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 THE SCHOPENHAUERIAN
MIND

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) is now recognised as a figure of

canonical importance in the history of philosophy. Schopenhauer
founded his system on a highly original interpretation of Kant’s
philosophy, developing an entirely novel and controversial worldview
guided centrally by his striking conception of the human will and of
art and beauty. His influence extends to figures as diverse as
Fredrich Nietzsche, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Iris Murdoch within
philosophy, and Richard Wagner, Thomas Hardy, Sigmund Freud,
Thomas Mann, Samuel Beckett and Jorge Luis Borges outside it.
The Schopenhauerian Mind is an outstanding, wide-ranging
collection that explores the rich nature of Schopenhauer’s ideas,
texts, influences, and legacy. Comprising 38 original chapters by an
international team of contributors, the volume is organized into five
clear parts:

Knowledge and Reality

Aesthetics and the Arts
Ethics, Politics, and Salvation
Before Schopenhauer
After Schopenhauer
The Schopenhauerian Mind covers all the key areas and concepts
of Schopenhauer’s philosophy, including fields omitted in previous
studies. It is essential reading for students of nineteenth-century
philosophy, Continental philosophy and philosophy of art and
aesthetics, and also of interest to those in related disciplines such as
literature and religion.

David Bather Woods is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the

University of Warwick, UK. He has published work on a range of
topics in Schopenhauer’s philosophy, including political philosophy,
sexual ethics, boredom, punishment, and pessimism.

Timothy Stoll is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the University

of Warwick, UK. He works on a variety of figures in post-Kantian
philosophy, including Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Schiller.
 Routledge Philosophical Minds

In philosophy past and present there are some philosophers who

tower over the intellectual landscape and have shaped it in indelible
ways. So significant is their impact that it is difficult to capture it in
one place. The Routledge Philosophical Minds series presents a
comprehensive survey of all aspects of a major philosopher’s work,
from analysis and criticism of their major texts and arguments to the
way their ideas are taken up in contemporary philosophy and
beyond. Edited by leading figures in their fields and with an
outstanding international roster of contributors the series offers a
magisterial and unrivalled picture of a great philosophical mind.
THE LOCKEAN MIND
Edited by Jessica Gordon-Roth and Shelley Weinberg
THE ANSCOMBEAN MIND
Edited by Adrian Haddock and Rachael Wiseman
THE BERGSONIAN MIND
Edited by Mark Sinclair and Yaron Wolf
THE JAMESIAN MIND
Edited by Sarin Marchetti
THE MURDOCHIAN MIND
Edited by Silvia Caprioglio Panizza and Mark Hopwood
THE PROUSTIAN MIND
Edited by Anna Elsner and Thomas Stern
THE KANTIAN MIND
Sorin Baiasu and Mark Timmons
For more information on this series, please visit:
https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Philosophical-Minds/book-
series/RPM
THE SCHOPENHAUERIAN MIND
Edited by David Bather Woods and Timothy Stoll
 Cover image: Arthur Schopenhauer, 1859. By Johann Schäfer
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter David Bather Woods and Timothy Stoll;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of David Bather Woods and Timothy Stoll to be identified as the author
of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bather Woods, David, editor. | Stoll, Timothy, editor.
Title: The Schopenhauerian mind/edited by David Bather Woods and Timothy
Stoll.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2023. |
Series: Routledge philosophical minds | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023023373 (print) | LCCN 2023023374 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367501532 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367501570 (paperback) | ISBN
9781003048992 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1788-1860 |
Philosophy, German—19th century.
Classification: LCC B3148 .S366 2023 (print) | LCC B3148 (ebook) | DDC 193—
dc23/eng/20230828
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023023373
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023023374
 ISBN: 978-0-367-50153-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-50157-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-04899-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003048992
Typeset in Sabon
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
 CONTENTS

Abbreviations
Notes on Contributors

Introduction
PART 1

Knowledge and Reality

1 Realism and Its Discontents

Douglas McDermid

2 Schopenhauer’s Representationalist Theory of

Rationality: Logic, Eristic, Language, and
Mathematics
Jens Lemanski

3 Schopenhauer’s Metaphysical Two-aspect

Account of the World and the Will to Life
Manja Kisner
4 Schopenhauer’s Theory of Science
Timothy Stoll

5 Representing Nothing: Schopenhauer “Decoding”

Acoustical Science
Steven P. Lydon

6 Schopenhauer’s Synoptic Metaphilosophy

Alexander S. Sattar

7 Time, Death and Boredom in Schopenhauer:

Existential Themes in His Theory of
(Self-)Consciousness
João Constâncio

8 “Zwar ein Wissen, jedoch keine Wissenschaft”:

Schopenhauer’s Ambivalent Philosophy of History
Anthony K. Jensen
PART 2

Aesthetics and the Arts

9 Schopenhauer’s Aesthetic Ideology

Michel-Antoine Xhignesse

10 Artistic Creativity and the Ideal of Beauty: The

Representation of Human Beauty in
 Schopenhauer’s Philosophy of Art
Bart Vandenabeele

11 Schopenhauer and the Beauty of the Past

Peter Poellner

12 The Significance of Nichtigkeit in Schopenhauer’s

Account of the Sublime
Patrick Hassan

13 Schopenhauer on Music
Andrew Huddleston

14 The Moral Weight of Art in Schopenhauer

Sandra Shapshay
PART 3

Ethics, Politics, and Salvation

15 Schopenhauer’s Five-dimensional Normative

Ethics
Colin Marshall and Kayla R. Mehl

16 Schopenhauer and Modern Moral Philosophy

Stephen Puryear

17 Acquired Character
 Sean T. Murphy

18 A Schopenhauerian Solution to Schopenhauerian

Politics
David Bather Woods

19 Schopenhauer’s Critique of the State

Jakob Norberg

20 Schopenhauer’s Pessimism
Byron Simmons

21 Schopenhauer’s Philosophy of Religion

Jonathan Head

22 Ways to Salvation: On Schopenhauer’s Theory of

Self-negation and Salvation
Mathijs Peters
PART 4

Before Schopenhauer

23 Philosophy Contra History?: Schopenhauer on the

History of Philosophy
Sabine Roehr

24 Schopenhauer, Europe, and Eurocentrism

 Christopher Janaway

25 Schopenhauer on the Pessimism, Fatalism, and

Superstitions of Herodotus and the Greek
Tragedians
Mor Segev

26 Schopenhauer on Stoicism as a Way of Life and

on the Wisdom of Life
Keith Ansell-Pearson

27 Schopenhauer on Spinoza: Animals, Jews, and

Evil
Yitzhak Y. Melamed

28 Compassion, Egoism, and Selflessness:

Schopenhauer’s Problematic Debt to Rousseau
David James

29 Kant’s Monstrous Claim: Schopenhauer on the

Intuitive Understanding and the Cognition of
Causes
Alejandro Naranjo Sandoval

30 In Agon with Goethe: Parerga and Paralipomena 2

Adrian Del Caro

31 Schopenhauer and Hegel

 Stephen Houlgate
PART 5

After Schopenhauer

32 “Either Shudder or Laugh”: Kierkegaard on

Schopenhauer
Patrick Stokes

33 Wagner and Schopenhauer

Mark Berry

34 Thomas Mann on Schopenhauer: A Philosopher of

the Future?
Paul Bishop

35 Wittgenstein’s Reception of Schopenhauer: A

Systematization and Evaluation
Michał Dobrzański

36 Melancholy and Pessimism: Adorno’s Critique of

Schopenhauer
Brian O’Connor

37 Iris Murdoch and Schopenhauer

Miles Leeson
38 Schopenhauer in Latin America: Borges, Funes,
and the Poetry of Thought
Elizabeth Millán Brusslan

Index
 ABBREVIATIONS

Reference to Schopenhauer’s Works in The

Schopenhauerian Mind
In providing citations of Schopenhauer’s texts, the present volume
uses the following abbreviations for the titles of individual works:

FR = On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason

[Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde]
FW = Prize Essay on the Freedom of the Will [Über die Freiheit des
menschlichen Willens]
OBM = Prize Essay on the Basis of Morals [Über die Grundlage der
Moral]
PE = The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics [Die Beiden
Grundprobleme der Ethik]
PP = Parerga and Paralipomena [Parerga und Paralipomena]
VC = On Vision and Colours [Über das Sehn und die Farben]
WN = On the Will in Nature [Über den Willen in der Natur]
WWR = The World as Will and Representation [Die Welt als Wille
und Vorstellung]

Page references are jointly to the pagination of Schopenhauer, A.

(1988). Sämtliche Werke. 6 Volumes. Edited by Hübscher, A.
Mannheim: F.A. Brockhaus [abbreviated as SW] and the following
volumes of The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Schopenhauer:
Schopenhauer, A. (2009). The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics.
Translated and edited by Janaway, C. Cambridge: Cambridge University
 Press.
–––––––––––. (2010). The World as Will and Representation, Volume 1.
Translated and edited by Norman, J., Welchman, A. and Janaway C.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
–––––––––––. (2012). On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient
Reason and Other Writings. Translated and edited by Cartwright, D.,
Erdmann, E. and Janaway, C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
–––––––––––. (2014). Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays,
Volume 1. Translated and edited by Roehr, S. and Janaway, C. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
–––––––––––. (2015). Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays,
Volume 2. Translated and edited by Del Caro, A. and Janaway, C. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
–––––––––––. (2018). The World as Will and Representation, Volume 2.
Translated and edited by Norman, J., Welchman, A. and Janaway C.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Citations generally follow the scheme: (SW [volume:page]/[Title

Abbreviation] [volume:page]). The method for citing Schopenhauer’s
correspondence and notebooks has been left to the discretion of the
authors and is explained in the individual chapters. Any deviations
from the Cambridge translations are also indicated in the individual
chapters.

References to Kant’s Works in The

Schopenhauerian Mind
The works of Immanuel Kant, with the exception of the Critique of
Pure Reason, are cited using title abbreviations (for commonly cited
works) and references to the volume and pagination of the
Akademieausgabe (AA [volume:page]): Kant, I. (1900–). Kants
Gesammelte Schriften, edited by the Royal Prussian, later German,
then Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences, 29 volumes (Berlin:
Georg Reimer, later Walter de Gruyter). Citations to the Critique of
Pure Reason use the standard pagination of the first and/or second
[A/B] editions. The following abbreviations are used:
Anthropology = Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View
[Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht]
G = Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals [Grundlegung zur
Metaphysik der Sitten]
KpV = Critique of Practical Reason [Kritik der praktischen Vernunft]
KrV = Critique of Pure Reason [Kritik der reinen Vernunft]
KU = Critique of the Power of Judgment [Kritik der Urtheilskraft]
MFNS = Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science
[Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft]
Prolegomena = Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics that will be
able to come forward as a Science [Prolegomena zu einer jeden
künftigen Metaphysik die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten können]
 CONTRIBUTORS

Keith Ansell-Pearson is Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the

University of Warwick, UK. His book, Nietzsche’s New Wisdom: The
Philosopher, the Sage, and the Poet, will be published in early 2024.

David Bather Woods is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the

University of Warwick, UK. He is the co-editor of The
Schopenhauerian Mind and has previously published work on a
range of topics in Schopenhauer’s philosophy, including political
philosophy, sexual ethics, boredom, punishment, and pessimism.

Mark Berry is Professor of Music and Intellectual History at Royal

Holloway, University of London, UK. He is the author of Treacherous
Bonds and Laughing Fire: Politics and Religion in Wagner’s ‘Ring’
(2006), After Wagner: Histories of Modernist Music Drama from
‘Parsifal’ to Nono (2014), and Arnold Schoenberg (2019); and co-
editor of, as well as contributor to, The Cambridge Companion to
Wagner’s Der Ring des Nibelungen (2020). He has written widely on
musical and intellectual history from the later seventeenth century
onwards. His next major project will be a synoptic history of Mozart’s
operas in eighteenth-century intellectual and political context.

Paul Bishop is William Jacks Chair of Modern Languages in the

SMLC at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. His research focuses on
the history of ideas, with particular emphasis on Goethe, Schiller,
Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Thomas Mann, C.G. Jung, and Ludwig
Klages. Among his publications are companion volumes on Goethe’s
Faust, and on Nietzsche’s life and works; a “critical life” of Jung; and
an introductory “toolkit” on the thought of Klages.

João Constâncio is Professor of Philosophy at the Universidade

Nova de Lisboa (UNL). He earned his PhD there in 2005 with a
dissertation on Plato. He is co-founder of the Lisbon Nietzsche Group
and of HyperNietzsche, as well as a member of the scientific
committee of the Nietzsche-Studien (De Gruyter). He is currently
Director of the research institute for philosophy (IFILNOVA). He has
published extensively on Nietzsche, with a special emphasis on the
relationship between Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. His publications
include “On Consciousness: Nietzsche’s Departure from
Schopenhauer,” in Nietzsche-Studien 40 (2011), pp. 1–42, and
“Nietzsche and Schopenhauer: On Nihilism and the Ascetic ‘Will to
Nothingness’”, in: Shapshay, S. Ed., The Palgrave Handbook to
Schopenhauer, London: Springer/Palgrave, 2017, pp. 425–446.

Adrian Del Caro is Professor of German and Distinguished

Professor of Humanities at the University of Tennessee, USA. He is
the translator of Schopenhauer’s Parerga and Paralipomena (Volume
2) as well as several titles by Nietzsche. His books, articles and
chapters on German and Austrian poets and philosophers have
appeared in numerous international publications. He is General
Editor of the Stanford University Press edition The Complete Works
of Friedrich Nietzsche, in which his translation of The Joyful Science
was published in 2023.

Michał Dobrzański is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of

Philosophy, University of Warsaw, Poland, and head of the German
Philosophy Lab. He graduated in 2016 jointly at the University of
Warsaw and Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz with a thesis
about language and philosophical methodology in Schopenhauer’s
system, which was published in German as “Begriff und Methode bei
Arthur Schopenhauer” (2017, Königshausen & Neumann).
His research is focused on Schopenhauer, German philosophy, and
social philosophy. In 2016, he was a visiting lecturer in Mainz. He
has published in Polish, German, English, and Italian.

Patrick Hassan is Lecturer in Philosophy at Cardiff University, UK.

He specialises in ethics and 19th century philosophy. He is the editor
of Schopenhauer’s Moral Philosophy (Routledge, 2021) and author of
Nietzsche’s Struggle Against Pessimism (Cambridge University Press,
2023).

Jonathan Head is Lecturer in Philosophy at Keele University, UK.

He is the author of Schopenhauer and the Nature of Philosophy
(Lexington, 2021) and co-editor of Schopenhauer’s Fourfold Root
(Routledge, 2016).

Stephen Houlgate is Professor of Philosophy at the University of

Warwick, UK. He is the author of Hegel, Nietzsche and the Criticism
of Metaphysics (1986), Freedom, Truth and History: An Introduction
to Hegel’s Philosophy (1991, 2nd ed. 2005), The Opening of Hegel’s
Logic (2006), Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit (2013), and Hegel on
Being, 2 vols. (2022). He served as Vice-president and President of
the Hegel Society of America and was editor of the Bulletin of the
Hegel Society of Great Britain from 1998 to 2006. He is currently
President of the Hegel Society of Great Britain.

Andrew Huddleston is Professor of Philosophy and Director of the

Centre for Research in Post-Kantian Philosophy at the University of
Warwick, UK. He previously taught at Birkbeck College, University of
London and Exeter College, Oxford. He has published widely on
Nietzsche and other figures in European philosophy, as well as on
aesthetics.

David James is Reader in Philosophy at the University of Warwick,

UK. His publications include Property and its Forms in Classical
German Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2023), Practical
Necessity, Freedom, and History: From Hobbes to Marx (Oxford
University Press, 2021) and Rousseau and German Idealism:
Freedom, Dependence and Necessity (Cambridge University Press,
2013).

Christopher Janaway is Professor of Philosophy at the University

of Southampton, UK. His books include Self and World in
Schopenhauer’s Philosophy (1989), Beyond Selflessness: Reading
Nietzsche’s Genealogy (2007), and Essays on Schopenhauer and
Nietzsche: Values and the Will of Life (2022). He has edited the
collections The Cambridge Companion to Schopenhauer (1999),
Willing and Nothingness: Schopenhauer as Nietzsche’s Educator
(1998) and the co-edited volume Nietzsche, Naturalism and
Normativity (2012). During 2007–2010, he was Principal Investigator
on the AHRC-funded research project ‘Nietzsche and Modern Moral
Philosophy’ and is General Editor of the Cambridge Edition of the
Works of Schopenhauer.

Anthony K. Jensen is Professor of Philosophy, Providence College,

USA. He is the author of An Interpretation of Nietzsche’s On the
Uses and Disadvantage of History for Life (2016), and Nietzsche’s
Philosophy of History (2013); and co-edited with Carlotta Santini,
The Re-Encountered Shadow: Nietzsche on Memory and History
(2021), and with Helmut Heit, Nietzsche as a Scholar of Antiquity
(2014). His current project is a comprehensive exposition of the
concept of ‘Will’ in the 19th Century.

Manja Kisner is Assistant Professor at Radboud University in the

Netherlands. She completed her PhD at the University of Munich and
was afterwards a postdoctoral researcher in Munich, Wuppertal, and
Jena. Her research focuses on Classical German Philosophy and
Schopenhauer. She is the author of the monograph Der Wille und
das Ding an sich: Schopenhauers Willensmetaphysik in ihrem Bezug
zu Kants kritischer Philosophie und dem nachkantischen Idealismus
(2016) and has written articles and book chapters on Kant, German
idealists, and Schopenhauer.
Miles Leeson is Director of the Iris Murdoch Research Centre at the
University of Chichester, UK. He has published widely on Murdoch’s
work and his forthcoming collection Iris Murdoch and the Literary
Imagination (2023) is published with Palgrave Macmillan. He co-edits
the Series ‘Iris Murdoch Today’ with Palgrave, lead-edits the Iris
Murdoch Review, and hosts the Iris Murdoch Podcast.

Jens Lemanski is Researcher at the University of Münster and

Privatdozent for Philosophy at the FernUniversität in Hagen,
Germany. He holds a binational PhD in philosophy from the
Johannes-Gutenberg Universität Mainz and the Università del Salento
(Lecce). He is currently Principle Investigator of the DFG-project
“Gestures and Diagrams in Visual-Spatial Communication” and the
Thyssen-project “Logic Diagrams in Kantianism”. He has published
on the history and philosophy of science, and metaphysics, logic,
multimodality and the foundations of mathematics.

Steven P. Lydon is Leverhulme Early Career Fellow in the

Department of Medieval & Modern Language at Oxford University,
UK. He was previously the recipient of a Japan Society for Promotion
of Science Postdoctoral Fellowship at Tokyo University and a
teaching fellow at Durham University. He is currently working on two
book projects: 1) a monograph on Friedrich Schelling and
Romanticism and 2) an edited volume entitled Romantic Realisms,
which addresses the impact of speculative realism on literary studies.

Colin Marshall is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the

University of Washington, USA. His work focuses on early modern
philosophy, Kant, Schopenhauer, metaethics, and the ethics of
persuasion. He has defended a neo-Schopenhauerian metaethical
view (Compassionate Moral Realism; Oxford, 2018), and edited a
volume on cross-cultural metaethics (Comparative Metaethics;
Routledge, 2019). Together with Sandra Shapshay, he is currently
co-editing The New Cambridge Companion to Schopenhauer
(forthcoming, Cambridge).
Douglas McDermid is Professor of Philosophy at Trent University,
Canada, where he has taught since 2002. He is the author of two
books: The Varieties of Pragmatism (Bloomsbury, 2006) and The
Rise and Fall of Scottish Common Sense Realism (Oxford University
Press, 2018).

Kayla Mehl is a Postdoctoral Fellow at Johns Hopkins University,

USA, who completed her PhD at the University of Washington in
2023. Her research interests are in bioethics, social and political
philosophy, feminist philosophy, and values in science. Her research
generally explores questions related to oppression and justice,
particularly in the context of medical practice, medical research, and
public health policy.

Yitzhak Y. Melamed is the Charlotte Bloomberg Professor of

Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University, USA. He works on Early
Modern Philosophy, German Idealism, Medieval Philosophy, and
some issues in Contemporary Metaphysics (time, mereology, and
trope theory), and is the author of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance
and Thought (Oxford 2013), and Spinoza’s Labyrinths (Oxford,
forthcoming). Currently, he is working on the completion of a book
on Spinoza and German Idealism.

Elizabeth Millán Brusslan is Professor of Philosophy at DePaul

University, USA. She works on Aesthetics, German
Idealism/Romanticism and Latin American Philosophy. She is the
author of Friedrich Schlegel and the Emergence of Romantic
Philosophy (SUNY, 2007) and several edited volumes on early
German Romanticism and Latin American philosophy. She recently
edited with Jimena Solé, Fichte in the Americas, a volume in the
Fichte Studien Series (Leiden: Brill, 2023). In 2004–2005, she was
awarded an Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship for a project on
Humboldt’s view of nature, and she has published several articles on
that topic and is finishing a book-length study, Alexander von
Humboldt: Romantic Critic of Nature.
Sean T. Murphy is Assistant Professor of Philosophy in the
Department of Languages and Philosophy at Southern Utah
University, USA. He works on various figures and themes in 18th and
19th century European philosophy, focusing on the different
conceptions of agency, self, and character that proliferate during this
period. He has recently published papers on Schopenhauer’s account
of motivation and the role of self-knowledge and reflection in his
view of agency. He also works on historical and contemporary issues
in aesthetics and the philosophy of art.

Jakob Norberg is Professor of German at Duke University, USA. He

has published two books, Sociability and Its Enemies (2014) and The
Brothers Grimm and the Making of German Nationalism (2022). He
is also the author of the article “Schopenhauer’s Critique of
Nationalism” (2022).

Brian O’Connor is Professor of Philosophy at University College

Dublin, Ireland. He is the author of Adorno’s Negative Dialectic
(2004), Adorno (2013), and Idleness: A Philosophical Essay (2018),
as well as editor of volumes on German idealist philosophy and
critical theory.

Mathijs Peters is Assistant Professor at the Leiden University

Centre for the Arts in Society, Netherlands. He is the author of
Schopenhauer and Adorno on Bodily Suffering (2014). He is
interested in a wide range of fields, from political philosophy to film
studies, and from aesthetics to Cultural Analysis. He has published
on topics as diverse as the moral foundation of Hartmut Rosa’s
theory of acceleration, Theodor W. Adorno’s references to bodily
suffering, the lyrics of the Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers,
and the Schopenhauerian aspects of the television series True
Detective.

Peter Poellner is Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University

of Warwick, UK. He has published on topics in the philosophy of
value, the philosophy of mind, and the history of philosophy,
especially on Nietzsche, classical phenomenology (Husserl, Scheler,
Sartre), and Musil. His most recent book-length publication is Value
in Modernity (Oxford University Press, 2022).

Stephen Puryear is Professor of Philosophy, and affiliate of the

Classical Studies program, at North Carolina State University, USA.
His areas of research are the history of modern philosophy
(especially Leibniz, Kant, and Schopenhauer), metaphysics, and
ethics. He has published numerous articles and book chapters in
these fields.

Sabine Roehr was Associate Professor of Philosophy at New Jersey

City University, USA, until her retirement in 2022. She publishes on
Reinhold, Schiller, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche, and has translated
works by Reinhold and Schopenhauer.

Alejandro Naranjo Sandoval is an assistant professor in the

Philosophy Department at University of California, Davis. His main
research concerns the history of the philosophy of mind and
psychology in 17th and 18th century European thought. His current
project investigates the relation between Kant’s philosophy of mind
and those of Leibniz and the Leibnizians Christian Wolff and
Alexander Baumgarten with the aim of clarifying the debate about
the nature of the cognitive faculties and their relation. Along the
way, we obtain an account of the notions of representation,
cognition, consciousness, perception, as well as of Kant’s elusive
notion of an intuition, within their historical context in 18th-century
German philosophy. In addition to his historical work, Professor
Sandoval has research interests in the philosophy of race and social
ontology.

Alexander Sattar is Fritz Thyssen Postdoctoral Research Fellow at

the Institute of Philosophy, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany.
He is a former Fulbright and Alexander von Humboldt fellow and his
recent publications include “Positive Aesthetic Pleasure in Early
Schopenhauer: Two Kantian Accounts” (Idealistic Studies), “Kantian
vs. Platonic: The Ambiguity of Schopenhauer’s Notion of Ideas
Explained via Its Origins” (Journal of Transcendental Philosophy),
and “Schopenhauer’s ‘hermeneutischer’ Metaphysik- und Kritizismus-
Begriff vor dem Hintergrund seiner Kant-Rezeption” (Journal of the
History of Philosophy).

Mor Segev is the American Foundation for Greek Language and

Culture (AFGLC) Professor of Greek Culture, director of the
Interdisciplinary Center for Hellenic Studies, and associate professor
of philosophy at the University of South Florida, USA. He has
published widely on topics in the history of philosophy, including
Schopenhauer’s reception of Aristotle. His most recent book, The
Value of the World and of Oneself: Philosophical Optimism and
Pessimism from Aristotle to Modernity (Oxford University Press,
2022), discusses Aristotle, Maimonides, Spinoza, Schopenhauer,
Nietzsche, and Camus.

Sandra Shapshay is Professor of Philosophy at the City University

of New York (with appointments at Hunter College and the CUNY
Graduate Center). With Jonathan Gilmore, she is the co-editor of the
Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. She obtained her PhD from
Columbia University and taught at Indiana University Bloomington
before coming to CUNY in 2019. Her research focuses on
contemporary intersections of aesthetics and ethics – especially with
respect to public commemorative artworks such as monuments and
memorials as well as the aesthetic appreciation of nature – and is
informed by 19th century philosophy (with focus on Schopenhauer
and Kant). Recent publications include: “What is the Monumental?”
in Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism (2021), “A Two-Tiered
Theory of the Sublime” in British Journal of Aesthetics (2021),
“Kantian Approaches to Ethical Judgment of Art” in the Oxford
Handbook of Art and Ethics, ed. James Harold (forthcoming).
Shapshay has also published widely in 19th-century German
philosophy, for example, a recent monograph Reconstructing
Schopenhauer’s Ethics: Hope, Compassion, and Animal Welfare
(Oxford University Press, 2019).
Byron Simmons is Visiting Assistant Professor of Philosophy at
Texas A&M University, USA. He is interested in metaphysics, ethics,
and the history of 19th- and 20th-century philosophy.

Patrick Stokes is Associate Professor of Philosophy at Deakin

University, Melbourne, Australia. His works focus on issues of
personal identity, death, and moral psychology. He is the author of
Kierkegaard’s Mirrors (Palgrave, 2010), The Naked Self (Oxford,
2015) and Digital Souls (Bloomsbury: 2021) and is a regular media
commentator on philosophical matters.

Timothy Stoll is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the University

of Warwick, UK. He is the co-editor of The Schopenhauerian Mind.
He works on a variety of figures in post-Kantian philosophy, including
Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Schiller.

Bart Vandenabeele is Professor of Aesthetics and Philosophy of

Art at Ghent University, Belgium. He has written extensively on
aesthetics and on Schopenhauer, Kant, and post-Kantian philosophy.
He is the author and editor of several books, including The Sublime
in Schopenhauer’s Philosophy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015) and A
Companion to Schopenhauer (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, ed.). He is a
member of the international advisory board of the Schopenhauer-
Gesellschaft, past Vice-chair of the Philosophy of Communication
Section of ECREA, and past Vice-president of the Dutch Association
of Aesthetics.

Michel-Antoine Xhignesse is Instructor of Philosophy at Capilano

University in North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. He is the
author of Aesthetics: 50 Puzzles, Paradoxes, and Thought
Experiments (Routledge 2023).
INTRODUCTION
DOI: 10.4324/9781003048992-1

Why this book now? The simplest answer is that the field of
Schopenhauer studies can easily accommodate it. While recent years
have seen the appearance of many fine companions and handbooks
on Schopenhauer, including The Cambridge Companion to
Schopenhauer (ed. Christopher Janaway, 1999), A Companion to
Schopenhauer (ed. Bart Vandenabeele, 2012), The Palgrave
Schopenhauer Handbook (ed. Sandra Shapshay, 2018), and The
Oxford Handbook of Schopenhauer (ed. Robert Wicks, 2020), there
is still endless room for novelty in Schopenhauer studies. Moreover,
and if the above list and recent news of The New Cambridge
Companion to Schopenhauer (eds. Sandra Shapshay and Colin
Marshall, forthcoming) are any indication, the Anglophone world’s
interest in Schopenhauer's philosophy stands now at something of a
historic high. As the latest in this line of distinguished compendia,
The Schopenhauerian Mind offers readers both new perspectives on
core areas of Schopenhauer’s philosophy, as well as treatments of
more neglected, but no less fascinating and important, aspects of his
thought, context, and legacy.
The book presents new research in Schopenhauer’s theoretical
philosophy, including new interpretations of his metaphysics of the
will and representation, his theories of rationality, science, acoustics,
self-consciousness, and his meta-philosophy. While Schopenhauer’s
philosophy of art and aesthetics is rightfully well-trodden ground, we
include groundbreaking work on its application to human beauty,
temporal beauty, moral beauty, musical beauty, and specific modes
of aesthetic experience such as the sublime. Perhaps the largest
area of recent growth in Schopenhauer studies has been in his
practical philosophy and philosophy of value, with Schopenhauer’s
ethical theory, metaethics, moral psychology, political philosophy,
philosophy of history, philosophy of religion, and philosophy of
pessimism, receiving renewed and increasing attention. All of these
topics find new treatments here. As if that were not enough, the
volume also presents new essays on Schopenhauer’s place in the
history of philosophy, and indeed on his own thoughts on the history
of philosophy, including both European and non-European traditions,
as well as on his reception of such figures and schools as Herodotus
and the Greek tragedians, the Stoics, Spinoza, Rousseau, Goethe,
and Hegel. And finally, the volume concludes with chapters on
Schopenhauer’s legacy among other thinkers, writers, and artists,
including Kierkegaard, Wagner, Mann, Wittgenstein, Adorno,
Murdoch, and Borges. Most of these figures before and after
Schopenhauer have never been covered in other companion
volumes. These nearly forty newly commissioned essays, in sum,
present yet more sides to the multifarious Schopenhauer.
We owe a large debt of gratitude to all of the fine scholars who
are responsible for the growth and health of contemporary
Schopenhauer studies, especially, of course, those who have
generously contributed a chapter to this volume. Throughout the
process, we have been consistently delighted and heartened by the
superb quality of their work. The achievements of these scholars are
especially extraordinary given that this project was started in earnest
just before the coronavirus pandemic, meaning that all of this high-
quality work was produced under conditions of immense pressure,
fear, confusion, often sadness, and of course illness. In the words of
Max Horkheimer, first published in 1961 but just as relevant today:
‘There are few ideas that the world today needs more than
Schopenhauer’s—ideas which in the face of utter hopelessness,
because they confront it, know more than any others of hope.’ In
their triumph over adversity, these fine scholars join Schopenhauer
in this paradoxical form of hope.
David Bather Woods and Timothy Stoll
 PART 1

Knowledge and Reality

1
REALISM AND ITS
DISCONTENTS

Douglas McDermid
DOI: 10.4324/9781003048992-3

It is only shallow people who do not judge by appearances.

– Oscar Wilde

1.1
Why was Schopenhauer implacably opposed to “that natural and
childlike realism in which we are all born, and which qualifies one for
every possible thing except philosophy” (SW 2:17/WWR 1:xxiv)?1 If
the explanation I advance in this chapter is essentially sound, his
critique of metaphysical realism deftly weaves together ideas and
arguments from Plato, the Upanishads, Descartes, Malebranche,
Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Reid, Kant, and Fichte. Before I say anything
about Schopenhauer, however, a few preliminary remarks about
realism are in order.

1.2
According to metaphysical realism, a razor-sharp distinction must be
drawn between the reality and the appearance of a physical object:
between the tree as it is apart from us, on the one hand, and the
tree as it appears to us in perception, on the other. To avoid
confusion, it must immediately be added that the metaphysical
realist does not regard this distinction as mere epistemological
shorthand, or as a convenient way of contrasting one's fragmented
and imperfect consciousness of a thing (how it may initially seem or
appear to me) with an ideally complete and coherent understanding
of its nature (how the thing really and truly is).2 No; our realist
insists that objects are ontologically prior to appearances, that trees
and rocks exist in their own right, and that their fundamental
attributes exist independently of anyone’s perceptions of them. The
gist of her creed, we might say, is that the world is not our
representation, that things in space and time are not constituted by
“such stuff as dreams are made of,” and that there is an epistemic
gap between appearance and reality which can never be closed
completely, at least in theory.
This view is so familiar and trite that we may forget to ask why
anyone would subscribe to it. How can such forgetfulness be
remedied? A brisk review of four pleas for realism will remind us of
the phenomena which that doctrine is meant to clarify, as well as the
principles which its purveyors tend to take for granted.

1. Seeing is believing: Our first argument,

unsophisticated to the point of naivete, seeks to
derive our knowledge of mind-independent things
directly from the testimony of our senses. Since
we cannot doubt the existence of what we
perceive, our artless realist reasons, we know
that physical objects exist if we know that we
perceive them. Yet who but a pathetic Bedlamite
or brazen paradox-monger doubts that we
 perceive trees and rocks, houses and rivers?
Assuming that our beliefs in the existence of what
we perceive are non-inferentially justified, we can
credit ourselves with knowledge of mind-
independent particulars which is epistemically
foundational or basic.
2. Appearance and reality: Consider the fact that
some experiences – sensory illusions,
hallucinations, dreams, and phantom limb pain –
fail to match or correspond with the way the
world is. The question we need to ask, but rarely
do, is how such failure is possible. What must the
world be like, in other words, if experience can
misrepresent it? The realist’s answer is
straightforward: the world must exist
independently of our minds. And this answer
surely sounds plausible. After all, if we think it is
possible for an object to appear F to us when it is
not-F (as when a distant tower seems round
when it is really square), haven’t we assumed
that at least some of an object's properties are
what they are apart from our perceptions?
Similarly, if we allow that it is possible for a
perceiver to have an experience of an X – a pink
elephant, say – when no X is present, haven’t we
taken it for granted that there is a distinction
between experiences (which are subject-
 dependent) and physical objects (which are not)?
In short, it looks very much as if the idea of an
objective world is built into the way we think
about truth and falsity, knowledge and error,
being and seeming. And if realism is indeed an
inescapable presupposition of our thought, it
admits of no proof and requires none.
3. Natural convictions and common sense: Ask
friends who are innocent of philosophy whether
they believe the moon and stars would cease to
exist if there were no astronomers. Better yet,
ask them whether they agree with Berkeley’s
dictum that to be is to be perceived. Most of your
interlocutors will probably find your questions
bizarre; some will suspect you are joking; a few
might even question your sobriety, if not your
sanity. What do these spontaneous effusions of
perplexity and scorn betoken? Answer: that your
friends are natural realists in whom there is no
guile, Johnsonian stone-kickers who instinctively
believe that full many a flower is born to blush
unseen. But if belief in the mind-independent
existence of physical objects is a spontaneous
and necessary product of our constitution, how
can we quarrel with it? Doubt is reasonable only
when based on something which is more evident
to us than the doctrine to be doubted; yet
 nothing is more evident to us than those
universal convictions which are the direct and
irresistible expression of human nature.
4. Ockham’s razor and explanations: What is
the best explanation of the fact that you seem to
see trees and rocks? Let us concede at least this
much to the intrepid skeptic: it is possible that
you are deep in a vivid dream of Arcadia, or that
your prosaic vision is a drug-induced
hallucination, or that your “perceptions” are
counterfeits struck by a cunning demon.
Nevertheless, these skeptical scenarios
immediately strike us as contrived,
counterintuitive, and convoluted; and it is a
maxim widely acknowledged among empiricists
that we should choose the simplest explanation
of the facts available to us, all other things being
equal. Now, the simplest explanation in this case
is the one proffered by our realist: that your
perceptions of trees are normally caused by real
trees, that your perceptions of rocks are normally
caused by real rocks, and so forth. In other
words, the hypothesis of a mind-independent
world is an explanation than which none better
can be conceived.
So much for my introductory remarks about the meaning of
metaphysical realism. In the remainder of this chapter (Sections 1.3–
1.7), I shall do my best to show that Schopenhauer's many-sided
attack on this doctrine involves five theses, each of which is
supported with a passel of intriguing arguments.

1.3
Thesis 1: The view that physical objects are mind-
independent is most emphatically not self-evident,
axiomatic, indubitable, or a first principle of common sense.
Modern European philosophers tend to present what they call
“metaphysical realism” as if it were little more than a pedantic re-
statement of what sane human beings have always and everywhere
believed about the nature of things. Schopenhauer strenuously
objects to this way of proceeding, and he isn’t afraid to tell us why:

Realism, which commends itself to the crude

understanding by appearing to be founded on
fact, starts precisely from an arbitrary
assumption, and is in consequence an empty
castle in the air, since it skips or denies the first
fact of all, namely, that all that we know lies in
consciousness.
(SW 3:5–6/WWR 2:8)

As Schopenhauer sees it, realism stands in need of philosophical

justification; it cannot be treated as a luminously intuitive truth or
assumed as a first principle. Let us see why he thinks so.

1. Skepticism about realist “intuitions”:

Although the idea that Nature exists absolutely or
in its own right may appear unimpeachably self-
 evident to metaphysicians in Europe, it has not
seemed self-evident to innumerable Hindu and
Buddhist philosophers in India. What are we to
make of this arresting discrepancy? According to
Schopenhauer, the realists among us should at
least acknowledge the possibility that their
apparently spontaneous attachment to this
doctrine may be the product of contingent
historical developments. For example, could it be
that Western philosophers tend to find realism
self-evident not because it is self-evident, but
because their culture’s cosmological assumptions
were shaped by a religious tradition in which God
created Nature before He created human beings
capable of knowing it? Schopenhauer occasionally
suggests that this debunking explanation – viz.,
that our instinctive doubts about idealism are
simply secularized echoes of the Book of Genesis
– may very well be correct:3 , 4

In India, idealism is the doctrine of popular

religion, not merely of Brahmanism, but also of
Buddhism; only in Europe is it paradoxical in
consequences of the essentially and inevitably
realistic fundamental view of Judaism.
(SW 1:32/FR 36; cf. SW 6:39–40, 412/PP 2:38, 349)
Unless I am able to come up with some reason for thinking that this
debunking explanation is not the whole story, how can I be sure that
my so-called “intuition” is more than an inherited prejudice or a
culturally conditioned response? Schopenhauer’s point here, to be
clear, is not that metaphysical realism is not self-evident; it is that
realism is not self-evidently self-evident.

2. The egocentric predicament: Since knowledge

requires both a subject (the knower) and an
object (what is known), any object we know must
be related to our minds by virtue of the very fact
that we know it.5 But if every object we can know
is always related to a subject, how can we know
what objects are like apart from subjects?
Indeed, how can we know that objects even exist
apart from subjects? One thing is apparent: the
mere fact that I am conscious of X does not
mean that it is self-evident or certain that X exists
independently of consciousness. Here is how
Schopenhauer puts it:

[N]othing is more certain than that no one ever

came out of himself in order to identify himself
immediately with things different from him; but
everything of which he has certain, sure, and
hence immediate knowledge, lies within his
consciousness. Beyond this consciousness,
therefore, there can be no immediate certainty;
 but the first principles of a science must have
such a certainty.
(SW 3:5/WWR 2:8)

To be sure, objects may exist outside of us and correspond to our

perceptions; but Schopenhauer insists that this correspondence
cannot be taken for granted as if it were an irrefragable datum,
because “[w]e cannot go beyond consciousness” (SW 3:568/WWR
2:512). Since we have not ruled out the possibility that our intellects
impose forms on reality which are foreign to reality's nature, it is
sheer dogmatism to assert that the objects we know must exist as
we know them independently of our knowledge.

3. La vida es sueño: As we have seen, some

realists hold that mind-independent things are
immediately perceived. However, Schopenhauer
thinks that this view was effectively refuted by
Descartes in Meditation I:

Everything objective is for us always only

mediate; the subjective alone is the immediate;
and this must not be passed over, but must be
made the absolute starting point. Now this has
been done by Descartes, indeed, he was the first
to recognize and do it, and for this reason with
him a new main epoch of philosophy begins.
(SW 5:82/PP 1:72; cf. SW 5:3–5/PP 1:7–8, SW 6:17/PP 2:19–
20)
Suppose our realist assures us that she is immediately aware of
something external – the Parthenon, for example. At this point,
Descartes and Schopenhauer will remind her that any experience I
can imagine myself having while awake could be part of a
subjectively indistinguishable dream: “[T]he world must be
recognized, from one aspect at least, as akin to a dream, indeed as
capable of being put in the same class with a dream” (SW 3:4/WWR
2:7). But what is immediately before your mind when you dream of
the Parthenon? Nothing objective or external; only a fleeting
sequence of images, a private parade of apparitions. Why, then,
should I suppose that anything objective or external is directly
present to consciousness if and when I see the real Parthenon?
Since the two experiences are identical from the point of view of the
subject who has them, there seems no reason to deny that their
immediate objects are of the same ontological type. And there’s the
rub: if you are acquainted with nothing but ideas, how can the
existence of mind-independent things possibly be self-evident?

4. Secondary qualities and the objects of

perception: Schopenhauer’s point here can be
made in a slightly different way. Whenever I
perceive a physical object, I am immediately
aware of what Locke called its secondary
qualities: color, taste, texture, and so on.
However, Locke and his congeners (who are
legion) urge that our ideas of these qualities
resemble nothing in things themselves:

Locke had shown that the secondary qualities of

things, such as sound, odor, color, hardness,
softness, smoothness, and the like, founded on
the affections of the senses, do not belong to
 the objective body, the thing-in-itself. To this, on
the contrary, he attributed only the primary
qualities, i.e., those that presuppose merely
space and impenetrability, and so extension,
shape, solidity, number, and mobility.
(SW 2:494–95/WWR 1:444)

That is to say, the colors we glimpse and the flavors we savor are
not woven into the fabric of the universe; they exist only in relation
to creatures with our constitution. Yet if what I am immediately
aware of always has qualities that nothing purely objective or
external can have, nothing is self-evident to me except the existence
of subjectively conditioned phenomena – mere appearances,
presentations, or impressions.
This, then, is Schopenhauer’s first thesis about metaphysical
realism: if objects exist independently of our perceptions, no beliefs
about trees and rocks can be epistemically basic or foundational,
because “the subjective alone is the immediate” (SW 5:82/PP 1:72).
However, some beliefs about trees and rocks will qualify as
foundational if objects are identified with presentations, since the
latter are known immediately. Hence the factitious and intractable
“problem of the external world” is a problem for metaphysical
realists, but not for idealists.

1.4
Thesis 2: If metaphysical realism is true, we cannot know
how things are in themselves; we can only know how they
appear from our point of view, or in relation to our all-too-
human faculties.
Having argued that metaphysical realism is not self-evidently true,
Schopenhauer now argues that it is not true at all. Along the way, he
calls our attention to a curious paradox: the epistemological
consequences of metaphysical realism contradict common sense, yet
common sense is an authority to which realists confidently appeal
and gladly defer.

1. The synthesis of philosophy and common

sense: Is the existence of a mind-independent
world self-evident from the standpoint of modern
philosophy? No; thinkers from Descartes to Fichte
have made it perfectly plain that our starting
point in philosophy must be the inner citadel of
subjectivity. Nevertheless, the existence of
physical objects is self-evident from the
standpoint of common sense and science; for
everyone in their right mind instinctively believes
that trees and rocks can be perceived in propria
persona, without any epistemic intermediaries or
go-betweens. How, then, can we reconcile the
sturdy dictates of common sense with the subtle
discoveries of modern thought? There is only one
way to effect this synthesis, Schopenhauer thinks,
and that is to turn our backs on metaphysical
realism once and for all.

[T]rue philosophy must at all costs be idealistic;

indeed it must be so merely to be honest. For
nothing is more certain than that no one ever
came out of himself in order to identify himself
immediately with things different from him; but
 everything of which he has certain, sure, and
hence immediate knowledge, lies within his
consciousness. Beyond this consciousness,
therefore, there can be no immediate certainty;
but the first principles of a science must have
such a certainty. It is quite appropriate to the
empirical standpoint of all the other sciences to
assume the objective world as positively and
actually existing; it is not appropriate to the
standpoint of philosophy, which has to go back
to what is primary and original. Consciousness
alone is immediately given, hence the basis of
philosophy is limited to the facts of
consciousness; in other words, philosophy is
essentially idealistic.
(SW 3:5/WWR 2:8)

Note that this conciliatory gambit is basically Berkeleyan: if trees and

rocks can be known immediately (the invincible conviction of the
vulgar) and if nothing is known immediately except appearances
(the measured verdict of the learned), trees and rocks can only exist
as such for subjects.6

2. The veil of perception: We have already noted

that physical objects cannot be known
immediately if they exist independently of
perception. Now consider this: if mind-
independent objects cannot be known
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