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Gs-1 History Question Bank)
Pala art:
 Discuss the features of Pala art and architecture and its relationship with Buddhism. *65th BPSC‐2020+
 Describe the salient features of pala architecture and sculpture. [47 BPSC/2007]
 Give a description of the main features of Pala art in Bihar. [41 BPSC/1997]
 Critically examine the salient features of Pal Art. [43 BPSC/2001]
Patna Kalam Paintings:

 Bring out the main features of patna qulam painting. [66 BPSC/2021]
 Examine the salient features of Patna Kalam Painting Style. [63 BPSC/2019]
 Bring out the salient features of the Patna Kalam Paintings. [56‐59 BPSC/2016]
 Discuss the salient features of Patna Kalam & Painting style. [48‐52 BPSC/2009]
 Discuss the chief characteristics of the Patna Kalam painting. [46 BPSC/2005]
Mauryan Art:
 Throw light on Mauryan Art and analyze its impact in Bihar. [60‐62 BPSC/2019]
 Discuss the features of Mauryan art and architecture and its relationship with Buddhism. [64th BPSC/2018]
 Discuss the salient features of Mauryan Art. [53‐55 BPSC/2012]
 Analyse the salient features of mauryan art and architecture. [47 BPSC/2007]
 Critical examine the chief characteristics of the Mauryan Art. [45 BPSC/2002]
 Identify the main features of the Mauryan Art as found from Bihar. [42 BPSC/1999]
 What are the distinctive features of Mauryan Sculpture? [40 BPSC/1995]
 Write an essay on the art and paintings of Bihar. [39 BPSC/1993]
Tribal Revolts
 Examine the characteristics of tribal protest in the 19th century with suitable examples. Give reasons for
their failure. [64th BPSC/2018]
Santhal Uprising:
 What were the causes of the santhal revolt? What were its course and outcome? *66th‐BPSC‐ 2021+
 Evaluate the causes and results of Revolt of Santhal [1855‐56] in Bihar. [63 BPSC/2019]
 Discuss the main causes of the Santhal Uprising. What were its consequences? [56‐59 BPSC/2016]
 Discuss the causes and results of revolt of santhals [1855‐56] in Bihar. [48‐52 BPSC/2009]
 “Santhal Uprising provides a model of popular armed resistance against British colonialism in India”. Explain.
[45 BPSC/2002]
 The Santhal Uprising was the first fierce reaction of the tribals against British colonial rule in India’. Elucidate.
[43 BPSC/2001]
Birsa Movement:
 Examine the characteristics of the Birsa movement. *66th BPSC‐2021+
 “The underlying object of Birsa Movement was internal purification and desire to remove the alien
government.” Explain. [53‐55 BPSC/2012] OR
 ‘Birsa provided a new religious leadership to the tribal struggles against the British’.
 Explain. [44 BPSC/2002] OR
 Write a critique of the Birsa Movement with special reference to its nature and the lesson it left on tribal
administration. [42 BPSC/1999] OR
 Briefly examine the tribal movements of Bihar with special reference to the Birsa movement. [39 BPSC/1993]
Revolt of 1857
 What were the causes of the Revolt of 1857? What effect did it have on Bihar? [65th BPSC/2020]
 Discuss the contribution of Bihar to the Uprising of 1857 AD. [63rd BPSC/2018] Critically examine the
significance of the Revolt of 1857 with special reference to Bihar. [56‐59 BPSC/2016]
Contact Us : Pram IAS ,3rd Floor ,Cheap And Best Near V Mart Boring Road Chauraha . Patna 01, Mob:-
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 Critically examine the role of kunwar singh in the revolt of 1857. [53‐55 BPSC/2012]
 Discuss the causes of the Outbreak of the revolt of 1857 in Bihar and account for its failure? [47 BPSC/2007]
 Evaluate the role of kunwar singh in the revolt of 1857. [43 BPSC/2001]
 “It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the so‐called first national war of independence of 1857 is neither
first, nor national, nor a war of independence.” Comment. [41 BPSC/1997]
Indian Freedom Struggle

Gandhi:
 Write a short notes on: ‘Gandhiji’s views on Satyagraha.’ *66th BPSC‐2021+
 Write short notes on: “Gandhiji’s views on caste and religion”. *65th BPSC‐2020+
 “Gandhi’s mystique consisted of a union of original ideas with a remarkable flair for tactics and an uncanny
insight in the mass mind.” Elucidate.
 Describe the significance of Gandhiji’s social and cultural thoughts.
 Analyze the role of Gandhiji in the Mass Movement of Bihar. [46 BPSC/2005]
 Critically evaluate the views of Gandhi on “Varna‐Jati” system. Were they compatible with his activism against
untouchability? [41 BPSC/1997]
 What message Gandhiji sought to convey through his insistence on Swadeshi? [40 BPSC/1995]
Nehru:
 Discuss the Nehru’s views on communalism and secularism. *66th BPSC‐2021+
 Examine the main features of Foreign Policy of Jawaharlal Nehru. [60‐62 BPSC/2019]
 Write short notes on: Nehru and secularism [64th BPSC/2018]
 Discuss the relevance of Nehru in the making of modern India? [56‐59 BPSC/2016]
Rabindranath Tagore:
 Evaluate the contribution of Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali literature and music. [60‐62 BPSC/2019]
 Define Nationalism. How was it addressed by Rabindranath Tagore ? [56‐59 BPSC/2016]
 Describe the social and cultural significance of the ideas of Rabindranath Tagore. [48‐52 BPSC/2009]
 Describe the role of Rabindranath Tagore in the Indian national movement. How was it different from
congress? [39 BPSC/1993]
Champaran Satyagrah:
 “Champaran Satyagraha was watershed in the freedom struggle.” Explain. *66th BPSC/2021+
 Describe the causes and results of Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar [1917]. [63 BPSC/2019]
 “Champaran Satyagraha is a watershed in the freedom struggle.” Elucidate. [64th BPSC/2018]
 What was the significance of Champaran Satyagraha for Peasant Uprisings? [56‐59 BPSC/2016]
 Do you agree with the view that the Champaran satyagraha was a turrning point in the history of freedom
struggle in India? [47, BPSC/2007]
 The Champaran Satyagraha is an important milestone in the history of freedom movement of India. Elucidate.
[42 BPSC/1999]
 Discuss the peasant movements of Bihar in general and the intervention of Gandiji particularly in the
champaran movement. [39 BPSC/1993]
Quit India Movement:

 Write a short notes on: ‘Jayaprakash Narayan and Quit India movement.’ *66th BPSC‐2021+
 Describe the people’s participation in Bihar during the Quit India Movement of 1942. [60‐62 BPSC/2019]
 Describe the contribution of Bihar to the quit India movement of 1942. [48‐52, BPSC/2009]
 Analyze the nature and extent of quit India movement with special reference to Bihar. [44 BPSC/2002]
 Discuss the impact of the quit India Movement on Bihar. [41 BPSC/1997]
 What role did the ‘Azad Dasta’ play in Bihar during the quit India movement? [40 BPSC/1995]
Miscellaneous:
 Write a short notes on: Subhash Chandra Bose and the INA? *66th BPSC‐2021+
 Explain the social and economic ideas of Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan. *65th BPSC‐2020+
 Write short notes on: Dr Rajendra Prasad and the National Movement. *65th BPSC‐2020+
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 Write short notes on: The Dalit Movement in Bihar. *65th BPSC‐2020+
 Write a note on Swami Sahajanand and the Kisan Sabha Movement. *65th BPSC‐2020+
 Critically examine the evolution of Indian nationalism since the late 19th century. [64th BPSC/2018]
 Desire the contribution of Bihar in the individual satyagraha of 1940‐41. [53‐55 BPSC/2012]
 Throw light on the separation of Bihar from Bengal and the rise of modern Bihar. [46 BPSC/2005]
 Assess the role of different social classes of Bihar in the civil disobedience movement. [45 BPSC/2002]
 Write a critical note on peasant movements in Bihar with special reference swami sharajanand. [43 BPSC/2001]
 How did the partition of Bengal influence the course of India’s freedom struggle? Discuss. [40 BPSC/1995]
 What were the reasons behind overseas immigration in the 19th century British India? Discuss in the light of
the indenture system With special reference to Bihar. [64th BPSC/2018]
 Write short notes on: Impact of census of 1881 on caste and religious identities [64th BPSC/2018]
 Write short notes on: Working Class and National Movement [64th BPSC/2018]
 What changes were brought about in the socio‐economic scenario of Bihar during the British rule? [45
BPSC/2002]
 Education and other point Western education: Describe the spread of Western Education in Bihar between
1858‐1914. *65th BPSC‐2020+ Discuss the development of Western education in Bihar from 1813 to 1947. [60‐
62 BPSC/2019]
 Discuss the development of western education in Bihar from 1857 AD to 1947 AD. Describe the growth of
education and press in modern Bihar and also describe the role of education and press in National movement.
[46 BPSC/2005]
 Give a critical account of the development of western education in Bihar during the British rule. [44
BPSC/2002]
 Critically discuss the role played by the western technical education in the economy of Bihar. [39 BPSC/1993]
 Trace the course of western education in Bihar from 1990 to 1947 with particular reference to technical
education. [42 BPSC/1999]
 Describe the development of technical education in Bihar during the period of your study. [47 BPSC/2007]
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1. Mauryan Art
Introduction
Art and crafts represent the culture, feelings, thoughts, knowledge level and skill of the contemporary civilisations.
the tradition of art and craft was started from the Indus Valley Civilization but it lost continuity in later periods. The
Permanent art and craft tradition started only during the Mauryan Age and in continuation from then till now.
 Mauryan art is a combined form of local and different Indian art forms along with Iranian art form. However
the influence of Iranian art forms on Mauryan Art is a subject of research.
 The Great Mauryan ruler Ashoka embraced Buddhism (as a part of shraman tradition) and the immense Buddhist
missionary activities that followed during his rule paved the way for the development of Mauryan
sculptural and architectural styles.
 King Ashoka patronized the shraman tradition in the third century BCE.
The shraman tradition refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the
historical vedic religion.
 It includes Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as Ajivikas, and Carvakas
Mauryan Art is broadly classified into two types:-

1. Court Art
2. Popular Art
1. Court Art
There was a great influence of strong Central government (of Mauryan Empire) on the different forms of Court Art.
Court Art is subdivided into 4 subcategories i.e.
I. Palace,
II. Viharas (Caves),
III. Pillars and
IV. Stupas.
I.Palace
 One of the important examples of palaces of Mauryan Period was the Palace of Chandragupta
Maurya near Kumhrar (Patna). This palace had 80 pillars, these pillars were made up of single piece of rock.
The floor and ceiling of the palace was made up of wood. The length and breadth of the whole palace was 140
ft. and 120 ft. respectively.
 Yunaian traveller, Arian compared the grandeur of the Palace of Chandragupta Maurya with the palaces of
Susha and Ekbatna (world's most famous cities of the that time). Chinese traveller Fa-hian(or, Faxian) declared
the Palace as the god's creation. The ambassador of the Seleucus Nicator, Megasthanese in the court
of Chandragupta Maurya also described the grandeur of the palace in his famous book Indica.
II.Caves
Apart from the court art or royal patronage, cave-architecture, sculpture, and
pottery took the expressions of art by individual effort.
 Cave Architecture: During the Mauryan period, caves were generally used
as viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the Jain and Buddhist monks.
 Key Features: The caves during the Mauryan period were marked by
a highly polished finish of the interior walls and decorative gateways.
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Example: The seven caves (Satgarva) in the Makhdumpur region of Jehanabad district, Bihar, were created by
Mauryan emperor Ashoka for the Ajivika Sect:
 Barabar Caves (4 caves):
o Karna Chaupar,
o Sudama Cave,
o Lamarshi (Lomas Rishi) Cave,
o Vishwamitra (Vishva Zopri) Cave
 Nagaragunja Caves (3 caves): In Bihar were formed during the time of Dasharath, grandson of Ashoka ,
o Gopi Cave,
o Bahayak Cave and
o Vedantika Cave.
III. Pillars
 The tradition of constructing pillars was started during
the Mauryan period. Similar to pillars of palaces, Ashoka
pillars, were also made up of single piece of
rock/stone. (usually made of chunar sandstone), as a
symbol of the state, assumed a great significance i n the
entire Mauryan Empire These contained an inverted lotus
over Mekhla on which a pedestal was placed. Above pedestal
a sculpture of animals were placed.
 Objective: The main objective was to disseminate
the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the entire
Mauryan empire.
 Language: While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written in Greek or
Aramaic language also.
 Architecture: Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of four
parts:
1) Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made
up of a single piece of stone or monolith.
2) Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was
either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
3) Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or
rectangular base known as the abacus.
4) Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually
animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are vigorous
and carved standing on a square or circular abacus.
Mauryan Pillars Location Animal Sculpture

 Lauria Nandangarh East Champaran, Bihar Lion
 Lauria Areraj East Champaran, Bihar Ox
 Rampurva I & II West Champaran, Bihar Ox
 Sarnath Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh Lion
 Sankisha Sankisha, Uttar Pradesh ElephantIV.
IV.Stups
The tradition of Constructing stupas was older but it got develpment and current form during Mauryan period.
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Ashoka Constructed many stupas across the country. these stupas are important religious place for Buddhists.
These contain relics of Buddha/Bodhisatavas lying inside the foundation of the stupas. Stupas are similar to
inverted smioval shape (called as Anda) with Toran gate, Pradakshina Path, Medhi, Yashti, Chhatra.
The labelled diagram of Stupa is given below:
videka
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According the scriptures of Buddhism Ashoka had made
Note-Post Mauryan period stupas became
84000 stupas across the country. But this claim is larger and more decorative and wood and
controversial as evidences of such a huge number of stupas brickwork were replaced by stone.
are not found but it is possible that they were demolished  Torans: In the post-Mauryan period, the
in later periods. Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of
torans (Torans reflect the Hellenisti
Architecture: Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a influence) which were beautifully
circular anda and a harmika and a chhatra on the top. decorated gateways to the stupas.
 Examples-Bharhut stupa in Madhya
 Anda: Hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of Pradesh
dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in many stupas
actual relics were used).
 Harmika: Square railing on top of the mound.
 Chhatra: Central pillar supporting a triple umbrella
form.

Material Used: The core of the stupa was made of unburnt
brick while the outer surface was made by using burnt bricks, which were then covered with a thick layer
of plaster and medhi and the toran were decorated with wooden sculptures.
Examples:
 Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
 Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
 Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa,
Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory
path.
Depiction of Buddha at Stupas

Symbols:
 In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events of
Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
Jataka Stories:
 Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed on the railings
and torans of the stupas.
The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Vessantara
Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.
 The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation, enlightenment, the
first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).
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2. Popular Art Forms
Popular rt forms during Mauryan Period had no influence of the Central
Government, instead these art forms were mixture of local and other Indian Art forms.
Popular Art forms of Mauryan Period are classified into 3 types
I. Potteries, and
II. Sculptures and
I. Potteries
 This was one of the most important popular Art form during Mauryan Period.
These potteries were being made by people for their daily needs as well as for decorative purposes
one of the most characteris tic features. One of the most characteristic features of these potteries was
its shiny black polished outer surface that's why this art form is known as Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW). Many such potteries were obtained from different parts of the state was well other parts of
the country.
 Kosambi and Patliputra were the centers of NBPW pottery.
II. Sculptures
 Besides animal sculptures found on Mauryan Pillars, many other sculptures are
found. These sculptures were made up of stone. On these sculptures shiny
polish was used to be done, which adds to their beauty and sculptures became
more realistic the most significant example of independent sculptural art of
Mauryan Period is the statue of Yakshini, found from Didarganj, Patna. Besides
these many other sculptures are found from differen t parts of Bihar and the
country.
 They were objects of worship related to all three religions – Jainism, Hinduism,
and Buddhism.
 The earliest mention of yakshi can be found in Silappadikaram, a Tamil text.
 Yakshini statue was later considered as the statue of a goddess.
 The torso of the nude male figure found at Lohanipur at Patna.
 Didargunj Yakshi was found at Didargunj village at Patna.
Post Mauryan empire
The list of some of the most famous sculptures found different parts of the three prominent schools of
country are given below:- the sculpture came into
Popular Sculptures Location prominence in three
1. Yakshini Statue Didarganj, Patna, Bihar different regions of India
namely
2. Woman and Child Statue Bulandibag, Patna, Bihar
1. Gandhara,
3. Jain Tirthankar's Statue Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar 2. Mathura, and
4. Yaksh's Statue Parkhan, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh 3. Amravati schools.
5. Elephant's Statue Dhauli, Odisha
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Critical Analysis
 Many historians such as John Marshall and Persi Brown considered that the Mauryan Art was
influenced with (inspired from) Iranian Art Forms.
 Some of them said that the Mauryan Palace was a carbon copy of the palaces of Armenian Empire of
Iran.
 Pillars of Mauryan Period was also considered as the inspiration of Iranian pillars with slight variations
in their architecture.
 Mauryan Art (especially court Art){ was highly religious in nature, which restricted the appearance of
cultural ethos and other aspects of the society of that period.
Difference and similarities Between Mauryan and Persian /Iranian Art Forms
Differences with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars Ajivika Sect

It was founded by Goshala
 The Capital Figure: It was absent in Mauryan pillars of the Kumhrar Maskariputra (a friend of
hall whereas pillars at Persepolis have the elaborate capital figures. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of
 The Shape and Ornamentation: The shape of Mauryan lotus is Jainism) and was contemporary
different from the Persian pillar. of Jainism and Buddhism.
Ajivika sect is based on the
 Pillar Surface: Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted/ ridged
philosophy that the affairs of the
surface while the Mauryan pillars have a smooth surface.
entire universe were ordered by
 Architectural Scheme: The Achaemenid pillars were generally part a cosmic force called niyati
of some larger architectural scheme, and bit complex and (Sanskrit: “rule” or “destiny”)
complicated, while the Ashokan pillars were simple and that determined all events,
independent freestanding monuments. including an individual’s fate.
 Shaft: Unlike Mauryan shafts which are built of monolith (single
piece of stone), Persian/Achaemenian shafts were built of separate segments of stones (aggregated
one above the other).
Similarities with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars

 Polished Stones and Motifs: Both Maurya and Achaemenian pillars, used polished stones and have
certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
 Proclamations: Maurya’s idea of inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court
orders) on pillars has its origin in Persian pillars.
 Third Person: Inscriptions of both empires begin in the third person and then move to the first
person.
Conclusion
 Although the tradition of art and culture in Indian subcontinent was started during the Indus
Valley Civilisation, but lost the continuity in later period of time. Art and craft tradition got
continuity only during the Mauryan Period.
 It developed new art traditions, such as the tradition of constructing Pillars was started during
Mauryan Period.
 Mauryan Art Forms indicate the Political and cultural unification of the country. It will always
remain an attraction for the lovers of Indian Art and Cultural traditions
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Pal Art Forms of Bihar
Introduction
 The Pala dynasty ruled from 8th century to 12th century CE in the regions comprising Bihar and Bengal. The
development of art had been in a full edged manner during the Mauryas and Guptas which was further carried
by the Pala rulers.
 Distinctive achievements of Palas are seen in the arts of architecture, sculpture, terracotta, painting and wall
painting. The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of
Muslim invaders in the rst half of the 13th century.Some of the monks and artists escaped and ed to Nepal,
which helped in reinforcing the existing art traditions there.
Features of Pal Art

Pal Art can be divided into three categories:-
1.Architectural Art Forms:- It is further divided into four types i.e.
I. Mahaviharas,
II. Chaityas,
III. Temples and
IV. Stupas.
2.Paintings:- These were divided into two subcategories i.e.
I. Manuscript Painting and
II. Wall Painting.
3.Sculptural Art Forms:- These are also divided into two subcategories i.e.
I. Bronze Sculptures and
II. Stone Sculptures.
1. Architectural Art Forms
In terms of architecture, Pal period was very important. In this many architectural art forms such as Mahavihar,
Chaityas, Temples and stupas were developed. To make these architectures burnt bricks were used.
I. Mahaviharas
 Mahaviharas were made during Pal rule mainly for
residential purposes for Buddhist monks. But Mahavihars
also served as important Buddhist educa tional centers.
 Mahaviharas were generally in rectangular in structure,
which included an open courtyard in the middle. All around
the courtyard, porch/veranda was used to be made, in
which gates of rooms were opened. Some Mahaviharas in which gates of rooms were opened. Some
Mahaviharas had double storeyed rooms and stairs for the 2nd storey rooms were made in the courtyard.
II. Chaityas
 These were basically a kind of Buddhist temples. The tradition of building Chaityas were old but these got
diversification during Pal rule. Many remains of Chaityas can be found from different parts of Bihar.
III. Temples
 Although Pal rulers were Buddhist but they also made many temples of Hinduism. These temples were
basically made in the famous Nagar style. Some important examples of temples were:-
o Gufa Mandir, Kahalgaon (Bhagalpur)
o Vishnupad Mandir (Bodh Gaya) (Important feature of this temple is Ardh Mandap)
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IV. Stupas
 Although culture of stupas were ancient but some stupas were also made during Pal period with slight
differentiation. Stupas contain the relics of Buddha and Bodhisatavas. Basically stupas were made to hide the
relics of Buddha/Bodhisatavas inside them.
 Stupas had multiple parts, which include Yashti, Chhatra, Harmika, Gumbad, Pradakshina Path, Vedika, and
Toran Dwar.The schematic diagram of Stup is given below.
2. Paintings
There were two types of paintings which were used to be done during Pal rule:-
1. Manuscript Painting
2. Wall Painting
I. Manuscript Paintings
 Manuscript paintings were done generally on copper
plate. These were used for decorating purposes. The
colours used in these paintings were red, black, blue,
green, white and violet.
 Important examples of manuscript paintings are 'Ashtasahasarik pragyaparamita (
'' and 'Panchraksh'. Both of these paintings are archived in Cambridge Museum (England).
II. Wall Paintings

 Besides manuscript painting, wall paintings were also used to be done on the walls of Mahavihar,
Chaityas, temples etc. In these paintings various elements like fruits, flowers, animals, humans, birds
and trees were imprinted.
 One of the best examples of wall paintings of Pal period is a wall painting found from Saraikila
(Nalanda). In this painting a woman can be seen doing make-up, while looking into a mirror. This
painting shows the human emotions along with art simultaneously.
3. Sculptural Art Forms

Besides architectural and painting art forms. Sculptural art also got
phenomenal development. mainly two types of sculptural art is found from Pal
period i.e.
1. Bronze Sculptures
2. Stone Sculptures
3. Clay Art (Terracotta Figures):
I. Bronze Sculptures
 These are made up of bronze using molds. One of the main
characteristic features of this sculpture was excellent ornamentation used in them. Another important
feature of these sculptures was that they were plain from behind despite being ornamented and decorated
from front.
o Dhiman and Vithpal were two important sculptors of Nalanda, they were contemporary of Dharma
Pal and Devpal (Pal rulers).
 Bronze sculptures are found in large numbers from Kulkihar (Gaya), Nalanda and Sultanganj. These
sculptures can be compared with the aesthetics of the Natraj sculptures of Chola Empire.
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 These sculptures were mainly religious in nature, which include sculptures various god and goddesses of
Hindus and Buddhists. Important examples of this sculpture style were of Buddha, Vishnu,
Balram, Bodhisatavas etc.
II. Stone Sculptures

 Besides Bronze sculptures, sculptures were also made out of stones. The stones
used for making these sculptures were mainly basalt. Which were brought from
either Munger or Santhal Pargana.
o Similar to bronze sculptures, ornamentation was also done in stone-
made sculptures.
III. Clay Art (Terracotta Figures):

 During the rule of Pala, beautiful and artistic day images from the Buddha
period are found. Some important specimens have been found from the ruins of Vikramshila University. These
terracotta plaques were used to decorate walls. We find religious as well as common styles in this Art.
Critical Analysis of Pal Art

 Architectures in Pal period were generally made out of burnt Bricks instead of stones and rocks, which resulted
into lesser permanence and availability now.
 Sculptures of Pal art were plain from behind and only focus was on front.
 Ornamentation was heavily used in the Pal sculptures, which hide the real beauty of the sculptures.
 In Pal art religious aspects had more prominence those social, cultural and political aspects.
Conclusion
 Multiple art forms developed vehemently during the period of Pal rulers. Despite the triangular conflict
among Palas, Rashtrakutas and Gurjar-pratihars for occupation of Kannauj, various art forms were
flourished during the Pal periods without any impediments.
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Patna Kalam Painting
Introduction
 Patna Kalam is a unique an monotonous painting style in India. It was influenced with three different school of
painting i.e. Persian school, Mughal art and British style of painting. The main characteristic of Patna Kalam,
which makes it unique, is that instead of royal paintings, in this art form paintings are mainly done on daily life
which includes paintings on common man, women, children, farmers, carpenter, iron-smith and son on. The
features of the figures of these paintings are characterized by the pointed noses, heavy eyebrows. lean and
gaunt faces, sunken and deep-set staring eyes and big mustaches. It got this kind of diversity and uniqueness
because of influences it got from various art forms mentioned above.
History and Evolution of Patna Kalam

 It is a well-known fact that art and craft got most of its
popularity and patronage during Mughal period and
specially during the rule of Jahangir and Shahjahan. But
after Aurangzeb come to the throne, the patronage of art
and craft lost the significance for Mughal rulers. It
happened because rise in orthodoxy and fundamentalism
which restricted them to do so. After artist felt dejected
they moved out of the court of Mughals and went towards
three parts the country.
o One group of painters went to Northern Hill region (now Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand) Basohli, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, Garhwal etc.
o While the second group of painters went to Western plains mainly to Udaypur and nearby areas.
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o And the thrid and last group of painters went to Eastern Plains (mainly to Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
West bengal) such as Varanasi, Mathura, Murshidabad and other parts.
 The group which went to Murshidabad got the patronage of Mir Zafar, Nawab of Bengal (a great patro n of
art and craft). One of those painters who went there was Manohar, who took shelter under the patronage
of Nawab of Murshidabad. Here these painters came into contact with European traders and made
paintings for them. In Murshidabad they got almost same respect and recognition as they received earlier
in the Courts of Mughal.
 But later the death of Mir Zafar, his son Miran acceded on the throne. Miran was not interested in art and
craft at all. Hence these painters again faced the wrath of migration again.
 These painters migrated to Patna, and settled in Machharhatta, Lodhikatra, Chowk and Diwan Mohalla of
the city around 1760. The main reason behind shifting of these painters to Patna from Murshidabad was
the presence large scale of trade activities in the region.
 These painters started painting for local rulers, Zamindars, traders, British officers and soldiers according to
their demand.
Features of Patna Kalam

Influences On Patna Kalam:- Patna Kalam was influenced by different art forms such as :-
 Mughal Painting
 British Painting
Influence of Mughal Painting

 Since the early painters of Patna Kalam were migrated from the court of Mughals, hence Patna Kalam painting
had great influence of Mughal Painting,
which is mix of Persian Art forms and Indian
traditional Art forms.
 The colours and lines used in Patna Kalam
were inspired from Mughal Painting. In
Patna Kalam, bright colours were used and
lines were almost identical to Mughal art
forms.
 But there was a great difference between
Mughal Painting and Patna Kalam. In
Mughal paintings, background and borders
were equally important as subject, but in
Patna Kalam paintings background and borders were not much significant.
 In Patna Kalam paintings subject was used to be most important. In this painting style background and border
were used to be either white or plain, while in Mughal paintings, coloured background and stylish borders were
used.
Influence of British School of Painting
 Patna Kalam got the British influence due to high level of trade activities in the region. British officials,
traders and soldiers, used to come to these painters and demand for painting according to their choices. By
this way Patna Kalam got the features of British style of painting.
 The most important influence of British Painting style on Patna Kalam, which is not seen in other Indian art
forms, was the excellent use of shadow and lighting in the paintings.
Technique
 These pictures were painted directly with the brush, (without being drawn in pencil first). This
technique was known as Kajli seahi. The Patna School tradition developed an individualistic style
and technique, very different from the usual Mughal School (due to the the Persian influence) and
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the less formal Rajput School. Moreover, the Patna artists made their own pigments, brushes and
paper as their ancestors did in the Mughal courts.
Patronage
 Although Patna Kalam got slight patronage from local rulers and Zamindars but they generally lacked any
kind of special patronage from rulers, hence it can be said that it was a popular art form rather than being
royal art form.
 It can be easily seen in the paintings of Patna Kalam that they were generally based on daily life imageries
instead of the paintings of kings, queens and rulers etc. which are generally found in royal paintings.
Materials used in Painting

1. Colours Used
 Colours used in paintings of Patna Kalam were generally obtained from natural sources like minerals, fruits
and flowers.
 For example yellow colour was used to be obt ained from feeding cow with turmeric and then cow's urine
was collected and was let the color to settle down, then colour was filtered and dried. This dried powder
was used as yellow colour in Patna Kalam paintings.
 Important colours used in paintings were Indian Red, Zink white, Gamboge white, Yellow, Golden Yellow,
Golden leaf, Grey, Yellow leaf, Bronze, Purple, Green, Gold Powder, Silver leaf, Mica powder.
2. Canvas
 Paintings of Patna Kalam were usually done on paper, mica, elephant teeth and cotton clothes (Tent).
 Papers used in Patna Kalam paintings were generally imported from Nepal.
3. Brushes
 For very fine work, the artists used a brush made from the tail hair of squirrels. For bolder and broader
work, they used hair from the tail of a goat, neck of a hog or the neck of a buffalo. All these hair, except
those of the squirrel, were first softened by being boiled.
Process of Painting in the Patna Kalam

The whole process of a piece of painting involved three stages, i.e.
1. Preparation of colors
2. Sketching
3. Filling of colors.
1. Preparation of Colours
 Colours were used to be prepared during the rainy season. It used to be done so because of increased moisture
during rainy season reduces pollution in atmosphere; hence the colour obtained was used to be of good quality
and without any dust and dirt.
2. Sketching
 Although instead of drawing sketches, pictures were directly painted using brush and colours. But some
paintings were done by sketching also. In such paintings sketching was used to be done during summer.
3. Filling of colours in the sketches
 Colour was used to be filled during winter season, because in winter humidity is very low which results into
good bonding of colour with the Canvas. It also helps in creating shadow in paintings.
Subjects
The artists painted numerous specimens that showcased the scenes of everyday life in the city. These colored
sketches of everyday life of Patna folk were admirably drawn as life-like representations.
 There were the familiar figures of the European compound – washer men, butlers returning from the market,
tailors, servants and sweepers exercising the dogs.
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 Then they portrayed the various bazaar tradesmen and craftsmen – pedlars, bangle-sellers, butchers, fish-
sellers, basket makers, carpenters, distillers, toddy-sellers, candle makers, sweetmeat-sellers, water-carriers,
brass-workers, thread makers and blacksmiths.
 Many of the paintings feature festivals, celebrations, weddings.
Causes of Decline of Patna Kalam

 In 1861, a British art lover Charlie D. Alley established a litho press at Gulzarbagh in Patna which started
printing paintings of Patna Kala to satisfy high demand of those paintings in European countries. Number of
such litho press subsequently increased which resulted into decline in the demand of handmade paintings also
decreased.
 As large number of consumers of these paintings were traders hence with the decrease in trade activities in
and around Patna resulted into decrease in the demand for Patna Kalam paintings.
 Photocopying of paintings also lead to decline in the Patna Kalam paintings.
 With the invention of camera in later period of time, also declined the demand of Patna Kalam paintings.
Important Artists of Patna Kalam

 The first painters name, which come into mind is of Sevakram, who used to do Patna Kalam painting during
the period between 1770-1830.
 Some other important painters were Hulas Lal, Dallu Lal and Chhagan Lal, who were used to be part of the
court of the king of Benaras, Ishwari Narayan Singh.
 Jayram Das, Shivdayal Lal etc. were also important painters of Patna Kalam.
 Sona Biwi and Daksho Biwi were important woman painters of Patna Kalam.
 Patna Kalam style of Painting was started during 1760s and lasted upto 1950, the last renowned painter of
Patna Kalam was Ishwari Prasad Verma.
Conclusion
 About 175 paintings of Patna Kalam is archived in various museums of Patna and Kolkata, Victoria Palace
(Kolkata).
 Besides above many other paintings are also available in the collection of the families of the rulers at that
time.
 Despite its uniqueness and monotonous character it did not get the desired recognition which it deserves.
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MADHUBANI PAINTING
Introduction
 Madhubani Painting is historical and cultural heritage of Bihar as well as of India. It is also known as the Mithila
Painting. It is practised mainly in the districts of Madhubani, Sitamarhi, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Saharsa,
Madhepura and Supaul in Bihar and bordering districts in Nepal. Although it was started and dominated by
women but now-a-days male painters are also doing Madhubani Painting. It got international recognition only
in recent times.
Historical Background
 Madhubani Painting traces it's history from the marriage of Sita. At the time of the marriage of Sita, King Janak
ordered to paint the walls of the whole state of Janakpur with colourful paintings, which was later known as
Madhubani Painting or Mithila Painting.
 During the Earthquake Survey (1934), British officials got to know about the Madhubani Painting as a folk art
from the ruins and started researching on it.
 Despite all above, it got the recognition of the state government only in 1969 and that too after a lot of efforts
done by Sita Devi. Initially it was painted on mud walls and plastered walls but now-a-days it is also painted on
canvas, paper and even on clothes.
Types of Madhubani Painting
There are two types of Madhubani Painting:-

1. Wall Painting
2. Aripan Painting
1. Wall Painting
 Wall painting is further subdivided into two types:-
o (I). Painting of Gosani and
o (II). Painting of Kohbar.
I. Painting of Gosani
 Gosani is basically the room where religious activities are performed. The paintings of Gosani are mainly
religious in nature. The paintings of gods and goddesses such as Durga, Sita-Ram, Radha-Krishna, Shiv-
Parvati and Vishnu-Lakshmi are painted on the walls of Gosani. In these paintings the contribution
of Brahman and Kayashtha families are most important and significant than any other groups.
II. Painting of Kohbar
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 Kohbar is the room dedicated to newly wedded couples, that's why the walls of the Kohbar room is
generally painted with the sensuous paintings. These paintings include images of Kamdev, Rati, Yakshini
and Male & Female sex organs.
 Besides above, pictures of leaves, trees, flower, animals, humans and birds are also painted in
background.
2. Aripan Painting (Rangoli)
 Similar to Rangoli, Aripan is painted in the courtyard and in front of the gate. In Aripan painting, ground rice
mixed with water and colours is used. Aripan paintings are basically of five types:-
o Showcasing vegetation such as trees, flower and fruits.
o Paintings showcasing Animals, brids and human beings.
o Paintings symbolising Magic (Tantrik).
o Paintings of gods and goddesses.
o Painting of Swastik, Earthen Lamp etc.
Besides above different types of paintings are done on different occasions. For example, on the occasion of Tulsi
Pujan by unmarried girls, Geometrical figures mainly triangles and rectangles are drawn in Aripan. On marriage
occasions, paintings of leaves ae drawn as Aripan.
Note:- All these paintings are done by using fingers and bamboo brushes. But now-a-days modern paint brushes
are also used for Madhubani Painting.
Features of Madhubani Painting

1. Background of Paintings
o In background of Madhubani Paintings, pictures of trees, flowers, fruits, animals and human images are
painted. But these images are painted only for representation purposes. For example if a brid is to be
painted then only symbols of birds are used.
o If a girl is to be presented then instead of focusing on physical beauty and shape, only their work, qualities
and philosophical aspects are covered.
2.Themes of Madhubani Paintings

 The themes of these paintings are chiefly nature and mythological events. It revolves around Hindu deities
like Krishna, Shiva, Lakshmi, Durga, Rama, and Saraswati.
 The nature-related themes revolve around the Sun, the Moon, and sacred plants such as basil. There are
some paintings with themes based on court scenes and social events.
 If any unfilled space is left after painting the central theme, it is filled up with the motifs of animals, birds,
flowers or geometric patterns.
3. Colours Used in Paintings

o Main colours used in Madhubani Paintings are black, green, yellow, red orange, and violet. But now-a-days
synthetic colours are also used because of their commercial availability and easy to use.
o Colours used in Madhubani paintings are obtained from natural sources. For example
o Black colour is made out of burning Kohl (Kajal), and by mixing soot to cow dung
o Yellow colour is made by mixing lime with the leaves of plum and milk,
o Red colour is obtained from the flower of Kusum,
o Orange is obtained from Palas flower and
o Green colour is obtained from the leaves for 'lima beans'. And color from the wood apple
tree leaves
o White colour is obtained from rice powder
o Blue color from indigo
4.Making Madhubani Paintings

 Madhubani paintings use brushes created out of cotton, draped over a bamboo stick. There is no
shading in the application of colors. A double line is drawn for outlines and the gap is filled with
either cross or straight miniature lines.
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Current Scenari
 Important painters of Madhubani Painting are
o Godawari Dutta (Awarded Padma sri-2009),
o Sita Devi, Ganga Devi,
o Baua Devi, Godawari Dutta,
o Padmashri Jagdamba Devi,
o Satya Narayan Lal Karn,
o Bharti Dayal, Kaushlya Devi etc.
 Now-a-days it got maximum popularity all across the world.
Recently many exhibitions of Madhubani Paintings re being
organised one of such exhibition is of the paintings of Shashikla
Devi was organised in Japan.
 A museum of Madhubani Painting is also being constructed
in Tokamachi City of Japan. suck kind of museum of Madhubani
Painting is not even constructed in India.
 Currently important centres of Madhubani Painting are Madhubani,
Simari, Lahria-Sarai, Ranchi etc.
Conclusion
 Although Madhubani Painting traces it's history from the marriage of Sita, but it got maximum popularity in
recent times.
 Similar to other folk arts, Madhubani Painting is also heavily synced with the daily life Festivals in Maithili
speaking population of Bihar and Nepal.
 Now-a-days there is a very good demand of clothes(especially sarees) painted with Madhubani paintings on
them.
 To promote Madhubani Paintings, Indian Railways and Government of Bihar painted the Sampark Kranti
Express with Madhubani Painting and are planning to paint other trains (bound to Bihar) as well. Indian
Railways also painted the Madhubani Railway Station with the Madhubani Paintings.
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Tribal Revolts in Bihar
BHUMIJ REVOLT (1832-33):
 Bhumij Revolt (183233) The Bhumij rebellion started in 1832 AD under the leadership of Ganga Narayan. Its
influence remained in the areas of Birbhum and Singhbhum.
 The rebellion was the result of the complaints of the Bhumij against the Birbhum (Badabhum) king, police
officers, munsifs, salt inspectors, and other dikkus.
 The reason for the rebellion was the imposition of the Company's system of governance on the local system.
At the same time, the discontent arising out of the oppressive rent system of the British was also working
behind it.
 The formal beginning of the Bhumij rebellion took place on April 26, 1832, with the killing of Diwan Madhav
Singh, and the halfbrother of the zamindar of Birbhum Pargana.
 The murder was done by Ganga Narayan Singh. He was the cousin of the zamindar of Birbhum. Madhav
Singh was quite infamous as Diwan. He had devastated the people by lying in various types of taxes.
 Ganga Narayan provided unprecedented leadership to the Bhumij against Madhav Singh. After killing
Madhav Singh, Ganga Narayan had a collision with the Company's army. The Company's forces were led by
Braden and Lieutenant Timmer.
 The Kol and Ho tribes openly supported Ganga Narayan Singh in this rebellion. On February 7, 1833, Ganga
Narayan Singh was killed while fighting against Thakur Chetan Singh of Kharsawan.
 The Thakur of Kharsawan cut off his head and sent it to the British officer Captain Wilkinson. Captain
Wilkinson heaved a sigh of relief at the death of Ganga Narayan Singh.
 After the death of Ganga Narayan Singh, this rebellion fell into disrepair. Although Ganga Narayan Singh was
ultimately defeated in this rebellion, it made it clear that there was a need for administrative change in
Jungle Mahal.
KOL MOVEMENT (1831-32)

 The Kol rebellion has a special place in the tribal revolts in Jharkhand, because it was the first organized and
widespread tribal revolt of Jharkhand. Exploited by their new masters, oppressed by dikus (outsiders), and
deprived of their traditional source of justice, the tribals of Chotanagpur had no choice but to revolt. In fact,
it was a rebellion of the Mundas, in which Ho joined as his right hand.
 The tribes of some areas of Chotanagpur Khas, Palamu, Singhbhum, and Manbhum participated in this
rebellion. Only Hazaribagh remained untouched by this rebellion. It was the result of the Kol rebellion that
in 1834 AD, an administrative unit named 'SouthWest Frontier Agency' (SWFA) was formed by merging the
revolt affected areas with some of the other areas, with its headquarters at Vishunpur or Wilkinsonganj
(later Ranchi).
Key facts of Kol rebellion :

 If anyone bothered the British rulers and landlords the most in Chotanagpur, it was the Kol rebels.
 It was the rebellion of the Munda tribe, which the 'Ho' caste also openly supported.
 In this rebellion, the tribes of Chotanagpur, especially Palamu, Singhbhum, and other parts of the
Manbhum actively participated.
 The main reason for the Kol rebellion was 'land dissatisfaction'. One of the main leaders of this rebellion
was Budhu Bhagat.
 In this battle, he was killed along with his brother, son, and 100 followers. Sindrai and Surga, two other
leaders of the rebels fought till the end.
 They surrendered in 1832. The revolt was suppressed, but the lands of the village headman (Munda) and
their peed chief (Mankis) made up of seven to twelve were returned.
 As a result of this rebellion, a new province Southwest Frontier Agency was formed in 1833 AD. Later,
financial and judicial powers were also given to the 'Manki Munda System'.
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TAMAR REVOLT
 The main reason for the Tamar rebellion was the deprivation of land for the tribals. They were to be
exploited by the English company, tehsildars, zamindars, and nontribals (dikus).
 This rebellion started in 1782 against the exploitation of the landlords by the Oraon tribe of Chotanagpur,
which lasted till 1794.
 This rebellion started under the leadership of Thakur Bholanath Singh. This is famous in history as the
'Tamar Rebellion'.
 1809: the British arranged a Zamindari police force to establish peace in Chotanagpur but to no avail.
Because again in 1807, 1811, 1817, and 1820 the Munda and Oraon tribes raised their voice against the
landlords and Dikus.
 1807: the Mundas revolted under the leadership of Dukh Manki of Tamar and in 181920, under the
leadership of Rugu and Konta.
TANA BHAGAT MOVEMENT
Reasons of the movement

 In April 1914 Jatra Bhagat announced, that he had a direct message from God Dharmesh (God of Oraon
community) to revive the Oraon religion, because some bad practices like- exorcism, ghost hunter, animal
sacrifices for God and alcoholism etc. have entered in their religion and somehow these practices should be
abandoned. So these all religious issues provided the platform for movement in the initial stage.
 Jamindars were exploiting the Oraon community people by taking extra rent of lands. This kind of rebel
behaviour of Jamindars agitated the Oraon community.
 The role of pahan (priests) and mahto (village representative) in the village gave way to the Jatra followers,
to raise voice against these people as they believed in ghosts and other evil practices.
 The Oraon people were also forced for unpaid labour by their landlords.
 Further, the people of the community, faced land alienation from the Government.
Animal sacrifices were stopped
Drinking alcohol Superstitiou

Consequences of s belief did
was prohibited
revolt not get
importance
People were
The followers decided exempted from Demand of self-
that they will not imposed taxes governance
provide services as
coolies or labourers
KHERWAR MOVEMENT
 The Kherwar movement has a remarkable place in tribal reformist movements in Jharkhand. This
movement initially taught monotheism and social reform, but just before its suppression, it took the form
of a campaign against the activities of revenue endowment. This movement was led by Bhagirath Manjhi of
the Kherwar tribe. That is why it is called the 'Bhagirath Manjhi movement'.
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Key facts
 The Kherwar Movement was one of the nonviolent struggles against British rule.
 This movement started in 1874 AD. Its leader was Bhagirath Manjhi. Its form was in no way different from the
Safahor movement which manifested in its true form in later days.
 The credit for articulating this goes to Bhagwan Das (Rajmahal) and Lambodar Mukherjee (Dumka).
 Bhagirath had adopted a noncooperative policy towards the British rule and by declaring himself the king of
the village of Bounsi, he started the system of collecting rent himself by not paying rent to the landlords and
the government.
 Later Gandhiji used to aspects to his noncooperation. Bhagirath Manjhi was born in Taldiha village of Godda
district where he has established a bench.
 The second phase of the Kherwar movement is considered to be the movement led by Dilemma against the
1881 census. Bhagirath Manjhi was known as 'Baba' among the tribals.
SANTHAL REBELLION (1855-56)

 Santhal Rebellion is one such revolt against the oppression of Santhals (agricultural people) settled in Rajmahal
Hills in Bihar. The Santhal Revolt took place in 1855-56. Santhals are a tribal group concentrated in the state of
Jharkhand. This was the first peasant revolt that occurred in India.
 The revolt can be attributed to the introduction of the Permanent Land Settlement of 1793.
 The aforesaid settlement pattern by the British snatched lands that the Santhals had been cultivating for
centuries from them. The zamindars, moneylenders, Europeans and the British government officials raised the
land tax and exploited farmers. They were so oppressed that they resolved to rebel against the landlords and
the government.
 The Santhals engaged in guerrilla warfare. This was a new occurrence for Bihar. The Santhals formed their own
armies composed of peasants marching against their oppressors. The Santhal army dismantled the railway and
postal communications. Surely, the Santhal revolt was very effective for a while but it could not succeed against
the absolute power of the government and was suppressed. Santhal Uprising was one of the most impactful
and important tribal movements in India.
 It's importance can be understood from the fact that Karl Marx (in Notes on Indian History), Rabindranath
Tagore and many other prominent authors described this movement in greater detail. It provided a great
impact on future tribal and National Movements. It was the first Movement which set the Swaraj as the
ultimate goal of the movement.
Causes
1. Economic Causes
 Santhals usually taken loan for sowing seeds and for other purposes from local Sahukars and Mahajans at
very high interest rates and on the failure of repayment of loans Sahukars and Mahajans tend to capture
the land are of Damin-i-Koh region started decreasing. And in the process, British officers and police always
supported Sahukars, Zamindars and Mahajans.
 New Forest Policy brought by Britishers for using forest resources restricted the authority of Santhals over
the forest resources. Which created much disappointment among Santhals.
 Santhals were forcibly used for laying down of railway track between Bhagalpur and Vardhwan without any
pay.
2. Religious Causes
 The Charter Act of 1813 allowed Christian Missionaries to propagate Christianity in India. The Christian
Missionaries were targeting tribes in India and threatening the traditional beliefs and code of conduct of
Santhals also.
3. Socio-Political Cause
 The traditional Manjhi System and Parha Panchayat System of Santhals, Which involve group decision
making and Self P decision at village level. Both of these two systems were affected heavily by British
Regulations and laws.
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4. Immediate Cause
 In the month of June,1855, in a minor incident of theft many Santhal peoples were arrested by local police
and brutally beaten up. In response of this incident the inspector of the police station was killed by a mob
of Santhals.
 This incident incited Santhals.
Start and Progress

 On 30th June, 1855, Under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu, a group of 6000 Santhals were gathered in
Bhaginidih and took up traditional armours such as Arrow & Bows and bowed to established Swaraj. Sidhu
and Kanhu promised new revenue policy and natural justice based on their traditional system of justice.
 To stir religious sentiments among the revolutionaries, he said that the God of Santhals (Singh Bonga) came
into their dreams and ordered to fight against Dikus and establish Swaraj over Damin-i-Koh region.
 During the uprising, Santhals were attacked on police and the British Authorities. Besides these they also
looted and murdered Mahajans and Sahukars. In a short span of time it spread all across the Damin-i-Koh
region as well as Dhanbad, Bhagalpur, Singhbhum/Virbhum areas. The number of revolutionaries increased
almost 10 times from 6000 to 60000.
Decline of the Movement

 Seeing the scale of the revolt, British administration immediately ordered for the Marshal Law in Damin-i-Koh
region. Major Baro was sent with 10 battalions of Army to contain the revolt but they remained unsuccessful
in the their attempt.
 After the failure of Major Baro and his Battalions , British administration sent a big unit of Army under the
leadership of Captain Alexander and Lieutenant Thomson to suppress the revolt. This time they became
successful to contain the revolt. During the process more than 15000 Santhals including Sidhu and Kanhu
were killed and many were arrested. The revolt hence finally declined.
Consequences of the Revolt
Administrative: Legal: Tenancy Law was

The region enacted in Santhal Pargana, Social: The traditional
between which provided for village Manjhi system was again
Bhagalpur and head and village officers, who became operational in
Rajmahal Hills in were entrusted with judicial the region.
Singhbhum and policing powers. carved out and named as
district were district were carved out and Santhal Pargana and
named as Santhal Pargana declared as Non-
and declared as Non- regulation district.
regulation district.
Importance of the Revolt

 In terms of aim, Santhal Uprising was the first revolt which set it's aim for attaining Swaraj or Self rule in the
Santhal region, which later became the aim of National Movement as well.
 In terms of leadership, Sidhu and Kanhu performed very well. He touched every aspects which influenced the
movement and let it quickly spread in very wide spectra of region.
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 Due to coverage of all aspects by the leaders of the revolt, the movement touched every aspects of society
which resulted into huge co-operation among revolutionaries and the leaders of the movement.
 In terms of outcome, the revolt became partially successful and achieved some of it's goals. Despite of the
fact that it could not able to achieve Swaraj but it became somewhat successful as Santhal Pargana was
declared as Non-Regulation District and gave a certain amount of autonomy at village level.
Conclusion
Despite it failed in achieving it's aim of Swaraj, it influenced future Tribal movements (such as Birsa Munda
Revolt) as well as the National Freedom Struggle movement. Santhal Uprising changed the thinking approach
of weaker sections of the society, who were earlier afraid of the the Britishers and upper cast groups, now
turned into more empowered and confident.
Who were Santhals?

Santhals started settling down in the foothills of Rajmahal in around 1780s. Santhals were given land and
persuaded by local Zamindars, Moneylenders (Mahajans and Sahukars) and British administration to settle down in
region and to push Pahariyas (local tribal group) out from the lower hills of Rajmahal.
Santhals successfully pushed Pahariyas into deep forest in Rajmahal Hills and captured their lands. These Santhals
slowly and steadily grown in population as well as land area and get settled in the region as peasants. The land on
which Santhals were living was declared as Damin-i-Koh (the land of Santhals). The population and area of Damin-i-
Koh was increased tremendously from 40 villages and 3000 population in 1838 to 1473 villages with 82000
population in 1851.
Initially they were supportive to local Zamindars, Mahajans, Sahukars and Britishers (collectively called as 'Dikus' or
outsiders by Santhals). But soon the situation started changing and Santhals found that the land they have cleared
and brought under the cultivation was slipping away from their hands. The state was levying heavy taxes on the
land that the Santhals had cleared, moneylenders were charging them high rates of interest and taking over their
land on failure of repayment and Zamindars were asserting control over the Damin-i-Koh area. Hence Santhals
found themselves trapped in a conspiracy by Dikus.
MUNDA REBELLION
Background
Much before this movement, Munda Sardars of Chhotanagpur region were revolted against the British rule in
1820s and 1830s, mainly to protest against the breach into the socio-economic and political sphere of Munda Tribal
Community by the British Administration, Police and Sahukars & Mahajans (Moneylenders). The main cause of
concern for Munda tribe was Khuntkatti System (a kind of Common Land Holding System).
Causes
1. Economic Causes
 The prime concern for Munda tribe, Khuntkatti System was a system of common land holding, in which
every members of the Munda tribe had shared/common rights over all the land area of the Tribe. The
British government with the view of increasing the revenue collection, changed this common holding
system to individual holding. Due to this change, the tribal community found themselves trapped into a
vicious cycle of loan, default and annexation over their lands by moneylenders and the British
Administration.
 Besides this the tribal community was also facing the issue of unemployment and forced labour.
2. Religious Causes
 The Charter Act of 1813 allowed Christian Missionaries to propagate their agenda in India. The Christian
Missionaries were primarily targeted the tribal groups including Munda tribe, and tried to change the
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traditional faiths and beliefs. This issue created unhappiness among leaders of the community and started
raising against the Missionaries.
3. Political Causes
 The traditional system of taking group decisions(like Panchayat) on both civil and criminal matters of
the community as well as policing powers of the tribal community were taken over by the British
Government.
 Besides above internal problems such as blind-faiths, alcoholism, the tradition of animal sacrifices etc.
within the community instigated Birsa Munda to the Purification Movement which ultimately turned into a
revolt against the British administration.
Inception, Expansion and Decline of the Movement

Birsa Munda Movement can be divided into three phases.
1. Phase - I (1890-1894)
Birsa Munda was born in 1875 in Chalkand village, under Tamar Police Station in Ranchi district(now in Jharkhand).
In the early period of his life he was under the influence of Christian Missionaries. But after coming into the contact
of Anand Pandey (religious teacher), he turned into a Vaishnav. In the first phase he focused on broadly three
things:-
 Purification of the members of the Munda Community and to free them from fanaticism, alcoholism and
the practise of animal sacrifices.
 Inner Purification of the members of the community by inculcating ethical, integral and spiritual purity.
 Focus on oneness of god. For this purpose, he propagated that there is only one god for Mundas i.e. Singh
Bonga. And Birsa Munda declared himself as the ambassador of Singh Bonga. He further preached that only
he could free the community from the shackles of the outsiders and establish Munda Raj.
From above points it is clear that in this phase, he only focused on religious and social purification of the
Community, and united them with the monotonous thought process.
2. Phase - II (1895-97)
 In this phase Birsa Munda gathered and united a group of 6000 members of the community in 1895. The three
important aims for this group were:-
o End of British Influence.
o Independence from outsiders.
o Establishment of Munda Raj.
 To achieve the prescribed aims he called the members of the community to not pay the land revenue and
neglect the authority of the Britishers over the Munda Tribe.
 For these activities, he was arrested by the police on 24th August, 1895. But he was released from the jail in
1898 on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria.
3. Phase - III (1898-1900)

 This was the most violent and volatile phase of the movement, due to which this phase is known as a revolt
and more popular.
 After the release of Birsa Munda in 1898, he again became actively involved in the activities against the
government and outsiders. The members of the tribe attacked on British officials, Police Stations, Mahajans
and Sahukars (Moneylenders), Christian Missionaries.
 Munda Revolt was mainly spread in the Khunti, Gumla and Ranchi regions. To contain the Revolt, British
government started and administrative lockdown in the region. And suppression of the movement was
carried on by the Deputy Commissioner, Street Field and within months the Revolt declined.
 For his active involvement in the movement he was again arrested on 3rd February, 1900 and after that on
30th June, 1900, he died from Dysentery in jail.
Consequences/Impacts
Birsa Munda Revolt remained most impactful than all other tribal movements, as it produced many fruitful results
for the Munda community.
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1903 - The Khuntkatti System was reinstated.
1905 - For administrative easiness, Khunti and Gumla were declared Sub-divisions.
1908 - The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act was enacted to secure tribal lands from Land Reform Acts.
On economic perspective, the exploitative, forced labour was restricted in the region.
Importance
 Birsa Munda Revolt had set many goals engulfing Social, Political, Religious and Economic aspects of the tribe.
The Revolt was earlier started as a movement for socio-religious purity but it turned into a revolt against
British Establishment. This revolt also paved the way for Swaraj from British rule for which national leaders
were quite hesitant, because of unknown character of the British Raj.
 In terms of leadership, Birsa Munda done a phenomenal job by Uniting the community on various fronts by
stressing on brotherhood and religious unity among the members of the tribal community.
 Birsa Munda formed a group of 6000 tribe members and directed them very well towards the goals set by
him. Without unity such kind of impact was not possible from the Revolt.
 Due to clear goals, well crafted association and revolutionary leadership, the movement got extraordinary
support from the members of the Munda Community.
 This movement made one thing very clear to everyone that solutions for socio-religious problems can be
possible only when there is political freedom available
End of Dedicated Life

 Birsa was resisted in jail along with several of his supporters. On 20th May 1900, he was put up in front of
the court along with his compatriots, but he dropped ill on the path and was taken back to jail. He was
analysed to be enduring cholera, his situation worsened.
 On June 9, 1900, he died in prison. Birsa Munda’s death is encircled in a dilemma. Some doubtful food
poisoning could be the reason, but the British councils contended cholera as a reason for his death.
 In the prosecution of the Birsaites, Gaya Munda, his son, and Sukhram were given ca chief penalty. Donka
Munda Manjhia Munda and 34 other Birsaites subsisted sentenced for conveyance. Other Birsaites were
given some years of brutal imprisonment. Thus, the life of an extraordinary individual, along with the
movement, appeared to a verge. But Indian Freedom Movement pulled out motivation from it in the
previous days.
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Revolt of 1857
The Indian Mutiny of 1857-59 was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against the rule of British East India
Company in India which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British crown.
The Revolt
 It was the first expression of organised resistance against the British East India Company
 It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the British East India Company’s army but eventually secured the
participation of the masses.
 The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the British Historians), the Indian Mutiny, the
Great Rebellion (by the Indian Historians), the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of
Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).
Causes of The Revolt
Political Cause
 British policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of expansion through
the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
 A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus
arousing fear in the minds of other ruling families who
apprehended a similar fate.
Doctrine of lapse:
The notable British technique called
 Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on
the Doctrine of Lapse was first
the throne of Jhansi.
perpetrated by Lord Dalhousie in the late
 Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine
1840s.
of Lapse.
It involved the British prohibiting a Hindu
 Jaitpur, Sambalpur and Udaipur were also annexed.
ruler without a natural heir from
 The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext
adopting a successor and, after the ruler
of maladministration left thousands of nobles, officials,
died or abdicated, annexing his land.
retainers and soldiers jobless. This measure converted
To those problems added the growing
Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and
discontent of the Brahmans, many of
intrigue.
whom had been dispossessed of their
revenues or had lost lucrative positions.
Social and Religious Cause
 The rapidly spreading Western Civilisation in India was alarming concerns all over the country.
 An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted into Christianity to
inherit his ancestral properties.
 The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to Christianity.
 The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide, and the legislation legalizing widow remarriage,
were believed as threats to the established social structure.
 Introducing western methods of education was directly challenging the orthodoxy for Hindus as well as
Muslims
 Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.
Economic Cause
 In rural areas, peasants and zamindars were infuriated by the heavy taxes on land and the stringent methods
of revenue collection followed by the Company.
o Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands and repay their loans to
money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they had held for generations.
 Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class and had family ties in villages, so the grievances of
the peasants also affected them.
 After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of British manufactured goods into India, which
ruined industries, particularly the textile industry of India.
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o Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine- made goods from Britain.
Military Causes Lord Canning

Charles John Canning was the statesman and
 The Revolt of 1857 began as a sepoy mutiny:
governor general of India during the Indian
o Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British
Mutiny of 1857.
troops in India but were considered inferior to British
He became the first viceroy of India in 1858.
soldiers.
The important events during his tenure
o An Indian sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of
include:
the same rank.
o The Mutiny of 1857, which he was able
 They were required to serve in areas far away from their
to suppress successfully
homes.
o Passing of Indian Councils Act, 1861
 In 1856 Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment
which introduced portfolio system in
Act which required that the sepoys must be ready to serve
India
even in British land across the sea.
o Withdrawal of “Doctrine of
Lapse” which was one of the main
Immediate Cause reasons of mutiny of 1858
 The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident o Introduction of Code of Criminal
of greased cartridges. Procedure
o A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new enfield o Enactment of Indian High Courts Act
rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. o Indian Penal Code (1858)
o Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the
paper on the cartridges.
o Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them.
 Lord Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were withdrawn but the damage
had already been done. There was unrest in several places.
 In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to use the cartridge and attacked his
senior officers.
o He was hanged to death on 8th April.
o On 9th May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced to ten years’
imprisonment.
Centres of The Revolt

The revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the borders of Rajasthan. The main
centres of revolt in these regions namely Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar.
 Lucknow: it was the capital of Awadh. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums of the ex-king of Awadh, took
up the leadership of the revolt.
 Kanpur: the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
o He joined the revolt primarily because he was deprived of his pension by the British.
o The victory was short- lived. Kanpur was recaptured by the British after fresh reinforcements arrived.
o The revolt was suppressed with terrible vengeance.
o Nana Saheb escaped but his brilliant commander Tantia Tope continued the struggle.
o Tantia Tope was finally defeated, arrested and hanged.
 Jhansi: the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai led the rebels when the British refused to accept the claim of
her adopted son to the throne of Jhansi.
She fought gallantly against the British forces but was ultimately defeated by the English.
 Gwalior: After Rani Lakshmi Bai escaped, she was joined by Tantia Tope and together they marched to Gwalior
and captured it.
o Fierce fighting followed where the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress but died, fighting to the very end.
o Gwalior was recaptured by the British.
 Bihar: the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh who belonged to a royal house of Jagdispur, Bihar.
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Suppression and The Revolt
The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858.
On July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by Lord Canning.
British Officials who suppressed
Places of Revolt Main Indian Leaders
the revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah II John Nicholson
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Henry Lawrence
Kanpur Nana Saheb Sir Colin Campbell
Jhansi & Gwalior Lakshmi Bai & Tantia Tope General Hugh Rose
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Sir Colin Campbell
Allahabad and Banaras Maulvi Liyakat Ali Colonel Oncell
Bihar Kunwar Singh William Taylor
Why did the Revolt Fail?

 Limited uprising: although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained unaffected by
it.
o The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region.
o The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones
of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion
o The southern provinces did not take part in it.
 No effective leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope and Rani
Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
 Limited resources: the rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other hand,
received a steady supply of men, money and arms in India.
 No participation of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the rich merchants, traders and
zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.
Results of The Revolt
 End of company rule: the great uprising of 1857 was an important landmark in the history of modern India.
The revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India.
 Direct rule of the British Crown: India now came under the direct rule of the British Crown.
o This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation issued on 1 November
1858 in the name of the Queen.
o The Indian administration was taken over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the British Parliament.
o The India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the country.
 Religious tolerance: it was promised and due attention was paid to the customs and traditions of India.
 Administrative change: the Governor General’s office was replaced by that of the Viceroy.
o The rights of Indian rulers were recognised.
o The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.
o The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.
 Military reorganisation: the ratio of British officers to Indian soldiers increased but the armoury remained in
the hands of the English. It was arranged to end the dominance of the Bengal army.
Conclusion
The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event in the history of British rule in India. It united, though in a limited
way, many sections of Indian society for a common cause.Though the revolt failed to achieve the desired goal, it
sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism.
Books written on the Revolt of 1857

 The Indian War of Independence by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
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 Rebellion, 1857: A Symposium by Puran Chand Joshi
 The Indian Mutiny of 1857 by George Bruce Malleson
 Great Mutiny by Christopher Hibbert
 Religion and Ideology of the Rebels of 1857 by Iqbal Hussain
 Excavation of Truth: Unsung Heroes of 1857 War of Independence by Khan Mohammad Sadiq Khan
Contribution of Bihar to the uprising of 1857

Beginning of the Revolt in Bihar:
 At Patna on July 3 1857, a bookseller Pir Ali along with his associates killed Deputy opium Agent of the
Patna Opium Agency, Dr Lyell. Later Pir Ali was convicted and hanged on July 7, 1857. William Tayler was
the commissioner of the Patna division and had carried out operations against Pir Ali and his associates.
 After the uprising of Patna, three of the regiments at Danapur rose up against the company. On 26th July
they marched into the district of Shahabad to join a well-organized movement against British
administrative authority under the able leadership of 80-year-old Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur.
The spread of the Revolt in other areas of Bihar:

 Hazaribagh: The companies of infantry at Hazaribagh revolted towards the end of July 1857. Madhab Singh was
their leader. Soon they moved to Ranchi. In Ranchi, rebel sepoys revolted against Jaimangal Singh.
 Palamau: Under the leadership of Nilamber and Pitamber in alliance with Chero Zamindars made Palamau a
centre of serious popular agitation during the revolt.
 Singhbhum: Raja Arjun Singh of Porhat and his brother led a formidable rising of the Kols of Singhbhum.
Besides these events, there was an uprising in Gaya where rebel troops along with disaffected villagers
participated.
The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event during the British rule in India which saw the participation of
people of Bihar with great enthusiasm which later enhances the sense of nationalism among the diverse sections of
the society.
Role of Kunwar Singh in 1857 Revolt

 The revolt of 1857 was a the most formidable challenge faced by British rule in 19th century. It was a
cumulative effect of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation and administrative innovation of
British which had affected almost all section of the society. e.g. Peasants, Zamindar, traders, artisans etc.
 Kunwar Singh was a Zamindar family of the Ujjainiya clan of the Parmar Rajputs of Jagdispur, currently a
part of Bhojpur district, Bihar. He is known for the remarkable role he played during the revolt of 1857. He
was the chief organizer of the revolt against the British in Bihar. He is popularly known as Veer Kunwar
Singh.
His role during the revolt of 1857:
Pre‐planning:
 Being deprived of his estates by British, he already had his grievances against British rule. Even before outbreak
of revolt in Bihar, Kunwar singh had started preparation for the revolt.
 Had got his fort repaired. Set up factory for production of arms and ammunition.
 Had arranged a select band of armed soldiers of 10,000.
Provided leadership:
 Kunwar Singh was looked upon as natural leader by most rebel in Bihar. On 25 July 1857, three regiments of
Danapur revolted. Next day, the troops crossed river Sone and reached Shahabad in an effort to organised
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themselves under leadership of eighty years old Kunwar Singh, who had already launched a movement against
the British.
 When some Bihar rebels were being tried in 1857, one of them declared, ‘the supremacy of the English and the
Company is at an end, and it is now Kunwar Singh’s reign’
 Kunwar Singh had large number of followers including his brother Amar Singh, Ritnarain Singh; his nephews
Nishan Singh and Jai Krishna Singh as well as some other Zamindars.
 The rebels of Danapur, Chhotanagpur, Manbhum, Singhbhum and Palamu wanted to carry on the struggle
under his common leadership.
He captured Ara on 27th July 1857 and declared himself the ruler of Ara.
 Captain Denver was dispatched from Danapur and was defeated. The victory of Kunwar Singh was celebrated
by the people.
 Major Vincent Eyre, attacked Kunwar Singh and a fierce battle followed. on August 3, Kunwar Singh realizing his
adverse situation started guerilla warfare and shifted out of Bihar.
Used guerilla technique of warfare and keeping his men mobilised:

 He avoided fixed position and moved around extensively in areas like Mirzapur, Rewa, Banda, Lucknow and
Kanpur.
 This was the reason why his rebellions could be sustained for such a long time.
 He tried to forge alliance with other rebel leaders to give the revolt a pan‐Indian character:
 At Kanpur, he met peshwa Nana Saheb. Along with Tatya Tope and Nana Saheb, he participated in fight of Nana
saheb and Kanpur was re‐captured.
 At Lucknow, he met with rebel leaders and occupied Azamgarh defeating Colonel Millman and Danes. He
managed to repel the initial British attempts to take the area.
 At Lucknow, he was offered a rob of honour, 12,000 rupees and Azamgarh fort.
Showed utmost bravery and continuously annoyed British:

 When he was at Azamgarh, Lord Canning sent Lord Luggard. But, timely informed Kunwar Singh decided to
leave Azamgarh and proceeded to Gazipur.
 Luggard couldn’t capture Kunwar Singh. People of Gazipur accorded him a heroic welcome. Now, Luggard send
Douglas after him. Prize of 25,000 was announced for his arrest.
 On 17 April, 1858, Douglas attacked him but was forced to retreat. In this fight, a bullet shattered Singh’s left
hand. Kunwar Singh drew his sword and cut off his left hand near the elbow and offered it to the Ganges.
Pursued by Brigadier Douglas, he retreated towards his native village Jagdishpur on 22 April, 1858.
 Lee Grand was just awaiting him. Despite injury, Kunwar Singh defeated British army.
 Thus, all the places, he gave a good fight to British and remained invincible until the end. His tactics left the
British puzzled. 3 days later, on 26 April 1858, Kunwar Singh yield to his injury.
 Inspired the other leaders in Bihar:
 Kunwar Singh inspired the leaders in Chhotanagpur, Santhal Parganas and other parts of Bihar to carry on the
struggle After his death, his brother Amar Singh continued the fight with British
Critics has pointed to some limitations for the role played by him:
 Some historians like Judith Brown, Erick stroke have viewed the revolt having feudal and elitist character
because of the leadership provided by feudal lord. They have named Kunwar Singh also as an example for such
feudal lords.
 It has been pointed that Kunwar Singh was deprived of his estates by British and he was partly motivated by his
personal interest.
 His actual own force was small. He had with him about twelve hundred Sipahis, trained in the Indian army, and
a few hundreds of untrained adherents, dependents of himself, his brother, and other discontented
landowners of the province. With such a force he could not hope to make a serious impression.
 Violent nature of his role had its own limitations. Like other leaders of that time, he too was unaware about the
idea of non‐violence.
 Overall the movement was backward looking and traditional in outlook. His resistance represented no societal
alternative.
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Despite few limitations, Kunwar Singh led a remarkable movement against the British rule. He showed highest
level of bravery, foresightedness, discipline, diplomatic and strategic skills as well as value of patriotism.
Commenting on his role played during revolt of 1857, a British historian remarked, ‘if he would have been young,
British would have to leave India‘.
Bihar Peasants In Modern History

Peasant struggles are by no means a twentieth century phenomenon in the history of Bihar. In the nineteenth
century itself Bihar had witnessed scores of heroic struggles of the peasantry, the Santhal Insurrection of 1855-56,
the Munda Uprising of 1899-1901 and the Indigo Revolts in the latter half of the nineteenth century being the most
notable among them. However, these were all isolated instances of peasant uprising with the leadership being
provided by the local peasant leaders themselves without any national perspective and modern ideas. In contrast,
peasant struggles in the present century are marked by outside intervention right from the days of the
Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 when Gandhi first began his experiments with the peasantry.
Champaran Satyagraha, 1917
Champaran Satyagraha- (India’s First Civil Disobedience Movement)

 The Champaran Satyagraha is considered to be a vital event in the history of India’s freedom struggle. It was
India’s first Civil Disobedience movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi to protest against the injustice meted
out to tenant farmers in the Champaran district of Bihar. Let us read in detail about Champaran Satyagraha.
 The Champaran Satyagraha was the combination of elements of extra-constitutional struggle as well as the
employment of moral force against an adversary, an exemplar of the rule of law; and the use of compromise as
a gambit. It is marked as India’s first Civil Disobedience Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi to protest
against the injustice meted out to tenant farmers in Champaran district of Bihar.
 Champaran district was the part of permanent settlement area which consisted of the large zamindari estates
under rich and influential landlords. Most of the villages were leased out by the zamindars to thikadars of
whom the most influential were European Indigo Planters. Though the planters were temporary tenure
holders, they not only extracted rent from the peasants but also exercised civil and criminal jurisdiction.
Historical background of Champaran Satyagraha

 Before Champaran Satyagraha, the farmer of Champaran used to follow the "panchkathiya" system, whereby
five katthas of land in a bigha had to be planted with indigo. The local agitators and leaders like Sheikh Gulab,
Harbans Sahay, Pir Mohammed Munsi, Sant Rawat and Lomrah Singh agitated against the "panchkathiya"
system and managed to extract some concession and the system that came to be practiced was
the "tinkathiya" system (three, instead of five, katthas of land was to be planted with indigo).Raj Kumar
Shukla was not happy with the concession and wanted to change the obnoxious system of agricultural labour
prevailing in Champaran. They could not grow the food they needed, nor did they receive adequate payment
for the indigo.
 It was Ganesh Vidyarthi who had mentioned Gandhi's work in Africa to Shukla. Brajkishore Prasad and
Rajendra Prasad who were the sympathetic lawyers of Patna suggested him to meet Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi, who was attending the 31st Session of the Congress in Lucknow (held between December 26 and 30,
1916).
 Therefore, Raj Kumar Shukla and Sant Raut persuaded Gandhi to go to Champaran, and thus, the Champaran
Satyagraha began. Gandhi arrived in Champaran 10 April 1917 and stay on the house of Sant raut in Amolwa
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village with a team of eminent lawyers: Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha
Ramnavmi Prasad, and others include J. B. Kripalani.
Gandhiji and Champaran Satyagraha
 Gandhiji reached Champaran in 1917 with Raj Kumar Shukla. On his arrival, the District Magistrate served him
with a notice saying that he was not to remain in the district of Champaran but must leave the place by the
first available train.
 Gandhi disobeyed this order. He was summoned to appear before the court. The magistrate said, ‘If you leave
the district now and promise not to return, the case against you will be withdrawn.’
 ‘This cannot be.’ replied Gandhi. ‘I came here to render humanitarian and national service. I shall make
Champaran my home and work for the suffering people.’
 The charismatic attributes of Gandhi can be judged when he appeared before the crowd and said, ‘You must
show your faith in me and in my work by remaining quiet. The magistrate had the right to arrest me
because I disobeyed his order. If I am sent to jail, you must accept that as just. We must work peacefully.
And a violent act will harm our cause.’
 The crowd dispersed peacefully. The police stared at Gandhi in admiration as he went inside the court.
 The Government withdrew the case against Gandhi and allowed him to remain in the district. Gandhi stayed
there to study the grievances of the peasants.
 He took up residence at Hazarimal Dharmashala in Bettiah village. He then visited many villages in the region
to study the grievances of the peasants. He recorded the statements and testimonies of 8,000 indigo
cultivators to understand their issues and the causes underlying them.
 He came to the conclusion that the ignorance of the cultivators was one of the main reasons why it was
possible for the European planters to repress them.
 He established the first-ever basic school at Barharwa Lakhansen village, 30 km east from the district
headquarters at Dhaka, East Champaran, on November 13, 1917, to improve the economic and educational
conditions of the people. He also set up two more basic schools at Bhitiharwa with the help of Sant Raut in
West Champaran and Madhuban in this district on November 30, 1917, and January 17, 1918, respectively.
 Then, he led organized protests and strike against the landlords, who with the guidance of the British
government, signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the poor
farmers of the region, and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine ended. It was during
this agitation, that the first time Gandhi called Bapu (Father) by Sant Raut and Mahatma (Great Soul).
 For the first time in India, Gandhi was displaying that magnetic personality, which was to draw multitudes to
him and to earn him the title of Mahatma and the nickname of Bapu. Under pressure from the Government
of India, the Government of Bihar appointed a committee of inquiry (June 1917).
 The recommendations of the committee were implemented, partly by the Champaran Agrarian Act of
1917 and partly by executive orders which contains several concessions and prescription of limits for
enhancement of rents.
Significance
 Oppression: It ended the long oppression of the peasant by the hands of planters in terms of forced cultivation
and poor returns.
 Assessment: A through assessment of the conditions was presented to the British.
 Champaran Agrarian Act,1918:Based on the assessment, the legislation was made to protect the interests of
the peasants.
 Gandhi Proved: Gandhi hitherto, had not involved actively in grassroot activity in India, saw him gaining all
attention due to success of the Champaran attempt to restore justice.
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 Team developed: It saw Gandhi adding to his team, powerful leaders like Kriplani, and Rajendra Prasad who
later were his powerful itinerants.
 Fact based fight: Gandhi here relied on collecting documentary evidence, from the exploited peasants, which
helped him build a case for them, this proved that data based disproval of British policies have greater chance
of winning
 Denying Authority: Gandhi, when he landed in Champaran was asked to leave but he said he would court an
arrest than leave, and went on with his task. This is a major initial example of civil disobedience and satyagraha
practised first hand.
 Satyagraha: Convinced people of the power of Satyagraha to counter injustice.
 Future Struggles: Set the stage for future struggles that ultimately culminated into India’s independence.
Outcomes
 Champaran Agrarian Committee was formed and following the recommendations the government end the
teen kathia system and return the 25% of illegal cess collected to the ryots. Within a decade, the planters left
Champaran.
 Thus Champaran movement was the watershed event in the India struggle for Independence.
 Beginning of the Gandhian Era: Success at Champaran established Gandhiji as a strong leader in India’s
struggle for freedom. It was during this movement that he was called ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatama’ for the first time.
Credit goes to him for the abolish of the exploitative Tinkathia system.
 Beginning of the Mass movement Era: Gandhiji’s ability to efficiently mobilize the oppressed peasants at
Champaran, convinced the otherwise reluctant Congress to start a mass movement against the British rulers.
Thus, Champaran Movement marked the beginning of the mass movement era as from now onwards masses
became a part of the national movement.
 Emergence of Gandhiji as a Mass leader: Building on his experience in South Africa and establishing his
reputation as a leader of the masses, firstly during the Champaran Satyagraha and later on in Ahmedabad and
Kheda Satyagraha, Gandhiji found his feet among the masses. He now understood the strengths and
weaknesses of the masses better.
 First demonstration of Non- violent Satyagraha: Through Champaran Satyagraha, Gandhi demonstrated to the
people that even the strongest oppressor can be overthrown without the use of violence.
Conclusion
Gandhi’s win in Champaran, made him a hero among the masses and existing leadership, who were already his
admirers for his work in South Africa, so this set a stage for him to take batons of movement until its success
Role of Rajkumar Shukla in Champaran Movement and National Movement

The foundations for the success of the Champaran satyagraha were laid by Rajkumar Shukla, a sharecropper who
refused to give irrigation cess and the man who was instrumental in bringing Gandhi to the district.
Contribution to Champaran:
 He was engaged in oppposing the planters for the exploitative means adopted by them and was fighting many
cases in courts against the planters.
 In any event, towards the end of 1916, unable to muster adequate local support for action, Shukla headed to
Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress.
 Raj Kumar Shukla- an illiterate but resolute hence followed Gandhiji Lucknow, Cawnpore, Ahemdabad,
Calcutta, Patna, Muzzafarpur & then Champaran to invite him.
 He mobilised the Champaran peasantry and exhorting them to join hands in a common fight before Gandhiji's
arrival.
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 Shukla present in court to lend his support to these unfortunate individuals in their moments of hardship.
Contribution to National movement:

 Independent of Gandhi's activities, throughout the year, we find Shukla constantly attending court and judicial
proceedings in multiple locations to create fear among government.
 Spread the non-violent methods to fight with Britishers.
 It was in champaran only that J B Kriplani and Rajendra Prasad entered the freedom movement thus an
opportunity for them also was created by Shukla.
 Champaran was providede as a base to Gandhiji to establish strong roots among peasants and gave much
recognition to him all over India.
Thus directly and indirectly Shukla was a prominent contributor to the freedom movement.In seeking redress for
himself, Shukla quickly widened the meaning of his life's work. In championing the cause of justice for others in a
similar predicament, he became a lightning rod of the planters’ and paid a great personal price.
Non-Cooperation Movement in Bihar
The non-cooperation movement was launched on 1st August 1920 by the Indian National Congress (INC) under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It signified a new chapter in the history of Indian freedom struggle.
Causes of the non-cooperation movement:

Resentment at the British after the war:
 Indians thought that in return for the extensive support of manpower and resources they had provided to
Britain during the First World War, they would be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the
Government of India Act passed in 1919 was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive
acts like the Rowlatt Act which further angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their
wartime support.
Home Rule Movement:

 The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak set the stage for the non-
cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the INC were united and the Lucknow Pact also
saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The return of the extremists gave the INC
a militant character.
Economic hardships due to World War I:

 India’s indirect participation in the war caused a lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods
began to soar which affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural
products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government.
The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre:

 The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound
effect on the Indian leaders and the people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken
and the whole country rallied behind its leaders who were pitching for a more aggressive and firm
stance against the government.
The Khilafat Movement:

 During the First World War, Turkey, which was a German ally, had fought against the British. After
Turkey’s defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was proposed to be dissolved. The Khilafat movement was
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launched by Muslims in India to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate. The
leaders of this movement accepted the non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint
protest against the British.
Features of the non-cooperation movement in Bihar:

 Teachers and students left schools and colleges and the lawyers abstained from attending courts. Many
officials left their jobs. Foreign goods were boycotted.
 There was a boycott of auctions for settlement of ferries and pounds in Munger and Bhagalpur.
 There was a strike in the Government press in Patna.
 There was a police strike in March-April, 1921 which spread to Patna, Purnea, Munger and Champaran.
 When the Prince of Wales landed in Bombay on November, 17, there was hartal in whole of Bihar. When the
Prince visited Patna on December, 22, there was a complete boycott.
 The arrest of Gandhiji in March, 1922 was marked by state-wide protest meetings.
 The Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee of the Congress visited Bihar in 1922.
 Bihar Vidvapeeth was established on February 6, 1921, which was inaugurated by Gandhiji. Maulana
Mazharul Hague and Braj Kishore Prasad were made its Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor respectively. Rajendra
Prasad was made Principal at National School, Patna.
 Mazharul Haque established Sadakat Ashram near Digha in Patna which became the main centre of national
movement. He also started a newspaper called Motherland from September 30, 1921.
The most significant event was the 37th session on the Congress at Gaya in 1922 presided over by C.R. Das, which
voted for the continuance of the boycott of legislatures. In this session Rajendra Prasad was elected secretary of the
Congress and the office of AICC was shifted to Patna. The Tana Bhagats also attended the Gaya Congress. Rajendra
Prasad himself participated in the famous flag Satvagraha at Nagpur in 1923 along with a group of volunteers
from Bihar.
Suspension of the non-cooperation movement:

 Gandhiji called off the movement in February, 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident.
 In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen during a
clash between the police and protesters of the movement.
 Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the government
through ahimsa. A lot of leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the
movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.
After the suspension of NCM, Bihar concentrated on khadi production and other constructive activities.
As a result of break in the Congress, the Swaraj Party was formed in January 1923 under the presidentship of CR
Das and Motilal Nehru as its secretary. The Swaraj Party in Bihar was formed in February, 1923. Shri Narayan
Prasad was its first President and Abdul Bari was its secretary. The party participated in the assembly elections held
in November, 1923 and won 8 seats in the assembly and 10 seats in the council.
Some of the important events happened during Non‐cooperation Movement in Bihar were as follows:
 There was a boycott of auctions for settlement of ferries and pounds in Munger and Bhagalpur. A strike was
happened at Government Press in Patna.
 A national college as an alternate arrangement was established with Rajendra Prasad as Principal at Patna‐Gaya
road.
 Gandhiji in December, 1920 visited Bihar and especially in Bhagalpur led the picketing of liquor shops. In Bihar
‘Tilak Memorial Committee’ was formed. ‘The search‐light’ on the death of Tilak published an article ‘Bihar is
Mourning’.
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 There was a police strike in March‐April, 1921 which spread to Patna, Purnia, Munger and Champaran.
 Gandhiji also formally inaugurated Bihar National College on 5th January, 1921 and Bihar Vidyapeeth on 6th
February, 1921.
 Mazhar‐ul‐Haq on 30th September, 1921 started ‘The Motherland’ newspaper to propagate Hindu‐Muslim
Unity and Gandhian ideology. newspaper to propagate Hindu‐Muslim Unity and Gandhian ideology.
 On 22nd December, 1921, the British Prince visited Bihar, which was opposed by the Congress. Mahendra
Prasad, Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s brother returned the title of ‘Ray Sahab’ at the time of Non‐ cooperation
Movement.
Role of Bihar in Civil Disobedience Movement

 The proposal of Civil Disobedience Movement passed in Lahore session of INC in Dec, 1929. In this light, Gandhi
put up 11 demands with the government and a deadline was given to approve or disapprove it till 30 Jan,
1930. Due to the disapproval of the demands Congress working Committee(CWC) decided to start Civil
Disobedience Movement in Sabarmati. Gandhi started Dandi March with his 78 supporters and on April 6 1930,
he violated the Salt Act and thus gave thrust to Civil Disobedience Movement.
 Bihar played an important role in Civil Disobedience Movement. 6th April 1930 was fixed as the date for
Salt Satyagraha. Rajendra Prasad reviewed the possible line of Civil Disobedience in a speech at Patna in the
month of February. Jawaharlal Nehru toured Saran, Champaran and Muzzaffarpur from 31st March to 3rd April.
His visit was a source of great inspiration to the people of Bihar. The city of Patna witnessed one of the most
heroic scenes from 16th to 21st April even in the face of violence on the part of the police.
 On 16th April 1930, a Satyagraha was inaugurated at Patna. Volunteers proceeded in procession to Nakhas
pind, which had been selected as the spot for the violation of salt laws by manufacturing salt. The police
perpetrated merciless atrocities on volunteers in the vanguard. Prof. Abdul Bari was brutally attacked by the
police, when he was trying to control the crowd in front of the Patna College.
 Acharya Kriplani was also assaulted by the police with the batons. The police even pressed against Rajendra
Prasad while he was moving quietly along the road with a few other leaders. But people were not deterred.
 In Bhagalpur, a regular camp of volunteers was started where they drilled and practiced lathi play. The
government decided to declare this camp as an unlawful assembly and break it up. Rajendra Prasad , Abdul Bari
and several other leaders were present along with a large crowd when the camp was being dismantled. In
Munger district, breaking of salt law became chronic and hundreds were arrested. Under the able leadership
of Krishna Sinha and Nand kumar Sinha, Congress activities increased rapidly in Munger district.
 The movement for the non-payment of Chowkidari tax spread throughout Bihar. Government
adopyed stringent measures to crush it. For the the non-payment of Chowkidari tax, confiscation of property
and goods of all kinds including ploughs, cattle grains, cooking utensils etc become the common feature. On
account of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Gandhi attending the Second Round Table Conference in London, there
was a slowdown in the non-cooperation movement between 5th March 1931 to 1st January 1932. After the
return of Gnadhi from London, Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed from where it was left.
 Government took stringent measures to crush this movement. Government passed a large number of
Ordinances covering almost every activity of Indian life.
 At several places like Motihari, Sheohar, Begusarai, Tarapur( in Munger), etc, police resorted to firing. Even
under these extremely trying circumstances, the annual Congress session was held in Delhi on 24 th April 1932.
In this session put on record its high appreciation of the supreme sacrifice of freedom fighters who laid their
lives, notably in the Frontier province and Tarapur (in Munger) in Bihar.
 Notwithstanding the arrest of Rajendra Prasad and many other leaders, unrestricted use of weapons,
promulgation of stringent ordinances by the government, the movement continued in all its forms such as
picketing of foreign cloth and the sale of liquor, non-payment of taxes, and so on till it was suspended by
Gandhi in 1934 under circumstances. The national leaders then decided to concrete on constructive activities.
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Kisan Sabha in Bihar
 Inspired by the Champaran incident, Swami Vidyanand started the Kisan Sabha in Madhubani. Similar
movements also started in Munger, Shahabad, Patna, Saran, Muzaffarpur etc by the farmers.
 A Kisan Sabha was organised by Jagannath Pathak at Hilsa on 27th October, 1920 under the presidentship of
Shah Ghafoor.
 The Kisan Sabha was formed in Munger in 1922‐23 by Shri Krishna Singh and Shah Mohammad Zubair.
 In 1929, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati formed the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha ﴾BPKS﴿ to mobilise peasant
grievances against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy rights.
 Zamindars in action formed United Political Party in order to suppress peasants.
 In 1936, All India Kisan Sabha was formed at Lucknow. Under Rajendra Prasad, a committee was set‐up to study
condition of Rajendra Prasad, a committee was set‐up to study condition of farmers.
 In North and Central Bihar, peasants movement was an important side effect of the independence movement.
This movement aimed at overthrowing the feudal zamindari system instituted by Britishers. It was being led by
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and his followers Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Rahul Sankrityayan and others.
 Pandit Yamuna Karjee along with Rahul Sankrityayan and other Hindi literary started publishing a Hindi
weekly Hunkar from Bihar in 1940. Hunkar later became the mouthpiece of the Peasant Movement and the
Agrarian Movement in Bihar.
Individual Satyagraha and Bihar

 Individual Satyagarh was the resultant of August offer. It was started with the mass Civil Disobedience
Movement but M.K Gandhi on Individual Satyagarh. This was movement for not only to seek independence
but also to affirm the right of Speech. The Congress once again asked Gandhi to take command towards the
end of 1940 and that was lead to a mass struggle with broad strategic perspective.
Aims of individual Satyagraha

 To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness
 To express people’s feeling that they were not interested in the war and that they made no distinction between
Nazism and the double autocracy that ruled India.
 To give another opportunity to the Government to accept Congress’s demands peacefully.
 The demand of the Satyagrahi was using freedom of Speech against the war through an anti-war declaration. If
government did not arrest the Satyagrahi, he or she will move repeating it in villages and start march towards
Delhi (“Delhi Chalo Movement”).The centrepiece of Individual Satyagraha was non-violence which could be
achieved only selecting the Satyagrahis. Acharya Vinoba Bhave, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Dutt were the
first, second and third the selected Satyagarhi respectively.
The contribution of Bihar in the individual satyagraha:

 In Bihar, the individual satyagraha started on 28th November 1940. Shri Krishna Singh was the first
satyagrahi in Bihar. He was jailed for nine months ﴾22 November 1940 – 26 August 1941﴿. Anugraha
Narayan Singh was the second satyagrahi. He was arrested at Patna while delivering the speech. In Gaya,
Gauri Shankar Singh performed satyagraha on 4th December, 1940. Shyam Narayan Singh of Silaw also
performed the individual satyagraha on 9th December 1940. Some women were also chosen as satyagrahi:
In Gaya, Priyamvada Devi, Jagat Rani Devi and Janki Devi were arrested. Mahadevi Kesriwal was arrested in
Dumka. Overall, Bihar proactively participated in this movement. By 15 May 1941, more than 25,000
Satyagrahis from all over the country had been convicted for offering individual civil disobedience.
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Quit India Movement
The Quit India Movement started in year 1942 which was led by Mahatma Gandhi. The main goal of Quit India
Movement was complete independence from British
Government & their rigid policies in India.
Quit India Movement

 The Quit India Movement started on August 8,
1942, also known as the August Kranti
Movement, calling for the end of British rule in
India at the All India Congress Committee’s
session in Bombay.
 At the meeting of the All-India Congress
Committee in Mumbai, Mahatma Gandhi demanded the end of British rule and launched the Quit India
Movement. In his address at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, now referred to as August Kranti Maidan, Mahatma
Gandhi urged listeners to “Do or Die”.
 The Indian flag was raised at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Mumbai during the Quit India Movement by Aruna
Asaf Ali, also referred to as the “Grand Old Lady” of the Independence Movement. Yusuf Meherally, a socialist
and trade unionist who served as Mayor of Mumbai, is the author of the phrase “Quit India.”
Note:_ Meherally had also coined the slogan “Simon Go Back”.

Quit India Movement Phases

Phases Description
Strikes, boycotts, and picketing (protesting) were all part of the urban uprising’s first
phase, which was promptly put an end to.
First Phase Workers supported the protests by staying away from the factories during the
nationwide strikes and demonstrations.
The focus shifted to the countryside, where there was a significant peasant uprising
Second Phase that was characterized by the destruction of communication infrastructure, including
railroad tracks and stations.
In the final stage, national governments or parallel governments in discrete areas
Third Phase came into being (Ballia, Tamluk, Satara, etc.)
Causes:
 Failure of Cripps Mission: - The failure of the Cripps Mission to guarantee any kind of a constitutional remedy
to India’s problems also led to the INC calling for a mass civil disobedience movement.
1. Involvement of India in World War II without prior consultation with the leaders:-The British assumption of
unconditional support from India to British in World War II was not taken well by the Indian National Congress.
2. Prevalence of anti-British Sentiment:-The anti-British sentiments and demand for full-independence had
gained popularity among indian masses.
3. Centralisation of Many Small Movements:The two decades of mass movement which were being conducted
on a much more radical tone under the leadership of the various associated and affiliated bodies of the
Congress, like All India Kisan Sabha, Forward Bloc etc. had already prepared the ground for the movement.
There were militant outbursts happening at several places in the country which got channelized with the Quit
India Movement.
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4. Shortage of Essential Commodities:-The economy was also in shatters as a result of World War II.
Response to Quit India Movement

 The British government responded to the call of Gandhi by
arresting all major Congress leaders the very next Gandhi’s instructions to various sections of
day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, etc. were all arrested. Gandhi was the public:
released on health grounds in 1944. This left the movement  Government servants: do not resign your
job but proclaim loyalty to the INC.
in the hands of the younger leaders like Jayaprakash
 Soldiers: be with the army but refrain
Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia. New leaders like Aruna from firing on compatriots.
Asaf Ali emerged out of the vacuum of leadership.  Peasants: pay the agreed-upon rent if the
 Over 100000 people were arrested in connection with this landlords/Zamindars are anti-
movement. The government resorted to violence in order to government; if they are pro-government,
quell the agitation. They were mass floggings and lathi do not pay the rent.
 Students: can leave studies if they are
charges. Even women and children were not spared. About confident enough.
10000 people died in police firing in total.  Princes: support the people and accept
 There was no communal violence. the sovereignty of them.
 The INC was banned. Its leaders were jailed for almost the  People of the princely states: support the
whole of the war. The people responded to Gandhi’s call in a ruler only if he is anti-government;
declare themselves as part of the Indian
major way. However, in the absence of leadership, there
nation.
were stray incidences of violence and damage to
government property. Many buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were cut and communication and
transport lines were broken.
 Some parties did not support the movement. There was opposition from the Muslim League, the Communist
Party of India (the government revoked the ban on the party then) and the Hindu Mahasabha.
 The League was not in favour of the British leaving India without partitioning the country first. In fact, Jinnah
asked more Muslims to enlist in the army to fight the war.
 The Communist party supported the war waged by the British since they were allied with the Soviet Union.
 Subhas Chandra Bose, was by this time, organizing the Indian National Army and the Azad Hind government
from outside the country.
 C Rajagopalachari, resigned from the INC since he was not in favour of complete independence.
 In general, the Indian bureaucracy did not support the Quit India Movement.
 There were strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Despite the communist group’s lack of support to
the movement, workers provided support by not working in the factories.
 In some places, parallel governments were also set up. Example: Ballia, Tamluk, Satara.
 The chief areas of the movement were UP Bihar, Maharashtra, Midnapore, and Karnataka. The movement
lasted till 1944.
Quit India Movement Importance

 The government used harsh repression tactics, but the populace was unmoved and kept up their fight. Even
though the government claimed that independence could only be granted when the war ended, the movement
emphasized that Indians must be involved in governance for it to work. The movement prioritized calling for
total independence as the main goal of freedom movement. Public spirit and anti-British feelings were raised.
 Underground activities were carried out by figures who eventually became well-known leaders such as Ram
Manohar Lohia, J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani, and Biju Patnaik. Women participated actively in
the movement. Usha Mehta, among other female activists, contributed to the establishment of an
underground radio station, which sparked awareness of the movement. The Quit India Movement has
strengthened the sense of brotherhood and unity among people. Many high school and college kids dropped
out, while lots of adults quit their jobs and took money out of the banks.
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 The costs of World War II led the British to come to the important conclusion that India was unmanageable in
the long run, even though the Quit India movement collapsed in 1944 as a result of their insistence that
independence could only take place when the war was over and their refusal to grant it immediately. The
character of political negotiations with the British was altered, ultimately leading to India’s independence.
Successes of the Movement Failure of the Movement
Rise of Future Leaders: Brutal Repression:

 Underground activities were taken by  The movement saw violence at some places
leaders that included Ram Manohar Lohia, which was not premeditated.
J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Biju Patnaik,  The movement was violently suppressed by the
Sucheta Kriplani, etc which later emerged British – people were shot, lathi-charged,
as prominent leaders. villages burnt and enormous fines imposed.
 Over 1,00,000 people were arrested and the
Women Participation: government resorted to violence in order to
 Women took active participation in the crush the agitation.
movement. Female leaders like Usha Mehta
helped set up an underground radio station Lack of Support:
which led to the awakening about the  Muslim League, the Communist Party of India
movement. and the Hindu Mahasabha did not support the
movement. The Indian bureaucracy also did not
Rise of Nationalism: support the movement.
 A greater sense of unity and brotherhood  The League was not in favour of the British
emerged due to the Quit India Movement. leaving India without partitioning the country
Many students dropped out of schools and first.
colleges, people gave up their jobs and  The Communist party supported the British
withdrew money from the banks. since they were allied with the Soviet Union.
 The Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call
Paved the way for Independence:
for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it
 While the Quit India campaign was crushed
officially under the apprehension that the
in 1944, with the British refusing to grant
movement would create internal disorder and
immediate independence, saying it could
would endanger internal security during the
happen only after the war had ended, they
came to the important realization that India war.
was ungovernable in the long run due to  Meanwhile, Subhas Chandra Bose, organised
the cost of World War II. the Indian National Army and the Azad Hind
 It changed the nature of political government from outside the country.
negotiations with British, ultimately paving  Many Congress members like C Rajagopalachari
the way for India's independence. resigned from the provincial legislature as they
did not favour Mahatma Gandhi's idea.
Quit India Movement And Bihar

Quit India Movement aur “Bharat Chodo Andolan” was the
famous struggle in our freedom movement, also known as the
August revolution. Congress working committee at its meeting in
Bombay on the 5th of August 1942, passed a resolution later called
the Quit India Movement.
Causes of Quit India Movement–

The possibility of August Kranti flying quickly finished the
Bhojpuri-talking lot of Bihar. Both in the power and degree
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Bhagalpur since the 1930s had filled in as a significant base of Kisan Sabha. Individuals pronounced the
foundation of a Public Government or Jatiya Sarkar in North Bhagalpur. Under the direction of unyielding
progressive Sitaram Singh (the turn of Bhagalpur individuals’ development) an equal government jumped
up at Sultanpur and the public authority selected its own Daroga. In a constituent component of
Bhagalpur, for example, Madhapur, all administration workplaces went under individuals’ ownership who
ran them for scarcely any days.
Role of Bihar
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the Pioneer among the Congress leader from Bihar and under his leadership draught
was prepared for Quit India Movement in Bihar.
 he was arrested on 9th August 1942 and was taken to Bankipur jail with other leaders Shri Krishna Singh,
Anugrah Narayan Sinha, and Palan Prasad Verma.
 the Congress officers and those of allied organizations were declared illegal and police took possession of all of
them.
After the disappointment of the Cripps Mission, a well-known opinion for a decided attack upon the English
government ran very high. Any expectations of understanding and co-activity between the British and Congress
vanished. Gandhi presently started to introduce his orderly crusade for “methodical British withdrawal” from India.
The mission began late in April 1942. In his perspective, “whatever the results …. to India her genuine wellbeing and
Britishers also lie in a precise and convenient withdrawal from India”. The expression ‘Quit India’ from a sense of
‘do or die’ came to light.
Role of students in Bihar

 Students were inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s slogan of doing or dying.
 On August 11, 1942, At Patna, the students marched in the afternoon to hoist the national flag on the buildings
of the Patna Secretariat.
 Around 4 pm on the order of the District Magistrate of Patna, 13 to 14 rounds were fired from the premises of
the secretariat.
 As a result, 7 students were killed and around 25 workers injured badly.
The seven students martyrs were:
Name District School/College
Umakant Sinha Saran Rammohan Roy Seminary
Ramanand Singh Patna Rammohan Roy Seminary
Jagatpati Kumar Gaya BN College
Satish Prasad Jha Bhagalpur Patna College Patna
Devipada Choudhary Bhagalpur Millar High School
Rajendra Singh Saran Patna High School
Ram Govind Singh Patna Punpun High School
 These noble sacrifices of seven students intensified the Quit India Movement in the province of Bihar.
 Unfortunately, this turned into violence as a result of it The agitation uprooted the railway lines, damaged
telephone wires, burned Police stations, and seized post office officers and other government buildings.
 This led to clashes with administrative machinery. but this was a planned and spontaneous outburst against the
ruthless oppressive measure of the government. on the other hand, this movement held constructive aspects
as well. it emphasizes the establishment of people’s Rule By building up the structure of national government
from the bottom.
 Experiments in these kinds of Panchayati Raj were successfully made at some places special in Saharsa and
Supaul area. Most Patriots of Bihar flew to the Nepal Tarai region. there they receive sympathy and assistance
from local people. the sum of the freedom fighters who were confined in Hazaribagh jail, Escaped to Nepal.
They were Jayaprakash Narayan, Ramnandan Mishra.
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 In Nepal the Bihari heroes along with Suraj Narayan Singh and Ram Manohar Lohia formed “Azad Dasta” to
serve the country adopt the Guerrilla Warfare method against Britishers like Babu Veer Kunwar Singh adopted
once in his reign. But unfortunately, soon they got arrested in 1943 and confined in Hanuman Nagar jail.
 The popularity of the Quit India Movement was higher in Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh as compared to
other parts of the country. This movement turned out to be successful to thread Britishers. This was the last
movement at the mass level in the course of India’s freedom struggle.
Introduction and Expansion of Western

Education(Including Technical Education) in Bihar
Introduction
 Bihar always remained a centre of education from ancient times. It produced many teachers and pupils, who
later changed the dynamics of religion. politics, society and space. Some of the most important ones were
Chanakya, Panini, Ashtavakra, Aryabhatta. But modern western education in Bihar was only started after
the Charter Act of 1833 and the famous 'Macaulay's Minute' in 1835, both of these professed for providing
western education in English medium. Macaulay held the belief that Western education and learning was
superior than Indian education and learning.
School Education
 The first modern-western educational school was established in 1835 in Patna. In the same year, another
Western school was opened in Purnea. And in the next year a number of District Schools were started in
Biharsharif, Bhagalpur, Ara, Chhapra etc.
 The first girl's school, was opened in Patna in form of Saint Joseph's School in 1847. Another girl's school, was
started in Patna in 1867. Overall progress in girl's education in the British Period was very poor and that legacy
still continues.
Higher Education
 The first significant step in terms of higher education was taken in form of Patna College, which was established
on 9th January, 1863 on the recommendation of Wood's Dispatch, 1854 (prepared by Charles Wood).
 The first University of Bihar was established in 1917 as Patna University.
 The Higher education system in Bihar as well as in the country was later highly influenced by the report
of Saddler Education Commission (1917-19), which was formed to give recommendation on improving the
higher education system in India.
 Some of the most important recommendation of the commission were:-
o The Commission recommended that the school education should be of 12 years instead of 10 years earlier.
o Student's should be admitted in colleges only after completing intermediate (12th) instead of
matriculation.
o The commission suggested to reduce the rigidity of government regulation over the working of
universities.
o One of the most important recommendations of the commission was to make universities more
centralised, unitary, residential and autonomous. And hence decrease the number of affiliate colleges.
o Other than Patna University, more than 30 Universities, Deemed Universities and other institutions are
established in Bihar with many affiliated and constituent colleges in Bihar till now.
Development of Scientific and Technical Education

 The first significant step in terms of scientific and technical education was taken in form of Agricultural
University at Pusa. It was first fully functional Agricultural University in Bihar as well as in India.
 For the first time, degree Courses in Physics and Chemistry was started in Patna College in 1919. Later in
1928, Patna Science college was established, which was exclusively for science courses.
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 In 1926, Indian School of Mines was established in Dhanbad (now in Jharkhand) to provide education in mining
technology. It laid the foundation of Engineering education in Bihar. It was followed by Patna Engineering
College. After Independence many other engineering Colleges were established, some of the most prominent
ones are NIT(Patna), IIT(Patna) and many other public and private Engineering institutions.
 First Medical College in Bihar was established in 1925, in form Patna Medical College. It laid the foundation of
medical education in the state. Now, there are more than 15 medical colleges in the state including two
premier Central institutions i.e. AIIMS (Patna) and Indra Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences (Patna).
Religious and Social Organisations' Efforts for Development of Western Education

 Dayanand Anglo Vedic(DAV) Schools were established by the Arya Samaj across the state. These schools were
established with the aim to provide western education along with Vedic philosophy in English medium.
 Raja Rammohan Rai Seminary was also established in the premises of Patna University by Brahmo Samaj to
inculcate modern Western education and rational thinking and to eliminate fundamentalism and blind faiths
prevailed in the society.
Muslim Education in Bihar

 Muslim education in Bihar progressed, developed and spread on the lines of Aligarh Movement, which was
started by Sir Saiyyad Khan who preached Muslim masses to get Western Education along with traditional
religious teachings.
 Bihar Scientific Society was established in Muzaffarpur by Imdad Ali Khan in 1872. It's second branch was
started in 1873 in Patna. Later Mohammden Anglo Arabic School was established by Mohammden Education
Society in 1886 in Patna City.
 Shansul Ulema Mohammed Hassan played most important role in spread of modern western education among
Muslims in Bihar.
Critical Analysis
 Despite all efforts schools during British period remained limited to cities and towns. Which led the rural
population of Bihar out of the ambit of modern western education and especially English education.
 The education policies of British government and social taboos in early period of 20th century affected the girl's
education significantly and especially the girls belonging to rural areas, because the absence of schools in rural
areas and society did not allow girls to go to cities to get education.
 This situation still prevails after more than 70 years of independence and did not change much. According to
Census Report-2011 only 51.5% women in the state are literate, which is lowest in India.
 British Period Universities were limited to big cities and towns only, which created an educated few over mass
illiteracy and and uneducated people.
 Despite of increase in the number of colleges and universities in the state higher education in the state is
performing very poorly due to many issues such as no regular classes, mis-management of
colleges/universities, late exams, mass cheating and fraud in examination process.
 In terms of scientific, medical and technical education the situation was also not too good during pre-
independence era, when only few colleges and institutions were present in comparison to other parts of the
country.
 Large number of students from Bihar, even today migrate to other states for getting medical, engineering and
other professional education, because of the absence of good quality institutions in the state.
Conclusion
 Despite being the hub of education in ancient times, Bihar lagged heavily during the medieval and colonial era
before independence and even after independence. The land of Bihar, which produced many Jems of arts,
science, medicine and even space is now the most illiterate state of the country.
 The education policies of the British government were aimed at creation of an educated few, which led to
creation of very large number of sections of Indian society which was uneducated and even illiterate. This gap
created during pre-independence era could not bridged till now.
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 The policies of the state government are still not very good at all. Rampant corruption in education department
and recruitment process resulted into people who can not even read books, became teachers. Which further
affecting the quality of education in Government Schools in the state.
Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi
Known As Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
Born October 2, 1869 • Porbandar • India.
Died He was shot dead by Nathuram Godse on 30th January, 1948. (aged 78) Delhi
30th January - Martyrs' Day.
Political Indian National Congress
Affiliation
Family spouse Kasturba Gandhi
Members
Role In British raj • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre • Poona Pact • Round Table Conference • Salt
March • non-cooperation movement
Brief Profile: Lawyer, politician, social activist, and writer who became the leader of the nationalist movement
against the British rule of India.
Satyagrah: In South Africa (1893-1915), he had successfully fought the racist regime with a novel method of
mass agitation, which he called satyagraha.
Return to He returned to India from South Africa on 9th January 1915. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) is
India: celebrated on 9th January every year to mark the contribution of Overseas Indian community in
the development of India.
Social Work: He worked for the upliftment of untouchables and gave them a new name 'Harijan' meaning the
children of God.
Books Hind Swaraj,
My Experiments with Truth (Autobiography
Gandhi’s contribution to India's Independen
Introduction
Mahatma Gandhi is not only a freedom fighter but also a social and economic revolutionary. His idea of
Satyagraha by the method of non-violence is praised and followed all over the world. Gandhi is not a name but
an idea that incorporate the feeling of Struggle, Nationalism and Sacrifice. Gandhi played a crucial role in the
freedom struggle of India. He is known for his various Satyagraha to oppose unjust laws made by the British.
Some of the popular movements led by Mahatma Gandhi are Champaran Satyagraha for indigo planters,
Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha for an increase of wages of mill workers, Kheda Satyagraha for Patidar peasants,
Satyagraha against Rowlett Act, Salt Satyagraha against the tax imposed on salt and Quit India movement for
freedom of India. Hence, we can conclude that the movement led by Mahatma Gandhi played a significant role
in the freedom of India, and that is why he can be considered as the architect of the Indian struggle for freedom.
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Mahatma Gandhi's famous contributions to Indian freedom movement:
World War I
 Lord Chelmsford, the then Viceroy of India, invited Gandhi to Delhi at a War Conference. In order to gain the
trust of the empire, Gandhi agreed to move people to enlist in the army for World War I. However, he wrote
to the Viceroy and said that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe".
Champaran
 The Champaran agitation in Bihar was Gandhi's first active involvement into Indian freedom politics. The
Champaran farmers were being forced to grow Indigo and were being tortured if they protested.
The farmers sought Gandhi's help and through a calculated non-violent protest, Gandhi managed to win
concessions from the authority.
Kheda
 When Kheda, a village in Gujarat, was badly hit by floods, the local farmers appealed to the rulers to waive
off the taxes. Here, Gandhi started a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of taxes.
 He also arranged a social boycott of the mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials). In 1918, the
Government relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended.
Khilafat Movement
 Gandhi's influence on the Muslim population was remarkable. This was evident in his involvement in the
Khilafat Movement. After the first World War, the Muslims feared for the safety of their Caliph or religious
leader and a worldwide protest was being organised to fight against the collapsing status of the Caliph.
 Gandhi became a prominent spokesperson of the All India Muslim Conference and returned the medals he
had received from the Empire during his Indian Ambulance Corps days in South Africa. His role in the
Khilafat made him a national leader in no time.
Non-cooperation Movement
 Gandhi had realised that the British had been able to be in India only because of the co-operation they
received from the Indians. Keeping this in mind, he called for a non-cooperation movement.
 With the Congress' support and his indomitable spirit, he convinced people that peaceful non-cooperation
was the key to Independence. The ominous day of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre triggered the non-cooperation
movement. Gandhi set the goal of Swaraj or self-governance, which since then became the motto of Indian
freedom movement.
Salt March
 Also known as the Dandi Movement, Gandhi's Salt March is considered to be a pivotal incident in the history
of freedom struggle. At the Calcutta Congress of 1928, Gandhi declared that the British must grant India
dominion status or the country will erupt into a revolution for complete independence. The British did not
pay heed to this.
 As a result, on December 31, 1929, the Indian flag was unfurled in Lahore and the next January 26 was
celebrated as the Indian Independence Day. Then, Gandhi started a Satyagraha campaign against the salt
tax in March 1930. He marched 388 kilometres from Ahmedabad to Dandi in Gujarat to make salt.
Thousands of people joined him and made it one of the biggest marches in Indian history.
Quit India Movement

 During the Second World War, Gandhi was determined to strike the British Empire with a definitive
blow that would secure their exit from India. This happened when the British started recruiting Indians
for the war.
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 Gandhi protested strongly and said that the Indians cannot be involved in a war that is in favour of
democratic purposes when India itself is not a free country. This argument exposed the two-faced image
of the colonisers and within half a decade, they were out of this country.
Gandhian Ideologies
What is Gandhian ideology?
 Gandhian ideology is the set of religious and social ideas adopted and developed by Mahatma Gandhi, first
during his period in South Africa from 1893 to 1914, and later in India.
 Gandhian philosophy is not only simultaneously political, moral and religious, it is also traditional and
modern, simple and complex. It embodies numerous Western influences to which Gandhiji was exposed,
but is rooted in ancient Indian culture harnessing universal moral & religious principles.
 The philosophy exists on several planes - the spiritual or religious, moral, political, economic, social,
individual and collective.
o The spiritual or religious element, and God, are at its core.
o Human nature is regarded as fundamentally virtuous.
o All individuals are believed to be capable of high moral development, and of reform.
 Gandhian ideology emphasises not on idealism, but on practical idealism.
 Gandhian philosophy is a double-edged weapon. Its objective is to transform the individual and society
simultaneously, in accordance with the principles of truth and non-violence.
 Gandhiji developed these ideologies from various inspirational sources vis Bhagvad Geeta, Jainism,
Buddhism, Bible, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Tolstoy, John Ruskin among others.
o Tolstoy's book 'The Kingdom of God is within you' had a deep influence on Mahatma Gandhi.
o Gandhiji paraphrased Ruskin's book 'Unto this Last' as 'Sarvodaya'.
 These ideas have been further developed by later "Gandhians", most notably, in India by, Vinoba Bhave and
Jayaprakash Narayan and outside of India by Martin Luther King Jr. and others.
Major Gandhian Ideologies

Truth and nonviolence:
They are the twin cardinal principles of Gandhian thoughts.
 For Gandhi ji, truth is the relative truth of truthfulness in word and deed, and the absolute truth - the
ultimate reality. This ultimate truth is God (as God is also Truth) and morality - the moral laws and code -
its basis.
 Nonviolence, far from meaning mere peacefulness or the absence of overt violence, is understood by
Mahatma Gandhi to denote active love - the pole opposite of violence, in every sense. Nonviolence or love
is regarded as the highest law of humankind.
Satyagraha
Gandhi ji called his overall method of nonviolent action Satyagraha. It means the exercise of the purest soul-
force against all injustice, oppression and exploitation.
o It is a method of securing rights by personal suffering and not inflicting injury on others.
o The origin of Satyagraha can be found in the Upanishads, and in the teachings of Buddha, Mahavira and a
number of other other greats including Tolstoy and Ruskin.
o The famous quote of Gandhi regarding this is
“An eye for an eye would certainly make the whole world blind”. – Gandhi
Sarvodaya
Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All'. The term was first coined by Gandhi ji as the
title of his translation of John Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last".
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Swaraj
Although the word swaraj means self-rule, Gandhi ji gave it the content of an integral revolution that
encompasses all spheres of life.
 For Gandhi ji, swaraj of people meant the sum total of the swaraj (self-rule) of individuals and so he
clarified that for him swaraj meant freedom for the meanest of his countrymen. And in its fullest sense,
swaraj is much more than freedom from all restraints, it is self-rule, self-restraint and could be equated
with moksha or salvation.
Trusteeship
Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was propounded by Gandhi ji.
 It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the trustees of trusts that looked after the
welfare of the people in general.
 This principle reflects Gandhi ji’s spiritual development, which he owed partly to his deep involvement with
and the study of theosophical literature and the Bhagavad Gita.
Swadeshi
The word swadeshi derives from Sanskrit and is a conjunction of two Sanskrit words. ‘Swa’ means self or own
and ‘desh’ means country. So swadesh means one's own country. Swadeshi, the adjectival form, means of one’s
own country, but can be loosely translated in most contexts as self-sufficiency.
 Swadeshi is the focus on acting within and from one's own community, both politically and economically.
 It is the interdependence of community and self-sufficiency.
 Gandhi ji believed this would lead to independence (swaraj), as British control of India was rooted in control
of her indigenous industries. Swadeshi was the key to the independence of India, and was represented by
the charkha or the spinning wheel, the “center of the solar system” of Mahatma Gandhi’s constructive
program.
Ram Rajya
 ‘Ram Rajya’ envisages a society in which virtue, morality and justice are the core ideals around which day-
to-day interactions between citizen and citizen and; state and citizen occur.
 Gandhi said that for him a true Ram Rajya would ensure “equal rights to both prince and pauper”.
Gramaraj
Gandhiji wanted to see each village:
o a little republic,
o self-sufficient in its vital wants,
o organically and non-hierarchically linked with the larger spatial bodies and
o enjoying the maximum freedom of deciding the affairs of the locality.
o Gandhi wanted political power to be distributed among the villages in India. Gandhi preferred the term
‘Swaraj’ to describe what he called true democracy.
Relevance of Gandhism in 21st Century

Although it is widely believed that Gandhism is a challenge to pursue in the 21st century; that is not the case.
Gandhi’s principles can be applied in the following ways:
Concept of Society:
 The contemporary society is a complex whole which is neither value-oriented nor purely speculative.
Tradition and authority which were once revered are now utterly disregarded. The whole of humanity is
steered by jealousy, distrust, suspicion and hatred. Violence, poverty and intolerance are on the rise. The
outer homogeneity brought by science and civilization doesn’t emanate with the inner unity of our souls. So,
there is a dire need to reform our minds. He says that adherence to truthfulness should be our only purpose
of existence. The ultimate end of the individual is the realization of truth and justice through consistent
endeavours, not only for ourselves but for the entire humanity.
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Economy:
 While it is generally recognized that socialism can’t be established without the use of force, Mahatma
Gandhi’s idea of socialism involves the use of non-violence. He didn’t believe in extremes and neither
appreciated complete liberty, as in a capitalist democracy, nor regimentation as in communist dictatorships.
His idea was that power is to be as decentralized as possible. Globalization means integration of world
economies through cross-country exchange of goods, ideas, information, and many services. Dominant
economies with the aid of Multinational Companies and International Organizations are serving their
interests to the extent that often the interest of the poor countries is compromised.
Education:
 Mahatma Gandhi thought that humanization of knowledge can lead us to immunization of ideas against
communal distrust. He was critical of traditional education and said that being literate doesn’t mean being
educated.
Swaraj:
 Swaraj meant to be free from external influences and foreign control. Now the country is independent and
free from any external control. In today’s competitive and fast-paced world, there must be control over our
inner conscience. Self-empowerment is the need of the hour. Every person should search for their own
identity, and shouldn’t try to fit themselves in the moulds created by society.
Technology:
 The Gandhian principles are still relevant and technology can be used to enhance their effectiveness. The
main tenet that he propagated was Satya.
 It would include truth with respect to speech, reality as it exists and good as opposed to immoral, evil, and
bad. As opposed to this, in contemporary times, people are not truthful and they are not presented with the
existing reality of the system.
 Here, technology plays its part. Technology can help bring the reality and truth out of the systems. It can
curb our main evil, corruption. Information and Communications Technology plays a significant role in this.
It facilitates the movement of data among governmental institutions, among citizens and between citizens
and government as well. It helps bring transparency, answerability, and public participation.
In my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration, because he embodies the kind of
transformational change that can be made when ordinary people come together to do extraordinary things."
-Barack Obama
Need for Tolerance and Peace

 Each year, over 1.6 million people worldwide lose their lives to violence.
 Violence is among the leading causes of death for people worldwide.
 It accounts for 14% of deaths among males and 7% of deaths among females - WHO’s World report on
violence and health.
 Violence ranges from physical, sexual, reproductive to mental health problems.
 Millions of lives are lost every year amid conflict zones. Example- Yemen and Afghanistan.
 Violence places a massive burden on national economies, costing countries billions of dollars each year in
health care, law enforcement and lost productivity.
 In world that is moving through the phases of war marred by violence and naked dance of death of common
people due to the menace of terrorism there is a significant requirement of Gandhian idea of Non- violence
more and more today than the past days.
Sustainable Environment
 Gandhji’s environmental concerns were real and are taking shape in the present times. Gandhiji had said
“Earth has enough for Human needs, But not for Human greeds”
 He was quite apprehensive of machinery production and industrialization, which will harm the environment.
 And here we are, living a deplorable life among the noxious fumes, polluted, and harmful gases released by
these industries.
 We cut trees and harm the forest habitat, which harms the ecological balance.
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 The world is whirling under the burden of global warming, climate change and resource crunch.
 The world, including the United Nation has recognized Gandhian idea of sustainable development.
 The recent inauguration of Gandhi Solar Park at the headquarters United Nations (UN) is a testimony to
that.
 Behind all the climate deals, environmental conservation treaties and sustainable development goals of the
UN Gandhian view self sustenance operates as driving philosophy.
 The need for sustainable development is quintessential in present times.
Secular Ideologies
 The secular ideologies of Gandhiji are not only there in Indian constitution but also there in Indian society as
a core value system.
 That is why so many people of diverse religions coexist in India.
 Today, the world today needs more and more tolerant people in societies where violence is committed in
the name of religion.
 Tolerance in the society will help in neutralizing the ethnocentric bias in the globe that is taking place day by
day on the basis of religion, caste, ethnicity and region etc.
Democratic Decentralization:
 Gandhi made it very dear that concentration of either economic or political power would violate all the
essential principles of participatory democracy.
 To check centralization, Gandhi suggested the institution of village republics both as institutions of parallel
polities and as units of economic autonomy. Village is the lowest unit of a decentralized system.
 Gandhian idea of decentralization of power is being implemented in democracies through empowered local
self governments at grass root level.
 Indian government, for instance, have implemented local self government by adopting to Panchayati Raj
and Municipality system in rural and urban areas respectively.
Casteless society
 Gandhi was against the caste system which is still a taboo in India.
 Even after 72 years of Independence and despite having reservations Indian society is grappling with
casteism, communalism, regionalism and provincialism.
 Gandhiji wanted to eradicate untouchability and casteism from root and cause through the change in hearts
of people.
 Thus, the Gandhian philosophy is useful create a casteless society where everyone is treated equally
irrespective of their caste.
Sanitation and Cleanliness

 Clean surroundings are a must for humans to exist as such an environment holds the promise of
safeguarding our health to quite a degree against a plethora of often fatal diseases.
 It also helps in curbing mortality rates.
 The health of future generations depends on these factors.
 The Mahatma rightly said: "Sanitation is more important than independence".
 India has ranked a poor 168th out of 180 countries in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index (EPI),
according to researchers at Yale and Columbia universities.
 Gandhiji had said, “Everyone must be his own scavenger,” but modern-day India is anything but that.
 We have let the sanitation of the nation go to the gutter and sent the poorest of the poor to go clean it up,
letting them die in the process.
 Hence, it is more important today than ever to imbibe the values upheld by the Father of the Nation when it
comes to cleanliness.
 The government’s Swachh Bharat Mission is a welcome move in this context.
 “So long as you do not take the broom and the bucket in your hands, you cannot make your towns and cities
clean,” Mahatma Gandhi famously said and his words are true even today.
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 No matter how much money is allocated to the cleaning up of the country, it is only when the individual
citizen will take this herculean task in his hands that we would be able to eliminate the ghoul of dirt from
our lives.
 If we feel ashamed in cleaning the very filth we create, despite having modern methods of disposing of
waste, then we have knowingly pushed the nation into a septic tank of apathy which will consume us all.
 Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan needs the Gandhian push if the nation has to become a cleaner and more
disciplined one.
Conclusion
 Gandhian ideologies have become the lighthouse for Indian policy makers over the years.
 Starting from poverty alleviation to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and universal health care (Ayushman Bharat) to
skill India programs everywhere the core inspiration comes from Gandhianism.
 National food security act of India to Obama Care policy of the United States of America Gandhian concept
of socialism holds the key as a guiding principle.
 For each one of us, Gandhian principles of swadeshi, swachhata and sarvodaya should be our guidelines.
 Rather than indulging in a globalised lifestyle, we should endeavour to respond to Gandhiji’s call for putting
into practice a unique variant of “glocalisation”.
 Glocalisation means - learning to experience the entire world within the precincts of our immediate village
or neighbourhood.
 This is in line with the Upanishadic dictum “viswam prushtam grame asmin anaathuram.”
 We should live in harmony with our environment, eschewing exploitative practices as far as possible.
 Every individual should follow the key Gandhian ideologies in their day to day life for a happy, prosperous,
healthy, harmonious and sustainable future.
Gandhi's Social & Cultural thought

Mahatma Gandhi had a great influence through his ideas like Non-Violence(Ahimsa), Satyagraha, Swaraj,
Sarvodaya, ends and means.
Significance of Gandhi's Social & Cultural thought

 Since ancient times, India has been the centre of a rich and diverse civilization and given world mentors and
great leaders from time to time who reached the highest stage of human status and became philosopher
guides for the whole world.
 Mahatma Gandhi was one of such personality. His ideas and practices became equally adaptable in his own
time for millions of his own country on one hand, and on the other Gandhi’s unique method of struggle such
as his campaign against racism in South Africa proved to be a guiding force for people of many countries of
the world.
 Mahatma Gandhi had a great influence through his ideas like Non-Violence(Ahimsa), Satyagraha, Swaraj,
Sarvodaya, ends, and means. Gandhi’s foundational principles are Non-violence and Satyagraha on the basis
of he led India to Independence. Gandhi has no rigidities of ideology or principles except the
uncompromising notion of non-violence. Gandhi was not only a great leader politician but a philosopher and
a relevant social reformer who was open to another horizon of thinking.
Thoughts on Social and Cultural Dimension:

 Gandhi represented his views on existing social, cultural, economic and political problems of the society
along with the possible situation. Gandhi identified the individual as the most important element of society.
Society and the world is the summation of individuals. Therefore, his vision emphasizes the change in
individuals, instead of the institutions developed by the individual.
 Gandhi was a true social- worker fighting against the evils of society. Gandhi always insisted that if you want
to do social work, you start with yourself like start with your family. The relation between wife and husband
should be that of true friends.
 Gandhi drew attention to the social status of women. His attitude to women’s rights was uncompromising
under all conditions. He considered removing the inequalities of women through legislation.
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 Gandhi was totally against child marriage. He gave enthusiastic support to the child marriage Restraint Bill
(1929) passed by the assembly.
 Gandhi always works for the upliftment of the depressed classes. His stand on the Poona pact and formation
of the All India Anti-Untouchability League and started the weekly journal Harijan.
 Gandhi encouraged intercultural dialogue so that individuals could see their culture in a comparative and
critical reflection of others.
 Gandhi considered interculturalism as a way of recognition of shared values, acceptance of differences and
simultaneous awareness of commonalities. His main aim is to build an inter-cultural and pluri-dimensional
society. He considered the inclusive development of India will be only realized through the idea of
Sarvodaya.
 Gandhian social ethics represent an act of self-transformation of humanity. He wanted to change the values
that govern the social, economic and political activities in human society.
 Gandhi was a social practitioner who was always experimenting with cross-border cultural constellations.
Gandhi was clear that both the individual and society need a moral vision of the world. Gandhi supports the
idea of social transformation through democratic and peaceful means.
 Thus, Mahatma Gandhi did not visualize social re-construction and welfare as a field for helping the needy
as a charity, but as the emergence of people through individual and social discipline, towards a healthy and
prosperous society.
Gandhi’s View on Modern Industrialism

 Gandhi was totally against modern industrial system and, in fact, called upon the young educated Indians to
return to villages that are neither polluted by railways nor by modernism and preserve the values of the
ancient Indian civilization. He also stressed on physical and manual power.
 Gandhi was eager to break the stronghold of aristocracy because, in his opinion, they do not appreciate the
manual labour and to make sure that they appreciate the hard labour. Gandhi believed that physical labour
must be made supreme to all other sources of wealth. Gandhi believed in law of the bread labour, that is,
everyman must earn his bread by sweat of his brow in some labour connected with agriculture and its allied
activities.
 Gandhi emphasized on decentralized production in the villages. He feared that if the state is made
accountable to the distribution, it would monopolize the means of production and that it would inevitably
lead to concentration of wealth as well as power in the state. This situation sooner or later, according to
Gandhi, would establish dictatorship of a party or a bureaucracy.
 Gandhi was also against the concept of mechanization. He believed that by using machine-made
Manchester cloth, Indians are only wasting their money, but instead if they reproduce Manchester in India,
they would keep their money with themselves. He further stated that if the cloth is made by spinning, it
would also solve the problem of growing poverty of the peasantry.
 Gandhi wanted to boycott foreign-made cloth and use Indian cloth despite its coarseness. He believed that
boycott of foreign goods not only saves the cottage industries, but also saves Indian textile mills. Gandhi was
also against the industrial, technological and commercial society of the modern age.
 He believed in nature and like Rousseau and Tolstoy, and give up luxury, ostentation and city life. He wanted
Indian villages to be self-sufficient economies. He never wanted life to be a pyramid with the apex sustained
by the bottom, but circle whose centre would be the individual.
 Gandhi considered city as a necessary evil because he opined that in an urban areas, there is more violence.
He further expressed the view that democracy can be built only in villages and modern industrial system
would lead to a totalitarian society with imperialistic tendencies.
 It was Gandhi’s emphasis on Khadi and Charkha and villages that brought about a sense among a large
group of Indians who began to think in human terms about the village peasants. It is Gandhi who made the
Indian urban community realize that behind the glitter of cities, there lies misery and poverty and that it is
important to acknowledge that true progress lies not in the creation of millionaires or big cities but reducing
the misery of the poor peasant in villages.
 Though it is a known fact that industrialization increases the standard of living, Gandhi never wanted this
rise in the living beyond a certain point. He opined that despite a rise in the people’s standard of living,
poverty still continues.
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Gandhi’s View on Caste and Religion
 Gandhi was not only a leader of India’s National Movement but his importance also lies in the matter of
inclusion of religious point of view in politics and thus spiritualization of politics was mainly the contribution
of Gandhi. Gandhi was a religious person and he believed that the religion should be the fundamental basis
of politics. Though religion here means, in his views, as “love with truth and humanity”.
 Gandhi studied Bhagavad Gita and considered it as the source of spirituality because whenever he was in fix,
he used to start ‘Geeta Paath’. Gandhi learnt the principle of morality & work as worship type of nature
from Geeta. Gandhi studied several other holy books of Hinduism like Samkhya, advaitavedanta, books on
Yoga and books of Jainism and Buddhism. Infact, he adopted the element of non-violence from Jainism and
Buddhism and considered non-volence the supreme morality. These books led Gandhi to espouse a set if
religiously inspired norms or principles of personal and collective conduct, for example the values of satya,
ahmisa, aparigraha and sambhava. Gandhi saw in them an alternative to western values or principles of
individualism, utilitarianism and violence.
 Gandhi considered different religion have different roads have same goal of love and truth and reached
through his experience that all religion have same principles and religion is a binding force among the
people. Gandhi believed in ‘Sarvadharma Samanatva’ which means equal faith for religion and faiths.
 Gandhi being hindu, considered Hinduism as a way of life and not mere a religion and considered as most
tolerant religion as it give scope to everyone to worship all religions of the world. According to Gandhi, the
main aim of the religion is spread love and peace and make interaction between humans and god. Gandhi
has deep devotion in God because he understood that devotion gives the capacity to bear the hardest
suffering. People are inspired for the love with truth and humanity by the devotion of god. According to
him, a Satyagrahi must keep faith in God so that he/she could refrain from the bad activities and will be
striving against the discrimination and exploitationS in any form.
 Gandhi had very rational thinking with respect to religion as he considered religion should be able to solve
the problem of everyday life and outrightly rejected those religions which are against the human values and
morality.
Caste system:
 The movement against the caste system in India is almost as old as caste itself. Buddhism and Jainism were
reformist movements which were partly aimed against caste system. Gandhi separated what he considers to
be the inessentials of the caste system from its essentials, rejects the former and declares the later to be
beneficial for society. He tackles the problem on three fronts:
o Untouchability and its attendant structures
o the thousands of endogamous or semi-endogamous groups called caste
o Varna or the four fold functional division of society.
 He regards untouchabliity as ‘immoral’ and therefore in need of complete eradication, caste as unnecessary
and undesirable. According to Gandhi, Untouchability was bigger evil than any thing in this world and first
consider to abolish this sinful activity. Gandhi also viewed that untouchables as an integral part of hindu as
whole. Gandhi said “To remove untouchability is a penance that caste Hindu owe to Hinduism and to
themselves”.
 Gandhi believed that there is no inseparable connection between untouchability and the caste system;
untouchability can be eradicted without abolishing caste together. He argues in favour of the abolition of
the multiplicity of castes and their reduction into the four varnas; the eradication of untouchability is not
dependent even on this proposed simplification of the caste system, not to speak of its abolition
altogether.
 Gandhi considered untouchability as by-product of the caste system. It is wrong to destroy caste because of
the outcaste, as it would be to destroy a body because of ugly growth.
 The caste system represents a social hierarchy based on the idea of high and low, since it is an unnecessary
outgrowth of the four varnas which are fundamental and essential to the organization of a society, Gandhi
considers the multiplicity of castes to be undesirable and superfluous.
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Gandhi Showed How Religion Is Used In Politics
 Those who believe religion cannot play a constructive role in politics must study how Mahatma Gandhi led
India to win independence from the British rule with a struggle that was founded on religious beliefs.
Gandhi said his mission was to win Swaraj (self-rule), which he envisioned and portrayed as “Ramarajya”.
Ramarajya was not an exclusive term, and nor did it mean theocracy. It called for establishment of a just and
humane government and society which, according to him, was realising God on earth. Winning
independence politically was only a small part of it.
 Gandhi clarified that Ramarajya did not mean a rule of the Hindus. “My Rama is another name for Khuda or
God. I want Khudai raj, which is the same thing as the Kingdom of God on earth” (Haimchar, February 26,
1947). He explained that politically translated, it is perfect democracy in which, “inequalities based on
possession and non-possession, colour, race or creed or sex vanish; in it, land and State belong to the
people, justice is prompt, perfect and cheap and, therefore, there is freedom of worship, speech and the
Press—all this because of the reign of the self-imposed law of moral restraint”
 Gandhi’s Satyagraha (struggle for truth) movement, which compelled the British to leave the country in
1947, was also grounded on explicit and strong religious beliefs.
 Satyagraha involved the use of soul force as against the body force and was characterized by passive
resistance and Ahimsa (non-violence). It sought to awaken the inherent virtues in those against whom it was
used, and not to suppress perceived evil in them by any physical pressure or force. Besides, it was focused
on self-purification rather than judgment of the other.
 According to Gandhi, non-violence was a more active force than retaliation, which increases wickedness. “I
contemplate a mental, and therefore, a moral opposition to immoralities. I seek entirely to blunt the edge of
the tyrant’s sword, not by putting up against it a sharper-edged weapon, but by disappointing his
expectation that I would be offering physical resistance
 Satyagraha had three inseparable components.
o One, it was aimed at a just cause. He said, “I claim that the method of passive resistance…is the clearest
and safest, because, if the cause is not true, it is the resisters and they alone who suffer.”
o Two, it was effective but peaceful. “Passive resistance is an all-sided sword; it can be used anyhow; it
blesses him who uses it and him against whom it is used. Without drawing a drop of blood it produces
far-reaching results,” said Gandhi (“Hind Samaj or Indian Home Rule”, Navajivan Publishing House, 1958).
He saw non-violence as “the end of all religions”.
o Three, it concerned impurities and weaknesses in the self rather than focusing on the evil in the object of
resistance. For instance, he said it was the people in India who needed to change to earn the freedom.
“It is the people alone who have to win swaraj; no man, not even the Viceroy, can grant it.”
 He also said, “When it (the government) sees the faith in yourselves which you will have displayed to the
world by starting 20 lakh spinning-wheels within the time fixed, it will come down on its knees…When you
have done this, the world will have realized, and so will have the Government, that you have faith in
yourselves, that you really mean to have Swaraj
 Again, he said, “You must be religious and pure of heart. You must give up drinking and firmly vow to wear
only pure swadeshi (indigenous) cloth…. You must bear in mind that no one who is wicked and of impure
heart succeed in the non-cooperation struggle
 However, Gandhi’s use of religion was not idealistic, and nor was he over-optimistic about the realisation of
his dream of Ramarajya. “It is a dream that may never be realized. I find happiness in living in that
dreamland, ever trying to realize it in the quickest way.”
 His pragmatic approach can be gauged from the fact that he did not aim at becoming consistent in his views,
but was open to new ideas based on experiences in life. “When anybody finds any inconsistency between
any two writings of mine, if he has still faith in my sanity, he would do well to choose the latter of the two
on the same subject,” he said
 Besides, Gandhi was not like some of his contemporaries, who too were using religion in their respective
struggles for independence. What set him apart was the fact that while others highlighted worldly interests
of religious communities—which created hatred and jealousy, he introduced tenets of various religions in
politics with a vision that was broad enough to respect the needs of all communities. Religion, he said, in its
broadest sense governs all departments of life, including politics.
 Unfortunately, it is the misuse of religion that we see in politics of the day, and not the use of virtues found
in religion
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Ideological similarities and differences between Gandhi and Ambedkar
Introduction
 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi considered as
the ‘Father of the Nation’, is renowned as the leader of
the nationalist movement against British rule in India. He
is very eminent for his doctrine of Satyagraha (non-
violent protest).
 On the other hand is Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, the architect of
the Constitution of India, who worked very hard for the
rights of the Dalits.
 These two men are highly respected as well as critiqued by many across the world. They not only helped
India gain its freedom but also made efforts to eradicate the social problems that existed back then. Both of
them identified the problems faced by the lower castes and helped them get empowered. They tried to
bring about changes in the systems that existed and led India towards development. Though they both
identified the evil of untouchability as the biggest bane of the social order, they differed in their approaches
towards its removal. They also paved a way for India after independence.
Differences between Gandhi and Ambedkar

1. Gandhi believed the depressed classes were an integral part of the society. He referred to them as Harijans
(which literally meant- children of God). He tried to integrate them into the Indian National Congress and
the freedom movement. He wanted to change the situation by bringing about a change in the mindset of
the people.
o Ambedkar introduced a two-nation theory wherein the ruling nation is that of the upper castes while the
subject nation is that of the lower castes. He believed that the caste system could be ended through the
introduction of various reforms.
2. Gandhi was a staunch follower of Hinduism and greatly observed the Hindu Dharma and the attributes of
tolerance and adjustment. He didn’t support the abolition of the caste system and the Varnashrama dharma
due to this. He, instead, considered untouchability as a moral and social problem.
o Ambedkar was completely opposite to Gandhi in this issue. He believed Brahmanism and Hinduism were
just the same and he made statements that he wouldn’t die a Hindu though he was born one. And he
eventually converted to Buddhism over time. He viewed the caste system as arising from ideological,
political and economic factors.
3. Gandhi believed in action so as to get the desired results. He advocated for peaceful political struggles and
encouraged various forms of Satyagraha like non-cooperation and civil disobedience.
o Ambedkar asserted that the constitution (by law) could help bring about a change in the society.
4. Gandhi encouraged people belonging to all castes to join and fight for the rights of the depressed castes. He
encouraged the upper castes to take welfare measures out of the guilt of oppressing the lower castes for so
long.
o Ambedkar believed that the members of those castes should only protest for their cause and that no one
from a higher caste should work for them. He advocated for values like justice, equality and dignity.
5. Gandhi developed the kind of a vision for future India wherein everyone is equal and said that caste conflict
is not a long-standing attribute of India.
o Ambedkar, on the other hand, made plans only for the empowerment of the depressed classes.
6. Gandhi believed villages to be the backbone of a country. He advocated for their autonomy and self-
sufficiency and believed autonomy could help the villages have equal voices. He believed this system could
eventually help in establishing Ram Raj which is believed to be an ideal traditional village community where
everyone lives in harmony with the rest.
o Ambedkar, on the other hand, criticized this idea of Gandhi’s by claiming that Gandhism is a philosophy
of well to do and the leisure class. He critiqued the local administration by claiming that localism,
communalism and narrow mindsets could be seen in villages. He envisioned that the autonomy of
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villages could lead to people being biased and then eventually hurting the freedom of the rest. He
preferred a top-down model of administration with a strong central government.
7. Gandhi propagated that it was the moral duty of the Hindus to let the lower castes enter the temple.
o Ambedkar, too, supported the entry of lower castes into temples but his reason was different. He argued
that the temples are built and protected by the lower castes and that it is hence their right to enter the
temples.
8. Ambedkar believed that Hinduism had to be reorganized to make sure there is no caste system anymore
and ensure there is equality. And when the British government made an announcement that there would be
separate electorates, he immediately accepted the proposal. But Gandhi was completely against this as he
thought that it would break the Hindu religion and declared he would fast unto death unless this proposal
was withdrawn.
o Ambedkar had to drop this idea since they couldn’t let Gandhi die. Then, they both signed the Poona
pact which helped more people from the lower castes contest for elections.
9. Gandhi wanted to rebuild India by inculcating in the people the values of spirituality and the ideals of India’s
past.
o Ambedkar wanted everyone to forget India’s past and rebuild a future by rejecting the past
10. Gandhi welcomed socialism in India but he didn’t envision the political, administrative and judicial
institutions for the common people.
o Ambedkar had a vision of the plans, policies, the form of government and institutions for the
development of the depressed castes in order to reduce the economic inequalities.
11. Gandhi supported socialism as he believed that the lower castes’ life would become better due to the
government’s work done towards the people, irrespective of their caste and religion.
o Ambedkar, instead, advocated for a democracy in a parliamentary form since anyone could contest in
the elections and everyone had the right to vote.
12. Gandhi believed that the future generations were capable enough of making the country better and
establishing a good administration
o Ambedkar wasn’t hopeful of the new generations; Ambedkar believed that the youth were a lot inclined
towards pleasure and were not any ideal
13. When Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference, he said that he represented the untouchables
(who were a part of Hindus and Gandhi was representing the Hindus).
o But for Ambedkar, untouchables were “a part apart” (he once use this phrase for himself and indicated
he was a part of these uniquely oppressed people).
14. Gandhi viewed untouchability as a flaw in Hinduism and believed it could be removed if efforts were put in.
o Ambedkar believed that it was a practice in Hinduism and couldn’t be separated from the religion.
15. Gandhi mainly fought for political independence
o While Ambedkar fought for the social and economic freedom of the depressed classes.
16. Gandhi supported the Varnashrama dharma and also believed that the depressed classes could be still be
made equal in the hierarchy by changing the mindsets of the people
o Ambedkar believed the people had to adopt an entirely new religion to lead a normal life and not that in
which he is oppressed.
17. Gandhi was reformer and an ascetic
o Ambedkar was a fighter and a revolutionary
Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B R Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had a common
goal of amelioration of the downtrodden.
Mahatma Gandhi and Ambedkar were two important personalities in modern political history of India. While
Gandhi had been the torch bearer of India’s freedom struggle, Ambedkar’s contribution has been towards
designing the modern constitutional machinery.
The common ground between the two great personalities has been their goal of upliftment of the downtrodden
and socially backward sections, the Dalits.
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Divergence in Gandhi’s and Ambedkar’s actions
Mode of action
 Gandhiji believed that upper class and Dalits must resolve their differences through peace process without
any violence or fights. Ambedkar instead said that Dalits must use aggressive means to snatch their rights
from what he termed as ‘oppression’ by upper castes.
Political beliefs
 Gandhi believed that all Indians, upper castes and lower castes, rich and poor, women and men, must come
together as a single political force to fight the British by keeping aside their differences. Ambedkar was of
the opinion that Dalits must side with the British as he felt that Dalit interests would be better secured
under British rule rather than rule by upper castes of the Congress party.
Gandhi’s and Ambedkar’s actions for upliftment of downtrodden
Political empowerment of Dalits

 Both Gandhi and Ambedkar believed that for India to obtain freedom, it is necessary for the downtrodden
sections to join the mainstream. This involved political empowerment of Dalits and backward classes.
Ambedkar established organisations such as Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, Scheduled Caste federation etc to
empower Dalits. Gandhi was in favour of bringing Dalits in political sphere by reserving them seats in the
Congress party.
Social reforms
 Gandhi and Ambedkar worked towards reforming caste system by eradicating discriminatory practices.
Ambedkar undertook the Mahad Satyagraha for making public places open for Dalits. Gandhi was equally
active in this effort as he participated in Temple entry movement in Kerala to make temples accessible to
Dalits.
Spreading ideology of social justice

 Gandhi and Ambedkar not just worked towards reactionary ideas but were also ready to bring changes in
thinking process of society. They tried to influence social beliefs through their magazines like Harijan by
Mahatma Gandhi and Mooknayak by Ambedkar. Gandhiji even coined the term Harijan instead of backward
castes in order to instill self confidence in those sections.
 Thus, the political journey of Gandhi and Ambedkar were in total contrast to each other. While Gandhi
became the champion of masses, Ambedkar was restricted to fringes of Dalit politics. But in terms of social
justice, efforts of both the leaders were significant.
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Jawahar Lal Nehru
Contribution of Nehru
Institutionalisation of Democracy
 Nehru was committed to the establishment of a strong Indian nation where
the concept of equal rights of citizens would override all societal divisions.
 Nehru’s ideals envisioned in ‘Objective Resolution’, steered the Constituent
Assembly to draw up a working constitution.
o It gave a tremendous leg up to the country’s historically discriminated
sections like Dalits and religious minorities.
 It was he who established the robust tradition of parliamentary supremacy
over the military that prevented India from becoming another junta-ruled
Third World autocracy.
 The nature of the Nehruvian way of politics (debate and deliberation) led to development of respect for
parliamentary procedures, abiding faith in the constitutional system.
Ideal of Secularism
 Nehru believed that India belonged to all who had contributed to its history and civilisation, and that the
majority community had a special obligation to protect the rights, and promote the well-being, of the
minorities.
 This helped in building the narrative of ‘Unity in Diversity’.
Welfare State
 Through the planned economy approach, Nehru envisaged that in a land of extreme poverty and inequality,
the objective of government policy must be the welfare of the poorest, most deprived and most
marginalised of the people.
 This notion drives the policy of successive governments that poverty and inequality in India cannot be
tackled only by the market.
 It can be reflected in creation of a framework of rights, including the right to work, the right to food,
the right to education and the right to fair compensation for land, all of which have empowered the poorest
of people in India.
Establishing Institutions of Excellence

 It was Nehru who built the scientific base for India’s space and engineering triumphs today.
o With the establishment of what is now the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India has
achieved the status of Space power today.
o With the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) established in his tenure, Indians have a worldwide
reputation for engineering excellence.
o Also, he laid the foundations of a dual-track nuclear programme due to which India achieved nuclear-
capable status.
o Also, the economic policies of investing in heavy industries and protecting the nascent manufacturing
sector, helped India to substitute imports to a certain extent.
Thoughts of Jawaharlal Nehru
Communalism and Secularism

 Nehru was a votary of secularism from initial days of his career(1920s) always opposed communalism. His
remedy for communalism was also based on traditional approach of 'Hindu Muslim Bhai-Bhai', a common
slogan of Hindu-Muslim Unity.
 His secularism in political terms was based on tolerance and respect for each other's religion.
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 He made Communalism a major target of attack. He also argued that democracy, secularism and socialism
are linked together. He once, said that
 We talk about a secular India.... What it means is that it is a state which honours all faiths equally and gives
them equal opportunities, and it does not allow itself to be attached to one faith or religion, which then
become state religion.... India has long history of religious tolerance. - JL Nehru
 In a country like India, which has many faiths and religious, developing a real nationalism except on the basis
of secularism is not possible. Any narrower approach based on a single faith/religion bound to exclusion of
certain sections of society, which ultimately dilutes the concept of Nationalism itself.
 According to Nehru, Secularism did not mean neglect of religion but it meant respect for every religion
without any favour of one religion on the expense of others, which ultimately becomes state religion
 He also made it clear that communalism ultimately destroy the community which it claimed to defend or
protect.
 Under Nehru's guidance constitutional rights to every religion were guaranteed (Article 25-28).
Socialism
 J. L. Nehru prophesied a new form of Socialism called as Democratic Socialism, which was different from
Marxist Socialism. His socialism was based on logical and scientific approach focused on equal distribution of
income through planned programmes and schemes.
 At that time capitalism had taken deep root in the Indian soil. Hence, he thought that a compromise
between capitalism and state ownership would be beneficial for the country. According to Nehru, his
socialism was to protect national interests rather than imposing authority over the Private sector
enterprises.
 His theory on socialism, was aimed to provide due liberty and freedom based on scientific and rational
approach rather to follow the idealistic or theoretical hard core socialism.
 Without social freedom and socialistic structure of the society or the state neither the country nor the
individual could develop much. - JL Nehru
Thoughts on Foreign Policy

 India under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to pursue more modest goals than the advanced
states. He focuses more on peace and development in their own neighborhood. Moreover, their economic
and security dependence on the more powerful states occasionally influences their foreign policy. After
Independence, Nehru decided to continue India’s membership in Commonwealth Nations. He also tried to
establish friendly and cordial relations with the United States, USSR, and other countries (both developed
and developing).
I. Non-Alignment Movement(NAM)
 This was his greatest contribution to the world of power politics, secret diplomacy, military pacts and
nuclear arms race.
 At that time when he proposed this theory the majority of the world was divided into two power blocs
namely:-
o Russian Bloc (Communist Bloc)
o American Bloc (Capitalist Bloc)
 He prophesied that countries should not (Non-alignment) joining either of the two blocs.
 The major components of his NAM were peace, development, disarmament and independence, so that
imperialism and colonialism in all their manifestations were liquidated from the world.
 His NAM theory became very popular across the world and adopted by many countries.
II. Panchsheel
 According to Nehru Panchsheel means that each country should carve out it's own destiny without
interfering with others.
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 Basically Cina and India signed the Sino-India Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between Tibetan Region
of China and India on 24th April 1954. In this agreement the preamble had five principles of Panchsheel.
 Mutual Respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
o Mutual Non-Aggression.
o Mutual Non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
o Equal and mutual benefit.
o Peaceful Co-existence.
 It means that each country should be free to develop of it's own and yet to be friendly with others. If the
Nehru's Panchsheel theory was sincerely adopted by every country than this world would have became a
heaven on Earth.
III.Indo-Pakistan Relations
 Jawaharlal Nehru adopted a protective approach towards Pakistan. In 1950, NehruLiaquat Pact was signed
which was binding on both countries to “protect the interests of minorities in both their countries”.
 The establishment of bilateral relations between countries started with Pakistan’s attack on India in 1948,
and both countries finally ceasefire which resulted in some part of Jammu and Kashmir (known as Pakistan-
occupied Kashmir) came under the dominance of Pakistan.
 In 1948, both countries signed the Inter-Dominion Accord under which India was required to provide water
to Pakistani in return for annual payments. But both countries failed to conclude the deal.
 In 1954, For the distribution of Indus waters between India and Pakistan, the World Bank brokered Indus
Water Treaty between both countries which was signed by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani
President Mohammad Ayub Khan signed in September 1960. A Permanent Indus Commission was created
as a result of this treaty.
Nehru’s Idea of Socialism

 Nehru builds his own idea of socialism during the freedom movement and applied it after the
independence. But he never defined the socialism and his idea of socialism is less doctrinal and more of
empirical in nature, reason behind it is that Nehru was more concerned with the real problems of individual
and social life, and he did not spend much time to correct his idea with the fine points of doctrines of
socialism. His idea of socialism was largely based on the democracy, economic factor and economic
betterment of the masses, greater equality of opportunity, social justice, more equitable of higher incomes
generated through the application of modern science and technology to the process of production, the
ending of the acute social and economic disparities generated by feudalism and capitalism, the application
of the scientific approach to the problem of society, ending of the acquisitive mentality, class distinction and
class domination and supremacy of the profit motive. He also believed that democracy and civil liberties had
to be basic constituents of socialism and were inseparable from it.
 But the basic difference between him and the other socialist is that he did not want the socialist society
through violent means, he wanted the gradual, peaceful and step by step introduction of elements of
socialism, with the non-violent means to achieve socialist society. He also did not want that the solution of
differences through violent and revolutionary means or class struggle, but he wanted to solve all the
differences through conciliation and adjustments. And in this point he deferred from the Marxist approach.
He also deferred from Marx on the point that Nehru did not define man as a producing being.
 He applied his ideas in the making of constitution and in his economic policies after the 1955 through the
economic planning.
Nehru as a Socialist before Independence

 He also openly called himself a socialist in mid 1920s and 1930s. In 1936 Congress Session in Lucknow, he
also said that he is a socialist not in a vague humanitarian way but in a scientific economic sense; and he
also wanted to build a new social order on co-operative, classless and democratic sense. His statement led
to controversies and several members resigned from Congress Working Committee. He realised the rick;
and after 1936, he was reluctant to make such statements. But his socialism was alive with his commitment
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towards democracy; because it is considered that the democracy and socialism are inescapable constraints
of each other.
Socialism and the Making of Constitution

 During the constituent assembly debate, socialism had the impact on assembly and Nehru was one of the
influential members who supported the idea of socialism. Although Patel, Prasad and Azad were committed
only to effective government, but Nehru was more concerned with the Indian social problem and
development. He has especial attachment with his idea of socialism, which influenced the constituent
assembly to become more bias towards socialism. However there are other member in constituent
assembly, who had the socialist view, for example K.T. Shah; but they are not as influential as Nehru, who
was also in the oligarchy of the constituent assembly.
 Granville Austin rightly observed in his book ‘The India Constitution, Cornerstone of a Nation’ that, the term
socialism was removed from the ‘Objective Resolution’, but the Constituent Assembly with a socialist
biasness framed such a democratic Constitution which allowed India to become as socialist in future if its
citizen desire.
After Independence and Nehru’s Idea of Socialism

 After Independent and before 1955, Nehru did not much respond to socialism. In the First Five Year Plan
and in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948, the socialism was not the primary thing, but emphasis was
given on the expansion of production. During this period many industries were left with private sector, and
the public sector has given small percentage of industries.
 But at the meeting of Avadi in 1955, the resolution of Indian National Congress acknowledged that the
“planning should take place with a view to the establishment of a Socialistic pattern of society, where the
principal means of production are under social ownership or control, production is progressively speeded up
and there is equitable distribution of the national wealth”. And after his resolution Nehru slightly moved
toward his idea of socialism, which is democratic, liberal and for economic betterment of the masses. The
terms ‘socialistic pattern of society’ indicate that the Congress has officially accepted the socialism. And
later in Second and Third Five Year Plans, Nehru included adopted this socialistic approach. He brought
many social reforms, which can be considered as welfare state activities. He also brought labour legislations
and equitable distribution of tax and excise policy.
Criticism of Nehru’s Approaches

 C.P. Bhambhri in his book ‘Indian Policies Since Independence’ shows a doubt that whether the Nehru’s
policies as socialist in nature or not. It is right that there are few policies of Nehru’s policies, which is not in
the scope of socialism. Property Relation, Mixed Economy, rejection of bank nationalization, rejection of
ceiling on wealth was the some of them. It was expected that Nehru bring radical changes in these areas and
completely rejected those policies which are against socialism.
 His policy of Mixed Economy cannot fall in the scope of socialism. Under the mixed economy, capitalism is
strengthened and encouraged in his government. Although he nationalized the Imperial Bank of India and
life insurance companies, he nationalized very few banks and he did not nationalized banks in bulk, which
was later done by his daughter Indira Gandhi.
 After Independence and after First Five Year Plan, he was criticised for not giving so much importance to
socialism. Socialist outside the Congress Party were criticized Nehru for his approach towards socialism and
they said that Nehru had betrayed the roots of socialism.
 But one thing critics did not see that, Nehru was not interested in applying the true doctrinal socialism, but
he believe in empirical socialism, which he want to establish through democratic means and not through
violent revolution. Nehru also recognized that Indian society of that days was not ready to accept features
of socialist society, especially Congress Party itself is not fully socialist, that was the one more reason that he
did not only stick to the doctrines of socialism but he applied the socialism in more practical way and he
planned the policy of public sector and cooperative system in village in such a way that ultimately it would
result as socialist society. And after 1955 he shifted his policies towards his idea of socialism.
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Rabindranath Tagore
About R .N Tagore
 Rabindranath Tagore was born in Calcutta on May 7, 1861. He was
also referred to as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and ‘Biswakabi’.
 Regarded as the outstanding creative artist of modern India and hailed by
W.B Yeats, Rabindranath Tagore was a Bengali poet, novelist, and
painter, who was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the
west.
 On September 20, 1878, he went to England along with his elder
brother Satyendranath Tagore (who later became first Indian ICS officer);
where he joined a Public School at Brighton. Later he joined London
University to study English literature as well as a music school but he
returned India without earning an academic degree in 1880.
 Rabindranath was an exceptional literary figure and a renowned polymath who singlehandedly reshaped
the region's literature and music.
 Besides all his literary achievements he was also a philosopher and educationist who in 1921 established the
Vishwa-Bharati University, a university that challenged conventional education.
 Rabindranath Tagore was a good friend of Mahatma Gandhi and is said to have given him the title of
Mahatma.
 Tagore had always stressed that unity in diversity is the only possible way for India’s national integration.
 He not only gave the national anthems for two countries, India and Bangladesh, but also inspired a
Ceylonese student of his, to pen and compose the national anthem of Sri Lanka.
 He has his elder brother, Satyendranath Tagore, the first Indian to become an ICS
 His first poem was published in the 'Amrit Bazar Patrika' and then he wrote 'Banaphul' (story and
‘Bhanusinher Padavali’ (series of lyrics).
 He founded Shantiniketan near Bolpore on December 22, 1901.
 He inaugurated Raksha Bandhan festival to oppose the Partition of Bengal (1905).
 He founded the Vishva Bharati University.
 In 1915, British Crown granted him a ‘knighthood’ which he renounced after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
 His compositions were chosen as National Anthem by two nations
o India — Jana Gana Mana
o Bangladesh — Amar Shonar Bangla
Tagore as a Poet
 In his early days of his writing his poetry was dominated by 'love of nature', but he himself declared them of
a "copy-book" kind. Later he produced many great books on poetry.
 Some of his famous poetical writings were :-
o Sandhya Sangeet:- For this poetical master piece he got great appreciation from the famous poet of that
time and writer of National Song of India ('Vande Maatram'), termed it as melancholic work.
o Prabhat Sangeet:- In this he depicted the world of childhood.
o Kori-o-kamal:- In this book he humanised various elements of nature. This was a new concept of human
writing called as 'Chhayavad'.
o Gitanjali:-This has two versions one is in English, while other is in Bengali. The English version contained
about 100 composition out of which more than half are borrowed from the Bengali version
of Gitanjali and rests are borrowed from 'Gitimalya'.
Note:- The English version of Gitanjali got the Nobel Prize for him in 1913. The theme of the Gitanjali is the
relationship of a poet with his god. Hence the collections of poems in Gitanjali was an offering of songs to God.
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Tagore's Literature
 He influenced the 'Chhayavad School' in 'Hindi Poetry' as well as others' such
as Assamese, Oriya and Gujarati literature.
 Besides poetry, he also wrote novels, dramas, short stories and literary criticisms.
Tagore as a Painter
 He developed the taste of painting in his sixties. His early paintings were mere rhythmic lines which were
unique and strange in shapes.
 Earlier Tagore had an inclination towards abstract form of art but later it changed to fantastic forms of
mythical beasts and prehistoric birds and reptiles that he painted embodied a transitional phase from the
pure abstract to the more recognisable human shapes suggesting different moods.
Tagore as a Musician
 When he was teenager he had written some 'Vaishnava lyrics' under the pseudonym Bhanu Sinha Thakur.
He also wrote a musical drama 'Balmiki Pratibha' in 1881.
 He had no formal training of music, instead he learnt the technicality of the music due to close contacts with
musicians and singers who. offten used to come at Jorasanko. he was also undoubtedly inspired with his
brother Jyotindranath, who used to play melodic tunes on Piano.
 Tagore's music was unique of its own, as it contained al technicality of music but stayed clear from
orthodox virtuosity. but that does not mean, his music lacked discipline or it was loose.
 Tagore composed Dhrupad, Thumri and Tappa but mostly songs. His music was imbibed upon the spirit of
Bengali folk traditions such as Sari, Baul and Kertan.
 He also used common classical Ragas like Malhar, Khamaj, Bhairavi, Pilu etc. but at the same time also
produced new combinations like Multani-Bhimpalasi, Asvari-Bhairavi, Darbari-Todi Bhairavi etc.
 He also used new talas like Shashthi, Navami, Jhampak etc. as well In his songs, there is a fusion of mood,
work and tune.
Rabindranath Tagore's Contributions

Literature & Art
 He reshaped Bengali literature and music, as well as Indian art.
 In 1913, Tagore became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature for his novel
 He wrote the National Anthems of India and Bangladesh.
Education
 Tagore despised rote classroom schooling. His vision led to the establishment of a unique educational
institution - Visva- Bharati University.
 Santiniketan Ashram established by Devendranath Tagore, was later expanded by Rabindranath Tagore.
 The educational complex invented its own syllabus —that kept students abreast of political, social and
environmental changes in the country.
Social Reform
 He used his literature to mobilize people towards political and social reform.
 Through his works, he protested against Brahmanical social order, Caste System, narrow sectarianism,
untouchability and animal sacrifice.
Economy
 In 1921, Tagore and agricultural economist Leonard Elmhirst set up the "Institute for Rural Reconstruction",
later renamed
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 He emphasized on expansion of small-scale cottage industries in the villages. The aim was to supply fresh
blood to the rural economy depending on local resources.
Freedom Struggle
Partition of Bengal (Swadeshi Movement)

 Tagore wrote the song Banglar Mati Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of Bengal) to unite the Bengali
population.
 He started the Rakhi Utsav where people from Hindu and Muslim communities tied colorful threads on each
other's wrists.
 He urged the masses to seek self-reliance and unite themselves against oppression.
 Protest against Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
 He was awarded a knighthood by King George V in 1915, but Tagore renounced it after the 1919 Jallianwala
Bagh massacre.
His vision of Nationalism

 He skeptically scrutinized the construction of the nation on narrow parochial lines.
 Tagore opined that the term nationalism was derived from the term nation-state. And it was nothing but
the embodiment of Western ideas of capitalism and mechanization.
 He believed that these ideals were intrinsically against the Indian tradition of self-autonomy, pluralism and
religious tolerance.
 Fundamental to his belief was that nationalism could not rise above humanity.
Rabindranath Tagore's incredible social reforms

 "What is needed is eagerness of heart for a fruitful communication between different cultures.Anything that
prevents this is barbarism."
 This was Rabindranath Tagore's view about nationalism. 'Viswa Kavi' was a visionary who revolutionised
education and literature in India.
 The only Indian litterateur to receive a Nobel Prize, Rabindranath, has not only enriched literature but he
also contributed to the freedom struggle in pre-Independence India.
Here are the incredible social reforms by Rabindranath Tagore:

Rabindranath and the Bengal Partition:
 On July 22, 1904, the Viceroy of India Lord Curzon announced that the Bengal providence would be divided
into two parts. The British government was worried about the social integrity among different communities
in Bengal and wanted to divide and rule.
 The Bengal Partition took place on October 16 in 1905 and this sparked a nationwide protest. The Indian
National Congress had started the Swadeshi Movement where Indians denounced all British items and use
all native items.
 Rabindranath Tagore wrote the song Banglar Mati Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of Bengal) to unite the
Bengali population. He started the Rakhi Utsav where people from Hindu and Muslim communities tied
colourful threads on each other's wrists. In 1911, the two parts of Bengal were reunited.
Going against conventional Western education

 Tagore was against conventional classroom education. He believed that interaction with nature is essential
for learning. On December 29, 1918, Tagore laid the foundation stone of Visva Bharati University.
 He remodelled education as a holistic development process where teachers would be more like mentors
guiding students towards emotional, intellectual and spiritual upliftment.
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 He invested his Nobel Prize money in building the campus and a town in Bolpur, West Bengal. He named the
place as Shantiniketan, the abode of peace. His educational reforms are included in many curriculae across
the world.
The dark knighthood:

 The British were overwhelmed by the genius of Tagore. A lot of his works were translated before the First
World War. After the war ended, Tagore was offered the knighthood by the royalty.
 But this was the time when Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place in Amritsar on April 13, 1919. Tagore
renounced the title as a protest against the brutal genocide by the British military.
 In his repudiation letter to Lord Chelmsford, Tagore wrote --
 "The time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in the incongruous context of
humiliation, and I for my part, wish to stand, shorn, of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my
countrymen who, for their so called insignificance, are liable to suffer degradation not fit for human
beings."
 His action was lauded by native politicians and the Congress party
Changing how India saw the world

 Tagore owns the title Viswa Kavi or poet of the world because of his universal ideology. At a time when India
was struggling to find the right language of freedom movement, Tagore advocated the idea of global
integrity and that the man himself is a gateway to the world.
 His songs speak of man's position in the entire cosmos --
Akash Bhora Surjo Tara, Biswa Bhora Praan
Tahar-e majh khane ami peyechi mor sthaan
(The Sun and the stars fill the sky, the world full of life
In midst of this, I find my place)
 This philosophy changed the way Indians saw the world. The purpose of the freedom struggle changed from
protest to progress as Tagore explained the universality of man. The identity of India after independence
was closely based on Tagore's ideology of peace and universal brotherhood.
Politics and Tagore:

 Rabindranath faced criticism from radical politicians and agitators for being an upper-class author who did
not connect to the public. This was the result of low educational standards.
 A lot of Tagore's critics did not understand that revolution is not an overnight phenomenon but a
constructive, progressive movement through education.
 In his lecture, entitled "Swadeshi Samaj", he explained how the British control of India is the "political
symptom of our social disease" of self-subjugation. He urged Indians to believe that "there can be no
question of blind revolution, but of steady and purposeful education".
 Tagore also spoke against petty nationalism. He wrote, "when the organisation of politics and commerce,
whose other name is the 'Nation', becomes all-powerful at the cost of the harmony of the higher social life,
then it is an evil day for humanity."
Rabindranath Tagore in Independence movement

 Tagore participated in the Indian nationalist movement from time to time, though in his own non-
sentimental and visionary way; and Gandhi, the political father of modern India, was his devoted friend.
Tagore came to be recognized as one of the architects of modern India.
 India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, wrote in Discovery of India, “Tagore and Gandhi have
undoubtedly been the two outstanding and dominating figures in the first half of the twentieth century.
Tagore’s influence over the mind of India, and especially of successive rising generations has been
tremendous. Not Bengali only, the language in which he wrote, but all the modern languages of India have
been molded partly by his writings. More than any other Indian, he has helped to bring into harmony the
ideals of the East and the West, and broadened the bases of Indian nationalism.”
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 In 1905, Viceroy Curzon decided to divide Bengal into two parts. Rabindranath Tagore strongly protested
against this decision. Tagore wrote many national songs and attended protest meetings. He initiated the
Rakhibandhan ceremony, symbolizing the underlying unity of undivided Bengal.
 In 1919, following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Tagore renounced his knighthood condemning the act. He
was a supporter of Gandhiji but he stayed out of politics. He was opposed to nationalism and militarism as a
matter of principle, and instead promoted spiritual values and the creation of a new world culture founded
in multi-culturalism, diversity, and tolerance.
Tagore’s Views on Different Aspects of Education:

The aim of education according to Tagore is creative self expression through physical, mental, aesthetic and
moral development. He stressed the need for developing empathy and sensitivity and the necessity for an
intimate relationship with one’s cultural and natural environment. He saw education as a vehicle for
appreciating the richest aspects of other cultures, while maintaining one’s own cultural specificity.
o Meaning of education: Education is short of the highest purpose of man, the fullest growth and freedom
of soul. To the child, the environment will provide an ever-ready back ground for its spontaneous activity.
Our true education is possible only in the forest through intimate correct with nature.
o Freedom of mind: The objective of education is the freedom of mind, which can only be achieved through
the path of education.
o Children as children: It is a mistake to judge by the standards of grownups. Adults ignore the gifts of
children and insist that children must learn through the same process as they do. This man’s most cruel
and most wasteful mistake. Children’s subconscious mind is more active than their conscious intelligence.
o Discipline and Freedom: Living ideals cannot be set into clockwork arrangement. Tagore wrote, I never
said to them; don’t do this, or don’t do that……. I never punish them. An ideal school is an Ashram where
men have gathered for the highest end of life. Tagore observed to give spiritual culture to our boys was my
principal objective in starting my school at Bolepur.
o Living contact between the teacher and the taught: In teaching, the guiding should be personal love
based on human relations. In education, the teacher is more important than the method. The teacher is
Guru. He is to guide and stimulate the students. He remarked, a teacher can never truly teach unless he is
still learning himself. A lamb can never light another lamb unless it continues to burn in its own flame. So a
teacher must always be teacher.
Tagore’s Contribution to Modern Education:

 Tagore’s major contribution to modern education is the establishment of Santinikethan at Bolepur, in
1901.the school which was modeled on the ancient ashrams grew into a world university called Viswa
Bharati. It is an abode of peace where teachers and students live together in a spirit of perfect comradeship.
The motto of the institution is’ where the whole world forms its one single nest. It has open spaces and
atmosphere of freedom surrounded by natural environment. It is open to, all irrespective of country, race,
religion, or politics. It is centered around simple living and high thinking and has spiritual and religious
atmosphere.
 Tagore advocated teaching while talking as the best method and stressed on tours and excursions. He
supported teaching and learning through debates and discussions which develop the power of clear-cut
thinking. He adopted activity method which makes the learner physically sound. He also held heuristic
method where the student is in the position of a discoverer. He stressed on free environment which makes
learner selfdisciplined.
 In Tagore’ philosophy of education, the aesthetic development of the sense was us important as the
intellectual; and music; literature; art, and dance were given great prominence in the daily life of the school.
Tagore’s Thoughts and Relevance in Present Education:

 Tagore is critical of the prevalent system of education which lays role emphasis upon bookish learning. The
intellectual aim of education, according to him, is the development of the intellectual faculties’ which
should be developed through education. These are the power of thinking and of imagination. Tagore’s
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educational ideas have been shared by other educationists and many of his innovations have now become
part of general educational practices, but his special contribution lay in the emphasis on harmony balance
and total development of personality.
 The visionary and the great educationist in Tagore solved the problem of today as far back as fifty years.
Economic forces compel the teachers of today to look for pupils, but in the natural order of ting it is the
pupil who should look for the teacher. The teacher student relationship designed by Tagore is a model in
this context. It became one of earliest coeducational programs in South Asia. It’s establishment led to
pioneering efforts in many directions, including model for Indian higher education and mass education as
well as pan Asian and global cultural exchange. As one of the earliest educators to think in terms of the
global village, Tagore’s educational model has a unique sensitivity and aptness for education within
multiracial, multi-lingual and multi-cultural situations amidst conditions of acknowledged economic
discrepancy, political imbalance and social evils.
Conclusion:
 Rabindranath Tagore, by his efforts and achievements, is part of a global network of pioneering educators
such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Frobel, Montessori, Dewey and in the contemporary context, Malcolm
Knowles. Although Tagore is a superb representative of his country –the man who wrote its national
anthem, he is truly a man of the whole earth, a product of the best of both traditional Indian and modern
western cultures. The core of Tagore’s educational philosophy was learning from nature, music and life. He
created Santiniketan to realize his educational ideals. This is the reason why his education is easily
acceptable by human mind. Tagore extended the meaning and functional importance of certain aspects of
personality as nobody else had done before him. The ideal educator must combine in himself the gifts of a
philosopher, a poet, a mystic, a social reformer, a scientist and a veritable man of action can he has to take
into account all types of men and their aspirations ,all facets of the human personality, all levels man’s
experience, all fields of endeavor and achievement. Rabindranath Tagore is immortal in the world by his
work today.
Differences between Gandhi and Tagore on Nationalism

About Mahatma Gandhi
 The definition of Nationalism of Gandhiji differed from the European Nationalism concept post-Westphalian
peace treaties. According to him, Nationalism was a wide concept that was inclusive, considering nobody as
an enemy.
 He believed that the nation was not above people, so people should not sacrifice themselves for the nation,
rather than practice common brotherhood and other social friendliness to live happily together and improve
their lifestyles. It was not based on imperialist ideals. He believed that the nation should rather serve the
people.
About Rabindranath Tagore

 The great of poet of all times, Rabindranath Tagore, in his writing “Modern Review” titled The Cult of the
Charkha, has strongly repudiated the Nationalism’s ideologies Gandhiji during the Non-Cooperation
Movement. According to him, nationalism was a concept of Maya or mirage. We should not relentlessly
run after it.
 We should rather practise spiritualism. He never considered Swaraj as our objective. He believed that a
nation which takes an isolated view of one’s own country cannot have a harmonious living with the
modern aged countries and will lag. He termed Gandhi’s concept of nationalism as pugnacious.
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Parameters Mahatma Gandhi Rabindranath Tagore
Nationalism on the He believed in a Nationalism that was He believed in nationalism till World
context of own nation grounded to the Indian based tradition and War 1 in 1914-18.
or Western Nations culture. The Nationalism should tend more
towards the Indian philosophies, instead of
being influenced by the Western Countries.
Nationalism on He was a staunch advocate of truth and non- He believed it as a way to accumulate
humanitarian skils violence. He believed that the freedom money and property of their countries
fighter’s steps to promote nationalism were by depleting the humanity.
very violent; thus, killing humanity should not
be accepted.
Nationalism whether He believed that there should be a common He believed that contemporary
an inclusive or exclusive language (lingua franca) that would unite nationalism could not do more good,
concept India’s diverse people in their languages. rather harm and destroy civilization,
hence improving the concept.
Whether Nationalism It was based on self-sufficiency at every level. His ideology of Nationalism was based
should favour on social love and affection among
internationalism people. Also, he believed in
internationalism.
Ideology about In the “Hind Swaraj” book, he repudiated Tagore said that Nationalism was just
Nationalism and want both extremists or moderates’ kinds of a way to appropriate wealth and
of it freedom fighters. Because according to him, territory, violating humanity’s basic
none of their ideologies could foster ideals.
nationalism.
Similarities Feelings of nationalism drove both Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore.
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore had different ways of dealing with their
oppressors, but, they were united by aim and Ideologies.
Gandhi fought with the British with non-violence and started the Civil Disobedience
Movement and other movements to show that Indian commended this oppression.
Meanwhile, Tagore took to literature and propagated nationalist Ideas to young minds.
He also surrendered his Knighthood in the act of support the Indian freedom struggle
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Dr. B R Ambedkar
Birth and Education
 Bhimrao Ambedkar was born to Bhimabai and Ramji on 14 April 1891 in Mhow Army Cantonment, Central
Provinces (Madhya Pradesh).
 In 1906 Bhimrao married Ramabai.
 He cleared his matriculation in 1907-08 from Elphinstone High School.
 in the year 1912 Ambedkar obtained his graduate degree in Economics and Political Science from Bombay
University.
 1912 Bhimao’s father Ramji Sakpal died in Bombay
 with the financial support of Gaekwad ruler of Baroda, Sahyaji Rao III he completeded his Post Graduation
(Economics) in 1915 by presenting a thesis titled ‘Ancient Indian Commerce’.
 In 1916, he enrolled in the London School of Economics and started working on his doctoral thesis titled
“The problem of the rupee: Its origin and its solution”.
 In order to continue his further studies, he went to England in 1920 at his own expense. There he was
received the D.Sc by the London University.
 In 1927, he received his Ph.D. degree in Economics. And in June 1927, he was awarded a Doctorate by the
University of Columbia.
His movement for Rights of Dalit and Marginalized community

 In 1919, in his testimony before the Southborough Committee in preparation of the Government of India
Act Ambedkar opined that there should be a separate electoral system for the Untouchables and other
marginalized communities.
 In 1920, Ambedkar launched a newspaper called “Mooknayaka” (leader of the silent) with the assistance
of Shahaji II, the Maharaja of Kolhapur. (other periodicals- ‘Bahishkrit Bharat’ (1927), ‘Samatha’ (1929) and
‘Janata’ (1930))
 In 1923, he set up the ‘Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (Outcastes Welfare Association)
 Ambedkar launched full-fledged movements for Dalit rights by 1927 and demanded public drinking water
sources open to all and right for all castes to enter temples.
 In 1932, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact.
His contributions to Dalit empowerment

Along with forming many organizations for the empowerment of the Dalit Ambedkar also put emphasis on;
Education:
 He said that “It is the education which is the right weapon to cut the social slavery and it is the education
which will enlighten the downtrodden masses to come up and gain social status, economic betterment and
political freedom” In 1923 Baba Saheb founded ‘Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha to spread education among
marginalized and to improve their economic conditions. He gave the slogan: “Educate-Agitate-Organize”.
Changing hierarchical structures of Indian society:
 Dr. Ambedkar devoted his whole life to fight for the annihilation of caste by proliferating a movement
against the evils of the caste system. Being himself a Dalit, he made all his efforts to change the hierarchical
structures of Indian society and restoration of equal rights/justice to the marginalized and abolition of
Untochability. He stood for a complete reorganization and reconstruction of the Hindu society on the
principle of equality free from castism. He advocated equality of opportunity. He opted for peaceful and
constitutional methods for the sake of resolution of the social problems.
 He advocated a society based on three fundamental principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity: Dr.
Ambedkar was a remarkable liberal crusader who realized the ideological hollowness of the Dalit Movement
and provided necessary ideology to it. He created awareness among depressed classes to have a graceful
life.
Political party:
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 He formed three political parties, viz. Independent Labor Party, the Republican Party of India and All
India Scheduled Caste Federation which were instrumental in organizing Dalit community and raising
voice in favour of Dalit community
Reservation in the election:
 He represented the untouchables in the Round Table Conference in 1930. Due to his consistent
ceaseless efforts, the Harijans were granted reservation of seat in the elections.
Bringing Untouchables to the mainstream of Indian society:
 His programs were focused on mainstreaming the Untouchables into Indian society. He fought not only
for equal status of Varna but for social, economic and political equality as well as equal opportunity to
all. His ideas & programs set forth concrete proposals for the removal of untouchability and the
empowerment of the downtrodden. Dr. Ambedkar demanded justice to untouchables and other weaker
sections of the society via making provisions in the Indian Constitution.
His role in framing Constitution

 In framing the constitution of independent India, he played a leading role. He was appointed as the
Chairman of the constitution drafting committee in 1947.
 Ambedkar was a wise constitutional expert, he had studied the constitutions of about 60 countries.
Ambedkar is recognized as the “Father of the Constitution of India”
 The text prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and protections to individual citizens for
a wide range of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability, and the
outlawing of all forms of discrimination.
 Ambedkar advocated extensive economic and social rights for women and won the support of the Assembly
to introduce a system of reservations for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and Other
Backward Class in the civil services, schools, and colleges.
 He laid emphasis on religious, gender and caste equality. Even Ambedkar recommended the adoption of
Uniform Civil code to bring reform in the Indian society.
His role in the Round table conferences

Ambedkar participated in all three round table conferences in London and demanded separate electorate for
untouchables which were opposed by Gandhiji and led to Poona pact in 1932.
Hindu code bill

 The Hindu code was brought into existence by Jawaharlal Nehru in the 1950s. It was revised by Bhimrao
Ramji Ambedkar in 1948 and was referred to a select committee under the chairmanship of law minister B.
R. Ambedkar. The committee made a number of important changes to the Bill, including making the laws
applicable to even non-Hindus. According to this bill, portions of inheritance to daughters, while giving
widows complete property rights. This had been previously been restricted. The Bill basically put
forth gender equality in laws of inheritance and marriage.
Poona Pact
 Under this pact, the British announced separate electorates for the depressed Classes. Gandhi opposed the
concept of separate electorate for untouchables saying that it would divide the Hindu community. Following
fierce opposition, BR Ambedkar along with his supporters signed the Poona Pact agreement. According to
this, the Scheduled caste got reservation of 140 seats instead of 71 seats in the legislature.
Industrialisation and Agriculture

 Being the first Indian to hold an economics degree abroad, Ambedkar stressed that agriculture and
industrialisation would enhance the Indian economy. Considering agriculture to be India's primary industry,
he wanted the government to invest more in that sector. According to Sharad Pawar, Ambedkar's vision
helped the government to achieve food security goals.
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Dr. B R Ambedkar as a “Father of Indian Constitution”
 At that time Dr. B R Ambedkar was a master or expert in the subject of the Constitution. Because he studied
the Constitutions of 60 countries. After the Independence of India, He was the first Law Minister of India
and then on 29th August, he was elected as Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee to write an
India’s new Constitution. His role was to submit a written constitution to the prime minister. At that time a
total of 7 members were appointed to that committee. Here timeline of the Indian Constitution is shown
below after DR B R Ambedkar became the chairman of the Constitution drafting committee.
 29th August 1947- Drafting Committee Elected Dr. B R Ambedkar as Chairman of Constitution drafting
Committee along with 6 members named Muhammad sadulla, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N.Gopalaswamy
Ayyangar, Dr. K M Munsi, N Madhva Ray, T T Krishnamachari.
o 16th July 1948- T T Krishnamachari elected as a vice president of the Constitution Assembly.
o 26th November 1949- On this day, the New Indian Constitution was passed and accepted by the
Constitution Committee.
o 24th January 1950- On this day, the newly created Indian constitution was signed and Accepted with
395 articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts.
o 24th January 1950- On this day, the newly created Indian constitution was signed and Accepted with
395 articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts.
o 26th January 1950- From this day an Implementation of the Indian constitution was started all over the
country.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar views on Abolition of Caste System in India
“IF I FIND THE CONSTITUTION BEING MISUSED,

I SHALL BE THE FIRST ONE TO BURN IT”
– DR. BHIM RAO AMBEDKAR
INTRODUCTION
 In India Caste System consists of two different concepts that is Varna and Jati, the real concept of Varna has
almost disappeared in the present context and has changed into Jati. The former was based on color of the
skin and later on birth. It is the religious and social institution of Hindu peoples who comprised about 80% of
India’s population. The rest of India is Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Jain or Buddhist. Caste is such a deep rooted
and pervasive concept, it is a rigid form of stratification system, in which mobility of rank and status is not
allowed. However, that it has also influenced Muslims, Christians and Sikhs, for instance, they have separate
churches for dalits and non dalits Christians. The 50 million Indians who live in tribal community predate the
Aryan and Dravidian civilization. They are members of backward classes, they are not the part of Hindu
society even then, they have started observing untouchability towards Dalits- who themselves have a caste
hierarchy.
ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM

 Although, it is difficult to establish as to when the caste system originated, but there is no doubt that the
institution of caste for the convenience of the ruling class leading to successful administration by them.
There are different theories about the establishment of the caste system. These are Religious mystical,
Biological, Socio-historical theories.
Religious Theory
 The religious theory explained how the four Varna’s were founded, but they do not explained how the Jaats
in each Varna or the untouchables were founded. According to Rig Veda, the ancient Hindu book, the primal
man- Purush –destroyed himself to create human society. The different Varnas were created from different
part of his bodies. The Brahmans were created from his Head; the kshtriyas from his Hands; the Vaishyas
from his Thighs and the Shudras from his Feet. Other religious theory claims that the Varna’s were created
from the body organs of Brahma, who is the creator of the world. According to Iravati Krave : the four rank
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system was creation of ruling class which originally had a three rank system in which whatever the
differences of rank all people had right to certain rituals and sacraments from birth to death.
Socio historical theory

 The socio historical theory explains the creation of the Varna, Jaats and untouchables. According to this
theory the caste system begins with the arrival of Aryans in India. Before the Aryans there were other
communities in India of other origins among them Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and Dravidian. When the
Aryans arrived in India their main contact was with the Dravidians and Austroloids. The Aryans disregarded
the local culture, they begin conquering and taken control over regions in north India and at the same time
pushed the local people towards the south, jungles and mountains in north India.
 The Aryans organized among themselves in three groups. The first was of a warrior called Rajayana later
they changed their name to kshatriya. The second group was of priest called Brahmans. The third group was
of farmers and craftsmen and they were called as Vaishyas. In order to secure their status the Aryans
resolved some social and religious rules which allowed only them to be the priest, warrior and the
businessmen of the society. For instance: Maharashtra in West India, many think that the meaning of the
name Maharashtra is great land but some claim that the name Maharashtra is derived from the Jaats called
Mahar who were considered to be the original people of this region. In the caste hierarchy the dark-skinned
Mahar were outcastes. The skin color was an important factor in the caste system.
 The meaning of the word Varna is not class or status but skin color. In Hindu religious stories there were
many wars between the good Aryans and a dark skinned demons and devils, but the real fact was that the
dark skinned slaves were in fact the original residence of India, whom the Aryans coined as monsters, devils,
demons and slaves.
 Therefore the caste system did not come into existence all of a sudden or at a particular date. It is the result
of the long process of social evolution. A number of factors played their part in the development of the
present caste system enumerated as follows:
o Hereditary occupation.
o The desire of the Brahmans to keep themselves pure.
o The lack of rigid, unitary control of the state.
o The unwillingness of ruler to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom and their readiness to
recognize the worrying custom of different groups as valid.
o Believe in re-incarnation and the doctrine of karma.
o Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula.
o Static nature of Hindu society.
o Foreign invasion and rural social structure.
All these factors conspired to encourage the formation of small groups based on petty distinction from time to
time. It may however be noted that the caste system is not specifically an institution of Hindus but it is a typical
Indian institution. Further caste system is not a monopoly of India it existed and still exists in many parts of the
world. What is unique in the Hindu caste system is that it alone classified some groups as untouchables and
unapproachable.
ISSUES RELATING TO CASTE SYSTEM

According to P.N Bose,- the caste system has acted essentially to impose that attitude of money, needed to raise
men from savagery but to stop them halfway on progress.
Disintegrating factor:
The caste system has literally split up the society into hundreds of hereditary caste and sub castes and
encouraged a spirit of exclusiveness and class-pride, narrowed the outlook and created wide gulfs between the
various sections of the community. The caste system resulted in lots of evils because of its rigid rules. It
perpetuates exploitation of the economically weaker and socially inferior caste. It protects the privileged caste
and thus, builds up economic discontent and social prejudices. A person born in one caste was doomed to
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remain in it forever, and keep check on economic and intellectual advancement and a great stumbling block in
way of social reforms, because it keeps economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of
the population only and denies them to other. The Shudras and untouchables had to perform all the menial
tasks. They could not do anything for their own development. The worst thing is that they cannot be permitted
to devote himself to any educational or scientific profession, even when they have natural aptitudes and
physical and intellectual equipment for it. Worthy and capable person are prevented by caste rigors from
getting their proper and rightful places, even there next generation has to follow the same rigidness of caste
system, and they too remain closed slaves and bonded labors. The caste system however is guilty of just the
opposite demerit. It does not make proper provision for low-born talents or high-born incompetence.
Barred to religious ties

 As far as religion is concerned the lower caste people were not even allowed to touch the holy book and
sacred literatures and they were devoid to enter into the temple. This problem has given scope for religious
conversion. The lower caste people were getting converted into Islam and Christianity, due to the tyranny of
upper caste. Along with these issues the old Hindu Law Marriage Act 1955 promotes Anuloma marriage i.e.
a boy from upper caste can marry a girl from lower caste and prohibits Pratiloma marriage i.e. a girl from
lower caste cannot marry a boy from upper caste. It also inflicted untold hardships on women through its
insistence on practices like child marriages, prohibition of widow remarriage, seclusion of women etc. these
have made the life of women miserable.
 History bears testimony that the issue of caste system sanctioned privileges to a section of society who
understood themselves as a superior class and at the same time it inflicted a series of disabilities on their
sections which continues from generation to generation.
Contrary to Democracy
Democracy is based on principle of equality, fraternity and liberty. On the other hand the caste system is based
on inequality of status and opportunities, which often creates conflict and tension in the society. It acts as an
obstacle in the normal and smooth functioning of democracy. No doubt India has got political freedom but it
must be the concerned of every individual that real freedom cannot be cherished without attainment of the
social and the economic democracy. It is unfortunate that the Indian society is sharply divided into various caste
and sub caste which acts as a barrier due to rigidity and division of the society based on caste consideration.
Perpetuates Untouchability:
 The caste system has condemned large groups of people to a life of degradation without any hope of
redemption. It has created Untouchables, an evil that has been sapping the very vitals of the society. This
untouchability is reduced to the state of natural slavery and hindered the growth of brotherhood; hold off
the national unity as it disallowed any type of social intercourse. B.R Ambedkar rightly said, Untouchability
of Hindus is a rare phenomenon, humanity is any other part of the earth has never experienced it. There is
no such thing in any other society. Really, the tyranny is perpetuated in the name of untouchabilty are the
black lesson in human culture. . According to Mahatma Gandhi, untouchability is the hate fullest expression
of caste.
Hindrance in the way of Modernization:

 The caste system obstructs the process of Modernization as it also restricts the mental development of an
individual. Modern Indian intellect is, therefore burdened with the sense of contrition over the matter.
Passions overwhelmingly carry us to a position of hostility towards any compromise, and the entire caste
structure placed in the docks. Despite this it cannot be said that the caste system offers a place in which any
group religion or occupation can fit in as a cooperating part of the society.
BHIM RAO AMBEDKARS: VISION

 Bhim Rao Ambedkar was born in December 1981 in a Mahar community, an untouchable caste of
Maharashtra. His father Ramji and grandfather Maloji was in military services. He was the youngest child of
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his parents and was just only five when his mother died. Thereafter his aunt took care of him. He was
enrolled in a local school of Satara where he had to sit on the floor and his teacher would not touch his
books as because he was untouchable. Facing so many hardships in his life B R Ambedkar continued his
studies and passed his matriculation. In 1913 Maharaj of Baroda awarded scholarship to B R Ambedkar and
send him to America for attaining the degree of Masters, it was for the first time in his life he was not
degraded for being Mahar.
 He submerged himself in the studies and obtained the Degree of M.A, PHD from the University of Columbia.
There after he proceeded to London but soon Baroda government ended his scholarship and bring him
back. The Maharaja of Baroda appointed him as a Secretary but here also he faced discrimination because
of being Mahar. In 1917 he returned to Bombay and joined syndrome college, Bombay as a professor of
political economy on a temporary basis. the social treatment of other professors were so pathetic as they all
belongs to high caste even they objected that Ambedkar can’t drink water from the pot reserved for the
professional staff. When he started legal practice in the High Court of Judicature, Bombay. He had no money
even to obtain sanad. He had joint the appellate side of the bar. The solicitor would not condensed to have
any business dealing with him because of untouchability .therefore, all these circumstances forced him to be
a great rebel against the Hindu orthodoxy and its discriminatory treatment to turns his mind for searching a
cult where a man is not discriminated by the another man.
 Dr. Ambedkar played a significant role for the upliftment of downtrodden. He was considered as messiah for
suppressed class as he belongs to untouchable’s community. He experienced caste discrimination right from
the childhood, that’s why he raises the issues related to untouchability there are many leaders who raise
their voice for the down trodden of India, but the most significant, eminent actions were taken by B R
Ambedkar because he himself faced such problems ,After noticing the evils of prevailing caste system and
its impacts on suppressed human being prompted founding father of the Constitution of India to create an
egalitarian society wherein justice, social, economic and political right prevails which includes equality of
status and opportunity may be available to everyone irrespective of caste system.
 No doubt India has got political freedom and has political democracy, but it must be the concerned of
everyone that real freedom cannot be cherished without attainment of social and economic democracy. It is
unfortunate that the Indian society is sharply divided into various caste and sub caste which is obstacle due
to rigidity segregation and division of the society based on rigid caste consideration. B R Ambedkar was
impressed enough by the conduct and humanism of the great social reformers like Budhha, Kabir and
Jyotiba Phule. He declared that Untouchables must leave the Hindu culture and accept another religion
instead, and he himself embraced Buddhism.
 Dr. Ambedkar criticized old Law books like Manusmriti and Arthshastras who showed the inferiority and
bitterness towards the suppressed class. He also criticized the higher standard of Brahmans who are
category above of all. The Brahmans are somehow responsible for social exploitation and the backwardness
of untouchables.
 Ambedkar also rejected that there were no such invasion of Aryans as mentioned in the ancient Vedic and
Sanskrit literature. He argued that Shudras were not dark skinned but Shudras were also belongs to the
Kshatriyas class but due to the defeat in a battle with VAISTHA after which they became their subordinates.
He raises many question against the political minded Hindus such as are you fit for political power even
though you do not allow a class of your own countrymen like the untouchables to use public school, public
well, public street, to wear what apparel or ornament they like, food they want to eat, he who emerged a
revolutionary leader, approached the problem of Hindu caste system and the fate of suppressed human
being from different perspective. In estimation of Dr. Ambedkar caste is a barrier to social progress and was
the direct result of Hindu caste system.
 According to him Varna and Caste were evil ideas. He was of the belief that by the eradication of the Varna
system, a cohesive and egalitarian society may emerged the concept if equality and fraternity and viewed
that every congressmen who was of the opinion that when one country is not fit to rule, another country
must admit that one class is not fit to rule another class. If he talks about political reformation he criticized
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both Mahatma Gandhi as well as Congress Party. He said that Congress to be the sole representative of
people of India including all communities’
 But congress does not pay much emphasis on the interest of the untouchables and when he mentioned
Gandhi, Ambedkar says that he give many quotes and sayings but no views and suggestions that were
helpful for the development of un-trodden He was of the view that there should be reorganization and
reconstruction of the society which relates to the abolition of caste system. High class Hindu never feel the
necessity for agitating for the abolition of the caste system, rather they felt quite a greater urge to remove
those evils such as child marriages, sati etc One important fact that deserves to be mentioned over here is
that Gandhi could never rid his mind of a concept of Varna system and he never directly asked people to
give up on caste system. On the other hand Dr. Ambedkar clearly mentioned outcaste is the byproduct of
the caste system. There will be outcaste as long as there are castes. And nothing can emancipate the
outcaste except the destruction of the caste system.
Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it social democracy. What does social
democracy mean? It means a way of life which recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as the principles of
life.
-DR. BHIM RAO AMBEDKAR
Dr. Ambedkar’s initiative for the abolition of caste system

Dr. B R Ambedkar throughout his lifetime was considered to be a controversial personality. He was a great
nationalist who was less understood and more misunderstood by his own countrymen. But his worth could not
be hidden for a long time, he began to be hailed by the people of the India as a great patriot throughout his life.
There were various initiatives taken by him for the course of the memorandum that he submitted jointly with
Roa Bahadur K. Srinivasan of the minority committee of the round table conference he had outlined the terms
and conditions on which the depressed classes will consent to place themselves under a majority rule in a self
governing India as follow:
 Equal citizenship and fundamental rights declaring the practice of untouchability as illegal.
 Free enjoyment of equal rights protected by adequate constitutional remedies.
 Protection against discrimination.
 Adequate representation to the depressed classes in the legislature. They must have the right to elect their
representative by Universal Adult Suffrage.
 Adequate representation in the services.
 Redress against pre judicial action or neglect of interest and obligation should be imposed on the legislation
and the executive to make adequate provision for the education, sanitation, recruitment and other matters
of social and political advancement of the depressed classes.
Ambedkar was called upon to play a stupendous role in his capacity as chairman of the drafting committee of
the constituent assembly and as a minister of Law in the Nehru Cabinet. He was entrusted with the
responsibility of safeguarding the rights of every Indian, especially for depressed sections.
DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR AS A MASSIAH FOR DOWNTRODDEN

 On his return to India in 1923, he founded, Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha with a main object of spreading
education and improving the economic conditions of the oppressed classes. With a slogan of Educate-
Agitate-Organized the social movement led by Dr. Ambedkar aimed at annihilation of the caste and the
reconstruction of the Indian society on the basis of equality of human beings.
 In 1927 he led the march at Mahad, Maharashtra to establish the rights of the untouchables to take water
from the public Chawdar Lake. This marked the beginning of anti-caste and anti-priest movement. The
temple entry movement launched by B.R. Ambedkar in 1930 at the Kalaram temple is another landmark in
the struggle of human rights, political and social justice.
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 One of the greatest contributions of Dr. Ambedkar was in respect of fundamental rights and directive
principles of state policy enshrined in the constitution of India. The fundamental rights provide for freedom,
equality and abolition of untouchability and remedies to ensure the evolution of rights. The directive
principles mentioned fair distribution of wealth and better living conditions for all.
 It was he, who forsook his high pedestal, lying down to their level, gives them a helping hand and raised
them to human stature. For Indians, Ambedkar is no more a historical personality named Bhimrao Ramji
Ambedkar. He is already metamorphosed into a symbol-a symbol for their collective aspiration and an icon
for the thesis of their emancipation. Human history is replete with such icons; rather it is largely made of
them.
CONCLUSION
 Caste system was very much stringent and rigid institution of early society which was responsible for the
pathetic condition of different groups of the community and they were treated as suppressed and
untouchables class. Various successful steps were taken by different social reformers to eradicate this evil
from the mind of the people, because every individuals mind were responsible to generate this evils into
once mind. This paper emphasized the annihilation of caste system in the light of the views if Dr. B R
Ambedkar. He made valuable contribution to the social and political thinking and denounced the
outrageous attitude of the Brahmanical Hinduism towards the untouchables and worked for the liberation
of oppressed class from the high caste Hindus. Through his writing and speeches he made the people
conscious of the political, economic and social problem of the untouchables and impressed the need of
paying special attention to the conditions of untouchables.
 The influence of Ambedkar idea is evident from the fact that the new constitution not only assured
equality to all the citizens but also took definite steps to abolish untouchablity and made its factors in any
form an offence punishable under law.
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SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
Life
 Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January 1897, in Cuttack, Orissa Division, Bengal
Province, to Prabhavati Dutt Bose and Janakinath Bose.
 After his early schooling, he joined Ravenshaw Collegiate School. From there he went
to join Presidency College, Calcutta and was expelled due to his nationalist activities.
Later, he went to University of Cambridge, U.K.
 In 1919, Bose headed to London to give the Indian Civil Services (ICS) examination and
he was selected. Bose, however, resigned from Civil Services as he believed he could
not side with the British.
 He was highly influenced by Vivekananda's teachings and considered him as his spiritual
Guru. His political mentor was Chittaranjan Das.
 In 1921, Bose took over the editorship of the newspaper 'Forward', founded by Chittaranjan Das's Swaraj
Party.
 In 1923, Bose was elected the President of the All India Youth Congress and also the Secretary of Bengal
State Congress.
 He was also sent to prison in Mandalay in 1925 due to his connections with revolutionary movements where
he contracted Tuberculosis.
 During the mid-1930s Bose travelled in Europe. He researched and wrote the first part of his book,
The Indian Struggle, which covered the country’s independence movement in the years 1920–1934.
 After his return, Bose took over as the elected President of Indian National Congress in 1938 (Haripur) and
stood for unqualified Swaraj (self-governance) and the use of force against the British which then combated
against Mahatma Gandhi and his views.
 Bose was re-elected in 1939 (Tripuri) but soon resigned from the presidency and formed the All India
Forward Bloc, a faction within the Congress which aimed at consolidating the political left.
 He died on 18th August 1945, in a plane crash in Japanese-ruled Formosa (now Taiwan).
Contribution to Freedom Struggle

 Association with C.R Das: He was associated with C.R. Das' political endeavour, and was also jailed along
with him. When C.R. Das was elected Mayor of Calcutta Cooperation, he nominated Bose as the chief
executive. He was arrested for his political activities in 1924.
 Trade union movements: He organised youth and promoted trade union movements. In 1930, he was
elected Mayor of Calcutta, the same year he was elected the President of AITUC.
 Association with congress: He stood for unqualified swaraj (independence), and opposed Motilal Nehru
Report which spoke for dominion status for India.
o He actively participated in the Salt Satyagraha of 1930 and vehemently opposed the suspension of Civil
Disobedience Movement and signing of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931.
o In the 1930s, he was closely associated with left politics in Congress along with Jawaharlal Nehru and M.N.
Roy.
o Because of the endeavour of the left group, the congress passed very far reaching radical resolutions in
Karachi in 1931 which declared the main Congress aim as socialization of means of production besides
guaranteeing fundamental rights.
 Congress presidentship: Bose won the congress presidential elections at Haripura in 1938.
o Next year at Tripuri, he again won the presidential elections against Gandhi's candidate Pattabhi
Sitarammayya.
o Due to ideological differences with Gandhi, Bose left congress and found a new party, 'the Forward
Bloc'.
o The purpose was to consolidate the political left and major support base in his home state Bengal.
 Civil disobedience movement: When World War II began, he was again imprisoned for participation in civil
disobedience and was put under house arrest.
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 Indian National Army: Bose manages to escape to Berlin by way of Peshawar and Afghanistan. He reached
Japan and from there to Burma and organised the Indian National Army to fight the british and liberate India
with the help of Japan.
o He gave famous slogans 'Jai Hind' and 'Dilli Chalo'. He died in a plane crash before realising his dreams.
Azad Hind
 Indian Legion: Bose founded the free India centre in Berlin and created the Indian Legion out of the Indian
prisoners of war who had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis
forces.
o In Europe, Bose sought help from Hitler and Mussolini for the liberation of India.
 In Germany, he was attached to the special bureau for India which was responsible for the broadcasting on
the German sponsored Azad Hind Radio.
o On this radio, Bose on 6th July 1944, addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the 'Father of the Nation'.
Indian National Army: He reached Japanese-controlled Singapore from Germany in July 1943, issued from there
his famous call, ‘Delhi Chalo’, and announced the formation of the Azad Hind Government and the Indian
National Army on 21st October 1943.
o The INA was first formed under Mohan Singh and Japanese Major Iwaichi Fujiwara and comprised Indian
prisoners of war of the British-Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan (present-day Malaysia)
campaign and at Singapore.
o The INA included both, the Indian prisoners of war from Singapore and Indian civilians in South-East Asia.
It's strength grew to 50,000.
o The INA fought allied forces in 1944 inside the borders of India in Imphal and in Burma.
o However, with the fall of Rangoon, Azad Hind Government ceased to be an effective political entity.
o In November 1945 a British move to put the INA men on trial immediately sparked massive demonstration
all over the country.
 Impact: The I.N.A. experience created the wave of disaffection in the British Indian army during the 1945-46,
which culminated in the great Bombay naval strike of February 1946 and was one of the most decisive
reasons behind the British decision to make a quick withdrawal.
 Composition of I.N.A: The I.N.A. was essentially non-communal, with Muslims quite prominent among its
officers and ranks, and it also introduced the innovation of a women’s detachment named after the Rani of
Jhansi.
Role of Subhash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army
 While the whole nation was engaged in the August movement, the struggle for independence was carried
on by Subhash Chandra Bose outside the frontiers of India.
 Indians were fighting tooth and nail to liberate their motherland from outside. The Indian National Army
and Subhash Chandra Bose were playing their significant role in the freedom struggle of India.
 Subhash Chandra was one of the foremost among the nationalist leaders of India, brave and youthful he
possessed excellent organising capacity.
 Born on 23rd January, 1897 at Cuttack town to a pleader father Subhash Chandra was selected into the
Indian Civil Service after a brilliant academic career. In the service when he was called upon to take an oath
of allegiance to the crown, he refused to do so and left the job in 1921. During his college career he had
shown what he was going to be when he beat an English man black and blue for his having criticised the
culture of India.
 After leaving the service Subhash joined the non-cooperation Movement but was not satisfied with the
principle of non-violence of Gandhiji and supported Motilal and C.R. Das in the venture of organising the
Swarajist party. Subhash was appointed the Chief Executive officer of Calcutta by C.R. Das, the Mayore of
Calcutta. The progressive activities of Subhash invited the displeasure of the Government and were
deported to Mandalay.
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 Subhash represented the young and extremist elements in the Congress. He was elected as the President of
the Congress in 1938 and again in 1939. He could not make any compromise with Gandhi and thus resigned
his President-ship and organized the famous Forward Block. During Second World War he was put under
house arrest in his ancestral house in Elgin Road; Calcutta but escaped and reached Japan.
 In a romantic and daring journey changing names and looking different he proceeded from there to Moscow
and finally reached Berlin in March 1941. The German dictator Adolf Hitler did not like to help him for the
cause of Indian independence.
 In Germany the Indian community hailed him as Netaji and greeted him with the slogan “Jai Hind”. From
Berlin Radio he regularly broadcasted to India urging his countrymen to rise against the British. He very soon
felt that South-East Asia would be a suitable ground for his grand scheme of raising a national army to free
India from the British yoke. The golden opportunity for him came when Japan joined the war.
 At that time Rash Behari Bose was busy in organizing a notable organization in the name of Indian
Independence League in Japan to help the end of British rule in India. Rash Behari Bose convened two
conferences one at Tokyo in March, 1942 and the second in Bangkok in Jun 1942. The revolutionaries
assembled in the conferences decided to form an Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauz) for the liberation
of India from the British rule.
 The army was to be formed with Indians in the South-East Asian Countries and Indian soldiers of the British
Army captured by the Japanese. Capt. Mohan Singh was primarily responsible for raising the army. Rash
Behari Bose was made the President of the Council of Action. Shortly afterwards Rash Behari dismissed
Mohan Singh whose personal ambition endangered the I.N.A. Rash Behari then played a pivotal role in
organizing the movement. Subhash Bose was invited to take up the leadership.
 In February 1943, Subhash left Germany from Kiel port in a Submarine. Through risk, suffering and untold
hardship he finally reached Tokyo in June 1943. He held discussion with the Japanese authorities in the
course of which the latter promised the independence of India after the war. From Tokyo he went to
Singapore where he was warmly welcomed by Rash Behari and the latter handed over the leadership to
Subhash.
 Subhash became the President of the Indian National Army as well as the President of Indian Independence
League. Addressing a huge meeting at Singapore on 4th July, 1943 Rash Behari said “In your presence to-day
I resign my office and appoint Desh Sevak Subhash Chandra Bose as President of the Indian Independence
League.”
 However Rash Behari remained a courageous and selfless freedom fighter till his death on 21st January
1945. It was Rash Behari who prepared the stage in the East and South-East Asia for Subhash Chandra Bose
to play on his significant role which India observed. Paying tribute to Rash Behari on the day of his death
Subhash described him as the father of the Indian Independence Movement.
 Gradually the number of the I.N.A. men began to grow greatly. Assuming the command of the I.N.A. he gave
his famous battle cry “Delhi Chalo” (on to Delhi). He worked out a master plan of campaign for the INA with
the ultimate goal of reaching Delhi. A provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) was set up.
 Its object was “to launch and to conduct the struggle that will bring about the expulsion of the British and of
other allies from the soil of India.” Addressing the army he said “We have a grim fight ahead us for the
enemy is powerful, unscrupulous and ruthless. In this final march to freedom you will have to face hunger,
privation, forced marches and death. Only when you pass this test will freedom be yours.”
 The INA revealed Subhash Bose’s greatness as a military leader and an organizer too. One of the INA
Brigades advanced with the Japanese army upto the frontiers of India. The Indian national flag was hoisted
in Kohima in March 1944. But with the change of fortune in the war and the retreat and defeat of the
Japanese the INA collapsed. The role of INA had far reaching influences on the Indian political scene.
 When the stories of their remarkable courage and sacrifice came to the knowledge of the Indian people at
the end of the war, the nation came under a wave of revolutionary upsurge. The British Government could
realise that patriotism for Indians was greater than their service to a foreign power. Subhash was the
greatest enemy of the Viceroy Lord Wavell.
 The communists described him as an agent of the “Facist Powers”. Gandhiji admired the courage and
resourcefulness displayed by Subhash in making his escape from India. Inspite of his principle of violence
Subhash Chandra Bose’s grand scheme of India’s liberation and the high idealism through INA movement
inspired the people of India in an unprecedented manner.
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 The organisation of the Azad Hind forces and their exploits are a milestone in the history of the Indian
struggle for freedom; the formation of which was the brain child of Subhash Chandra Bose.
INA Trial:
 In the midst of conflict between the Congress and the League the Government instituted a public trial of the
Azad Hind Fouz soldiers on charges of treason. The trial only helped to rouse the people’s patriotic emotion.
The exploits of INA led by Netaji stirred the whole nation and the country was thrilled with excitement. The
congress engaged a set of lawyers including. Jawaharlal Nehru, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Bhulabhai Desai to
defend the leaders on trial.
 The INA leaders in the first instance were convicted but their sentences were soon remitted and ultimately
they were set free. However some INA officers were not released for which there was a public resentment.
Demonstrations were organized in different parts of the country. Sarat Chandra Bose, the brother of
Subhash Chandra mobilized the public sentiment in support of the INA and made elaborate arrangements
for the celebration of the anniversary of the foundation of the Azad Hind Government on 21st October,
1943.
 The trial of the INA officers in the historic Red Fort became a “tribute to the martial courage of Indians, a
symbol of her sense of total independence, a matter more of pride than of justice.”
 In February, 1946 a serious mutiny broke out in the Royal Indian Navy at Bombay. British troops were called
in to crush the rebellious navy men as the Indian soldiers refused to open fire at their brethren. The British
Commander-in-Chief General Archinleck warned the army. Nehru declared “Our armed forces have every
right to revolt against the foreign ruler in order to achieve the freedom of our country.”
 The Government had no other way out than to think over the matter of releasing Colonel Shah Nawaz,
Major G.S. Dhillon and Captain Prem Sehgal along with other trials who were the heroes of the hour. By the
release of these trials the people could believe that it-was a great victory for Indians. Gradually the situation
in the Indian Army tended to take a serious turn before it ended a few days later owing to the efforts of
Sardar Patel.
 The mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy made it clear that the British Indian Empire could no longer depend on
the Indian staff. The realization virtually precipitated the process leading to the transfer of power. The entire
history of the Indian National Army was thus the outcome of the matser brain and the heroic activities of
Subhash Chandra Bose supported by Rash Behari Bose
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DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of independent India. His contribution
to the nation runs much deeper. He was one of the prominent leaders of the
Indian Nationalist Movement alongside Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and
Lal Bahadur Shastri.
 He was one of those passionate individuals who gave up a lucrative profession to
pursue a greater goal of attaining freedom for the Motherland. He took up the
helms of designing the Constitution of the nascent nation by heading up the
Constituent Assembly post-independence. Dr. Prasad was one of the chief
architects in shaping the Republic of India.
 Early Life and Education: Rajendra Prasad was born to Mahadev Sahai and
Kamleshwari Devi at Zeradei, in the Siwan district of Bihar on December 3, 1884.
He was the youngest kid of the family. He was a meritorious student, he received his early education from
Moulavi, an accomplished Muslim scholar, who taught him Persian, Hindi and arithmetic.He later studied at
the Chapra District School and T.K. Ghosh's Academy in Patna. For higher education, he moved to Calcutta
where he secured a scholarship at the Presidency College, for a degree in science. He later changed his
stream of studies from science to arts, attaining his MA in Economics in 1907. Completing his education, he
took up the job of a professor of English at the Langat Singh College in Muzaffarpur and was soon was
promoted as the principal. In 1908, he left his chair of the principal to pursue a degree in law at the Calcutta
City College, where he doubled up as a professor of Economics. In 1915, he graduated with honors with a
Masters degree in Law, winning a gold medal. In 1937, he completed his Doctorate in Law from Allahabad
University .Meanwhile in 1911, joined the Indian National Congress.
Indian political movements for independence and role of Dr. Rajendra Prasad
After the revolt of 1857, the company rule was implemented in India and the control was given to the Queen of
England. The company closely managed the country and since then the resentment started building up and then
it became a dream for every Indian to see their country free from the British rule. The struggle started in 1850s
when the Indian National Congress party was formed and the leaders started building the plan for an
independent India. Here is the list of major movements happened during this period which finally led to the
freedom of India from the British rule
Formation of Indian National Congress:

 During the period of 1860-1890, a new section was rising who were educated and were questioning the
policies made by the British East India Company. During this period seventy men rose and founded the
Indian National Congress to discuss and debate the impact of British rule on India. They identified that the
tax paid by Indians are being used to pay the British civil servants and that maintains their lifestyle. They
blamed the company for draining India’s wealth. The resentment had started to build with this exposure.
Swadeshi movement:
 The starting of the twentieth century saw the rise of unrest between Muslim dominated east Bengal and
Hindu dominated west Bengal and later the Bengal province was split. The partition of Bengal was followed
by the boycott of foreign goods and Swadeshi movement started which was led by Mahatma Gandhi. The
movement supported the use of Indian made goods and the intent was to empower the desi artisans. Dr.
Prasad played a pivotal role here by becoming the right hand of Mahatma Gandhi.
Satyagraha Movement:
 Dr. Prasad emerged as a young congress leader during Satyagraha movement started in the Champaran
district of Bihar. The farmers there were forced to plant indigo on a portion of their land and had to sell the
harvest at below the market price to the Britishers. The condition of peasants was really bad during that
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time and Mahatma Gandhi had appointed Dr. Rajendra Prasad to work in this area. He left his law practice
and started working for the peasants of Bihar and emerged as a strong leader from this region.
Non cooperation Movement:

 In the year 1920, Mahatma Gandhi started the non cooperation movement against the British rule as the
company was not ready to back down. He requested the Indians to return the awards and posts given by the
company and boycott all the British goods. Dr. Prasad played a major role in the implementation of this
movement and his consistent efforts forced the company to plan and free the country from their colonial
rule.
Round table conference and Government of India Act:

 In 1930s, the Indian National Congress party demanded for Purna Swaraj and Dr. Prasad let this movement.
Discussions happened in the party to completely gain the freedom of the country from British Raj.
Quit India Movement:

 Started in 1942 under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar Lal Nehru and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the
movement demanded immediate withdrawal of British forces from our land. The persistence of boycotting
the British rulers by Indian national congress leaders led to the pressure building on the company and
eventually they resigned.
Independence of India and partition:

 On 15th August, 1947, the country got freedom and was partitioned into Dominion of Pakistan led by
Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Dominion of India led by Jawaharlal Nehru. Dr. Prasad was elected as the
president by unanimous voting and then started developing the path for a brighter future of the country.
Post independence developments:

 After the freedom of our country from the British Raj, the role of Indian leaders became very important in
shaping the outlook of the country. Entire nation was looking forward to them. Dr. Prasad was a scholar and
a lawyer and was very much aware about the possibilities and work to be done in this sector which could
have helped the farmers, boosting the Indian economy. He utilised his knowledge and then helped in setting
up an agricultural University in Bihar. The university has evolved now and is called as Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Central agricultural University situated now in Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar. He was a pioneer in establishing the
knowledge centres for helping the farmers in getting awareness about the best practices for their farming.
 Coming from a middle class family in a small district from Bihar, Dr. Prasad could relate himself with the
problems of the farmers. He had spent his entire life living very close to the primary sector earners of Indian
society and has seen the challenges and developments in this filed. He knew the scope it had for
development and was aware about the possibilities to achieve that goal. He understood the deep rooted
problems in the agricultural sector and was determined to work in this area to improve the condition of
farmers’ by helping them in improving their farming yield. He was a well educated and well informed citizen
of our country who had the exposure of both modern and traditional societies. He wanted both to
complement each other. He believed that change is the only constant and we should change our techniques
of work with the changing time.
 He then did major contributions to the agriculture though this university with the aim of creating educated
individuals to work in the agricultural sector. His efforts were fruitful in the long run when graduates in
agriculture started working in this sector and slowly brought improvement in this area. Mr. Prasad knew the
power of education and had understood that the root cause of all the roadblocks existing in agricultural
sector is primarily illiteracy. He believed that educating people about agriculture would bring a systematic
development in this sector and would eventually empower the farmers to develop their farming methods.
He also wanted the support of tertiary sector to enhance the existing situation of farmers and wanted to set
up services like banking and knowledge centres which would have helped the farmers in the long run.
 His vision for the farmers was for the long term and he wanted to work on the roots rather than just making
policies without doing a proper ground work on the basic problems faced by the farmers in our country. He
not only worked on the primary sector development, but was insightful to make advancements in the
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tertiary sectors as well to make both these sectors work in tandem and create jobs for each other. His plans
were long term and effective in solving the crisis situations of droughts and floods where the farmers used
to be in huge problem. His institutes and centres are continuously working for the development of
agricultural sector and helping the farmers grow slowly but steadily. Though the impact of this long term
planning is still going on and would now need more reforms in this direction. But the initial work done by
Mr. Prasad has laid the foundation for the development and has established a revolutionary path for the
future work to be done in this area.
Achievements:
 For his unconditional contribution as a leader of the Indian National Congress and as the President of India,
he was conferred with India’s highest civilian award - Bharat Ratna. A Bharat Ratna recipient, he was the
first President of free India and the only one to serve for two terms in the office of the President.
Conclusion
 The struggle of Indian independence has been a phenomenal example of persistence and perseverance. The
sacrifice done by our political leaders shaped the future of our independent country. It laid the path and
created a foundation for a developing country which is in league with the other developing countries today.
Huge population and cultural diversity of our country makes it even more glorious to remember the efforts
of our political leaders. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was an asset to the Indian history whose work has defined the
future of our country. His continuous efforts brought a major change in the face of Indian history and
brought independence for our country from the British rule. Our country would always be indebted to him
and we will learn from his working style in future. His unconditional support to Indian politics has been
acknowledged by the people of our country and he would be remembered forever in the Indian history of
independence. Politics has a lot to learn from such leaders who has changed the way for Indian politics and
has brought a mature change to be revered and followed by the young generation politicians.
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RAM MANOHAR LOHIA
Ram Manohar Lohia mobilised support for Quit India Movement through underground work
Socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia played a major role in the Independence struggle, especially, during the
Quit India Movement. It was Lohia who kept the movement alive through his ‘underground’ work, at a time
when several top leaders were jailed by the British rulers.
Lohia was born on 23 March 1910 at Akbarpur in Uttar Pradesh in a family of traders. He was raised by his
grandparents as his mother Chandri died when he was just two years old. His father, Hira
Lal Lohia, who refused to remarry, was a committed nationalist.
Independence struggle
 In 1934, Lohia joined the Congress Socialist Party, which served as the Left-wing of the
Indian National Congress. He was one of the founding members of the party and also
edited its periodical called, Congress Socialist. In 1936, he became the secretary of the
foreign department of All India Congress Committee.
 Unlike Nehru, Lohia bitterly opposed India’s involvement in the World War-II. He was
arrested for making comments against the British government in 1939-40.
 “The massive edifice of the British Empire raised on the foundation of exploitation and
slavery is shaking…” he said at a public speech in Dostpur, UP, on 11 May 1940.
 “In ten provinces of the country, the popular governments have been replaced by the autocratic rule of the
Governors, thus providing enough justification to launch a Satyagraha,” he said.
 During the Quit India Movement in 1942, when most of the top leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru were arrested, Lohia and Jay Prakash Narayan played a major role in mobilising support.
 Lohia set up underground radio stations called, Congress Radio, at Bombay and Calcutta to “disseminate the
much needed information to the masses to sustain a leaderless movement”, according to an article
published by The Hindu. JP mobilised a guerrilla force to combat British colonial rule. As a result of this,
Lohia was jailed again in 1944-46.
 In February 1947, Lohia was elected chairman of the Congress Socialist Party.
After Independence
 Lohia, along with several leaders left the Congress in 1948 because of their differences with Nehru. Lohia
apparently believed that Nehru talked at great length about socialism but never actually practised it,
according to a report in Mainstream.
 He joined the Praja Socialist Party in 1952 and served as its general-secretary for a brief period before
resigning from the party in 1955. Later, he launched a new Socialist Party and edited its journal Mankind.
Lohia started a series of “Satyagrahas” against social injustice and went to jail several times during this
period.
 Lohia was elected to the third Lok Sabha in a bypoll from Farrukhabad in May 1963. It was Lohia who made
Parliament acknowledge the widespread problem of starvation among agricultural labourers. In the 1964
budget debate, Lohia showcased that 270 million Indians lived on three annas (19 paise) a day.
The social reformer

 Lohia believed that unless caste inequality was abolished, India would not progress. He gave a number of
suggestions for the eradication of caste system, including compulsory intercaste marriages for government
servants and community festivals.
 To eliminate caste barriers, he put forward the idea of “roti and beti”, which means that people would have
to break caste barriers in order to eat together and allow marriage of their daughters with grooms from
other castes.
 Lohia died on 12 October 1967, at New Delhi’s Willingdon Hospital, which was later rechristened Ram
Manohar Lohia Hospital.
 Lohia left behind his socialist legacy for the next generation of leaders such as Mulayam Singh Yadav, Nitish
Kumar, Lalu Prasad Yadav among others.
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DR SACHCHIDANANDA SINHA
The Architect Of Modern Bihar
Most of us have heard Dr Sachchidananda Sinha’s name only as the interim

President of the Constituent Assembly. However, it was not the only
achievement for him. As the senior-most member of the assembly, he had to
act as interim President. His achievements lie in his contribution as an
educationist, politician and an ardent advocate for the cause of Bihar. He was
instrumental in the formation of the province of Bihar and its subsequent rise
in the national arena.
Dr Sinha was born in Arrah district of present-day Bihar in a relatively well off
Kayastha family. After his early education in Arrah school, he went on to
complete his graduation from Patna College. Later in 1889, he moved to
London to study Law. It was there that he came in contact with leaders such
as WC Bannerjee, George Yule, SN Bannerjee, etc. He even campaigned for Dadabhai Naoroji, who was fighting
elections to enter the British House of Commons.
But what marks a turn in his life is the experience he had in Britain regarding his birthplace Bihar. There he faced
an identity crisis—as he found that no one even knew about a place called Bihar, as it was a part of Bengal
Presidency. He himself recalls it as, “It would be difficult for me to convey the Bihari of today the sense of shame
and humiliation which I, and some equally sensitive Bihari friends, felt while prosecuting our studies in Britain,
on realizing that we were people without any individuality, without any province to claim as ours, in fact,
without any habitation with the name.” (His British friends used to show him the map of India, asking if there’s
any place called “Bihar”).
Not only the Englishmen, while returning from Britain, he even found a man from Punjab who was unaware of
any place called Bihar. After discussing it at length, they would still recognize it as Bengal. Further, on returning
to Bihar, he found a Bihari policeman at the railway station with the badge of “Bengal Police”. All these events,
along with the administrative, political and historical discrimination and neglect, made Sinha resolute about
creating a separate province for the Biharis.
In the ancient times, Bihar was the centre of Indian civilization, with the seat of power for dynasties like the
Haryanka, the Maurya and the Gupta. It not only saw the great rulers in the form of Bimbisara Ashoka,
Chandragupta, Samudragupta, etc. but was also the centre of socio-religious movements in the form of
Buddhism and Jainism. The great scientists like Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya, Varamihira, Charak, etc., were the
products of this great land.
Bihar faced a reversal of fortune after the fall of the Gupta empire, with the centre of power shifting towards
Kannauj, Agra and Delhi in the west and Bengal in the east. It was reduced to just a buffer zone between eastern
powers like Palas and Senas in Bengal and the Rajputs and Sultanate in Agra-Delhi. Its development, both
cultural and economic, was compromised as there was no state patronage. As a result, Bihar was pushed into
oblivion.
Sher Shah, with his brief interregnum after defeating Humayun, did try to restore Bihar’s glory, but again, the
rise of Mughals in Agra pushed Bihar to the margins. Although Akbar carved the suba of Bihar, it was
sandwiched between the politically important subas of Awadh and Bengal. The treaty of Allahabad (1765),
following the Battle of Buxar, was the final nail in the coffin for Bihar as its Diwani rights, along with Odisha,
were given to the English company at Calcutta. From here on Bihar became completely subordinate to Bengal.
In the decades to come, feudal Bihar, which had faced historical neglect, was overrun by the “newly
enlightened” Bengalis who controlled both the economic and political activities of Bihar. They dominated the
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educational institutions as well as the government services. Even the Patna College, which was set up to
promote higher education in Bihar, was dominated by the Bengalis.
The feudal-minded people of Bihar are also partly to be blamed for their antipathy towards English education,
but at the same time, it needs to be acknowledged that the enlightened Bengalis did not in any way try to
impart education to their Bihari “brothers”. All they were interested in was to dominate the political and
economic landscape of Bihar. Even if there were some educated Bihari men like Govind Charan, they found jobs
with much difficulty.
Further, Bihar was culturally and linguistically completely different from Bengal, and their union was only an
artificial one. All these things were argued by the advocates of Bihar, which besides Dr Sinha, included the likes
of Mahesh Narayan, Hasan Imam, etc. Together, they published the newspaper called “The Bihar Times”, which
tried to mould the public opinion in favour of a separate state. In fact, Dr Sinha called the birth of this
newspaper the starting point of Bihari Renaissance.
The dream of a separate province of Bihar received a setback in 1905 when Lord Curzon went on to partition
Bengal on communal lines to weaken the National Movement (However, the official reason was administrative
convenience). Like any other Indian, Bihari leaders did criticize this communal partition, and Dr Sinha in
‘Hindustan Review’ came up with the article titled “The Partition of the lower provinces – An alternative
proposal”.
He, along with Mahesh Narayan, also came up with the book titled “Partition of Bengal and Separation of Bihar”,
in which they denounced the Bengal partition of 1905, and instead, argued that separating Bihar and Odisha
would be a better decision from the administrative point of view. For that, they provided statistical data of
representation in the government services and also the linguistic and cultural angle.
Gradually, the government also came to recognize the discrimination and poor representation of Biharis, and
thus made knowledge of Hindustani language compulsory for serving in Bihar.
In 1910, Dr Sinha was elected to the Bengal Legislative Council, where he strongly raised the demand for a
separate province of Bihar. He further convinced Ali Imam to become a part of Governor General’s Executive
Council, which was again used to argue the cause of Bihar. All these efforts finally led Lord Hardinge to annul the
communal partition of Bengal of 1905 and announce the creation of the separate province of Bihar and Odisha
in the Dilli Durbar of 1911. Thus, on 1st April 1912, the province of Bihar and Odisha came into being with Patna
as its capital. It was, in fact, the first British Indian province to be carved out on linguistic basis (Andhra Pradesh
was the first one after independence).
Dr Sinha continued to work for his motherland in the years to come. Some of his achievements after the
creation of Bihar include: becoming the first Deputy President of Central Legislative Assembly (1921), member
of Governor’s executive council of Bihar and Odisha as well as President of its Legislative Council, chairman of
Odisha Boundary Commission (1930) and Vice-Chancellor of Patna University from 1936 to 1945.
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SRI KRISHNA SINGH
 Shri Krishna Sinha (21 October 1887 – 31 January 1961), known as Dr. S. K. Sinha,
Shri Babu and Bihar Kesari, was the first Chief Minister of the Indian state of Bihar
(1946–61).
 In collaboration with the deputy and finance minister Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Sri
Krishna Sinha spearheaded several developmental projects in the state. The two
men led Bihar from 1937, when the first Bihar government was formed under
British rule. Sri Krishna Sinha’s long stint as chief minister saw the setting up of key
industries and river valley projects along with major agricultural and social reforms
 He was the first Chief Minister in the country to abolish the zamindari system. He
underwent different terms of imprisonment for a total of about eight years in
British India. S.K.Sinha’s mass meetings brought hordes of people to hear him. He was known as “Bihar
Kesari” for his lionlike roars when he rose to address the masses. His close friend and eminent Gandhian
Bihar Vibhuti Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha in his essay mere Shri Babu wrote that, “Since 1921, the History of
Bihar has been the history of the life of Shri Babu”.The former President of India, Pratibha Patil, released a
book on the letters of exchange between Sinha and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru titled Freedom and
Beyond.
 The Nehru-Sinha correspondence touches on subjects such as Indian democracy in the making in early years
of Independence, Centre-State relations, role of governor, turbulence in Nepal, Zamindari abolition and
education scenario. Sinha was known for his scholarship and erudition and he had given his personal
collection of 17,000 books to the public library in Munger in 1959 which is now named after him as Sri
Krishna Seva Sadan.
Family And Early Life:

 Singh was born on 21 October 1887 in Khanwa in Nawada district of Bihar. His paternal village is Maur, near
Barbigha in the then Munger District that is now part of Sheikhpura District. His father was a religious,
middle-class member of a Bhumihar family. His mother, who was also an unassuming and religious-minded
person, died of plague when he was five years old. He was educated in the village school and at Zila School
in Munger.
 In 1906 he joined Patna College, which was then an affiliate of the University of Calcutta. He studied law and
started practicing in Munger from 1915. In the meantime, he married and had two sons, Shivshankar Sinha
and Bandishankar Singh (more commonly known as Swaraj Babu) who later held various posts in the state
government.
Freedom Struggle:
 Singh first met Mahatma Gandhi in 1916 at Central Hindu College, Benares and later at Shah Muhammad
Jubair’s house in December 1920. At Munger, he vowed to work relentlessly to free India from British rule.
He gave up practising law in 1921 to take part in Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement.
 He was arrested for the first time in 1922 at Jubair’s house and Congress Seva Dal was declared illegal. For
this he was known as Bihar Kesari by the people. He was released from jail in 1923 and on the day of Tulsi
Jayanti performed in the play Bharat Darshan at Central School, Kharagpur. In the same year he became a
member of the All India Congress Committee.
 In 1927, Singh became a member of the Legislative Council and in 1929 became General Secretary of Bihar
Pradesh Congress Committee (BPCC). In 1930, he played an important role in the Namak Satyagrah at
Garhpura. He suffered severe scalding injuries to his hands and chest while being arrested, was imprisoned
for six months and then was again arrested and imprisoned for two years during the Civil Disobedience
movement. He was released after Gandhi–Irwin Pact and again started with his nationalist work and work
with the Kisan Sabha. On 9 January 1932 he was sentenced to two years of rigorous imprisonment and a fine
of Rs. 1,000. He was released from Hazaribagh Jail in October 1933. He was involved in relief and
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rehabilitation after the 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake. He was the President of Munger Zila Parishad from
1934 to 1937. In 1935, he became a member of the Central Assembly.
 Singh was also the President of the BPCC in 1936 with Anugrah babu as his deputy, a member of its working
committee and in fact, Shri Krishna Sinha & Anugrah Narayan Sinha were the life and soul of the Provincial
Working Committee and of the Congress organisation in the state for over thirty years. This long period of
service at the help of the state is proof not only of the great popularity and confidence which he enjoyed in
the party but it also symbolises his great qualities as a coordinator between party and government.
 On 20 July 1937, he became the Premier of Bihar province when Congress came to power. Under the
Government of India Act of 1935, Sinha formed his Cabinet at Patna on 20 July 1937. He and his colleague
Anugrah Narayan Sinha disagreed with the governor on the issue of the release of political prisoners and
resigned. The then governor had to accede to the demands for release of prisoners from Cellular Jail
(Kalapani) and Bihar Tenancy Act was reformed in favour of peasants. They then resumed office. But they
again resigned in 1939, as did all Congress chief ministers, over the question of involving India in the Second
World War without the consent of the Indian people. Along with Anugrah Narayan Sinha, a prominent
Gandhian and the first Deputy Chief Minister cum Finance Minister of Bihar, he is considered one of the
makers of modern Bihar.
JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN
Born October 11, 1902
Died October 8, 1979 (aged 76)
 Jayaprakash Narayan, an Indian political leader and theorist, was born in Sitab
Diyara on October 11, 1902.
 He was a Mohandas Gandhi disciple and the leader of India's independence
movement.
 He moved to the United States in 1922 to study political science and economics at
universities in California, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Ohio.
 JP was not religious, but under the influence of the terrorists' fringe, he started
reading the Bhagvad Gita, one of the most fundamental Hindu scriptures, on a
regular basis, drawing heroic inspiration from the Mahabharata's great war.
 Advocate of Saintly Politics: After India's independence, violence and Marxism in
Narayan declined.
 He advocated for Gandhian-style revolutionary action, in which he attempted to change people's minds and
hearts.
 He was a proponent of "saintly politics," urging Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders to resign and live among
the poor.
 In the absence of senior leaders, he took part in the independence struggle and led the Quit India
movement in 1942. After independence, he remained detached from electoral politics, but he was not
uninterested in politics. He never held a formal government post, but he remained a prominent political
figure outside of party politics.
Role In Pre-Independence
 Narayan received his education at American universities, where he became a Marxist. He became a member
of the Indian National Congress (Congress Party). He was sentenced to a year in prison in 1932 for his role in
the civil disobedience movement against British rule in India, and he was again imprisoned in 1939 for his
opposition to Indian involvement in World War II on Britain's side, but he managed to flee and attempted to
organise armed resistance to the government before being recaptured in 1943. He sought to convince
Congress representatives to pursue a more aggressive stance against British rule after his release in 1946.
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Role In Post-Independence
 In 1948, he and a few other progressive members of the Congress left the party and worked hard to
establish an anti-Congress forum. They founded the Praja Socialist Party in 1952. He gave oppressed people
a voice and created an alternative political forum by founding the PSP. He declared two years later that he
would devote his life to the Bhoodan Movement, which was created by Acharya Vinobha Bhave to
redistribute land to the landless. He was a committed soldier for social restoration and national resurgence
as he mentored political leaders from across the spectrum, and he called for the reconstruction of Indian
polity by proposing Chaukhamba Raj in 1959.
Sampoorna Kranti
 Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) was one of the Mahatma's twelve apostles and a front-line soldier in the Indian
freedom struggle. JP used a mixture of ahimsa and violence in this war.
 In 1974, he called for a ‘sampoorna kranti,' or absolute revolution, to combat rampant corruption,
unemployment, and the systemic undermining of democratic institutions, and the events that followed led
to the infamous Emergency. It paved the way for a realignment of political powers in the world and gave the
country's politics a new direction, with far-reaching implications.
 He was a true believer in putting youth at the forefront of systemic change. Those in control would naturally
oppose any change, but he was convinced that only the passion and force of youth could bring about
revolutionary change and that is exactly what happened in the 1970s.
 JP mobilised students in Bihar to combat authoritarianism and corruption after blessing the Nav Nirman
Andolan in Gujarat, where people rose up against a corrupt state government. He had such a hypnotic effect
on the political scene that, under his tutelage, a slew of Congress splinter parties, including Congress (O),
Jana Sangh, and Swatantra Party, as well as other socialists, merged to form the Janata Party. During the
Janata regime, he could have easily risen to the top. Despite public demand for his leadership, he stated that
power was not his goal.
Concept Of Total Revolution (Sampoorna Kranti)

 Total Revolution, according to Jaya Prakash, is a combination of seven revolutions: political, social,
economic, cultural, ideological or intellectual, educational, and spiritual, with the main aim of bringing about
a shift in the current society in accordance with the Sarvodaya ideals. JP had a rather idealistic view of
society, and it was in this search that he moved from Marxism to Socialism, and then to Sarvodaya.
 The Bihar agitations turned into mass demonstrations in 1974, with people demanding changes in the
political, social, and educational systems. At this point, JP announced a four-part strategy aimed at
paralysing the government, implementing Gram Swarajya, and creating a people's government. JP described
the word "peoples government" as a small unit of democracy at the village, panchayat, or block level,
preferably at all three levels.
 These organisations were seen as channels of people's power in times of peace, as well as in times of
inequality or dictatorship, and were primarily responsible for the restoration of society on the basis of
equality and the abolition of poverty, racism, and exploitation. JP also urged the people of Bihar, as well as
the rest of India, to unite by setting aside their personal and political differences.
 His motivation for inciting the Bihar students was to bring about a full transformation of the Indian polity's
governmental framework and system. He named it a ‘Total Revolution’ because of this. JP gave a thorough
presentation on the principle of Total Revolution. The idea of total revolution reflected his commitment to
socialist and humanistic ideals.
 JP sought to transform culture as well as people's attitudes toward society through this revolution. He also
urged workers in Bihar to prepare for a long fight to achieve the complete revolution's goals.
 JP claimed that a vigorous opposition, a powerful public opinion, a free and fearless press, and intellectual
and moral pressure from academics and trade unions were all important for democracy to be a vibrant and
successful instrument. In reality, he urged people to rethink their views and attitudes toward India's
democratic functioning.
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Ideologies
Socialism - Jayaprakash Narayan interpreted socialism through an Indian prism. If there is no unequal
distribution of wealth and no exploitation then it would be a world that grows in a healthy manner on all fronts.
Elimination of exploitation and poverty, provision of equal opportunities for all for self-development, complete
development of society's material and moral capital, and fair distribution of national wealth are among
Jayprakash's social objectives. Jayprakash's socialism in the economic sphere includes, Landlordism and
capitalism are eliminated, and the means of production are socialised by eliminating private property rights.
Gram panchayat-run cooperative farming, collective farming, state-owned large-scale industries with worker
involvement, and small-scale industries organised into producer's cooperatives
Sarvodaya Movement - Jayaprakash, a founder of the Sarvodaya movement, travelled from socialism to
Sarvodaya in the 1950s. Gandhi began the Sarvodaya movement in pre-independence India, and Vinoba Bhave
led it in the post-independence period. Jayaprakash's Sarvodaya denotes a new social order in which society is
classless and stateless; it will be a democratic structure in which Lokniti replaces Rajneeti; it will be "peoples'
socialism," guaranteeing not only independence and equality, but also harmony and immortality. The key
features of sarvodaya, according to JP, are that no power should be dominant in society.
Participatory Democracy concept - He promoted Gandhi's view that as you advance from the bottom to the
top, each higher level should have less and less functions and forces. People at all levels will have the greatest
ability to handle all political affairs under such a structure. People will have an interest in democracy as well as a
sense of Swaraj under such a democratic structure. Jayaprakash's views on democracy are focused on the
Panchayati Raj System. Because it will bring government to the people's doorstep and enable every person to
participate in it. He did, however, set some conditions like - People should have access to education, Political
parties do not interfere with Panchayat elections or operations, Power and obligations are truly devolved to the
Panchayats, Local governments should have financial control, and public servants should be held accountable.
According to him, the system of participatory democracy must be constructed under these conditions.
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SWAMI SAHAJANAND SARASWATI
Recognized as one of the principle and significant leaders of peasantry in Bihar,
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was a brilliant intellectual and a striking master of
debate. Gifted with numerous qualities of mass leadership, Sahajanand grew as
a social reformer and politician and won a circle of several admirers. However,
to his ill-fate, all his contributions towards the freedom movement of India an d
raising consciousness of peasants are forgotten today, except amongst a small
number of historians and social scientists. The most attractive and instructive
respect that he earned during his life was his intellectual transformation, which
makes him distinguished even today, though with a small population. He was a
versatile genius with performing several roles during his entire working career,
such as linguist, polymath, sociologist, historian, philosopher, writer,
grammarian, ascetic, revolutionary, Marxist, and politician.
Early Life
 Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was born as Naurang Rai on February 22, 1889 in the village of Deva, Dullahpur
in Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh state. He was born as the sixth and last son in a Jijhoutia Bhumihar
Brahmin family. His father, Beni Rai, was a cultivator and hence, stood away from priestly functions. His
mother died when he was kid and was raised by his aunt. The family survived on a small zamindari income
that was carried from his grandfather’s time. However, with time and extension of the family, the land was
divided and the family had to take up cultivation to earn its living. However, this did not stop the family
from sending Sahajanand to school. After receiving formal education in a primary school, he went to
German Mission High School where he obtained his education in English medium.
 Since childhood, he was attracted towards religious practices. He objected on people believing in fake
religious rituals and hence, opted for studying religious texts in order to find real spiritual solace by biding
goodbye to the world. To prevent him from doing this, his family got him married to a child bride, but his
wife died in 1905 or early 1906, even before the marriage could even stabilize. On his last attempt to
adopting the sanyas, he was initiated into holy orders and took the name of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati.
By adopting sanyas, he was abandoned from sitting in the matriculation examination. But he spent the first
seven years studying religion, politics, and social affairs.
Political Career
 Beginning his public appearance from Bhumihar Brahmin, he graduated towards Indian National Congress
and Peasant Movement, initially in Patna, Bihar, and later across India. Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, he
took up political schooling under him and started serving in the Congress as a true Gandhian. By 1920,
Sahajanand was ready to plunge himself into the nationalist movement under Gandhi. But he was not
satisfied with the working of Gandhians. The final break up with Gandhi came in 1934 when Bihar was
affected with a massive earthquake. Although relief operations were carried out, Sahajanand found that
people were actually suffering due to the cruelty of the landlords rather than the earthquake.
 After the break up, he kept away from party politics though he shifted his interest towards mobilizing the
peasants. He was a Dandi sanyasi and hence, carried a long bamboo stick with him. Later on, this stick
became the symbol of peasant resistance. He gave the Bihar peasants the slogan “Danda Mera Zindabad”
(Long live my stick) which was assumed to be “Long live the danda (lathi) of the Kisans” and became an
important motto in the movement. In response to this, the peasants took up “Swamiji ki Jai” (Victory to
Swamiji) and “Kaise Logey Malguzari, Latth Hamara Zindabad” (How will you collect rent as long as our sticks
are powerful?).
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Kisan Sabha
 Sahajanand Saraswati formed a smaller Kisan Sabha in Patna district in association with a formal
organizational structure, though it was institutionalized only after few years. Later in 1929, he established
the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS). With this, he emerged as the foremost kisan leader in India.
Immediately after the formation of the Sabha, Bihar was plunged into the Civil Disobedience Movement that
helped in creating awareness amongst the masses, but did not give enough time for the leaders of the
Sabha to formalize its structure. As such, the experiences of the Civil Disobedience Movement inside and
outside the jail created crevices between the Kisan Sabhaites and some Congress leaders. Thus, Sahajanand
cut himself entirely from the political world for several years
 The membership of this Sabha was estimated 80,000 in 1935 with the numbers increasing to 2,50,000 in
1938, thereby making it the largest provincial body in India. The All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was formed
with some Congress Socialists at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress on April 11, 1936.
Sahajanand was elected as its first President. The Sabha comprised of many eminent leaders, like N.G.
Ranga, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Pandit Karyanand Sharma, Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Pandit Yadunandan
(Jadunandan) Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan,
Acharya Narendra Dev, and Bankim Mukerji. It demanded the abolition of zamindari system and
cancellation of rural debts. Thereafter, in October 1937, it adopted the red flag as its banner.
 Soon, the leaders started keeping distance from Congress and got more involved with Congress
governments in Bihar and United Province. With the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha, the Bihar
Provincial Kisan Sabha became one of its provincial units. Sahajanand organized the Anti-Compromise
Conference with Subhas Chandra Bose against the British and Congress. He even worked with the
Communist Party of India during World War II. However, he broke from all politicians to form his own Kisan
Sabha and speak up for the peasants of Bihar. With his standards of speech and action, he was successful in
creating a reputation for himself amongst peasants. He communicated with them and assured them about
improving their conditions. In a short duration, he earned love and respect by the peasants, but was equally
respected and feared by landlords, Congressmen, and officials.
Death
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati died on June 25, 1950 in Patna, Bihar at the age of 61.
Posthumous Honors
 A commemorative stamp was issued by the Government of India in memory of Swami Sahajanand
Saraswati which was officially released by the then minister of Communications, Ram Vilas Paswan on
June 26, 2000. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has instituted the Swamy Sahajanand
Saraswati Extension Scientist/Worker Award in his honor.
 An agrarian economy, India is considered the land of farmers. Even the current narrative and political
discourse primarily revolves around farmers and their key challenges. In this context, Swami Sahajanand
Saraswati’s teaching and preaching for the welfare of India’s farmers continues to be relevant. Subhash
Chandra Bose, the leader of the Forward Bloc had this to say: “Swami Sahajanand Saraswati is, in the
land of ours, a name to conjure with. The undisputed leader of the peasant movement in India, he is
today the idol of the masses and the hero of millions.”
 Swamiji continues to inspire millions who dream of an inclusive society with farmers at its centre. He
was not only the voice of the farmers of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh but also protected farmer-peasants
against exploitation by British rule.
Notable Works
1) Bhumihar Brahmin Parichay (Introduction to Bhumihar Brahmins), in Hindi
2) Jhootha Bhay Mithya Abhiman (False Fear False Pride), in Hindi
3) Brahman Samaj ki Sthiti (Situation of the Brahmin Society), in Hindi
4) Mera Jeewan Sangharsha (My LIfe Struggle), in Hindi
5) Jang aur Rashtriya Azadi
6) Gita Hridaya (Heart of the Gita)
7) Kisanon ke D
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RAJ KUMAR SHUKLA:
RAJ KUMAR SHUKLA:THE UNSUNG PIONEER OF CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAH
 Champaran region of Bihar has crucial historical significance,

as before independence, it had become the hotbed of the
anti-British movement, especially following the Champaran
Satyagrah. In 2017, Nitish Kumar’s government celebrated the
centenary year of the Satyagrah and felicitated the
contributors of the famous anti-imperial movement.
 August 23 marks birth anniversary of an important figure, Raj
Kumar Shukla, who played a pivotal role in constructing a
gigantic mass movement in the soil of Champaran. Besides
this, he also acted as a silent mobilising force when M K
Gandhi came to Champaran in 1917 for the first time. Along
with leaders like Sheikh Gulab, Harbans Sahay and Pir Mohammed Munsi, Shukla managed to pave the way
for the agitation against forced indigo cultivation.
 Shukla himself was a middle-class farmer who had undertaken cultivation of indigo. However, he also had a
good hold on the Kaithi script. In Champaran, the British had imposed a system called tinkathia. Under this
system, the tenant farmers were forced to grow indigo (a blue dye) in three kathas of every bigha. Almost a
year after Gandhi’s arrival, the exploitative tinkathia system had finally been abolished. Raj Kumar Shukla
was one of the victims of this system.
 His battle against the British raj was not only limited to the abolition of the tinkathia system. He also
focused on the social discrimination targeting especially women and children. Shukla had emerged as a
popular anti-imperial face in Champaran region, then, says Mani Bhushan Rai, Shukla’s grandson (75).
 In words of Mani Bhushan Rai, who resides in Satvariya village in Bettiah, Raj Kumar Shukla’s contributions
have not been widely discussed and are not known to many. He deserved more importance and
acknowledgment from the government. A few books about him were authored, but their reach has been
limited. Mani Bhushan Rai tells NewsClick that he had to drop his post-graduation in economics from Langat
Singh College, Muzaffarpur due to the financial constraints faced by his family.
 Mani Bhushan possesses the precious diary of Shukla in which he had jotted down details of every single
instance from the times of Satygrah including his meetings with Gandhi. The diary had been written in Kaithi
script.
 We donated a piece of land to the government of Bihar for setting up an educational institution. A higher
secondary school saw the light of the day, but today, it remains a disputed structure.
A Stubborn and Silent Mobiliser

 Raj Kumar Shukla had been on his toes when it came to bringing the plight of the farmers of Champaran to
the fore. However, desperation to defeat imperial exploitation took him to approach the Congress
leadership which then was the axial anti-British force. During 31st session of the Congress in Lucknow in
1916, Shukla had briefed Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Madan Mohan Malaviya about the indigo agitation, but
they did not seem too enthusiastic about it to him. Shukla then approached Gandhi, and talked about the
woes of the peasants of Champaran and their exploitation by the British. But pleading his lack of knowledge,
Gandhi declined to respond, stating, “I can give no opinion without seeing the condition with my own eyes.
You will please move the resolution in the Congress, but leave me free for the present.”
 Gandhi, in his autobiography, has written about Raj Kumar Shukla under the title “The Stains of Indigo”.
He wrote:
“From Lucknow I went to Cawnpore. Rajkumar Shukla followed me there. 'Champaran is very near from
here. Please give a day,' he insisted.' Please excuse me this time. But I promise that I will come,' said I,
further committing myself.
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I returned to the Ashram. The ubiquitous Rajkumar was there too. 'Pray fix the day now', he said. 'Well,' said
I, 'I have to be in Calcutta on such and such a date, come and meet me then, and take me from there.' I did
not know where I was to go, what to do, what things to see.
Before I reached Bhupen Babu's place in Calcutta, Rajkumar Shukla had gone and established himself there.
Thus, this ignorant, unsophisticated but resolute agriculturist captured me.”
 Finally, a date was fixed, and Gandhi went to Champaran. There, his preliminary enquiries confirmed all that
Shukla had said. Gandhi decided to stay and make a detailed enquiry before deciding on a course of action.
He was assisted by eminent lawyers like Brij Kishore Babu, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who, later became the
first President of India.
 Words of Gandhi clearly depict that it was Shukla’s undying stubborn persistence that made Gandhi reach
the land of Champaran for Satyagrah.
 Gandhi had stepped into Muzaffarpur for the first time when he did not enjoy a mass leader’s popularity. As
a result, his supporters failed to recognise him. It was Shukla’s diligent efforts that enlightened the masses
about Gandhi’s visit and its importance.
 Same intense mobilisation was achieved by Raj Kumar Shukla in Champaran before Gandhi’s arrival and
later, he again had witnessed large crowd eagerly waiting for him. This could not have been possible without
efforts by Rajkumar Shukla, asserts his biographer Bhairav Lal Das.
 Role of Raj Kumar Shukla in turning Champaran Satyagrah into a reality, sadly is less known and a subtly
discussed chapter of history which resides as agony in hearts of his family members. Without any support of
any organisation, Shukla prepared ground for Satyagrah and managed to bring in people’s support for
Gandhi on the land of Champaran.
 As a crusader of non-violence, he acted without employing violence and prosecution against exploiters and
offered refreshing lessons for humanity for peaceful social change as he simultaneously paved path for
Gandhi to become a Mahatma (a great soul) for millions.
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Pram IAS

Officers Making Officers

Patna Kalam Paintings:

Indian Freedom Struggle

Quit India Movement:

Mauryan Art is broadly classified into two types:-

Mauryan Pillars Location Animal Sculpture

The labelled diagram of Stupa is given below:

Depiction of Buddha at Stupas

Differences with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars Ajivika Sect

Similarities with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars

Features of Pal Art

II. Wall Paintings

3. Sculptural Art Forms

II. Stone Sculptures

III. Clay Art (Terracotta Figures):

Critical Analysis of Pal Art

History and Evolution of Patna Kalam

Features of Patna Kalam

Influence of Mughal Painting

Materials used in Painting

Process of Painting in the Patna Kalam

Causes of Decline of Patna Kalam

Important Artists of Patna Kalam

Types of Madhubani Painting

There are two types of Madhubani Painting:-

Features of Madhubani Painting

2.Themes of Madhubani Paintings

3. Colours Used in Paintings

4.Making Madhubani Paintings

KOL MOVEMENT (1831-32)

Key facts of Kol rebellion :

TANA BHAGAT MOVEMENT

Reasons of the movement

Animal sacrifices were stopped

Drinking alcohol Superstitiou

SANTHAL REBELLION (1855-56)

Start and Progress

Decline of the Movement

Consequences of the Revolt

Administrative: Legal: Tenancy Law was

Importance of the Revolt

Who were Santhals?

Inception, Expansion and Decline of the Movement

3. Phase - III (1898-1900)

End of Dedicated Life

Causes of The Revolt

Military Causes Lord Canning

Centres of The Revolt

Why did the Revolt Fail?

Results of The Revolt

Books written on the Revolt of 1857

Contribution of Bihar to the uprising of 1857

The spread of the Revolt in other areas of Bihar:

Role of Kunwar Singh in 1857 Revolt

His role during the revolt of 1857:

Used guerilla technique of warfare and keeping his men mobilised:

Showed utmost bravery and continuously annoyed British: