The Rise of Modern West ll

Semester 4
History Honours
Assignment-2

Topic- What were the major inventions and discoveries during the
scientific revolution in Europe?
What were the causes behind these?

By- Khushi Gulati (2022/0456)

Submitted to- Ajay Khandal

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Introduction
The Scientific Revolution, a transformative period spanning the 16th to 18th
centuries, stands as a cornerstone of human intellectual history. It marked a
significant change in how people understood and interacted with nature, upending
long-held notions and opening the door for contemporary scientific research. Europe
saw a boom of scientific advancements, new technologies, and theories that
completely changed how people thought about the universe, biology, and
mathematics during this time. This assignment tries to investigate the main
innovations, findings, and fundamental reasons behind the Scientific Revolution,
illuminating the influential people and social dynamics that drove this period of
enlightenment and exploration. We will untangle the intricacies and lingering effects
of this crucial period in history by looking at important individuals, their
contributions, and the cultural, philosophical, and technological environments in
which they emerged. The term "scientist" was first used in 1840, although the fact
that the 17th century is remembered as a time of significant scientific advancements.
This was the century of Galileo, Kepler, Bacon, Pascal, Descartes, and Newton.
Developments in Astronomy and Physics
Nicholas Copernicus challenged Aristotle and Ptolemy's views by
suggesting the sun was the centre of the universe, and planets, including Earth,
moved around it in spherical orbits. His work, "De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium" (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published in 1543,
presented his heliocentric model. This heliocentric conception challenged
traditional teachings and had significant scientific and religious consequences. It
influenced later astronomers, such as Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler, who built
upon his work and contributed to the eventual acceptance of the heliocentric model.

Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) collected a large amount of

data on star and planet locations, but his limited mathematical knowledge hindered
his understanding. German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) used his
data to support Brahe's ideas and Copernicus's elliptical orbits, leading to the
development of modern astronomy.

In 1608, Europe had low power spyglasses, credited to Dutchman Hans

Lippershey. These telescopes had limited magnifying power, creating a captive
market. Galileo, aware of this invention, designed his own improved versions based
on designs of existing optical instruments with higher magnification. His first
telescopes only improved the view to eighth power, but his telescope steadily
improved, capable of magnifying about ten times more than normal vision. This led
to the discovery of the Moon's mountains, craters, Jupiter's moons, Venus' stages,
and sun spot drawings, all supporting the heliocentric view of the world.

Sir Isaac Newton(1642-1727), an Englishman, was considered the greatest

figure of the century. In his book Principia Mathematica (1687), he integrated
the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo into a system of mathematical laws to
explain the three laws of motion of bodies and the law of universal gravitation.
Newton's law proved that the sun, moon, earth, planets, and all other bodies moved
in accordance with the same basic force of gravitation, proving that the universe
operated by rules that could be explained in the language of mathematics.

Development in mathematics
The logarithm, invented by John Napier in the 17th century, significantly
influenced science, astronomy, and mathematics by making complex calculations
easier. It was a significant mathematical development, enabling physicists like Kepler
and Newton to perform complex calculations.
 Frenchman René Descartes developed analytic geometry and Cartesian
coordinates, which laid the foundations for calculus. Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz revolutionized mathematics by developing infinitesimal calculus, which has
applications in fields such as knowledge engineering, economics, medicine, and
astronomy.

Both Newton and Leibniz also contributed to other areas of mathematics,

such as the generalized binomial theorem, the theory of finite differences, and
the use of infinite power series. Leibniz developed a mechanical forerunner to the
computer and used matrices to solve linear equations. The Bernoulli Brothers,
Jacob and Johann of Basel in Switzerland, further developed Leibniz's
infinitesimal calculus in the 18th century. The debate over the development of
calculus continues, but it remains the most widely used notation in mathematics
today.

Development in Non-Quantitative Fields

William Gilbert's book, "On the Magnet," in 1600, became a standard work
on electrical and magnetic phenomena in Europe. It distinguished between
magnetism and static, known as the amber effect, and compared the polarity of a
magnet to Earth's polarity. Gilbert's findings suggested that magnetism was the soul
of the Earth, and that a perfectly spherical lodestone would spin on its axis, similar to
Earth's axis rotation over 24 hours. This debunked traditional cosmologists' belief
that Earth was fixed at the center of the universe and provided insight for Galileo's
idea that Earth revolves around the Sun.
William Harvey, an English physician, studied at the University of
Padua and conducted research on animal anatomy. He published his theories in
1628, explaining how the heart propels blood in a circular course through the body.
Harvey also suggested that humans and mammals reproduced through the
fertilization of an egg by sperm. Although it took two centuries for a mammalian egg
to be observed, Harvey's theory gained credibility throughout his lifetime. His work
on heart and blood motion in animals remains influential in modern medicine.

Alchemy to Chemistry
Alchemy was an early philosophical and spiritual discipline that combined
chemistry with metal work to explore nature and find the "elixir of life." Alchemists
aimed to create a substance called the "philosopher's stone" that could transform
gold through transmutation. Alchemists contributed to various industries, including
basic metallurgy, metalworking, inks, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather-tanning, and
extracts and liquors.
German alchemists like Robert Boyle, who developed porcelain materials
and articulated Boyle's law, are sometimes considered the father of modern
chemistry. Boyle wrote two papers on the transmutation of elements and claimed to
have changed gold into mercury using "quicksilver," which he did not reveal.
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was a pioneer in discovering new chemistry
through experimentation and observation. Despite the legacy of alchemists like
Boyle, the process of combustion or burning in air was not clear until the 18th
century. German scientist Georg Ernst Stahl believed that everything burned
contained a common element of fire, phlogiston. Lavoisier conducted experiments
with phosphorus and sulfur, finding that they gained weight by burning in the air.
However, he was doubtful of the existence of phlogiston. In 1774, English scientist
Joseph Priestley shared his experience of heating mercury calx, which he believed
helped candles burn longer and was free of phlogiston. He called the gas that he
obtained by burning mercury calx
“dephlogisticated gas”.
In Paris, Lavoisier reworked Priestley's experiment with mercury and metal
oxides, concluding that air was a complex mixture of elements or gases. He proposed
a new theory of combustion, rejecting Sthal's phlogiston and focusing on the
chemical reaction of combustible metals with common air. In 1779, he identified
oxygen as the central element in this new theory.
In 1766, Henry Cavendish discovered that water was a compound of
oxygen and Cavendish's 'new air', which was later named hydrogen. Lavoisier's
new chemistry, introduced in his Elements of Chemistry (1789), incorporated new
aspects like heating, gas properties, acid-base reactions, and laboratory apparatus.
He also defined the Law of the Conservation of Mass.

Causes behind these inventions

The key discoveries and inventions of the Scientific Revolution have a variety of
interrelated and multifaceted causes. The following are the main reasons:

1. Renaissance Humanism:
The revival of learning and humanist ideals during the Renaissance fostered
an environment of curiosity and critical inquiry. Renaissance scholars sought to
rediscover and build upon the knowledge of ancient civilizations, leading to a
reexamination of traditional beliefs and the exploration of new ideas.

2. Printing press:
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th
century played a crucial role in disseminating scientific knowledge. The widespread
availability of printed materials facilitated the exchange of ideas among scholars and
encouraged the publication of scientific treatises and discoveries. This dissemination
of knowledge accelerated the spread of scientific thought and spurred further inquiry
and innovation.
 3. Exploration and Trade:
European exploration and trade during the Age of Discovery expanded
horizons and facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and information across
continents. The encounter with new cultures and civilizations exposed Europeans to
diverse perspectives and knowledge systems, stimulating intellectual curiosity and
sparking scientific inquiry.

4. Challenge to Authority:
The challenges to religious and intellectual authority brought about by events
like the Protestant Reformation created an atmosphere conducive to questioning
established beliefs and dogmas. The Protestant Reformation led to the fragmentation
of religious authority and the rise of individual interpretation of scripture,
encouraging critical thinking and scepticism.

5. Economic Factors:
Economic factors also played a significant role in fostering scientific
innovation. The rise of capitalism and the patronage system provided financial
support for scientific endeavors, allowing scholars to pursue research and
experimentation without being solely dependent on traditional sources of patronage
such as the church or aristocracy.

Conclusion
The impact of the Scientific Revolution reverberates through the centuries,
shaping our understanding of the universe and fostering advancements in fields
ranging from astronomy and physics to biology and medicine. The legacy of this
period is evident in the scientific method, which emphasises empirical observation,
hypothesis testing, and peer review as fundamental principles of inquiry. As we
reflect on the achievements of Copernicus, Galileo, and their contemporaries, we
recognize their courage to challenge prevailing beliefs and their dedication to the
pursuit of truth.
In conclusion, the Scientific Revolution fundamentally transformed human
understanding of the natural world and laid the groundwork for modern science. Its
legacy continues to shape scientific inquiry and innovation, reminding us of the
power of curiosity, experimentation, and collaboration in unlocking the mysteries of
the universe.