applied at a
greater dose (150 kg ha-1) by Calcium Silicate. In general, Plant height in 150 Kg Si ha-1 by Calcium
Silicate treated plot (T4 ) was significantly higher than that of 50 Kg Si ha-1 (T2) and 100 Kg Si ha-1
by Calcium Silicate (T3) treated plot and same trend was observed in case of silicon sources
application of fly ash and paddy straw. Plant height at same level of silicon in fly ash & paddy straw
was remained at par in all the growth stages. Data showed that application of silicon through calcium
silicate increased the plant height significantly over the application of fly ash and paddy straw at all
levels and all growth stages during both years. All the silicon sources and levels were significantly
superior as compared to control (0% Si).
Table 1: Effect of silicon sources and levels on plant height (cm) of rice
30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT AT Harvest
Treatments
2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19
T1 : Control (RDF) 47.44 48.00 83.17 83.17 92.87 94.53 97.76 98.98
T2 : RDF + 50 Kg Si ha-1 by Calcium Silicate 48.50 49.83 85.06 85.39 94.06 95.61 100.83 101.50
T4 : RDF +150 Kg Si ha-1 by Calcium Silicate 55.28 55.95 89.74 90.08 100.58 101.58 106.58 106.02
T5 : RDF + 50 Kg Si ha-1 by Fly ash 47.71 48.16 84.44 84.33 93.78 95.00 99.78 100.11
T7 : RDF +150 Kg Si ha-1by Fly ash 52.83 53.16 88.22 87.39 98.78 99.05 104.33 104.00
T8 : RDF + 50 Kg Si ha-1by paddy straw 48.31 48.20 84.00 85.33 93.33 95.00 99.89 101.11
T9 : RDF + 100 Kg Si ha-1 by Paddy straw 50.30 51.86 85.97 85.86 94.74 97.12 101.94 102.90
T10 : RDF + 150 Kg Si ha-1by Paddy straw 54.08 54.21 88.06 88.55 97.67 99.39 103.61 105.33
S Em (±) 0.42 0.94 1.52 1.27 1.74 0.93 1.51 0.75
CD (p=0.05) 1.24 2.80 4.53 3.77 5.17 2.76 4.48 2.24
RDF = Recommended Dose of Fertilizers,CD = Critical Difference, SEm± = Standard error of mean
Effect of Sources and Levels of Silicon on Number of Leaves Hill-1: Number of green leaves hill-1
under various sources and levels of silicon application to rice are exhibited in table 2. Number of
green leaves hill-1 under different silicon treatments increased with time and reached maximum at 90
DAT during both the years. Silicon application caused significant difference on the leaves hill-1 of rice
with the varied level in combination with recommended dose of fertilizer. Perusal of the data clearly
revealed that increasing silicon levels significantly increased green leaves as compared to control and
the maximum green leave number was observed with 150 Kg Si ha-1 by calcium silicate similarly
application of 50 kg Silicon ha-1resulted significant increase in green leave number over control
during both the years at each level. On the basis of Number of green leaves hill-1, different silicon
treatments could be arranged in the order T4>T10>T7>T3>T9> T6>T2>T8>T5>T1.
Table 2: Effect of silicon sources and levels on number of leaves hill-1 of rice
Treatments
2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19
T1 : Control (RDF) 39.00 41.22 64.78 66.78 71.22 75.67 68.11 69.11
S Em (±) 1.53 1.93 2.24 1.91 2.36 3.63 1.89 1.91
CD (p=0.05) 4.56 5.72 6.66 5.67 7.02 10.78 5.63 5.68
Effect of Sources and Levels of Silicon on Number of Tillers Hill-1 : The data pertaining to number
of tillers hill-1 recorded at 30, 60, 90 DAT and at harvest as influenced by silicon levels and sources at
successive growth stage (table 3).Silicon levels exerted significant variation in tiller number at all the
rice crop growth stages during both years of experimentation and maximum value was observed in T 4
treatment followed by T10 treatment. All the silicon sources and levels were significantly superior to
control (0% Si) in respect of tiller number hill-1. It increased up to 90 DAT and then gradually
decreased up to harvest stage. The greatest increase number of tillers hill-1 of rice occurred with the
application of silicon at 150 kg ha-1 in combination with RDF over the control and other lower level
treatments. It was also recorded the effect of silicon application through Calcium Silicate significantly
increased number of tillers hill-1 as compared to other sources at all growth stages and same level
during both years.
Table 3: Effect of silicon sources and levels on number of tillers hill-1 of rice
Treatments
2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19
T1 : Control (RDF) 4.44 5.00 9.22 9.55 9.78 10.11 9.56 9.89
S Em (±) 0.21 0.31 0.15 0.45 0.17 0.47 0.23 0.49
CD (p=0.05) 0.62 0.91 0.45 1.34 0.51 1.38 0.68 1.47
Effect of Sources and Levels of Silicon on Dry Matter Accumulation (g) Hill-1: The data pertaining
to dry matter production hill-1 recorded at 30, 60, 90 DAT and at harvest as influenced by silicon
levels and sources at successive growth stage (table 4).It was observed that increasing silicon levels
increased dry matter production at all sources and the crop growth stages in both the years. Dry matter
production in 150 Kg Si ha-1by Calcium Silicate applied plot (T4) was significantly superior than 50
Kg Si ha-1 by Calcium Silicate (T2) and same trend was observed in case of Si applied through fly ash
and paddy straw .The data further revealed that the application of Si at the rate of 100 kg ha -1 and 150
kg ha-1recorded non-significant difference in dry matter production under all sources of silicon at all
the growth stages.
Table 4: Effect of silicon sources and levels on dry matter accumulation (g) hill-1 of rice
Treatments
2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19 2017-18 2018-19
T1 : Control (RDF) 1.29 1.40 5.34 5.23 19.31 20.07 25.16 26.13
Effects of Silicon Sources and Levels on Growth Parameters of Rice (Oryzasativa L.) under Lateritic…... 349
S Em (±) 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.25 0.26 0.70 0.58 0.57
CD (p=0.05) 0.15 0.26 0.18 0.75 0.77 2.07 1.73 1.68
Data influenced by Si levels were significantly superior to control (0% Si) in respect of dry
matter production. Application of calcium silicate increased the dry matter production significantly
over the fly ash and paddy straw at all levels of silicon and growth stages of crop.
Discussion
The increase in growth parameters of rice might be attributed due to increased availability of
phosphorus and other beneficial effect of silicon on growth of paddy Patil et al. (2018) who also
reported increase in growth and dry matter of paddy due to silicon application through different
organic and inorganic sources. Yogendra et al. (2015) revealed that significant increase in the growth
and yield parameters with application of different sources of silicon along with 100 kg N ha-1. Similar
result was also found by Xueet al. (2018). Sandhya and Prakash (2019) reported that application of
silicon sources significantly increased the panicle number and its length compared to control.
Application of three Si sources significantly increased the yield of rice (Pati et al., 2016) as
compared to control but the performance of each source varied which may be due to the reactivity
rather than total Si content (Haynes, 2017; Sandhya and Prakash, 2019).Silicon nutrition improves the
growth, development and weight of roots which improves the level of absorption in the end. These
results were in harmony with those reported by Alsaeedi et al. (2019).Silicon supplementation applied
in the soil or leaves increased the diameter of rose stems and flower bud length, as well as had good
results for the other biometric parameter(Geerdink et al., 2020).The beneficial effects of Silicon on
plant growth have also been demonstrated by other authors (Azeem et al., 2015 and Helaly et al.,
2017).
Conclusion
On the basis of above study, we can conclude that the silicon sources and increasing levels
significantly affect the growth parameters of rice. Results indicated that plant height, panicle length,
number of tillers hill-1, dry matter accumulation significantly increased with the application of
different silicon sources at different levels compared to control. Calcium silicate @ 150 kg Si ha -1
found superior in all the treatments.
Conflict of Interest: All the authors hereby declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the
publication of this article.
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
VETERINARY
SCIENCE
OVARIAN FOLLICLE TRANSITION: UNDERLYING MOLECULAR
MECHANISMS
Ramesh, H.S.1, Sampath, B.1, Tripathi, S.K.2,3, Nandi, S.3, Gupta, P.S.P.3 and Girish Kumar, V.1
1
Veterinary College, Hebbal, Banaglore, E-mial: ramamabhi@gmail.com, 2Jain University, Bangalore and 3ICAR-National
Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, Corresponding Author: Ramesh, H.S.
B idirectional somatic cell–oocyte signaling is essential to create a changing intra-

follicular microenvironment that controls primordial follicle growth into a cohort of
growing follicles, from which one antral follicle is selected to ovulate a healthy
oocyte. These coordinated somatic cell–oocyte interactions attempt to balance cellular metabolism
with energy requirements during folliculogenesis, including changing energy utilization during
meiotic resumption. Communication between oocyte and its surrounding granulosa cells is vital, both
for oocyte development and for granulosa cells differentiation. Oocytes depend on differentiated
cumulus cells, which provide them with nutrients and regulatory signals needed to promote oocyte
nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation and consequently the acquisition of developmental competence.
Transition from Primordial to Early Antral Follicles: The list of the factors that promotes growth
and development of preantral follicles is given in Table 1. Paracrine factors from follicular cells
support the growth and acquisition of meiotic and developmental competence of the oocyte, whereas
factors from oocyte supports transition of follicular cells during different stages of follicular
development, cumulus cell expansion and ovulation. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) like
BMP4, BMP8b and BMP2 which are oocyte derived proteins plays a important role in formation of
primordial germ cell (PGC) whereas nerve growth factor (Ngf) derived from both oocyte and somatic
cells causes primordial follicle activation. Oocyte specific factor called TATA-binding protein 2 (TBP
2) causes transition from PGC to primary follicle. A primary follicle consists of one or more cuboidal
granulosa cells that are arranged in a single layer which surrounds the oocyte where many oocyte
genes are activated at this stage like genes encoding the zona pellucid (ZP) proteins like ZP 1, ZP 2
AND ZP3) which causes formation of zona pellucida that surrounds the oocytes. Secondary follicle
involves formation of a layer of granulosa cells consists of 2 to 10 layers of cuboidal or low columnar
cells where synthesis of oocyte specific protein like GDF-9 (Growth differentiation factor) and
BMP15 occuras which plays role in development of primary follicles to secondary follicle, expansion
of cumulus cells and ovulation (Laissue et al., 2006). Gap junction proteins like Connexins 43 and 37
(Cx 43 and Cx 37) derived from granulosa cells and oocyte respectively forms gap junctions between
oocyte and surrounding granulosa cells and also among the granulosa cells which causes birectional
communication during all stages of follicle development to maintain follicle in a functionally
integrated state. Early preantral follicles development is gonadotropins independent where
development of primary and secondary stage can take place in the absence of FSH (Follicle
stimulating hormone) and LH (Luteinizing hormone) but requires locally secreted factors. Antrum
filled cavity in the granulosa cells is the indication of tertiary follicle development (Graffian or antral
follicle) from secondary follicle and it is gonadotropin dependent involving formation and
differentiation of granulosa cells into cumulus cells wherein oocyte maturation occurs due to the
influence of factors like activin and KIT ligand (Otsuka et al., 2002). Finally factors like Insulin like
growth factors (IGF-I, IGF-2), GDF-9 and BMP-15 with the cooperation of gonadotropins makes
selection of dominant follicle, meiotically competent oocyte and ovulation.
Further, Nandi et al. (2008) reported that glucose and pyruvate are the principal energy source
for oocytes and follicular somatic cells in buffalo and sheep. Whereas, Perks et al. (1995) reported
that some growth factors such as activin, epidermal like growth factors (EGFs) like amphiregulin
(AREG), neuregulin-1 (NRG-I), transforming growth factor-β 1 (TGF-β 1 ), basic fibrobalst growth
factor (bFGF) and insulin like growth factors (IGFs) have been shown to stimulate bovine follicular
growth through granulosa cell proliferation. So also, Wandji et al. (1996) opined that EGF shown to
have potent mitogen effects on bovine, porcine and human granulosa cells. While, Ashkenazi et al.
(2005) reported that the LH binds to its receptor on mural granulosa cells and induced the expression
of AREG, EREG, and BTC in mice. Further, Shimada et al. (2006) reported that prostaglandin E2
(PGE2) stimulated AREG production which binds in an autocrine/paracrine manner to the EGF
receptor of cumulus cells to stimulate meiotic resumption and cumulus expansion. On the other hand,
Yang et al. (2004) reported that TNF-α upregulated MMPs and other collagenases leading to extra
cellular matrix remodeling in preparation for ovulation. Whereas, Conti et al. (2006) and Chian et al.
(2004) reported that the effect of EGF-like growth factors like AREG and NRG-I are indirect and
dependent on cumulus cells for oocytes nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation. Likewise, Park et al.
(2004) opined that AREG was essential for the cumulus expansion, oocytes maturation and fertility.
On the other hand, Qian et al. (2003) and Bedirian et al. (1975) reported that cumulus expansion was
important for successful fertilization, because unexpanded cumulus may present a barrier to sperm
penetration. Above all, Han et al. (2006) opined that maturation rate and embryos rate correlated with
degree of cumulus expansion and expressed that cumulus expansion was not only important for
successful maturation, fertilization but also for embryo development in goat.
Maturation of oocytes occurs during the period between the LH surge and ovulation that
induced transient and sequential expression of the EGF-like peptides such as AREG, epiregulin
(EREG), Beta-cellulin (BTC) and NRG-I in the follicles (Noma et al., 2011). They observed the
peptides produced by the granulosa cells exhibited autocrine effects on granulosa cells and paracrine
actions on cumulus cells through their receptors called ERBΒ1. Likewise, Hsieh et al. (2007) as well
as Richani et al. (2013) reported that LH induced rapid and transient expression of AREG that acted
on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as well as other members of the ErbB family in both
mural granulosa and cumulus cells leading to maturation of the COCs and oocytes developmental
competence. On the other hand Sugimura et al. (2014) opined that AREG co-operated with BMP-15
to enhance oocytes developmental competence. EGF-like factors such as AREG and EREG (Richani
et al., 2013) or OSFs (Hussein et al., 2006) have increased oocytes developmental competence. So
also, Conti et al. (2012) reported that AREG and EREG were needed for transformation of mural
granulosa cells to the cumulus cells. Further, Chen et al. (2013) reported that AREG induced
activation of EGF receptor signaling in the cumulus cells to activate phosphatidylinositol-3-
phosphate-kinase (PI3K) in the oocytes and have role in the regulation of translation. Likewise,
Soares et al. (2015) reported that AREG induced nuclear maturation more rapidly than FSH and
observed ablation of the AREG/EGFR which delayed oocytes maturation, cumulus expansion and
ovulation in mouse (Hsieh et al., 2007). So also, Park et al. (2004) expressed that AREG, BTC and
EREG induced cumulus expansion, oocytes maturation and COX-2 expression in mouse and rodent
follicles which synergized with the gonadotrophin to induce reinitiating of vesicle meiosis called
germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD).
The TNF-α is a nonglycosylated protein with a molecular weight of 17 kDa produced by
activated macrophages (Carswell et al., 1975). TNF-α is necessary for follicle development, oocytes
development, ovulation, luteal development, progesterone production and regression (Terranova,
1997 and Wu et al., 2004) by regulating collagenolytic activity in preovulatory ovine follicles
(Johnson et al., 1999) and its receptors are localized on oocytes, granulosa cells (Kaipia et al., 1996).
Further, Marcinkiewicz et al. (2002) found that oocytes are an important source of TNF-α and its
expression occurs around birth having autocrine or paracrine actions. Likewise, Murdoch, (1999)
suggested that TNF-α from the thecal endothelium facilitated the process of ovulation by inducing
localised apoptosis at the ovarian surface follicular interface. On the other hand, Field et al. (2014)
reported that source for TNF-α is granulosa cells, theca cells and oocytes which was necessary for GC
proliferation, oocytes apoptosis, follicular apoptosis and atresia. Above all, Prange-Kiel et al. (2001)
putforth that it influenced the balance between follicular growth (proliferation) and atresia (apoptosis).
The granulosa cells which secrete NRG-I acted both on granulosa and cumulus cells during
ovulation and necessary for oocytes meiotic maturation in primates and rodents as has been putforth
by Nyholt et al. (2009). Further, they also observed it binds to ERBB3/ERBB2 complexes which are
expressed in granulosa cells and cumulus cells. On the other hand, Noma et al. (2011) opined that
NRG-I stimulated selectively the AKT/PKB phosphorylation in granulosa cells when compared to
ERK1/2 and participated both in autocrine and paracrine manner during ovulation.
Initiation of cumulus expansion depends on stimulation by epidermal growth factor (EGF)-
like peptides and paracrine signals secreted by the oocytes called cumulus expansion enabling factors
(CEEFs) which acted on neighbouring cumulus cells to make stimulation by epidermal like growth
factors as putforth by Dragovic et al. (2007). This action in turn leads to elevated levels of
extracellular matrix (ECM) genes (Has2, Ptgs2, Ptx3 and Tnfaip 6) in cumulus cells (Salustri et al.,
Ovarian Follicle Transition: Underlying Molecular Mechanisms 353
2004). On the other hand, Camaioni and Luigia, (1993) reported that hyaluronan synthase 2 (HAS2) is
the key enzyme necessary for production non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan called hyaluronic acid
which is a fundamental component of the cumulus matrix secreted from cumulus cells. Whereas,
Dragovic et al. (2005) opined that mucification and expansion of the COCs was necessary for
ovulation and fertility. Thereafter, Diaz et al. (2006) observed CEEFs along with EGF like peptides
induced expression of transcripts of ECM components like Has2, Tnfaip6 and Ptx3 necessary for
expansion. While, NRG-1 plays a modulating role to adjust the timing of oocytes maturation to
follicle rupture in periovulatory follicles (Masayuki et al., 2016).
The GDF-9 is an oocyte factor, a member of the TGF-β super family that also includes activin
and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). The inhibition of GDF-9 gene decreased the cell
proliferation of granulosa cells and caused abnormal oocyte growth (Dong et al., 1996). Further,
GDF9 plays an important role in the development of follicles by upregulating theca cell androgen
production (Orisaka et al., 2009). Also it is felt that GDF-9 promoted preantral to early antral
transition of the follicle and improved blastocyst development and also ICM cell numbers. The
growth factor IGF-I influenced development of granulosa cells and number of follicles in bovine and
porcine species (Mazerbourg et al., 2003). Whereas, Armstrong et al. (1996) reported that IGF-I had
increased the sensibility of the granulosa cells to the action of the FSH, thereby stimulated the
development of the antral follicles.
However, understanding of molecular mechanisms in bidirectional somatic cell-oocyte
signaling pathway is necessary for induction of primordial follicle activation and generating
preovulatory follicle that contain mature and competent oocyte for production of embryo.
Primordial Germ Cells and Primordial Follicle Formation: Oocytes originate from primordial
germ cells (PGCs). This PGCs develops at gastrulation stage during embryo differentiates into
different germ cell layers like ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. PGCs are enclosed by presumptive
follicular cells called as oogonia. The development of primordial follicles occurs when the oocytes
detach from the “nests” and associate with the precursor cells of the granulosa layer. Oocytes in the
nests undergo apoptosis till they are isolated and then they associate themselves to flat pregranulosa
cells to form the primordial follicle.Members of the TGFβ family such as bone morphogenetic
proteins (BMPs), BMP4, BMP8b (ectodermorigin) and BMP2 (endoderm origin) which are specific
factors needed for PGCs formation and regulation of gene expression (Ying et al., 2001). Whereas
Bmp7 mouse knockouts show a reduction in the number of germ cells around this period (Ross et al.,
2007). Activin has also been shown to increase the number of PGCs in human (Martins da silva et al.,
2004). Factors such as BLIMP1 and PRDM14, which are critical for PGC proliferation and migration
as well as OCT4, NANOG are essential for PGC survival (Jagarlamudi et al., 2011). Sex
determination starts during the period of migration of PGC into the genital ridges wherein, XY genital
ridges differentiate into testes due to the influence of the Y-linked gene SRY. Whereas, XX gonads
have no SRY gene which develops into ovaries (Gubbay et al., 1990). Further, PGCs undergo a
mitotic proliferation to form ‘germ cell cysts’ or ‘germ cell nests’ (Hussein, 2005). After this event
mitotic division stops wherein, germ cells initiate meiosis to become primary oocytes in the female
program of development (Ginsburg et al., 1990).
Activation of Primordial Follicles: Primordial and Primary Development of the Follicle:
Primordial follicles make the total reservoir of germ cells available during the entire period of female
reproductive life. The progression from primordial follicle to the stage of primary follicle takes long
time. Primordial follicle is characterized by the presence of flat cells and primary follicles are
characterized by a simple layer of cuboidal granulosa cells. The primordial follicles activated
continuously to recruit in cohorts to initiate folliculogenesis. Mice lacking Foxo3 show premature
activation of primordial follicles and a further depletion of follicles at 18 weeks postnatally (Liu et al.,
2006). For instance, nerve growth factor (Ngf) is expressed both in somatic cells and oocytes even
prior to follicle formation and seems to play a role in primordial follicle activation (Dissen et al.,
2009). Whereas, AMH inhibits the recruitment of primordial follicles into the growing pool
(Durlinger et al., 2002). The early expression of two other transcription factors from oocyte origin,
Sohlh1 and Nobox, is decisive for the progression of primordial follicles to the next primary follicular
stage (Rajkovic et al., 2004). In vitro exposure of neonatal rat ovaries to BMP4 enhanced the
proportion of developing primary follicles and reduced the number of resting primordial follicles
(Nilson et al., 2003). Similarly, an increase in the number of preantral and antral follicles was
obtained after injection of recombinant BMP7 in rat ovarian bursa (Lee et al., 2001).
Progression from the Primary to the Secondary Follicular Stage: Two very well known members
of the TGFβ superfamily called GDF9 and BMP15 have a role that starts during early stages and
continues throughout folliculogenesis and ovulation (Nilsson et al., 2002). Progression of early
follicle development also requires the expression and action of TATA-binding protein 2 (TBP2), an
oocyte-specific transcription factor expressed along folliculogenesis. Mice ovaries deficient in Tbp2
have a reduced number of secondary follicles and in addition they have an altered expression of
oocyte-specific transcripts involved in early folliculogenesis, on the otherhand, levels of Gfd9, Bmp15
and Zp3 are down-regulated, whereas levels of Oct4 and Nobox were upregulated (Laissue et al.,
2006). The expression of maternal effect genes (i.e. Mater, Zar1, Npm2), essential for early
embryogenesis to proceed properly is also initiated at the primary follicle stage and continues up to
the antral stages (Burns et al., 2003).
A. Primay Follicle: A number of important oocyte genes are turned on at this time. For example, the
genes encoding the zona pellucida (ZP) proteins (i.e. ZP1, ZP2,and ZP3) are transcribed and
translated (Wassarman et al., 1996). The secreted ZP proteins begin to polymerize near the oocyte
surface, forming an extracellular matrix coat (the zona pellucida) that eventually encapsulates the egg.
Connexin 37 (C37) is an oocyte derived connexion that forms gap junctions between the oocyte and
surrounding granulosa cells (Simon et al., 1997). Evidence from C37deficient mice assigns C37 an
obligatory role for folliculogenesis, ovulation, and fertility (Simon et al., 1997). Whereas, C43 is a
major gap junction protein expressed in the granulosa cells (Beyer et al., 1989). On the otherhand,
Figla, Nobox, Pten, Foxo3A and nerve growth factor genes are involved in the formation of
primordial follicles, whereas genes such as βFGF, GDF9 and BMP4 are involved in the transition
from primordial to primary follicles. Other genes such as BMP15 are not expressed in the oocyte until
the primary follicle stage and are involved in the transition from primary to secondary follicles, as
shown in sheep (Monget et al., 2012).
B. Secondary Follicle: Exciting research in rodents has provided compelling evidence for the
involvement of an oocyte derived growth factor, called growth differentiation factor9 (GDF9). This
GDF9 is obligatory for folliculogenesis after the primary stage, presumably because it is an obligatory
mitogen for granulosa cells. Some stromal cells in the inner layer express LH receptors (Erickson et
al., 1985) and granulosa cells in secondary follicles express FSH receptors (Yamoto et al., 1992).
Progression Throughout Preantral Stages and to the Early Antral Stage: Follicular development
during very early stages, during preantral stages and progression to the early antral stage is
gonadotropin-independent and rely primarily on locally secreted factors. Antral development begins
with the antrum formation wherein transition of granulosa cells into the cumulus and mural cell
compartments occurs which is essential for the oocyte to achieve competence and resume meiosis.
The progression during antral stages and ovulation has been considered to be gonadotropin dependent
(FSH and LH) wherein FSH is essential for antral development. Mice deficient in both FSH (FSH-β
knockout) and FSHR (FSHR knockout) are infertile due to a block in follicle development prior to
antral development (Burns et al., 2001).The well-known GDF9 and BMP15 oocyte-secreted factors
act in synergy to continue promoting granulosa cell proliferation (Otsuka et al., 2000). Inhibin-B
(αβB) is predominantly expressed during early stages of folliculogenesis, however after follicle
selection and differentiation to become an antral follicle, Inhibin-A (αβA) turns out to be the most
predominant inhibin (Findlay et al., 2000). Activin-A has been shown to induce proliferation in in-
vitro cultured granulosa cells in mice and rats (Findlay et al., 2000). A role of AMH as a negative
regulator of follicle selection by reducing follicle responsiveness to FSH to progress to the antral
stages has been suggested (Durlinger et al., 2002). The role of Gap junction proteins also known as
connexins 43 and 37 (Cx43 and Cx37, respectively) play an important role in the maintenance of
communication (Tong et al., 2006).
Development of Tertiary Follicle: Two growth factors expressed in the follicle itself have been
implicated in cavitation: activin and KIT ligand. Treating cultured granulosa cells with activin causes
morphogenetic changes that result in the formation of a histologic unit with an antrum like cavity (Li
et al., 1995). Evidence from C37deficient mice assigns to C37 an obligatory role in graafian
follicle formation, ovulation, and fertility (Simon et al., 1997). Collectively, all this evidence suggests
that follicle derived activin, KIT, and C37 are involved in the autocrine/paracrine mechanisms that
control cavitation.
Development of Graffian Follicle: In all graafian follicle, LH is a key regulatory hormone for TIC
function, and its importance in regulating TIC androgen production in vivo and in vitro has been
established (Erickson et al., 1985). Dominant graafian follicle expresses increased vascularization,
which plays an important role in its selected maturation. In this regard, follicle derived vascular
endothelial growth factor (Laitinen et al., 1997) and other angiogenic factors such as endothelin
(Mancina et al., 1997) are being intensively investigated. Normal differentiation of the membrana
granulosa cells requires the activation of specific genes, including those for cytochrome P450
aromatase (P450arom) (Whitelaw et al., 1992) and the LH receptor (Bortolussi et al., 1997). Further,
GDF9 secreted by the egg is obligatory for graafian follicle development, granulosa
cytodifferentiation and proliferation and female fertility (McGrath et al., 1995). Two growth factors,
oocyte derived GDF9 (Dong et al., 1996) and granulosa derived IGFI (Baker et al., 1996) are
obligatory for folliculogenesis and fertility in female mice.
In the presence of gonadotropins, murine cumulus cells produce hyaluronic acid required for
cumulus expansion whereas mural granulosa cells primarily perform endocrine functions including
steroidogenesis as indicated by higher levels of mRNA expression for Lhcgr, Cyp11a1 and Cd34 and
other steroidogenic enzymes in mural granulosa cells (Diaz et al., 2007). GDF9 and BMP15 are
members of the TGFβ superfamily secreted from the oocyte throughout most stages of
folliculogenesis and regulate functions of cumulus cells required for the appropriate oocyte
development (Gilchrist et al., 2008). The expression of GDF9 and BMP15 mRNAs was significantly
correlated with oocyte maturation, fertilization, embryo quality, and clinical pregnancy outcome (Yi
Li et al., 2014). The fibroblast growth factors (FGF) are important autocrine and paracrine factors
released from bovine theca and granulosa cells and the oocyte and bind to cognate receptors (FGFR)
preferentially expressed on cumulus cells and oocytes during final stages of maturation (Ben-Haroush
et al., 2005). Treatment with FGF10 during in vitro maturation of cumulus oocyte complexes
enhanced the cumulus cell mRNA expression of prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 (PTGS2) at 4 hours,
pentraxin 3 (PTX3) at 12 hours and tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene 6 (TSG6) at 22 hours post
stimulation (Caixeta et al., 2013). The JY-1 gene encodes for an oocyte specific secreted protein
which is a member of a novel protein family. JY-1 mRNA and protein are present throughout
follicular development in primordial through antral follicles and restricted exclusively to the oocyte.
Oocyte derived JY-1 promoted early embryogenesis (Bettegowda et al., 2007). An increase in
blastocyst mRNA for the trophectoderm specific transcription factor CDX2 was also observed in
response to follistatin treatment (Lee et al., 2009). Experiments using oocytes in co-culture with
fibroblasts expressing either KITL1 or KITL2 have confirmed that KITL2 is more effective in
promoting oocyte growth (Gilchrist et al. 2008). connexin37 (CX37) and connexin43 (CX43) have
been unequivocally demonstrated to play critical roles in oogenesis (Pérez-Armendariz et al. 2003).
The ovarian follicle transition is depicted in Fig 1.
Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Apoptosis in the Ovary: The term apoptosis (of Greek origin)
means dropping off, as in leaves from a tree. It is a genetically determined and biologically functional
mode of cell death. The mechanisms underlying decisions of life and death involves cross dialogue
between pro-apoptotic and pro-survival molecules in the ovary. The pro-and anti apoptotic factors
involved in ovarian follicle transition is given in Table 2. It occurs in the ovarian follicles throughout
fetal and adult life. Whereas, Brachat et al. (2000) reported that programmed cell death caused due to
environmental and cellular stimuli in which gene expression profiles differs from the normal cell
BCL2L1 gene plays a crucial role in the survival of germ cells (Rucker et al., 2000). While Boumela
et al. (2011) observed that BCL2L10 antagonizes BAX activities and involved in cell cycle control
and oocyte maturation. Further, Xu and Gridley, (2013) put forth that there is an over expression of
NOTCH1-2-3 in GCs and over expression of NOTCH ligands (JAG1 and DLL3) in oocytes indicates
there is an oocyte-GCs crosstalk which influenced oocyte apoptosis in sheep. On the other hand, Jiang
et al. (2003) put forth that anti-apoptotic factors which caused survival of granulosa cells include
gonadotrophins, insulin-like growth factor-1, interleukin-1b, EGF like growth factors, basic fibroblast
growth factor, TGF-α, Bcl-2, bcl-xlong. They also reported that apoptotic factors include TGF-β,
interleukin-6, androgens, reactive oxygen species, bax, Fas antigens, p53 and TGF-α. Further, they
also put forth that ovary atresia is mainly due to Bcl-2 family members and TGF-α whereas for
follicle selection/loss is mainly due to Bcl-2, Bax, FSH, inhibin and Fas ligand. It is also opined that
TNF receptor family like TNF-α, Fas (and their ligands) and TRAIL have important roles in the
ovarian atresia mainly in apoptotic granulosa cells of healthy/atretic antral follicles and also in the
embryonic gonad (Kim et al., 1999). Further, their expression depends on gonadotrophin levels
wherein gonadotrophin deprivation leads to expression of FasL/Fas and p53 in the granulosa cells (Hu
et al., 2001). Caspase-3 is a key downstream in both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. Fenwick and
Hurst, (2002) opined that caspase-3 requires proteolytic cleavage for its activation and is a key
mediator of apoptosis. They suggested that it is partially or totally responsible for cleaving many of
the proteins that are degraded to complete apoptosis. They observed morphological changes in
apoptotic cells which include DNA fragmentation, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation and
finally formation of apoptotic bodies are due to caspase-3 action which is a main regulatory molecule.
They also put forth that it belongs to family of cysteine proteases that affects ovarian apoptosis by
controlling the process of apoptotic cell suicide via activating cell surface receptors and Bcl-2 family
of proteins which causes expression of caspase-1. Further, Boone and Tsang, (1998) reported that
expression of caspase-3 is noticed in the ovarian luteal cells, thecal cells of CL and granulosa cells of
atretic follicles, but absent in granulosa cells of normal follicles. Whereas, Robles et al. (2000)
reported that caspase-9 initiated caspase-3 activities where expression of Apaf-1 in antral follicles is
suppressed by gonadotrophin priming.
Conclusion and Future Directions: Transition of follicles from preantral to early antral transition is
mainly controlled by intraovarian oocyte granulosa-theca cell interactions and its regulators such as
growth factors, cytokinesand steroids. They also involved in follicular survival, growth, granulosa cell
apoptosis and follicular atresia during the preantral to early antral transition. Assisted reproductive
technologies (ARTs) involve regulated follicular development and exogenous hormone stimulation of
oocyte maturation. It needs understanding of molecular and cellular mechanisms in the regulation of
follicular development from preantral-to-early antral transition. In addition, protocols for IVM could
be designed to provide the proper signaling machinery to achieve oocyte maturation competence.
Table. 1: Factors that promotes growth and development of preantral follicles
Factors Function Origin
IGF-I Stimulates development of antral follicles from preantral follicles Granulosa cells
EGF Induces development of primordial and preantral follicles Oocyte
GDF 9 Primary follicle differentiation and proliferation Oocyte
TNF-α Regulates apoptosis of oocytes Oocyte
BMP 15 Differentiation and proliferation of primary follicles Oocyte
Fig α (Figla) Coordination of structural genes for development of the Oocyte
primordial follicle such as Zp1, Zp2, and Zp3 of the ZP
Activin Proliferation of granulosa cells Granulosa cells
KL Induces development of primordial follicle to primary follicle Pregranulosa cells
BMP 4 Promotes transition from primordial follicle to primary Theca/Stroma
follicle and oocyte survival
KGF Proliferation of granulosa cells Theca
bFGF Induces development of primordial and preantral follicles Oocyte
(Palma, G, A et al., 2012)
BMP: bone morphogenic protein, EGF/bFGF: epidermis growth factor/basic fibroblast growth factor,
GDF: growth differentiation factor, Figα: factor in the germline alpha, IGF: insulin growth factor,
KGF: keratinocyte growth factor, KL: Kit ligand, TNF: tumor necrosis factor.
Table.2: Pro-and anti apoptotic factors involved in ovarian follicle transition
Molecules action References
bcl-x, Bcl-2, Boo, Bcl-XL, Mcl-1, Pro-survival Marone et al, (1998), Van Nassauw et al. (1999), Hussein et al.
TRAIL, TVB, GATA-4, GATA-6, C- (2003), Hussein et al. (2003), Leo et al. (1999), Inoue et al.
KIT, SCF, IAP, XIAP, GDF-9, BMP, (2003), Heikinheimo et al. (1997), Felici et al. (1999),
IGF-1, GATA-4 & 6, Integrin, NFkB, Thompson et al. (2004), Elvin et al. (1999), Erickson and
Survivin, Gonadotropins, Granzyme B, Shimasaki, 2003, Li et al (1999)Deveraux al. (1999), Fenwick
NAIPS, Inhibin, Activin, TGF-b1, and Hurst, 2002, Peter and Dhanasekaran, 2003, Robles et al.
Smad2, 4, NTS, NOBOX, AHR (2000)
Bax, Bok, Bad, Bak, Bik, TNF-α, Fas Pro-apoptotic Van Nassauw et al. (1999), Hsu et al. (1997), Hsu et al. (1997),
and FasL, Caspases, p53, Prohibitin, c- Hussein et al. (2003), Yoon et al. (1999), Hu et al. (2001),
Myc, Interferon,Apaf-1, Endothelins, Fenwick and Hurst, 2002, Tilly et al. (1995), Heikinheimo et al.
Par-4, PGF (1997), Driancourt et al. (2000), Wang et al. (2003), Giebel et
al. (1997), Murphy et al. (2002), Boghaert et al. (1997), Orlicky
et al. (1992)
Bcl-2: B cell/lymphoma-2 family, BAX: Bcl-2-associated X protein, IFN: interferons, c-

Myc: cellular-Myelocytomatosis, PGF2: prostaglandin, F2-α receptor, par-4: prostate apoptosis
response 4, NAIP: neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein, AHR: aryl hydrocarbon receptor, NT:
neurotrophins, Nobox: newborn ovary homeobox-encoding gene, IGF-I: insulin-like growth factor
and its receptors, ET: endothelins, SCF : stem cell factor, XIAP: X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis
protein, IAP: nhibitors of apoptosis family, BMP: bone morphogenetic protein, GDF-9: growth
differentiation factor-9, TGF-b: transforming growth factor-b, Apaf-1: protease-apoptosis activating
factor-1, TRAF: TNFR-associated factors, NFk-B : nuclear factor kappa B, TNF: tumour necrosis
factors
Fig 1. Ovarian Follicle transition

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
NUTRITIVE ENRICHMENT AND BENEFITS OF DESIGNER EGGS: A
WAY TO IMPROVE HUMAN HEALTH
S. Shanmathi1 and P. Gunasekaran2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Science, Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture, Nachimuthupuram, Erode-
638315, E-mail: shanmathi.456@gmail.com and 2Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, Sivaganga-630553,
Corresponding Author: S. Shanmathi
I n recent years, the rise of functional foods plays a vital role in health conscious people’s
habits, due to growing consumer concern about health and the perception that diet
directly affects healthiness. For these reasons, Eggs are considered as cholesterol rich
food. A large egg contains about 210 mg of cholesterol. Eggs are healthier and quality food with the
drawback of high cholesterol contents, which is undoubtedly one of the major contributing factors for
the rapid decline in per capita consumption of eggs over the past 50 years. The food industry has
responded to the demand for foods of superior health benefits by modifying the nutritional profile of
popular foods like eggs and meat. One advances in food technology is designer food (meat/eggs),
which can be defined as a nutritionally modified functional or designed according to the consumers
choice or present market demand from the standard egg in which retains its functional, nutritional and
sensory qualities but has a significantly altered lipid profile. The designer egg consumption of
functional foods are likely to decrease the risk of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD). It is free from all
negative factors and prepared by changing the diet or manipulating the immune system of laying
chickens. Thus designer egg are essentially an ideal food and vitamin supplemented product which
offers the benefits like reduced cholesterol content, high unsaturated fatty- acid. Designer Eggs may
offer an alternative choice to nutrition and having positive impact on human health were taken as the
egg consumers
Enriched or Modified Eggs: May be classified as nutritionally enhanced eggs, value added eggs and
processed eggs. The most commonly available modified eggs are vegetarian eggs and eggs with
modified fat content. Vegetarian eggs are produced from hens fed on grain diet, free of animal fat and
byproduct. However, modified fat content of eggs are marketed as a reduced amount of cholesterol,
less saturated fat, elevated amount of w3 fatty acid, higher vitamin B content and high amount of
iodine.
Herbal Designer Eggs: Herbal enriched eggs can be produced by the incorporation of herbal active
principles like, allicin (garlic), betaine, eugenol, lumiflavin, lutein, sulforaphane, taurine and many
more active principles of the herbs for using different levels from 0 to 10% in their laying birds diet
will leads to decrease the serum level as well as yolk cholesterol. Feeding such herbal designer eggs
to humans has resulted in significant reduction in their triglycerides levels, increased HDL
cholesterol, improved immunity and hematocrit.
Omega 3 Fatty Acid Enrichment Eggs: The fatty acid composition of yolk fat can readily be
modified by changing the chicken’s diet. In recent years several researchers have investigated the
ability of the hen to enrich the egg with omega-3 fatty acids. The incorporation of omega-3 PUFAs
into egg yolk fat was easily accomplished by feeding laying hens diets. The composition of fatty acid
can be altered by oil seeds used in hen diet. Such as plants-flaxseed, Linseed, soya bean, walnut,
marine algae, fish oil, safflower and vegetable oils can be used to increase w3 fatty acid content in the
eggs. Use of w3 fatty acid enrichment eggs can significantly reduce the risk of heart attacks and
strokes
Low Cholesterol Designer Eggs: In present scenario demand of low cholesterol egg is very high
which can be achieved either by reducing the amount of cholesterol per egg, reducing the size of the
egg or by altering the lipid profile of yolk. They can producing by using different supplementation of
substance like chromium, copper, probiotics, pravastatin and lovastatin these are feed
supplementation in hen diet will leads to increase the production can decrease the yolk cholesterol.
Antioxidant Enhanced Designer Eggs: Higher contents of vitamin E (tocopherols) can be obtained
by supplementation of poultry feed in the form of natural sources found in fish oil, butter, milk,
vegetable and nut oils. Enriching egg yolk with vitamin E very popular in egg industry because of this
has led to keeping shelf life and egg quality over a period of 4 weeks. The content of vitamin E in hen
diet had not increasing laying intensity but increase the egg production. Micronutrient (Selenium) will
enhance antioxidant status and improve the development of embryos and essential for preventing
cardiac muscle degeneration.
Pigment Enriched Eggs: Natural pigments like Carotene, xanthophyll, cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin
pigments are from different sources such as marigold, chilly or corn. It’s had looking attractive to the
consumers due to its beautiful nature of more intense yellow or orange color. Synthetic pigment is
enhancing egg yolk colour. Therefore, using marigold as a fed with feed of rural poultry to improve
the pigmenting ability of desi egg yolk, enrich the nutritive value of desi eggs and increase its
hatchability. It acts as antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic agent. The major limitation is higher price of
enriched desi eggs for middle class consumers.
Pharmaceutical Designer Eggs: Designer eggs are those in which content has been modified from
standard eggs. Researchers are producing genetically modified chickens through the genetic
manipulation which are capable to produce certain pharmaceutical compounds and these compounds
can be harvested through eggs, e.g. insulin. Other techniques are also adopted for the development of
antibody enriched eggs.
Immunomodulating Eggs: The eggs naturally contains certain specific components like lysozyme (G
1-globulin), G2 and G3 globulin, ovomacroglobulin etc. Herbs like rosemary, turmeric, garlic,
spirulina, basil leaves it has boost the immunoglobulin level in the egg. So by the using that kind of
herb in the feed improve the efficiency of the immunomodulating properties of the eggs.
Iodine Enriched Designer Eggs: During recent decades, the daily requirement of iodine level about
150 to 200 µg, which amount in the diets does not sufficient in grown population. So, consumers can
be choose the iodine enriched hen eggs. The last several years, many researchers work on adding
potassium iodide in feed of laying hens. Iodine enriched eggs can also reduce plasma cholesterol in
human and laboratory animal. Iodine enriched eggs are better than regular eggs because they can
supply 11 to 15% of daily requirements for adult people with enhance on the level of about 5% if they
eat 3 eggs per week.
Commercial Production of Modified Designer Eggs: Drugs have been successful in lowering
cholesterol by as much as 50%. Drugs lower cholesterol in the egg by either inhibiting the synthesis
of cholesterol in hen or by inhibiting the transfer of cholesterol from the blood to the developing yolk
on the ovary, but today commercial use of these drugs are not yet approved by FDA. The internal
component of eggs can simply be transformed by simple techniques like feeding. Fortification of
various nutrients in an egg is solely dependent on nutritional manipulation of laying hen ration.
Conclusion: In present scenario, consumers are very much conscious about health. Functional foods
are also supported. Designer eggs provide options for consumers who want eggs with different
nutritional benefits or properties than generic eggs. By designing the egg to incorporate several health
promoting components, it could be the finest nutrients from animal to man. By feeding hens special
diets, eggs can offer functions above and beyond the excellent nutrition that they already provide. The
indications and information in this regards must be stated on packaging. The future of such eggs may
be with the modified or enriched eggs as discussed above in addition to vitamin C enriched eggs,
Fibre enriched eggs, choline enriched eggs etc.
References
Abhishek Sahoo and Biswadeep Jena. (2014). Designer egg and meat through nutrient manipulation. J. Poult.
Sci., 2: 38-47
Fraeye, et al. (2012). Dietary enrichment of eggs with w3 fatty acids: a review. Food. Res. Int., 48: 961-969
Micheal Raj P., Narahari, D and Sri Balaj. (2013). Production of eggs with enriched nutritional value (designer
eggs) using feeds containing herbal supplements. Inter.Vet. Sci., 2(3) 99-102
Singh. V.P., Vikas Pathak and Verma Akhilesh. K. (2012). Modified or enriched eggs: A smart approach in egg
industry: A review. Ameri. J. Food. Tech.,7: 266-277
Sujatha, T., Jai Sunder, Anandamoy Kundu and Madhu Sudan Kundu. (2015). Production of pigment enriched
desi chicken eggs by feeding of tagetes erecta petals. Adv. ani and Vet. sci.,3: 192-198

MASTITIS A HAVOC TO THE DAIRY INDUSTRY: AN
INTRODUCTION
Diwakar Verma1 and Alok Singh2
1
Subject Matter Specialist (Veterinary Sciences) KVK, Bankhedi, Bhau Sahab Muskute Lok Nyas, Gobind Nagar, Bankhedi,
Madhya Pradesh. and 2Assistant Professor Department of Veterinary Medicine, Apollo College of Veterinary Medicine,
Jaipur.,Email:aloksinghvet.87@gmail.com, Corresponding Author: Alok Singh
M astitis is the most common infectious disease encountered in intensively –

farmed dairy cattle. It is an inflammation of the parenchyma of the mammary
gland, regardless of the cause. Mastitis is therefore characterized as physical and
chemical alterations in the milk including discoloration, the presence of clot and large number
of leukocyte (Radostits et al. 2007). In other words we can also say that bovine mastitis also occurs
due to ascending infection of the gland by the way of the teat canal (Jubb et al. 1993). There is
swelling, heat, pain and oedema in the mammary gland in many clinical cases. However, a large
proportion of mastitic gland is not readily detectable by manual palpation or by visual
examination of the milk strip cup; these quarters represent subclinical infection (Radostits et al.
2007). Meanwhile the retrospective inspection revealed 29.34% to 78.54% of bovine mastitis
among cows and 27.36% to 70.32% (Sharma et al. 2007) in buffaloes. Furthermore the
prevalence of subclinical mastitis is 10-50% more than clinical mastitis. In spite of various
advancements in the field of the manage mental as well as therapeutic practises still mastitis capped as
an important pathological manifestation among dairy bovines in Indian scenario.
Etiology of Mastitis: Various etiological agents of mastitis are as under following:
Contagious Pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Mycoplasma bovis and
Corynebacterium bovis
Environmental Pathogens: Environmental Streptococcus spp. including Streptococcus uberis and
Streptococcus dysgalactiae, which are the most prevalent; less prevalent is Streptococcus equinus
(formerly referred to as Streptococcus bovis). Environmental coliforms include the Gram-negative
bacteria Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp. and Enterobacter spp. and Arcanobacterium (formerly
Actinomyces) pyogenes
Uncommon Pathogens: Many including Nocardia spp., Pasteurella spp., Mycobacterium bovis,
Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas spp., Serratia marcescens, Citrobacter spp., anaerobic bacterial
species, fungi and yeasts
Teat Skin Ppportunistic Pathogens: Coagulase-negative staphylococci
Epidemiology: Incidence of clinical mastitis ranges from 1 0-1 2 % per 100 cows at risk per year.
Prevalence of intra mammary infection is about 50% of cows and 1 0-25 % of quarters. Case fatality
rate depends on cause of mastitis. Contagious pathogens are transmitted at time of milking; teat skin
opportunistic pathogens take any opportunity to induce mastitis; environmental pathogens are from
the environment and induce mastitis between milkings. Environmental pathogens are the most
common cause of clinical mastitis in herds that have controlled contagious pathogens. Prevalence of
infection with contagious pathogens ranges from 7-40 % of cows and 6-35 % of quarters. Prevalence
of infection with environmental pathogens: coliforms 1-2 % of quarters (Radostits et al. 2007).
Various Factors Affecting Mastitis
1. Type of Bacteria: Staphylococcus species, Streptococcus species are the some species of the
bacteria which are more virulent than others in causing mastitis.
2. Physiological Status of Cow: Although infection can occurs at any time, most of the new
infections take place during the first three weeks of the dry period and during the first month after
parturition.
3. Animal Risk Factors: As the age increases, incidence of mastitis also increases in animals.
Nevertheless, it is possible for the udder of the first-calf heifer to be infected at parturition. Most new
infections occur in dry period and in early lactation. Highest rate of clinical disease occurs in herds
with low somatic cell counts (SCCs). Morphology and physical condition of teat are risk factors.
Selenium and vita min E status influence incidence of clinical mastitis. High-producing cows are
more susceptible.
4. Inherited Features of the Cow: Length of the leg in proportion to the udder size and relative
strength of the udder attachment are the examples of inherited factors that influence the occurrence of
mastitis. Large, pendulous udders tend to exceed the capacity of the supporting ligaments, resulting in
breakdown of the udder that will ultimately subject the udder to more physical injuries and thus
increases the incidence of mastitis.
5. Milking Machine: Improper use of milking machine (irregular fluctuation of vacuum level, over-
milking, and incomplete milking) causes tissue irritations and increases incidence of mastitis.
6. Environmental Risk Factors: Poor quality management of housing and bedding increases
infection rate and incidence of clinical mastitis due to environmental pathogens.
7. Economics: Subclinical mastitis is a major cause of economic loss due to loss of milk production,
costs of treatment and early culling.
Pathogenesis: Infection of the mammary gland always occurs via the teat canal and on first
impression the development of inflammation after infection seems a natural sequence. Meanwhile, the
precipitation of mastitis is not so simple, rather than a complex process which have mainly three
stages viz invasion, infection, inflammation (Radostits et al. 2007). Among the three phases,
avoidance of the progress of invasion phase may greatly reduce the occurrence of mastitis by good
and hygienic managemental procedures.
1. Invasion: It is the stage at which pathogens move from the teat end into the milk inside the teat
canal.
2. Infection: It is the stage in which the pathogens multiply rapidly and invade the mammary tissue.
After invasion the pathogen population may be established in the teat canal and, with this as a base, a
series of multiplications and extensions into mammary tissue may occur, with infection of mammary
tissue occurring frequently or occasionally depending on its susceptibility. Multiplication of certain
organisms may result in the release of endotoxins, as in coliform mastitis, which causes profound
systemic effects with minimal inflammatory effects.
3. Inflammation: It follows infection and represents the stage at which clinical mastitis occurs with
varying degrees of clinical abnormalities of the udder and variable systemic effects from mild to per
acute; gross and subclinical abnormalities of the milk appear. Abnormalities of the udder include
marked swelling, increased warmth and, in acute and per acute stages, gangrene in some cases and
abscess formation and atrophy of glands in chronic stages. The systemic effects are due to the
mediators of inflammation.
Clinical Signs
 Abnormalities in milk (discoloration, clots, flakes, pus)
 Physical abnormalities of udder: acute - diffuse swelling, warmth, pain, gangrene in severe cases;
chronic local fibrosis and atrophy
 Systemic response: may be normal or mild, moderate, acute, peracute with varying degrees of
anorexia, toxemia ,dehydration, fever, tachycardia, ruminal stasis, and recumbency and death
Types of Mastitis: Mastitis is classified mainly into two groups
A. Contagious Mastitis: In this type of mastitis bacteria lives upon the skin of the teat and inside the
udder and it can be transmitted from one cow to another during milking.
B. Environmental Mastitis: Environmental mastitis-caused by bacteria such as coliforms (e.g. E.
coli), of which the main source is a contaminated environment, i.e. manure, bedding material, feeding
manger, utensils, milkers hand, milking equipments etc. Contagious mastitis can be divided into three
groups: 1. Clinical Mastitis, 2. Sub-Clinical Mastitis and 3. Chronic Mastitis
1. Clinical Mastitis: Characterized by the presence of gross inflammation signs (swelling, heat,
redness, pains). Clinical mastitis is further divided into three types
a. Peracute: severe inflammation, with swelling, heat and pain of the quarter, with a marked systemic
reaction, which may be fatal.
b. Acute: severe inflammation without a marked systemic reaction.
c. Subacute: mild inflammation with persistent abnormality of the milk.
1. Sub-Clinical Mastitis: It does not show visible changes in milk or udder, it is detected by
reduction in milk yield, altered milk composition and presence of inflammatory components and
bacteria in milk.
Mastitis a Havoc to the Dairy Industry: an Introduction 367
2. Chronic Mastitis: It is an inflammatory process that exists for months and may continue from one
lactation to another. In such type of mastitis the most part exists as subclinical but may exhibit
periodical flare-ups, sub acute or acute form, which last for a short period of time.
Diagnosis of Mastitis: Mastitis cases can be diagnosed by the following methods:
1. Physical examination of udder
2. Strip cup test
3. California mastitis test (CMT)
4. White side test (WST)
5. pH determination Test
6. Electrical conductivity test (EC)
7. Somatic cell count (SCC)
8. NAGase test
9. Methylene blue reduction test (MBRT)
10. Sodium lauryl sulphate test (SLST)
11. Surf field mastitis test (SFMT)
1. Physical Examination of Udder: Physical examination of udder is the initial step in the detection
of bovine mastitis. A physical examination may be defined as clinical examination of the mammary
glands by visual observation and digital palpation. The digital palpation is determined by employing
the fingers and thumbs of both hands. Examine the teat orifice by turning the ends of the teats upward
for a clear view. By gentle pressure, note the ease of milking. To examine the teat duct and teat
cistern, grasp the end of the teat with the fingers of the left hand, and pull down gently to stretch the
teat. Then with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand examine the canal and cistern from the
distal end (teat orifice) to the base of the udder. Abnormal lobulation or contour can see by this
method physical examination of each gland must be made on the empty udder. The most opportune
time, therefore is immediately after milking when the hormone stimulation has ceased and the udder
is completely relaxed. By visual observation or inspection clinician can observe so many undesirable
features like udder symmetry (e.g. oat like, rounded, step shaped and pendulous udder) and, teat shape
and placement which can help in the confirmatory diagnosis. The age of the animals should be kept in
mind by clinician or examiner. The size of the udder often increases gradually with each lactation
becoming heavier and more pendulant with age and production. With the use of the physical
examination, it is possible to select the udders most suitable for specific therapy and to identify the
cows in which the disease has advanced to such extent that slaughter is indicated.
2. Strip Cup Test: This test is useful in field conditions for physical examination of milk. This test
can be carried out by laymen at farm itself. In this test, enamel plate divided in four strip cups is used .
The bottom of the plate is black colour so that it gives a good contrast to easily observe the milk
flakes. The milk flakes can be seen by tilting the cups at an angle. This test is very useful in primary
screening of animals for mastitis.
3. California Mastitis Test (CMT): California mastitis test is simple, inexpensive and rapid
screening cow side test. It estimates the number of somatic cells present in milk. CMT provides no
indication of bacteria type but the score can be used to determine infection status of individual
quarters. The original Schalm reagent (Tri-ethanolamine sulphate and bromocresol purple) is not
available in India. But recently B.V. Biologicals, India launched a CMT reagent along with plastic
paddle by the name of CMT kit. The accuracy of this method is found to be 88.66% (Sharma, 2003).
Fresh, unrefrigerated milk can be tested using the CMT for upto 12 hours; reliable readings can be
obtained from refrigerated milk for up to 36 hours. If stored milk is used, the milk sample must be
thoroughly mixed prior to testing because somatic cells tend to segregate with the milk fat. A plastic
paddle with four chambers or shallow cups is used to perform the test. About 3 ml of milk directly
striped into the labelled cups, LF (left fore cup), LH(Left hind cup), RF(Right fore cup) and RH(Right
hind cup), from the respective four quarters. To ensure equal quantity of milk in each cup, the paddle
should be tilted slightly at an angle of 45 to allow overflow of excess of the milk samples, if any in
any cup. Then approximately equal quantity of the test reagent (CMT reagent) adds to each cup. The
reagent reacts with DNA of the nuclei of the somatic cells in the milk to form a gel. The reaction is
then visually scored as N, T, 1, 2, or 3 depending upon the amount of gel formation. Formation of
more gel indicates higher somatic cell count. The reaction is graded by intensity of gel formation as
detailed below: CMT score description interpretation N (Negative) No change healthy quarter, T
(Trace) slime formed which disappeared with continuous movement of paddle, Sub clinical mastitis1
(Weak) distinct slime, but no gel formation. Sub clinical mastitis 2 (Distinct positive) viscous with gel
formation, which adhered to the margin. Serious mastitis infection 3 (Strong positive). Correlation
between CMT scores and SCC (Somatic cell count) is as under following:
CMT Score Somatic Cell Count Gelling
Negative 0 to 200,000 None
Trace 200,000 to 400,000 Very Mild
1 400,000 to 1,200,000 Mild
2 1,200,000 to 5,000000 Moderate
3 Over 5,000,000 Heavy, almost solidifies
CMT Score Description Interpretation
N( Negative) No change Healthy quarter
T(Trace) Slime formed which disappeared with Sub clinical mastitis
continuous movement of paddle
1(Weak) Distinct slime, but no gel formation. Sub clinical mastitis
2(Distinct Positive) Viscous with gel formation, which Serious mastitis infection
adhered to the margin
3(Strong Positive) The gel formation with convex Serious mastitis infection
projection, the gel did not dislodge
after swirling movement of the paddle
4. White Side Test: The basic principle behind this test is the increased leukocyte content in the milk.
Mix 2 drops of 4% NaOH to 5 drops of milk, to be tested on a clean glass slide and mixed vigorously
with a glass rod for 20 seconds. In mastitis, test shows formation of white flakes, while in normal
milk; test result shows formation of milky opaque fluid.
5. pH Determination Test: The normal pH of milk is 6.4 to 6.8 being isotonic with blood plasma. In
mastitis occurring during late lactation and dry period, the concentration of lactose and casein in the
milk is reduced whereas sodium chloride and sodium bicarbonate pass into the alveoli from plasma to
maintain isotonicity. Therefore during such situations pH of milk increases more than 7 means
becomes alkaline.
6. Electrical Conductivity Test: Conductivity of the milk may be defined as the property of
substances in solution which can ionize and therefore can conduct an electrical current. When the
concentration of sodium chloride rises in milk, the conductivity rises proportionately. Therefore,
measurement of electrical conductivity is used as a simple physical method to diagnose mastitis.
Device uses to measurement of electrical conductivity is MASTITRON LF 3000 and LF 4000. The
EC of milk is expressed in the milliSie-mens (mS).
7. Somatic Cell Counts of Milk (SCC): Somatic cells are mainly milk-secreting epithelial cells that
have been shed from the lining of the gland and white blood cells (leukocytes) that have entered the
mammary gland in response to injury or infection (Dairyman’s digest, 2009). The milk somatic cells
include 75% leucocytes, i.e. neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, erythrocytes, and 25% epithelial
cells. The most important factor affecting the somatic cell count of the milk from an individual quarter
depends upon the infection status of the quarter. The average number of composite (cow) milk SCC
increases with an increase in the number of quarter’s infected (Meek et al., 1980). Radostits et al
(1994) reported that somatic cell count less than 100,000/ml was indicative of normal udder and
more than 250000/ml were considered to be indicative of inflammation, whereas and counts more
than 500,000 cells/ml was indicative of infection. Presently, Bulk milk somatic cell count is the
universally adopted screening test for mastitis. Benefit of this test is that it creates awareness in the
mind of farmer/dairy owners/ herd health medicine observers about existence of mastitis problem in
herd. Immediately after parturition SCC is high, but decreases fast to the normal level within 4-5 days.
SCC increases with increases the age of animal.
8. N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NA Gase) Test: This test is based on the measurement of a cell
associated enzyme N- acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase in the milk. A highest level of this enzyme
indicates high cell count. Mattila et al. (1985) reported that NAGase test is a simple, effective and
most reliable for diagnosis of sub clinical mastitis. It is an intracellular, lysosomal enzyme which
releases in milk from neutrophils during cell lyses. The NAGase test is reputed to be the most
accurate of the indirect tests and as good as see in predicting the infected status of a quarter. The
NAGase test uses a less sophisticated reading instrument than the average automatic cell counter. If
all tests are available it is best to consider the NAGase test and see as complementary tests and carry
out both of them. Milk NAGase levels are high at the beginning and the end of lactation, as with cell
counts.
9. Methylene Blue Reduction Test (MBRT): Methylene blue reduction test measures chemical
activities, especially the respiratory activities of the bacteria in the milk. The microorganisms in the
milk first remove oxygen by respiration and when all oxygen and some other reducible components of
the milk has been removed or reduced, there is change in colour of methylene blue to methylene white
(Davis,1999).
10. Sodium Lauryl Sulphate Test (SLS Test): This test is similar to CMT in principle as well as in
procedure. The difference is that in this test 3% sodium lauryl sulphate is used instead of CMT
reagent. This solution (test reagent) is prepared by adding 3 gm of sodium lauryl sulphate powder to
100 ml of distilled water. The suspension was heated to 500 C so as to make a clear solution. On
performing the test with the suspected milk sample there is formation of gel as in case of CMT
(Sharma et al., 2010).
11. Surf Field Mastitis Test (SFMT): This test is easy, cheap and enough sensitive to detect all cases
of sub clinical mastitis. The advantage of this test is that the readily available house hold surf
(detergent) is used as reagent. The principle of this test is based on the reaction of somatic cell’s DNA
with detergent (surf) and leads to the formation of gel of varying degree depending upon the number
of somatic cells in the milk. Take 2 ml of milk in each quarter of paddle and equal quantity of 3%
reagent also added in the paddle. The mixture is swirled for about 1 minute, after mixining reaction of
somatic cell DNA with detergent occurs and then examined visually for the presence of small
floccules and gel. If floccules or gel is formed it indicates the positive for intra mammary infection. In
absence of any floccules or gel, sample is assumed to negative for intra mammary infection
(Muhammad et al.1995).
Beside the above described tests we can also use various selective media to differentiate
Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens in cases of clinical mastitis. Meanwhile, differential
diagnosis of clinical mastitis can be done with other mammary abnormalities: Peri parturient udder
edema, rupture of suspensory ligament, and hematomas. Blood in the milk of recently calved cows.
Treatment of Mastitis: Effective and economical mastitis control programs rely on prevention rather
than treatment. Logically, research emphasis and clinical application of antibacterial for therapy of
mastitis has focused on the elimination of infectious agents. The potential goal of therapy is to attain
clinical cures, with or without bacteriological cures. Cure means disappearance of clinical signs,
elimination of infectious cause plus return to normal function and productivity. This may be desirable
to promote the marketing of an affected cow‘s milk or to ameliorate the effects of a severe or life
threatening intramammary infection. Most clinical mastitis treatment protocols are based on treating
the mastitic quarter to clear the infection and return the milk and quarter to normal. There are very
few dairy procedures culturing clinical cases; therefore, most treatments are based on clinical signs.
Performing cultures prior to treatment and basing the treatment protocol on the diagnostic results is
not generally done because it is difficult to receive the results from the diagnostic laboratory quickly
enough to allow their use prior to treatment. The therapeutic and preventive effectiveness of
antimicrobial drugs for bovine mastitis is dependent upon the etiological agent, proper use of
the drug under consideration, dairy husbandry, sanitation procedure and the phase of the
disease.
Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy: This should be considered in all cases of mastitis in which there
is an abnormal gland or abnormal cow (fever, decreased appetite, or in appetence). The systemic
reaction can usually be brought under control by standard doses of antimicrobial agents but a
bacteriological cure of the affected glands is seldom achieved because of the relatively poor diffusion
of the antimicrobial from the blood into the milk. However, the rate of diffusion is greater in affected
than in normal quarters. Parenteral treatment is also recommended when the gland is markedly
swollen and intramammary infusions are unlikely to diffuse to all parts of the glandular tissue. To
achieve adequate therapeutic levels of an antimicrobial in the mammary gland by parenteral treatment
it is necessary, for the above reasons, to use higher than normal dose rates daily for 3-5 days. Milk
from treated cows must be withheld from the bulk tank for the stated period of time of that
antimicrobial following the date of last treatment (Radostits et al. 2007).
Intramammary Administration: Intramammary route is accepted as the route of choice in the
treatment of subclinical, chronic or mild clinical mastitis and as preventive during dry cow therapy.
Intramammary administration permits delivery of the antibiotic directly to the mammary gland.
However, intramammary preparations are used, often in conjunction with parenteral preparations
(depending on severity of infection), in peracute and acute mastitis. Intramammary antibiotics are
distributed unevenly in an inflamed gland due to inflammation, swelling, and fibrosis that can block
milk ducts, thereby preventing antibiotic diffusion throughout the gland (Owens and Nickerson, 1989;
Owens and Nickerson, 1990). In addition, the intracellular location of some bacteria such as
Staphylococcus aureus means that estimates of in vivo milk phase concentrations may not accurately
reflect intracellular concentrations (Owens and Nickerson, 1989). The degree of distribution of
commonly used antibiotics after in tramammary administration is given in table -
Good Moderate Poor
Erythromycin Penicillin G Bacitracin
Trimethoprime Cloxacillin Dihydro-Streptomycin Neomycin
Spiramycin Cephapirin Gentamicin
Quinolones Cephacetril Polymyxins
Amoxycillin Tetracyclines
Ampicillin Sulphonamides
Suphonamides
Tylosin
Lincomycin
Amoxycillin-clavulanic acid
Supportive Therapy: Use of supportive therapy is also recommended to achieve the goal of
therapeutic management of clinical cases of mastitis and is described as under following:
Use of Anti-inflammatory Agents: NSAIDs have been evaluated for the treatment of field and
experimental cases of acute and peracute mastitis. NSAIDs have beneficial effects on decreasing the
severity of clinical signs based on changes in rectal temperature, heart rate, rumen motility and pain
associated with the mastitis, and are routinely administered as part of the initial treatment of cattle
with severe clinical mastitis and marked systemic signs. On the basis of one comparative study,
NSAIDs appear to ameliorate systemic abnormalities to a greater degree than corticosteroids. The
strongest evidence available to support the administration of NSAIDs is available for ketoprofen and
phenylbutazone. Ketoprofen at 2 g intramuscularly once daily combined with sulfadiazine and
trimethoprim intramuscularly given daily to cows with acute clinical mastitis, and complete milking
of affected quarters several times daily, significantly improved survival and milk production
compared to cows not receiving the NSAID.A reanalysis of the published results indicated that
phenylbutazone at 4 g intramuscularly once daily combined with sulfadiazine and trimethoprim
intramuscularly given daily to cows with acute clinical mastitis significantly improved the percentage
of cows with milk production returning to more than 75 % of previous levels compared to cows not
receiving the NSAID. However, intramuscular administration of phenylbutazone is not currently
recommended because of the potential for myonecrosis. Dipyrone at 20 g intramuscularly once daily
in the same study was not effective. There is no evidence that treatment of clinical cases with NSAIDs
alters the inflammatory response in the udder,lo1 although pretreatment of cattle with experimentally
induced mastitis does alter the local (glandular) inflammatory response to infection. Flunixin
meglumine concentrations are low in milk, which is consistent with its properties as a weak acid,
which has difficulty crossing the blood-milk barrier Flurlixin meglumine (2 mg/kg, intravenously,
twice 24 h apart) did not alter the survival rate of dairy cows with severe E. coli or S. uberis mastitis
compared to intravenous administration of 45 L of isotonic crystalloid fluids. The one-time
administration of1 g of flunixin meglumine intravenously or 4 g of phenylbutazone intravenously,
along with intramammary infusion of gentamicin (150 mg) at 12-hour intervals for four treatments,
had no significant beneficial effect in cows with acute toxic mastitis associated with E. coli and
Klebsiella Spp. However, the results of this study do not indicate a lack of effectiveness of flunixin
meglumine or phenylbutazone because it is difficult for one dose of any NSAID to have a detectable
effect on clinical signs in naturally occurring mastitis cases (Radostits et al. 2007).
Oxytocin: Milk is the rich medium for the growth of microorganisms, hence it should be removed
from the affected quarters at every 3-4 hours. Oxytocin used to facilitate complete milk evacuation
and to remove toxic material and debris. Intramuscular administration of oxytocin @ 40-50 IU per
animal per day is recommended.
Fluid Therapy: Large volumes of isotonic crystalloid fluids can be rapidly administered under
pressure at 0.5 L/min through a 12-gauge catheter in the jugular vein, using a 7.5 L garden weed killer
spray pump. The administration of hypertonic saline followed by immediate access to drinking water
is a practical method of providing fluid therapy to cows with severe mastitis, especially per acute
coliform mastitis. A dose of 4-5 mL/kg body weight (BW) of 7.5% saline is given intravenously over
4-5 minutes. This is usually followed by the animal consuming large quantities of water (Radostits et
al. 2007).
Others: Srinivasan (1998) found good result of intramuscular use of L-ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) @
25mg/kg b. wt. in the management of subclinical mastitis. Sharma et al. (2007) have been reported
that dietary supplementation of vitamin E (500 IU/animal/day) and Selenium (6 mg/animal/day)
effective for the treatment and control of subclinical mastitis in lactating dairy cows. Cytokines may
be useful as adjunctive therapy with existing antimicrobials to improve therapeutic efficacy,
particularly ill lactating cows. The combination of a commercial formulation of cephapirin with
recombinant interleukin-2 consistently improved the cure rate of treating S. aureus mastitis by 20-
30% compared to use of the antimicrobial alone (Daley, et al.1992)
Prevention & Control: Prevention is the key step in mastitis control protocol. A control program
should emphasize factors that are responsible for reducing the rate of new infections. A key factor in
preventing mastitis is to reduce the number of bacteria present around the teat end, this is particularly
important in the period from about two weeks before calving to two weeks after. The following points
should be practiced to control the mastitis-
1. Proper Milking Hygiene: Bacteria are transmitted to the udder from the contaminated hands of the
milker. Thus the milker's hands should be washed thoroughly with disinfected soaps before milking
and clinically infected cows should be milked last. Teats should be proper washed and dried before
milking and insuring complete milk removal from the udder.
2. Milking Machine: Important steps are proper milking techniques (attachment, alignment and
removal of machines), proper milking machine design, routine and timely changing of inflations, and
continuous maintenance of the milking equipment (cleaning pulsators, etc.).Vacuum level in the
milking unit should be between 275- 300 mm of mercury with little fluctuation. The vacuum regulator
should be kept clean and checked regularly.
3. Dipping the Teats after Milking: Teat dipping does not reduce existing infection. However, when
suitable disinfectant is used to immerse or spray the teats the rates of new infection can be reduced by
up to 50%. Post-milking teat dipping is very important as there is only one way to effectively stop the
spread of mastitis in the dairy herd, and that is by applying teat dip to every quarter of every cow after
every milking. Post-milking teat dipping is effective in eliminating environmental organisms E. coli
and S. uberis on the teats after milking. There are many effective teat dips, including iodine at 0.1%,
0.5% and 1.0%, hypochlorite and mixture of butadiene: Glycerine (1:1) is also effective in field
conditions.
4. Nutrition: Deficiencies of selenium (Se) and vitamin E in the diet have been associated with an
increased rate of new mammary infections. Those micro minerals which are important such as
selenium, copper, zinc, vitamin A and vitamin E when these are not supplied in adequate quantities,
the rate of new infections may increases. Suggested levels of supplementation of these micro minerals
are (amount/cow/day): Selenium 6 mg (Lactating cows) ,3 mg (Dry cows), Copper 200-250 mg, Zinc
900-1200 mg, Vitamin A 100,000 – 150,000 IU ,Vitamin E 500 IU (Lactating cows), 1000 IU (Dry
cows).
5. Dry Cow Therapy: Dry cow therapy should be routinely administered and remains one of the
cornerstones of an effective mastitis control program. Blanket dry cow therapy is treatment of all four
quarters at drying off, compared to selective dry cow therapy based on treatment of only those
quarters that are infected. Intramammary infusions approved for dry cow therapy contain high levels
of antimicrobial agents in a slow-release base that maintains therapeutic levels in the dry udder for
long periods of time. Selection of a suitable dry period treatment should take into account the fact that
Gram-negative infections are not common at that time because of the high concentration of lactoferrin
in the dry secretions. Cloxacillin, nafcillin, and cephalosporins are popular for the purpose; for
example, a recommended treatment is cephapirin or sodium cloxacillin in a slow-release base with an
expected cure rate of 80% against streptococci and 60% against S. aureus (Radostits et al. 2007).
6. Fly Control: Some flies spread the infection from infected cow to healthy one, particularly summer
mastitis and other pathogen including Staphylococcus aureus from one source to the teat ends of
heifers or cows of other ends. They can also cause sites for infections by biting the teat ends. Basic fly
control involves prevention of breeding sites through routine removal of manure and decaying feeds.
Insecticide ear tags and sprays may also helpful.
7. Vaccination: Vaccines have been developed against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus uberis,
E. coli is an important aspect in disease prevention but in mastitis vaccination is not much successful
due to its multifactorial complex etiology.
References
Dairyman’s Digest. (2009). What you should know about somatic cells. Winter issue.
Daley, M.I., et al., (1992). Dairy Sci., 75:3330.
Davis, J. G. (1999). Milk Testing (The laboratory control of milk). Agrobotanbical publishers, Bikaner, India,
pp 84.
Jubb, K.V.F., Kennedy, P.C., Palmer, N. (1993). Pathology of Domestic Animals, 4th ed., vol 3, USA
Elsevier Science, pp 455-466.
Mattila, T. S. Saari, Vartiala, H. and Sandholm, M. (1985). Milk antitrypsin as a marker of bovine mastitis
correlation with bacteriology. Journal of Dairy Science, 68(1):114-122.
Meek, A. H., Barnum, D. A. and Newbould, F. H. S. (1980). Use of total and differential somatic cell counts to
differentiate potentially infected from potentially non-infected quarters and cows and between herds of
various levels of infection. J. Food Prot. 43:10-14.
Muhammad, G., Athar, M., Shakoor, A., Khan, M.Z., Fazul-ur-Reham and Ahmad, M.T. (1995). Surf field
mastitis test: an nexpensive new tool for evaluation of wholesomeness of freshmilk, Pakistan Veterinary
Journal of Food Science, 5:91–9.
Owens, W.E. and Nickerson, S.C. (1989). Antibiotic levels in milk and mammary tissues during various
treatment regimens for bovine mastitis. Agri-Practice, 10:10–5.
Owens, W.E. and Nickerson, S.C. (1990). Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis with penicillin and
novobiocin: antibiotic concentrations and bacteriologic status in milk and mammary tissue. J. Dairy Sci.,
73:115–24.
Radostits, O.M., Blood, D.C. and Gay, C.C. (1994). Veterinary Medicine, 8th Ed., Bailliere Tineal, London.
Radostits, O.M., Gay, C.C., Hinchcliff, K.W. and Constable, P.D. (2007): Veterinary Medicine: A text book
of the disease of cattle, horses, sheep, pigs and goats. 10th ed., Elsevier London.
Sharma, A. (2009). Studies on prevalence, haematobiochemical and mineral alterations during mastitis in
crossbred cattle and its therapeutic management. M.V.Sc. Thesis, SKUAST-Jammu, India.
Sharma, N., Pandey, V. & Sudhan, N. A. (2010). Comparison of some indirect screening tests for detection of
subclinical mastitis in dairy cows. Bulg. J. Vet. Med., 13(2): 98−103.
Sharma, N. (2003). Epidemiological study on sub clinical mastitis in dairy animals: Role of vit E and Selenium
supplementation on its control in cattle. M.V.Sc. thesis, submitted to I.G.K.V.V., Raipur (C.G.) India.
Sharma, N., Maiti, S.K. and Sharma, K.K. (2007). Prevalence, etiology and antibiogram of microorganisms
associated with sub clinical mastitis in buffaloes in Durg, Chhattisgrh State (India). International J. Dairy
Sci., 2(2): 145- 151.
Srinivasan, V. (1998). Alternate therapeutic management of bovine SCM with particular reference to ascorbic
acid as an immuno modulator. M.V.Sc. Thesis, IVRI Deemed University, India.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION: RECENT TRENDS AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS
Pramod Prabhakar and Uma Kant Singh
Assistant Professor -cum- Jr. Scientist, Animal Husbandry, MBAC, Agwanpur, Saharsa, Email: ppmbac@gmail.com, and
RRS, Agwanpur, Saharsa, (BAU, Sabour, Bhagalpur), Corresponding Author: Pramod Prabhakar
L ivestock systems occupy about 30 per cent of the planet's ice-free terrestrial surface
area and are a significant global asset with a value of at least $1.4 trillion. The
livestock sector is increasingly organized in long market chains that employ at least
1.3 billion people globally and directly support the livelihoods of 600 million poor smallholder
farmers in the developing world. Keeping livestock is an important risk reduction strategy for
vulnerable communities, and livestock are important providers of nutrients and traction for growing
crops in smallholder systems. Livestock products contribute 17 per cent to kilocalorie consumption
and 33 per cent to protein consumption globally, but there are large differences between rich and poor
countries. Livestock systems have both positive and negative effects on the natural resource base,
public health, social equity and economic growth. Currently, livestock is one of the fastest growing
agricultural sub-sectors in developing countries. Its share of agricultural GDP is already 33 per cent
and is quickly increasing. This growth is driven by the rapidly increasing demand for livestock
products, this demand being driven by population growth, urbanization and increasing incomes in
developing countries.
The global livestock sector is characterized by a dichotomy between developing and
developed countries. Total meat production in the developing world tripled between 1980 and 2002,
from 45 to 134 million tons. Much of this growth was concentrated in countries that experienced rapid
economic growth, particularly in East Asia, and revolved around poultry and pigs. In developed
countries, on the other hand, production and consumption of livestock products are now growing only
slowly or stagnating, although at high levels. Even so, livestock production and merchandizing in
industrialized countries account for 53 per cent of agricultural GDP. This combination of growing
demand in the developing world and stagnant demand in industrialized countries represents a major
opportunity for livestock keepers in developing countries, where most demand is met by local
production, and this is likely to continue well into the foreseeable future. At the same time, the
expansion of agricultural production needs to take place in a way that allows the less well-off to
benefit from increased demand and that moderates its impact on the environment.
Trends in Livestock Production and Livestock Systems Evolution
(a). The Increasing Demand for Livestock Products: Human population in 2050 is estimated to be
9.15 billion, with a range of 7.96–10.46 billion. Most of the increase is projected to take place in
developing countries. East Asia will have shifted to negative population growth by the late 2040s. In
contrast, population in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) will still be growing at 1.2 per cent per year. Rapid
population growth could continue to be an important impediment to achieving improvements in food
security in some countries, even when world population as a whole ceases growing sometime during
the present century. Another important factor determining demand for food is urbanization. As of the
end of 2008, more people now live in urban settings than in rural areas. As income grows, so does
expenditure on livestock products. Economic growth is expected to continue into the future, typically
at rates ranging from between 1.0 and 3.1 per cent. Growth in industrialized countries is projected to
be slower than that in developing economies.
(b). The Production Response: Global livestock production has increased substantially since the
1960s. Beef production has more than doubled, while over the same time chicken meat production has
increased by a factor of nearly 10, made up of increases in both number of animals and productivity.
Carcass weights increased by about 30 per cent for both chicken and beef cattle from the early 1960s
to the mid-2000s, and by about 20 per cent for pigs. Carcass weight increases per head for camels and
sheep are much less, about 5 per cent only over this time period. Increases in milk production per
animal have amounted to about 30 per cent for cows' milk, about the same as for increases in egg
production per chicken over the same time period. These changes have been accompanied by
substantial shifts in the area of arable land, pastures and forest. Arable and pasture lands have
expanded considerably since the early 1960s, although the rates of change have started to slow. Some
cropland has been converted to other uses, including urban development around many major cities.
Historically, production response has been characterized by systems' as well as regional differences.
Confined livestock production systems in industrialized countries are the source of much of the
world's poultry and pig meat production, and such systems are being established in developing
countries, particularly in Asia, to meet increasing demand. Estimates that at least 75 per cent of total
production growth to 2030 will be in confined systems.
While crop production growth will come mostly from yield increases rather than from area
expansion, the increases in livestock production will come about more as a result of expansion in
livestock numbers in developing countries, particularly ruminants. In the intensive mixed systems,
food-feed crops are vital ruminant livestock feed resources. The prices of food-feed crops are likely to
increase at faster rates than the prices of livestock products. The production of alternative feeds for
ruminants in the more intensive mixed systems, however, may be constrained by both land and water
availability, particularly in the irrigated systems. Meeting the substantial increases in demand for food
will have profound implications for livestock production systems over the coming decades. In
developed countries, carcass weight growth will contribute an increasing share of livestock production
growth as expansion of numbers is expected to slow; numbers may contract in some regions.
Globally, however, between 2000 and 2050, the global cattle population may increase from 1.5 billion
to 2.6 billion, and the global goat and sheep population from 1.7 billion to 2.7 billion. Ruminant
grazing intensity in the rangelands is projected to increase, resulting in considerable intensification of
livestock production in the humid and sub humid grazing systems of the world.The prices of meats,
milk and cereals are likely to increase in the coming decades, dramatically reversing past trends.
Rapid growth in meat and milk demand may increase prices for maize and other coarse grains and
meals. Bioenergy demand is projected to compete with land and water resources, and this will
exacerbate competition for land from increasing demands for feed resources. Growing scarcities of
water and land will require substantially increased resource use efficiencies in livestock production to
avoid adverse impacts on food security and human wellbeing goals. Higher prices can benefit surplus
agricultural producers, but can reduce access to food by a larger number of poor consumers, including
farmers who do not produce a net surplus for the market.
Livestock Science and Technology
(a). Breeding and Genetics: Domestication and the use of conventional livestock breeding
techniques have been largely responsible for the increases in yield of livestock products that have
been observed over recent decades. At the same time, considerable changes in the composition of
livestock products have occurred. If past changes in demand for livestock products have been met by
a combination of conventional techniques, such as breed substitution, cross-breeding and within-breed
selection, future changes are likely to be met increasingly from new techniques.
The conventional techniques, selection among breeds or crosses is a one-off process, in which
the most appropriate breed or breed cross can be chosen, but further improvement can be made only
by selection within the population. Cross-breeding, widespread in commercial production, exploits the
complementarity of different breeds or strains and makes use of heterosis or hybrid vigour. Selection
within breeds of farm livestock produces genetic changes typically in the range 1–3% per year, in
relation to the mean of the single or multiple traits that are of interest Such rates of change have been
achieved in practice over the last few decades in poultry and pig breeding schemes in several
countries and in dairy cattle breeding programmes in countries. Ruminant breeding in most countries
is often highly dispersed, and sector-wide improvement is challenging.
In the future, many developed countries will see a continuing trend in which livestock
breeding focuses on other attributes in addition to production and productivity, such as product
quality, increasing animal welfare, disease resistance and reducing environmental impact. The tools of
molecular genetics are likely to have considerable impact in the future. For example, DNA-based tests
for genes or markers affecting traits that are difficult to measure currently, such as meat quality and
disease resistance, will be particularly useful. Another example is transgenic livestock for food
production; these are technically feasible, although the technologies associated with livestock are at
an earlier stage of development than the equivalent technologies in plants. In combination with new
dissemination methods such as cloning, such techniques could dramatically change livestock
production. Complete genome maps for poultry and cattle now exist, and these open up the way to
Livestock Production: Recent Trends and Future Prospects 375
possible advances in evolutionary biology, animal breeding and animal models for human diseases.
Genomic selection should be able to at least double the rate of genetic gain in the dairy industry, as it
enables selection decisions to be based on genomic breeding values, which can ultimately be
calculated from genetic marker information alone, rather than from pedigree and phenotypic
information. Genomic selection is not without its challenges, but it is likely to revolutionize animal
breeding.
As the tools and techniques of breeding are changing, so are the objectives of many breeding
programmes? Although there is little evidence of direct genetic limits to selection for yield, if
selection is too narrowly focused there may be undesirable associated responses for example, in dairy
cattle, where along with genetic gain in some production traits, there is now considerable evidence of
undesirable genetic changes in fertility, disease incidence and overall stress sensitivity, despite
improved nutrition and general management. Trade-offs are likely to become increasingly important,
between breeding for increased efficiency of resource use, knock-on impacts on fertility and other
traits and environmental impacts such as methane production. Whole-system and life-cycle analyses
(‘cradle-to-grave’ analyses that assess the full range of relevant costs and benefits) will become
increasingly important in disentangling these complexities. New tools of molecular genetics may have
far-reaching impacts on livestock and livestock production in the coming decades. But ultimately,
whether the tools used are novel or traditional, all depend on preserving access to animal genetic
resources. In developing countries, if livestock are to continue to contribute to improving livelihoods
and meeting market demands, the preservation of farm animal genetic resources will be critical in
helping livestock adapt to climate change and the changes that may occur in these systems, such as
shifts in disease prevalence and severity. In developed countries, the narrowing animal genetic
resource base in many of the intensive livestock production systems demonstrates a need to maintain
as broad a range of genetic resources as possible, to provide genetic insurance against future
challenges and shocks.
(b). Nutrition: The nutritional needs of farm animals with respect to energy, protein, minerals and
vitamins have long been known, and these have been refined in recent decades. Various requirement
determination systems exist in different countries for ruminants and non-ruminants, which were
originally designed to assess the nutritional and productive consequences of different feeds for the
animal once intake was known. However, a considerable body of work exists associated with the
dynamics of digestion, and feed intake and animal performance can now be predicted in many
livestock species with high accuracy.
A large agenda of work still remains concerning the robust prediction of animal growth, body
composition, feed requirements, and the outputs of waste products from the animal and production
costs. Such work could go a long way to help improve the efficiency of livestock production and
meeting the expectations of consumers and the demands of regulatory authorities. Advances in
genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics will continue to contribute to the field of
animal nutrition and predictions relating to growth and development. Better understanding of the
processes involved in animal nutrition could also contribute to improved management of some of the
trade-offs that operate at high levels of animal performance, such as those associated with lower
reproductive performance. There are also prospects for using novel feeds from various sources to
provide alternative sources of protein and energy, such as plantation crops and various industrial
(including ethanol) by-products. The potential of such feeds is largely unknown. Given the prevalence
of mixed crop–livestock systems in many parts of the world, closer integration of crops and livestock
in such systems can give rise to increased productivity and increased soil fertility. In such systems,
smallholders use crops for multiple purposes (food and feed, for example), and crop breeding
programmes are now well established that are targeting Stover quality as well as grain yield in crops
such as maize, sorghum, millet and groundnut.
(c). Disease: Animal diseases gene a wide range of biophysical and socio-economic impacts that may
be both direct and indirect, and may vary from localized to global. The economic impacts of diseases
are increasingly difficult to quantify, largely because of the complexity of the effects that they may
have, but they may be enormous. The last few decades have seen a general reduction in the burden of
livestock diseases, as a result of more effective drugs and vaccines and improvements in diagnostic
technologies and services. At the same time, new diseases have emerged, such as avian influenza
H5N1, which have caused considerable global concern about the potential for a change in host species
from poultry to man and an emerging global pandemic of human influenza.For the future, the
infectious disease threat will remain diverse and dynamic, and combating the emergence of
completely unexpected diseases will require detection systems that are flexible and adaptable in the
face of change. Travel, migration and trade will all continue to promote the spread of infections into
new populations. Trade in exotic species and in bush meat are likely to be increasing causes of
concern, along with large-scale industrial production systems, in which conditions may be highly
suitable for enabling disease transmission between animals and over large distances .
Over the long term, future disease trends could be heavily modified by climate change. For
some vector-borne diseases such as malaria, trypanosomiasis and bluetongue, climate change may
shift the geographical areas where the climate is suitable for the vector, but these shifts are not
generally anticipated to be major over the next 20 years: other factors may have much more impact on
shifting vector distributions in the short term. This has obvious implications for policy-makers and the
sheep and cattle industries, and raises the need for improved diagnosis and early detection of livestock
parasitic disease, along with greatly increased awareness and preparedness to deal with disease
patterns that are manifestly changing.
Future disease trends are likely to be heavily modified by disease surveillance and control
technologies. Potentially effective control measures already exist for many infectious diseases, and
whether these are implemented appropriately could have considerable impacts on future disease
trends. Recent years have seen considerable advances in the technology that can be brought to bear
against disease, including DNA fingerprinting for surveillance, polymerase chain reaction tests for
diagnostics and understanding resistance, genome sequencing and antiviral drugs.
What are the Prospects for the Future?: For the mixed crop–livestock smallholder systems in
developing countries, there may be places where these will intensify using the inputs and tools of
high-input systems in the developed world. In the places where intensification of this nature will not
be possible, there are many ways in which nutritional constraints could be addressed, based on what is
locally acceptable and available. One area of high priority for additional exploration, which could
potentially have broad implications for tropical ruminant nutrition, is microbial genomics of the
rumen, building on current research into the breaking down of lignocellulose for biofuels. Addressing
the nutritional constraints faced by pastoralists in extensive rangeland systems in the developing
world is extremely difficult. While there is potential to improve livestock productivity in semi-arid
and arid areas, probably the most feasible solutions require integrated application of what is already
known, rather than new technology. This could involve dissemination of information from early
warning systems and drought prediction, for example, so that herders can better manage the complex
interactions between herd size, feed availability and rainfall. The globalization of the food supply
chain will continue to raise consumer concerns for food safety and quality.
Future Livestock Production and Consumption Trends
(a). Competition for Resources
(i). Land: Recent assessments expect little increase in pasture land. Some intensification in
production is likely to occur in the humid–sub humid zones on the most suitable land, where this is
feasible, through the use of improved pastures and effective management. In the more arid–semiarid
areas, livestock are a key mechanism for managing risk, but population increases are fragmenting
rangelands in many places, making it increasingly difficult for pastoralists to gain access to the feed
and water resources that they have traditionally been able to access. In the future, grazing systems will
increasingly provide ecosystem goods and services that are traded, but how future livestock
production from these systems may be affected is not clear. The mixed crop–livestock systems will
continue to be critical to future food security, as two-thirds of the global population live in these
systems. Increasing competition for land in the future will also come from biofuels, driven by
continued concerns about climate change, energy security and alternative income sources for
agricultural households. Future scenarios of bioenergy use vary widely, and there are large evidence
gaps concerning the likely trade-offs between food, feed and fuel in production systems in both
developed and developing countries, particularly related to second-generation bioenergy technology.
(ii). Water: Globally, freshwater resources are relatively scarce, amounting to only 2.5 per cent of all
water resources. Groundwater also plays an important role in water supply: between 1.5 and 3 billion
people depend on groundwater for drinking, and in some regions water tables are declining
unremittingly. By 2025, 64 per cent of the world's population will live in water-stressed basins,
compared with 38 per cent today. Increasing livestock numbers in the future will clearly add to the
demand for water, particularly in the production of livestock feed: one cubic metre of water can
produce anything from about 0.5 kg of dry animal feed in North
(b) Climate Change: Climate change may have substantial effects on the global livestock sector.
Livestock production systems will be affected in various ways. Increasing climate variability will
undoubtedly increase livestock production risks as well as reduce the ability of farmers to manage
these risks. At the same time, livestock food chains are major contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions, accounting for perhaps 18 per cent of total anthropogenic emissions. Offering relatively
fewer cost-effective options than other sectors such as energy, transport and buildings, agriculture has
not yet been a major player in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change will have
severely deleterious impacts in many parts of the tropics and subtropics, even for small increases in
the average temperature. This is in contrast to many parts of the temperate zone; at mid- to high
latitudes, agricultural productivity is likely to increase slightly for local mean temperature increases of
1–3°C. Similarly, there is a burgeoning literature on mitigation in agriculture. There are several
options related to livestock, including grazing management and manure management. Several of these
mitigation options also have adaptive benefits, such as growing agroforestry species that can sequester
carbon, which can also provide high-quality dietary supplements for cattle. Such carbon payments
could represent a relatively large amount of potential income for resource-poor livestock keepers in
the tropics. In the more intensive systems, progress could be made in mitigating GHG emissions from
the livestock sector via increases in the efficiency of production using available technology, for the
most part, and this may involve some shifting towards monogastric species.
Ethical Concerns: Ethical concerns may play an increasing role in affecting the production and
consumption of livestock products. Recent high-profile calls to flock to the banner of global
vegetarianism, backed by exaggerated claims of livestock's role in anthropogenic global greenhouse
gas emissions, serve mostly to highlight the need for rigorous analysis and credible numbers that can
help inform public debate about these issues: there is much work to do in this area.But science has
already had a considerable impact on some ethical issues.
While there are differences between different countries in relation to animal welfare
legislation, animal welfare is an increasingly global concern. Part of this probably arises as a result of
the forces of globalization and international trade, but in many developing countries the roots of
animal welfare may be different and relate more to the value that livestock have to different societies:
the sole or major source of livelihood, the organizing principle of society and culture, investment and
insurance vehicles and sources of food, traction and manure. Improving animal welfare need not
penalize business returns and indeed may increase profits. For instance (and as noted above),
measurements of functional traits indicate that focusing on breeding dairy cows for milk yield alone is
unfavourably correlated with reductions in fertility and health traits . The most profitable bulls are
those that produce daughters that yield rather less milk but are healthier and longer lived: the costs of
producing less milk can be more than matched by the benefits of decreased health costs and a lower
herd replacement rate. Identifying situations where animal welfare can be increased along with
profits, and quantifying these trade-offs, requires integrated assessment frameworks that can handle
the various and often complex inter-relationships between animal welfare, management and
performance.
(c). Wildcard Drivers of Change: There is considerable uncertainty related to technological
development and to social and cultural change. This section briefly outlines an arbitrary selection of
wildcards, developments that could have enormous implications for the livestock sector globally,
either negatively (highly disruptive) or positively (highly beneficial).
Artificial Meat (More Correctly, in Vitro Meat): From a technological point of view, this may not
be a wildcard at all, as its development is generally held to be perfectly feasible, and indeed research
projects on it have been running for a decade already. There are likely to be some issues associated
with social acceptability, although presumably meat ‘grown in vats’ could be made healthier by
changing its composition and made much more hygienic than traditional meat, as it would be cultured
in sterile conditions. In vitro meat could potentially bypass many of the public health issues that are
currently associated with livestock-based meat. The development and uptake of in vitro meat on a
large scale would unquestionably be hugely disruptive to the traditional livestock sector. It would
raise critical issues regarding livestock keeping and livelihoods of the resource-poor in many
developing countries, for example. On the other hand, massive reductions in livestock numbers could
contribute substantially to the reduction of greenhouse gases, although the net effects would depend
on the resources needed to produce in vitro meat. There are many issues that would need to be
considered, including the effects on rangelands of substantial decreases in the number of domesticated
grazing animals, and some of the environmental and socio-cultural impacts would not be positive.
There could also be impacts on the amenity value of landscapes with no livestock in some places.
Commercial in vitro meat production is not likely to happen any time soon, however: at least another
decade of research is needed, and then there will still be the challenges of scale and cost to be
overcome.
Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology is a highly diverse field, and includes extensions of conventional
device physics, completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly and the development
of new materials with nanoscale dimensions. This refers to an extremely dynamic field of research
and application associated with particles of 1–100 nm in size (the size range of many molecules).
Some particles of this size have peculiar physical and chemical properties, and it is such peculiarities
that nanotechnology seeks to exploit. There is even speculation as to whether matter can be directly
controlled at the atomic scale. Some food and nutrition products containing nanoscale additives are
already commercially available, and nanotechnology is in widespread use in advanced agrichemicals
and agrichemical application systems. The next few decades may well see nanotechnology applied to
various areas in animal management. Nano sized, multipurpose sensors are already being developed
that can report on the physiological status of animals, and advances can be expected in drug delivery
methods using nanotubes and other nanoparticles that can be precisely targeted. Nanoparticles may be
able to affect nutrient uptake and induce more efficient utilization of nutrients for milk production, for
example. One possible approach to animal waste management involves adding nanoparticles to
manure to enhance biogas production from anaerobic digesters or to reduce odours. There are,
however, considerable uncertainties concerning the possible human health and environmental impacts
of nanoparticles, and these risks will have to be addressed by regulation and legislation: at present, for
all practical purposes, nanotechnology is unregulated see nanotechnology as potentially a highly
disruptive driver, and the ongoing debate as to the pros and cons is currently not well informed by
objective information on the risks involved: much more information is required on its long-term
impacts. Nanotechnology could redefine the entire notion of agriculture and many other human
activities.
Deepening Social Concerns About Specific Technology: Much evidence points to a serious
disconnect between science and public perceptions. Marked distrust of science is a recurring theme in
polls of public perceptions of nuclear energy, genetic modification and, spectacularly, anthropogenic
global warming. One of several key reasons for this distrust is a lack of credible, transparent and well-
communicated risk analyses associated with many of the highly technological issues of the day. This
lack was noted above in relation to nanotechnology, but it applies in many other areas as well. The
tools of science will be critical for bringing about food security and wellbeing for a global population
of more than nine billion people in 2050 in the face of enormous technological, climatic and social
challenges. Technology is necessary for the radical redirection of global food systems that many
believe is inevitable, but technology alone is not sufficient: the context has to be provided whereby
technology can build knowledge, networks and capacity. One area where there are numerous potential
applications to agriculture is the use of transgenic methodology to develop new or altered strains of
livestock. Social concerns could seriously jeopardize even the judicious application of such new
science and technology in providing enormous economic, environmental and social benefits. If this is
to be avoided, technology innovation has to take fully into account the health and environmental risks
to which new technology may give rise. Serious and rapid attention needs to be given to risk analysis
and communications policy.
Conclusions: Demand for livestock products in the future, particularly in developed countries, could
be heavily moderated by socio-economic factors such as human health concerns and changing socio-
cultural values. Several assessments agree that increases in the demand for livestock products, driven
largely by human population growth, income growth and urbanization, will continue for the next three
decades at least. Globally, increases in livestock productivity in the recent past have been driven
mostly by animal science and technology, and scientific and technological developments in breeding,
nutrition and animal health will continue to contribute to increasing potential production and further
efficiency and genetic gains. In the future, livestock production is likely to be increasingly
characterized by differences between developed and developing countries, and between highly
intensive production systems on the one hand and smallholder and agro pastoral systems on the other.
Some indications have been given above of the increasing pressures on natural resources such as
water and land; the increasing demand for livestock products will give rise to considerable
competition for land between food and feed production; increasing industrialization of livestock
production may lead to challenging problems of pollution of air and water; the biggest impacts of
climate change are going to be seen in livestock and mixed systems in developing countries where
people are already highly vulnerable; the need to adapt to climate change and to mitigate greenhouse
emissions will undoubtedly add to the costs of production in different places; and the projected
growth in biofuels may have substantial additional impacts on competition for land and on food
security.The industrialization of livestock production in many parts of the world, both developed and
developing, is either complete or continuing apace. The increasing demand for livestock products
continues to be a key opportunity for poverty reduction and economic growth. The future role of
smallholders in global food production and food security in the coming decades is unclear. The global
livestock sector may well undergo radical change in the future, but the association is still critical to
the wellbeing of millions, possibly billions, of people: in many developing countries, at this stage in
history, it has no known, viable substitute.
References
Butler, W. R. (2000). Nutritional interactions with reproductive performance in dairy cattle. Anim. Reprod. Sci.
60 –61: 449 –457.
Delgado, C. 2005 Rising demand for meat and milk in developing countries: implications for grasslands-based
livestock production. In Grassland: a global resource (ed. D. A. McGilloway), pp. 29–39. The Netherlands:
Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Dijkman, J. (2009). Innovation capacity and the elusive livestock revolution. LINK News Bulletin, October
2009. See www.innovationstudies.orgwww.innovationstudies.org.
FAO. (2007). Global plan of action for animal genetic resources and the Interlaken Declaration. Int. technical
conf. on animal genetic resources for food and agriculture, Interlaken, Switzerland, 3–7 September 2007,
Rome, Italy: FAO.
Gandini, G. C. & Villa, E. (2003). Analysis of the cultural value of local livestock breeds: a methodology. J.
Anim. Breed. Genet. 120: 1 –11.
Hayes, B. J., Bowman, P. J., Chamberlain, A. J. & Goddard, M. E. (2009) Genomic selection in dairy cattle:
progress and challenges. J. Dairy Sci. 92: 433 –443.
Lawrence, A. B. (2008). Applied animal behaviour science: past, present and future prospects. Appl. Anim.
Behav. Sci. 115: 1 –24.
Peden, D., Tadesse, G. &Misra, A. K. (2007). Water and livestock for human development. In Water for food,
water for life: a comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture, ch. 13 (ed. D. Molden),
London, UK: Earth scan; Colombo: IWMI
Scott, N. R. (2006). Impact of nanoscale technologies in animal management. The Netherlands: Wageningen
Academic Publishers. (WAAP Book of the Year 2006, 283–291).
Smith, C. (1984). Rates of genetic change in farm livestock. Res. Dev. Agric. 1: 79–85.
Thornton, P. K. & Gerber, P. (2010). Climate change and the growth of the livestock sector in developing
countries. Mitigation Adapt. Strategy. Glob. Change 15: 169 –184.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN POULTRY
G. Prabakar
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai,
E-mail: prabavet@gmail.com
A
rtificial insemination (AI) is the manual transfer of semen into the female’s vagina.
Basically it is a two-step procedure: first, collecting semen from the male (Burrows
W.A, Quinn JP.1935) and second, inseminating the semen into the female (Quinn JP,
Burrows WA1936). In poultry, depending on the objectives and goals of the farm or laboratory, there
may be intervening steps such as semen dilution, storage, and evaluation. Artificial insemination is
practiced extensively with commercial turkeys. This is primarily the result of selective breeding for a
heavier and broader-breasted commercial turkey and the consequent inability of toms to consistently
transfer semen to the hen at copulation. The broiler industry has not adapted AI to the extent of the
turkey industry but it is occasionally used in pedigree lines and in regions where labour is relatively
cheap.
Goal of Artificial Insemination: The goal of AI is to produce a succession of fertilized eggs between
successive inseminations. To accomplish this, weekly inseminations must replenish the sperm
population in the uterovaginal junction (UVJ) sperm storage tubules (SSTs). Birds do not have an
estrous cycle that synchronizes copulation with ovulation. Alternatively, about 7-10 days before their
first ovulation, hens’ mate, sperm ascend the vagina and then enter the SSTs. At the onset of egg
production, individual sperm are slowly released from the SSTs, transported to the anterior end of the
oviduct, and interact with the surface of the ovum (Fromanet al 2011) and (Basket 2011). Whether
fertilized or not, over the next 24-26 hr the ovum is transported though the oviduct, accruing the outer
perivitelline layer (PL) in the infundibulum, the albumen in the magnum, the shell membrane in the
isthmus, and the hard shell in the uterus (also referred to as the shell gland) before oviposition. If
fertilized, the blastoderm in the first laid egg consists of 40,000-60,000 cells in the turkey and 80,000-
100,000 cells in the chicken.
Reproductive Biology of Poultry
Ovary: In the hen only the left ovary and oviduct become functional organs. About 2-3 wk before the
onset of lay, small (less than 1 mm in diameter) white-yolk follicles begin to accumulate yellow yolk
with some being recruited into a hierarchy of maturing yellow-yolk follicles. At the time of ovulation,
the largest follicle, designated as F1, is ovulated. About 17 days were necessary for the 1 mm
diameter white yolk follicle to mature to a pre-ovulatory 40 mm diameter yellow yolk follicle (Perryet
al 1983). After the F1 follicle is ovulated, the next largest follicle, formerly designated F2, becomes
the F1 follicle and will ovulate at the beginning of the next daily “ovulatory cycle” in 24-26 hr.
Oviduct: The mature oviduct consists of five anatomically and functionally distinct segments and
the infundibulum, which secretes an albumen-like product that forms the outer Perivitelline layer; the
magnum, responsible for deposition of the albumen proteins; the isthmus, which forms the shell
membrane; the uterus (also referred to as the shell gland), a pocket-like structure that elaborates the
hard-shell; and, the vagina, which is a conduit between the uterus and cloaca for the egg-mass at
oviposition and is responsible for sperm selection and storage following semen transfer. The anterior
2-3 cm of the vagina, an area referred to as the UVJ contains the SSTs, the primary sites of sperm
storage (Bakst, 2011).
Artificial Insemination in Poultry 381
At ovulation, the ovum is grasped by the fimbriated region of the infundibulum and, if sperm
are present, the ovum may be fertilized within a 10-15 min interval (Perry, 1987). Thereafter,
infundibular secretions accrue around the ovum, forming the outer PL, which acts as a barrier to
further sperm penetration. (Birkhead,1994) observed that the number of sperm trapped in the outer PL
is positively correlated with the size of the ovum and is likewise correlated with the number of sperm
that have penetrated the inner PL.
Oviductal Sperm Selection, Transport and Storage: Following deposition in the oviduct, sperm are
transported to UVJ by a combination of their intrinsic motility and cilia beat activity. Within the SST
lumen, sperm are either widely spaced or oriented parallel with their heads toward the distal end of
the SST. Sperm are apposed to, but not directly contacting the apical microvilli of the SST epithelial
cells. This spatial relationship may facilitate lipid transfer between the resident sperm and the SST
epithelial cells (Bakst, 1992). Alkaline phosphatase, known to play a role in lipid transfer, has been
histo-chemically localized in the apical region of the SST epithelium (Bakst, 2007).
The duration of sperm storage in the SSTs is species-dependent. Chickens can store sperm for
up to three weeks, whereas turkeys can maintain sperm for 10 weeks in the SST and still lay a
fertilized ovum (Brillard, 1993). This may be related to number of SSTs present in the UVJ; turkeys
have been reported to have 20,000-30,000 SSTs, while chickens have been estimated to have only
5,000-13,500 (Bakst et al.,2010). Additionally, after several generations of selection for high fertility,
chicken hens possessed increased numbers of SSTs when compared to non-selected control hens,
suggesting the number of SSTs may be positively correlated with fertility (Brillard et al., 1998). In
contrast, under commercial conditions, different broiler strains exhibiting different fertility levels
revealed similar numbers of SSTs (Bakst et al., 2010).
The cellular and molecular mechanisms that sustain sperm within the SST lumen for
prolonged periods of storage. These mechanisms likely involve the reversible suppression of sperm
motility and metabolism, protection and repair of the sperm plasma membrane, uptake and storage of
molecules to sustain sperm metabolism, and maintenance of the SST lumen by removing by-products
of sperm metabolism and degraded sperm (Blesbois and Brillard, 2007).It is clear the SSTs generate
a discrete environment to maintain sperm viability via the influx and efflux of compounds critical for
sperm survival. The identification of membrane-bound vesicles released from the apical tips of the
SST epithelial cell microvilli suggests a role in the maintenance of resident sperm through lipid
transfer (Bakst and Akuffo, 2007).
A large proportion of the sperm plasma membrane is composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(Blesbois et al., 1997), that are highly susceptible to damage induced by lipid per oxidation. The per
oxidation of these fatty acids results in increased damage to and permeability of the sperm plasma
membrane (Catalá 2012). A complex system of anti-oxidation enzymes are present in the SST
epithelial cells and presumably interact with luminal sperm to minimize damage due to lipid per
oxidation and maintain sperm membrane integrity (Breque et al., 2003). While many metabolites
required by sperm in the SSTs have yet to be identified, increased avidin expression is apparent in
SSTs relative to surrounding UVJ epithelial tissue possibly providing a means of sequestering biotin
and other vitamins for use by the SSTs or resident sperm (Foye-Jackson et al., 2011).
The observations that receptors for estrogen and progesterone exist in the SSTs has led to the
suggestion that these compounds may trigger release of resident sperm, possibly in response to
hormonal cues over the course of the ovulatory cycle (Ito et al., 2011).
The identification of water channels, known as aquaporins, in the apical epithelium of SSTs
lends credence to a model wherein motile sperm maintain their residence in the SST lumen by
swimming against the fluid current generated via the aquaporins (Froman, 2010). In the SST lumen,
sperm retain their motility by fatty acid oxidation. It has been suggested the sperm membrane is the
source of this fatty acid and that as the quality of the sperm membrane gradually decreases there is
Artificial Insemination in Poultry. Reduction of available ATP and sperm motility decreases (Froman,
2010). Sperm are then swept out of the SST lumen into the UVJ, where they encounter various stimuli
enhancing their motility. These sperm are then transported to the infundibulum, the site of
fertilization. Such motility enhancing factors may include changes in environmental pH and
neuroendocrine factors such as serotonin (Bakst, 2008).
Once sperm are deposited in the oviduct, several selection barriers must be overcome prior to
ascending to the infundibulum and fertilizing an ovum. This selection occurs initially in the vagina:
only highly mobile (defined as progressive movement in a viscous medium at 40oC) sperm traverse
the vagina. While sperm mobility is a major factor in sperm selection in the vagina, sperm selection is
also dependent upon the glycoprotein composition of the sperm plasma membrane. The sperm
glycocalyx is highly complex and heavily sialylated and modification of the glycocalyx results in
reduced fertility and failure of the sperm to enter the SSTs (Pelaez and Long, 2007). Interestingly,
removal of membrane-associated carbohydrates did not affect sperm entry into SSTs if sperm were
inseminated directly into the UVJ or when co-incubated with UVJ explants, suggesting the glycocalyx
plays a central role in sperm transport and selection through the vagina.
Techniques in Artificial Insemination and Fertility Evaluation in Poultry
Semen Collection: Primarily due to the anatomical variation of the phallic region in different birds,
semen collection techniques will vary. In contrast to ratites and water-fowl with an intromittent
phallus, Galliformes (chicken, turkey, and quail) do not have an intermittent organ. Their non-
intromittent organ consists of folds and bulges that make contact with the female’s cloaca at mating.
From an anatomical perspective, there are considerable differences between the non-intromittent
organs of the chicken and turkey. The rooster has a prominent medial phallic body and relatively
small lateral phallic bodies and lymph folds. Conversely, the turkey tom has no medial phallic body
but prominent lateral phallic bodies and lymph folds. Sex sorting at hatch by cloacal examination is
based on the relative differences in size of these structures between the males and females.
The turkey (left) and chicken (right) cloacae are viewed with the dorsal lips of the cloacae pulled back
to expose each species phallus non-protrudens. Unlike the turkey, the chicken has a central
protuberance, the medial phallic body (MPB) and regressed lateral phallic bodies (LPB) and lymph
folds (LF). The turkey phallus non-protrudens is characterized by dominant LPB and LF and the
conspicuous absence of the MPB.
The goal of semen collector is to obtain the maximum volume of clean, high quality semen
with the minimal amount of handling. In chickens and turkeys, the abdominal massage technique
(Burrows and Quinn, 1935) and (Bakst, 2010) involves massaging the cloacal region to achieve
phallic tumescence. This is followed by a ‘cloacal stroke’, a squeezing of the region surrounding the
sides of the cloaca to express the semen. Little additional semen can be expressed after two cloacal
strokes
Semen Characteristics: Semen should be pearly white, viscous, and clean. More than 90% Motility
and less than 10% abnormal spermatozoa.
Different Semen Collection Methods
 Co-operative approaches (Chelmonska et al., 2008)

 Electro ejaculation (Samuour et al., 1985)
 Abdominal massage technique (Burrows and Quinn, 1934)
In this the electro ejaculation and co-operative approaches technique is not suitable for getting
good quality of semen. Because of some faces and some other fluids come out from this technique.
Abdominal massage technique is better and getting good quality of semen without contamination.
Sperm Concentration: The most popular techniques for determining sperm concentration are the
packed cell volume (PCV; also referred to as a spermatocrit) and optical density (OD; photometry).
Determining sperm concentration using PCVs is nearly identical to that of determining blood
hematocrit values. Semen aspirated into micro-hematocrit tubes are centrifuged in a hematocrit
centrifuge until the sperm are tightly packed (10 min); the percentage of packed sperm cells relative to
the original semen volume in the micro-tube is determined. Sperm concentration is derived using a
conversion factor or standard curve previously derived by comparing and graphically plotting varying
ascending sperm concentrations from hemocytometer counts to corresponding spermatocrit readings.
The optical density (OD) is determined using a photometer. The OD of highly diluted semen
is directly proportional to the concentration of sperm, thus providing an indirect estimate of the sperm
concentration. Like the PCV method, sperm concentration is derived using a conversion factor or
previously derived standard curve by comparing and graphically plotting varying sperm
concentrations from hemocytometer counts to corresponding OD readings (Bakst, 2010).
Sperm Viability: In the context of semen evaluation, reference to ‘viable’ sperm simply implies that
such sperm possess an intact plasmalemma and are assumed to be functional. Plasmalemma integrity
is frequently determined using either a dead-cell or a live-cell stain alone or simultaneously. The
dead-cell stains are excluded by sperm with an intact plasmalemma but stain dead sperm possessing a
permeable plasmalemma. Live-cell stains permeate the intact sperm plasmalemma and become visible
only after reacting with cytosolic enzymes or interacting with sperm nuclear proteins. Both eosin and
propidium iodide are popular dead-cell stains while calcein AM and SYBR-14 are frequently used
live-cell stains (Haugland, 2001) for extended discussion and availability for the live-cell probes). On
a commercial breeder farm, the nigrosin/eosin (N/E) technique is most likely the procedure to be used
to determine sperm viability. Briefly, sperm are stained with N/E and a smear of the stained sperm is
made on a slideder a bright field microscope the viable sperm remain pearly white, while eosin will
stain non-viable sperm a pink to magenta color. The nigrosin serves as a background to enhance
differentiation between the non-viable and viable sperm.
Sperm Motility and Mobility: Sperm motility can be progressive (forward direction) or non-
progressive (random movement or oscillations) movement. Generally, progressive motility is
determined subjectively at ambient temperature using a microscope at low magnification (hanging-
drop technique) or objectively using a computer-assisted semen analysis system.
Motility evaluated by microscopy has been shown to have little correlation with fertility and
simply reveals that the sperm are motile. First described by (Froman and McLean,1996) the sperm
mobility assay has gained popularity as a measure of an individual male’s ability to produce highly
mobile sperm [mobility defines the ability of sperm to move progressively against a viscous medium
(Accudenz) at 41°C that are more likely to fertilize an ovum than males producing less mobile sperm.
While the sperm mobility assay is a powerful tool for the selection of the most fecund males to be
used in AI, it necessitates attention to details and accurate and consistent preparation of the reagents.
Storage of Semen: Two types of storage of semen involved in poultry
 Liquid storage of semen
 Frozen storage of semen
Liquid Storage of Semen: In liquid storage of semen, the semen diluents and semen extenders are
mainly involved
Semen Diluents: Diluents are buffered salt solutions used to extend semen, maintain the viability of
spermatozoa in vitro, and maximize the number of hens that can be inseminated. Semen extension is
important since poultry semen is viscous and highly concentrated, containing (6 billion
spermatozoa/ml)in roosters to 12 billion spermatozoa/ml in toms. Semen diluents are based on the
biochemical composition of chicken and turkey semen Lake, 1995.Glutamic acid, the most prominent
anionic constituent of avian seminal plasma, became a standard component of diluents.
there are basic characteristics common to nearly all diluents: factors to maintain pH,
osmolarity and provide an energy source for spermatozoa. The pH of a diluent can affect the
metabolic rate and motility of spermatozoa. Buffering agents, consisting of a mixture of an acid and
its conjugate base are formulated into a diluent to limit changes in pH. These usually include the
mixture of phosphates, citrates and /or organic zwitter ionic molecules such as N,N-bis_2-hy-
droxyethyl.-2-aminoethane sulfonic acid (BES) and N-Tris (hydroxymethyl). methyl-2-aminoethane
sulfonic acid (TES)in poultry diluents. Zwitterionic molecules are importantin diluents for chicken
semen because of lactic acid build up with increased storage time which can lower the diluent pH.
Chicken and turkey spermatozoa can tolerate a pH range of 6.0–8.0 (Van, 1967.) The
motility and metabolic rate of spermatozoa can be altered by diluent pH. Forexample, a low pH
reduces motility, lactic acid production, oxygen uptake in chicken spermatozoa, whereas high pH
increases metabolic rates in vitro . For 24 h storage of chicken semen. Demonstrated that pH of 6.8
and 7.1 improved survival over diluents with pH of 5.8 and 7.4.For turkey semen stored 6 h in vitro,
higher fertility resulted when diluent pH was 6.5compared to 7.5. Poultry spermatozoa can maintain
fertilizing ability in diluents with osmolarities ranging from 250 to 460 mos M/kg H2o. When
spermatozoa are placed in a solution of low osmolarity, the net movement of water into the sperm
cells causes them to swell.
In a hyperosmotic solution, spermatozoa lose water and shrink. This physical property is the
basis of commonly used spermatozoa stress tests discussed in subsequent sections. In hypoosmotic
conditions spermatozoa display increased incidence of bent necks.A defect frequently found in diluted
chicken and turkey semen, which is negatively correlated with fertility. (Giesen and Sexton,1982)
observed a disappearance of turkey spermatozoa over an 18-h storage period suggesting that
spermatozoa are swelling and bursting in vitro. These investigators hypothesized that hypertonic
diluents could reverse the swelling and improve survival in vitro. Important to the development of
diluents and storage systems for poultry semen is the physiological differences and metabolic
requirements of spermatozoa from different species.
Chicken spermatozoa are metabolically competent in aerobic and anaerobic environments in
vitro. In contrast, turkey spermatozoa require high levels of oxygen to survive. Aerobic metabolism
necessitates the aeration of semen which is generally accomplished by placing diluted semen in a
flask to maximize surface to volume ratio and placing the flask on a rotary shaker. More recently,
other methods to maximize and control oxygen supply to semen have been investigated. These
include the addition of perfluorochemicals, compounds that chelate oxygen (Thurston et al., 1994)
and the development of environmentally controlled capsules that regulate temperature and oxygen
concentration. CARI Semen diluent was used in turkey semen it can improved fertilizing ability in
turkey breeders (Prabakar et al.,2018)
Frozen Storage of Semen: The comparatively poor rate of fertilizing ability obtained from avian,
compared to mammalian, spermatozoa may, in part, result from a greater sensitivity of avian
spermatozoa to the freezing thawing process, but is more likely to be a function of the system of
sperm transport and storage in the hen reproductive tract. Avian spermatozoa are normally
inseminated into the lower vagina from where, even with untreated spermatozoa, only 1–2% are able
to reach and enter the SST at the uterovaginal junction, where they are subsequently stored for days or
weeks before fertilization (Bakst et al., 1994.)
Thus, in comparison to mammalian spermatozoa, the post-thaw survival of avian spermatozoa
is obliged to be particularly efficient. Variations in levels of fertility from different studies has been a
constant feature of poultry semen cryopreservation work. Whilst it is true that some biological
variation in sperm or hen function has been shown between strains of chickens (Alexander et al.,
1993) other factors such as the dose of inseminated spermatozoa, the frequency of insemination and,
less obviously, the depth of intravaginal insemination have considerable effects on resultant fertility.
During cold storage polyphenols an an antioxidant agent can improve sperm quality characteristics
(Gopi et al., 2019).
Fertilizing Ability: Systems for demonstration of the fertilizing ability of frozen-thawed spermatozoa
are invariably arranged in terms of insemination dose, frequency and site of insemination—so that the
proportion of fertile eggs laid by inseminated hens (‘% fertility’). Over a given period is around, or
greater than, 50%. For example, 53% fertility during 1 week after a single ‘deep’ intravaginal
insemination of around 600 million spermatozoa (Lake and Stewart, 1978a,) or 80–94% fertility by
insemination 3–4 cm into the vagina of around 400 million spermatozoa every 3 days for several
weeks (Kurbatov et al., 1984). Under the same conditions, hens inseminated with unfrozen
spermatozoa would lay approaching 100% fertile eggs.
Artificial Insemination: The technique currently used for AI in poultry was developed in the 1930s
andinvolves applying pressure to the hen’s abdomen and everting the vaginal orifice through the
cloaca This procedure is also referred to as cracking, venting or everting the hen. Semen is deposited
2–4 cm into the vaginal orifice concurrently with the release of pressure on the hen’s abdomen.
Insemination is accomplished with straws, syringes or plastic tubes. In large scale commercial
operations, automated semen dispensers using individual straws loaded with a set AI dose are
commonly used. Three types of artificial insemination-
 Intravaginal insemination (Quin and Burrow, 1939)
 Intraperitonial insemination (Van, 1951)
 Intrauterine insemination
Semen quality can be affected by
1. Management during different stages
2. Age of the rooster
3. Frequency of collection
4. Nutrition
5. Body weight
6. Environmental factors
7. Season
8. Antioxidants
9. Breed & Genetic difference
10. Semen diluents and
11. Storage.
Management during Different Stages: During the first 28 days protein intake greatly influences the
reproductive potential of the males. During this period a minimum intake of 200 grams of protein is a
must. Although the male can produce trillion of sperms, the actual number of mature sperms produced
is limited by the number of sertoli cells in the testes. Sertoli cell proliferation occurs between 2-12
weeks of age but not at any time after this point. Therefore, the maximum potential for sperm
production is established in the first 8-10 weeks of age. From 10 to17 weeksrapid development of the
testes and growth profile occurred.
Age: Semen production gradually increases with age but it has a certain limit. Production of less
amount of semen in both young and older age may be due to immaturity and over maturity of the
genital organs respectively. Upto complete adultness of the birds, the semen production increases (40
weeks) but thereafter it again tends to decrease gradually (55 weeks). (Kelso et al .,1997) found that
the concentration of spermatozoa and the proportion of live cells in the semen from the older birds
were significantly lower than that observed for the younger age group. In broiler breeders, sperm
concentration increases from 24 to 39 week of age, stabilizes from 39 to 54 week, and decreases at 72
week of age.
Sperm motility is higher in the first half of the reproductive life of broiler breeders, decreasing
significantly afterwards . For birds just after puberty, percentage of motile sperm increases linearly
from 26 to 30 week of age and it was more strongly correlated with viability in older (30 week) than
in younger birds (25 week of age), which suggests that spermatozoa from younger birds are viable but
not fully motile. Morphological defect rates of spermatozoa increased significantly with ageing of
roosters. The peroxidation in PUFAs of the n-3, n-9 and n-6 series due to the ageing may be
responsible of the changes of viability, motility and fertilizing ability of spermatozoa (Rosato et al.,
2006).
Nutrition: Diets significantly modify the fertilizing ability of fresh sperm. In the management of
breeder poultry, feed is regulated to prevent excessive weight gain, a major cause of poor-quality
ejaculate and testicular regression (Brillard, 2007). This will ensure production of good quality semen.
Nutrition can improve sperm quality especially by lowering protein levels down to 11-13 per cent.
Even 9-10 per cent dietary crude protein can produce optimum semen production and improve
fertility by 2-3 per cent.
Calcium is a macronutrient element with important biological functions and it is needed to

regulate sperm physiology including epididymal maturation, membrane function (Fromanet al., 2006)
and metabolism (Kanyinji and Maeda, 2010). It is also involved sperm capacitation, acrosome
reaction and fertilization. 2 per cent dietary calcium level has high sperm concentration, sperm per
ejaculate, number of motile sperm, and number of live sperm.
Heavy body weight cocks have high sperm concentration (Hanafy and Maysa, 2006), high
live sperms, motility and low abnormal sperm (%). In contrast, the light body weight cocks have high
ejaculate volume (Soliman, 1996) and low live sperms (Holcman et al., 1993).
Temperature and Heat Stress: Semen characteristics like consistency, spermatozoa concentration
and semenvolume were depressed by environmental temperatures outside the thermo neutral zone
(McDaniel et al., 1995). Roosters in natural mating breeding system are known to reduce mating
activity and impaired libido due to heat stress, presumably through dehydration and alteration in
secretion of sex hormones. Heat stress generally decreases the feed consumption and semen quality
(Karaca, 2001). The optimum temperature range for poultry is 12-26oC.
Season: Semen characteristics have good quality in cold months than in hot months, which results in
higher percentage of fertility in winter than in summer months. Semen collected in cold months have
higher ejaculate volume (0.35 vs. 0.23 ml), sperm concentration (5.26 vs. 4.16 × 109/ml), live sperms
(87.18 vs. 67.32 %), sperm motility (4.19 vs. 3.37) and lower abnormal sperms (16.09 vs. 26.94 %)
than the semen collected in hot months. Semen pH collected in hot months is lower than in cold
months (7.26 vs. 7.46) due to increase in lactic acid production with exposure to the hot environment
which results in decrease in pH values (Kamar et al., 1979).In turkey breeders, summer month
decreased sperm motility and livability and concentration as well as in broiler breeders also.in winter
months sperm concentration and livability and motility was higher (Prabakar, 2017)
Antioxidants: The natural and synthetic anti-oxidants that helps to maintain the spermatozoa cell
membrane against lipid per oxidation. Synthetic caraotenoids (astaxanthine and canthaxanthine) and
organic zinc improved semen characteristics, age at sexual maturity and increased fertility and
hatchability in broiler breeders (Prabakar, 2017).
Frequency: Semen volume is greater in 3 ejaculations/week compared with1 ejaculation/week.
Sperm motility will be better in the birds with three and six ejaculations/week than single ejaculation.
The weekly motile sperm production (WMSP) increase with ejaculation frequency. Low ejaculation
frequency might result in accumulation of aged, degenerated or dead sperms in the semen, which
would compromise sperm motility. Weekly sperm production (WSP) increased 4 to 7 folds in the
frequently ejaculated birds without detectable deleterious effects. Semen concentration will be higher
in 2 and 3 ejaculation per week. For optimal utilisation of males, frequency of 5 times is
recommended. The emu yields more semen and spermatozoa by collecting semen twice daily than
once a day or every second day (Maleckiet al., 1997). This is consistent with (Hemberger et al., 2001)
who suggested that, for the ostrich, a frequency lower than once a day would be optimal. Given that
the ostrich is a communal breeder.
Evaluation of Fertility: The measure of a successful AI program is sustained hen fertility. While
candling-fertility is useful, there is an eight or more-day lag between the last AI and candling-fertility
determination, which overlaps with the next insemination (hen insemination is generally at 7-day
intervals). With AI programs, it is often desirable to determine the fertility status of a flock before the
next weekly insemination. There are several options available: breaking-out fresh eggs and examining
the GD to differentiate a fertilized from an unfertilized or early dead embryo.
Conclusion: Artificial insemination is a common practice in the poultry industry with the turkey
industry in North America and Europe using it almost exclusively for the production of hatching eggs.
The broiler industry has not adapted AI for several reasons: because of sheer numbers of broiler
breeders that need to be inseminated weekly, the labor cost would be very significantly; the initial
investment in special housing for the males; an efficient, cost effective means of actually performing
the inseminations (housing and catching the hens) would need to be developed; and finally, the
concern that after a few generations of breeding broilers by AI, the behaviours associated with natural
mating may be less dominant. Notwithstanding these concerns, the benefits of AI for broilers would
include the following: the male:female ratio would be increase from 1:10 for natural mating to 1:25
with AI; with fewer males needed, there would be greater selection pressure on the male traits of
economic importance and subsequently greater genetic advancement per generation; biosecurity
concerns associated with “spiking” aging hen flocks with new and/or younger males to augment
mating frequency and fertility would be eliminated; and, differences in body conformation between
males and females that impact semen transfer at mating would no longer be a consideration.
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Agriculture

Ratnesh Kumar Rao

Price: Rs. 2500.00

Typing, Formatting and Designed by

(Ratnesh Kumar Rao)

T he litter of the forest is an important stage in the cycle of habitat conservation. It

Figure 1 & 2. Poplar intercropped with Palmarosa

Figure 3 & 4. Aromatic Grasses (Citronella & Palmarosa) in Open Field

Figure – 5. Lemon grass at Farmer’s Field

Figure–6. Palmarosa intercropped with Eucalyptus

For Fresh herb yield For Oil yield

Figure–7. Lemon grass intercropped with Poplar

Figure–1, 2, 3 & 4. Wheat Intercropped with Populus delltoides

Figure–5 & 6. Mustard Intercropped with Populus deltoides

Figure-9. Block Plantation of Populus deltoides

CD (b) 5% for species mixture = 0.08

Figure–10. Rooting Pattern of Populus deltoides

Age : 2 Years Depth : 45cm

Age : 5 Years; Depth : 45cm Age : 5 Years; Depth : 85cm

● Improvement in nutritional standards of food as agroforestry enhancer’s availability of nutritious food

Eucalyptus spp. 15.0 87 5.426 0.983 21.50 1.91

Table 3: Classification of AFS as per overall comprehensive scheme.

Fertilizes dose (60kgN,40 kgP2O5,:40kgK2O,30 kg Sulphur, 20kg 120 kgN,80kgP2O5.

Fertilizes dose (60kgN,40 kgP2O5,:40kgK2O,30 kg Sulphur and 80 kgN,60kgP2O5

Techniques of Tissue Culture

The proportion of meristem of "Tsaeda embaba" regenerated in the different thermotherapy

Solanum lycopersicum (MT-3) x Solanum pimpinellifolium (35%) and S. lycopersicum (KA)

List of varieties released through DH in vegetable crops

Guelph (Super male) Canada

T he word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from

Fig-1: Babo production system

Fig-2: Flowchart showing types of agriculture systems

Haryana 7136 518367 525502

Types of Drip Irrigation System

Precision Farming Technologies

Dehydrated 79.67 43.93 0.99

2.4.1. Drip System Layout

Fig-4: Furrow irrigation in newly transplanted settlings

Fig. 5: Propping Fig. 6: Left over cane after bud removal

NUC- Nutrient uptake in control plot (kg ha-1)

4. Agronomic/Management Factors: Conservation tillage, Minimum tillage, no tillage and

Fig.: Organic farming is boon for soil health

T he scope of organic farming in increased yields simultaneously improving the fertility

Environment-Friendly Practices: Green-friendly, non-toxic pest evasive methods like spinosad,

Channel – III Channel – I Channel – II

Figure 1: Marketing channel in the Study area

3 Unavailability of quality seed and seedlings 43 (72)

9 Young youth are not much interested 50 (62.50)

Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi; E-mail: ajaysrivastava9335@gmail.com,

Total fixed cost (B) (Rs) - - 1,56,286(100.00)

2 Land revenue - - 20(0.03)

T he geometric progression of human population coupled with reducing area under

nematode, root lesion nematode

7. Value addition of high value horticulture crops.

In modern agriculture protected cultivation of horticultural crops is a good choice for

Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), GoI. 2017.

Marishal (15.8cm), EC516602 (14.3cm), Raspanjar (12.5cm), Nagalmutha (12.3cm), Ravana

Fig: Performance of toria var. TS 38 under zero tillage condition

Challenges for Rapeseed-mustard Cultivation in Rice Fallow: Rice (Oryzasativa) is the