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Lecture Notes in Bioengineering
Hongliang Ren
Deployable
Multimodal
Machine
Intelligence
Applications in Biomedical Engineering
Advisory Editors
Nigel H. Lovell, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New
South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
Luca Oneto, DIBRIS, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
Stefano Piotto, Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
Federico Rossi, Department of Earth, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Siena, Italy
Alexei V. Samsonovich, Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study, George Mason
University, Fairfax, VA, USA
Fabio Babiloni, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Rome Sapienza,
Rome, Italy
Adam Liwo, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
Ratko Magjarevic, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of
Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Lecture Notes in Bioengineering (LNBE) publishes the latest developments in
bioengineering. It covers a wide range of topics, including (but not limited to):
• Bio-inspired Technology & Biomimetics
• Biosensors
• Bionanomaterials
• Biomedical Instrumentation
• Biological Signal Processing
• Medical Robotics and Assistive Technology
• Computational Medicine, Computational Pharmacology and Computational
Biology
• Personalized Medicine
• Data Analysis in Bioengineering
• Neuroengineering
• Bioengineering Ethics
Original research reported in proceedings and edited books are at the core of
LNBE. Monographs presenting cutting-edge findings, new perspectives on classical
fields or reviewing the state-of-the art in a certain subfield of bioengineering may
exceptionally be considered for publication. Alternatively, they may be redirected
to more specific book series. The series’ target audience includes advanced level
students, researchers, and industry professionals working at the forefront of their
fields.
Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, zbMATH, SCImago.
Hongliang Ren
Deployable Multimodal
Machine Intelligence
Applications in Biomedical Engineering
Hongliang Ren
Department of Electronic Engineering
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
(CUHK)
Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Department of Biomedical Engineering
National University of Singapore
Singapore, Singapore
ISSN 2195-271X ISSN 2195-2728 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-19-5931-8 ISBN 978-981-19-5932-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5932-5
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Contents
1 Preface and A Brief Guide to the Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Steer DMs with Various Actuation Modalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Tethered and Insertable DM/DS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Inflatable DMs: From Tethered to Untethered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Permanent Magnet Actuation for External Field
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Actuation for External Field
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.3 Untethered Magnetoelastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Wearable DMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Deployable Sensing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Intelligent DMs with Multimodal Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Orimimetic Folds into Deployable Mechanisms with Potential
Functionalities in Biomedical Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Orimimetic Design and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Origami for Rapid Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Action Origami and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures . . . 15
2.3 Origami-Inspired Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Miura-Ori-Inspired Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Curved-Crease Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Waterbomb-Inspired Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 Modified Mountain/Valley-Fold Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Other Miscellaneous Origami Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.1 Variably Patterned Graphene Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.2 Variably Patterned Cell-Based Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
v
vi Contents
2.5 Other Graspers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.5.1 Two-Jaw Surgical Graspers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.2 Issues with the Traditional Two-Jaw Graspers . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Fortune-Teller-Inspired Grasper Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.1 Modified Fortune Teller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.2 Actuation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.3 Grasping Capability of Three Actuation Methods . . . . . . 37
2.6.4 Range of Motion and Grasp Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.5 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.6 Assembly from a Flat Surface and Flat Foldability . . . . . 38
2.7 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Part I Tethered Insertable DMs

3 Deployable and Interchangeable Telescoping Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.1 Deployable and Collapsible Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.2 Actuations for Folding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.3 Bistable and Locking Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Methods and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.1 Bistable FITT Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2 SCAT with a Tongue Depressor
and Tendon-Driven Swab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.3 Tendon-Driven Mechanism (TDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.4 Modularity of Design: Interchangeable Tips . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5 Force Analysis Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.1 Bistability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.2 TDM Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4 Deployable Parallelogram Mechanism for Generating Remote
Centre of Motion Towards Ocular Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2 Ophthalmic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Remote Centre of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Comparison with Existing RCM Robot Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Kinematic Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5.1 Design Goals (DG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5.2 Design Preference (DP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.6 Proposed Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Contents vii
4.7 Electrical Schematic Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.8 Experimentation Results and Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.9 Weight of Main RCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.10 Belt and Pulley Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.11 Parts Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.13 Future Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Part II Inflatable DMs: From Tethered to Untethered

5 Conceptual Origami Bending and Bistability for Transoral
Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2 Prioritize the Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Design and Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.1 Overall Origami Deployable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.2 Origami Actuation Components & Bistability
Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Design Verifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4.1 Material Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4.2 Usability Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.4.3 Summary of the Overall System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5.1 Needs-Metrics Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5.2 Failure Mode Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5.3 Risk Assessment Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6 Tactile Sensitive Origami Trihexaflexagon Gripper Actuated
by Foldable Pneumatic Bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2 Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2.1 Gripper Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.2 Actuation Mechanism and Construction Protocol . . . . . . 106
6.2.3 Working Principle of FlexagonBot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.3 Sensor Working Principle and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.1 Sensor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.2 Sensor Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.3 Sensor Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.4 Flexagonbot Payload Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.5 Payload Test Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.6 Conclusions and Future Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
viii Contents
7 Biomimetic Untethered Inflatable Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3.1 Prototype Design and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3.2 Origami Exoskeleton Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3.3 Valve and Arduino Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3.4 Reactant Compartment Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3.5 Mechanism of SM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3.6 Paddle Fin Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.3.7 Proposed Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.4.1 Design Input 1—Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.4.2 Design Input 2—Heaving Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4.3 Design Input 3—Surge Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4.4 Design Input 4—Yaw Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.5 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.5.1 Feature 1: Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.5.2 Feature 2: Heave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.5.3 Features 3 and 4: Surge and Yaw Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.5.4 Other Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.5.5 Future Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Full Arduino Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Appendix 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Part III Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions

8 Wormigami and Tippysaurus: Magnetically Actuated
Origami Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.2 Wormigami Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.2.1 IPM Magnet Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.3 Wormigami Motion Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.3.1 Caterpillar-Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.3.2 Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.3.3 Peristaltic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.3.4 Downward Dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.3.5 Slinky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.3.6 Hyperextension: “Head Lifting” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.3.7 Inchworm Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.3.8 Comparison of Movements of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Contents ix
8.4 Tippysaurus Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

8.5 Tippysaurus Motion Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.6 Material Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.7 Wormigami: Compression and Tensile Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.7.1 Compression Test for Paper with Mod-Podge
Without IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Coating and IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.7.3 Compression Ratio for the Plastic Model Without
IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.7.4 Tensile Test for Paper Model with Mod-Podge
Without IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.7.5 Tensile Test for Paper with Mod-Podge with IPM . . . . . . 181
8.7.6 Tensile Test for Plastic Without IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.8 Tippysaurus: Compression and Tensile Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Without IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.8.2 Compression for Plastic Without IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.8.3 Compression for Paper with Mod-Podge with IPM . . . . 183
8.8.4 Tensile Test for Paper with Mod-Podge Without
IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.8.5 Tensile Test for Plastic Without IPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.8.6 Tensile Test for Paper with Mod-Podge with IPM . . . . . . 185
8.9 Force Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.9.1 Contact Force on the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.9.2 Vertical Force Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.9.3 Overall Force Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.9.4 Unsupervised Contact Between External Magnet
and Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.9.5 EPM Contact Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.10 Conclusion and Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9 Untethered Motion Generation and Characterization
of Multi-Leg Insect-Size Soft Foldable Robots Under
Magnetic Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.4.1 Wave Motion-Induced Along the Horizontal Plane . . . . . 205
9.4.2 Compression of the Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.4.3 Lateral Extension with Respect to the Frontal
Plane of the Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.4.4 Motion Along a Stable Board Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
x Contents
9.4.5 Motion Along an Irregular Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

9.4.6 Flipping Over and Recovery of the Prototype . . . . . . . . . 217
9.4.7 Future Directions of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
10 Magnetically Actuated Luminal Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
10.2 Design of MALO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.2.1 Robotic Origami Backbone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
10.2.2 Magnetic Patterning and External Magnetic Field
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
10.2.3 Motions Generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10.3 Mechanical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.3.1 Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.3.2 Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.3.3 Three-Point Flexural Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3.4 Dynamic Force Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.4 Displacement and Speed Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.4.1 Omega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.4.2 Peristaltic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.4.3 Inchworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.5 Internal Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.5.1 Omega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.5.2 Inchworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.5.3 Peristaltic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.6 Surface and Environment Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.6.1 Waterproof Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.6.2 Surface Test (Gravel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.6.3 Surface Test (Gel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.6.4 Need-Metrics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.6.5 Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.7 Discussion on Potential Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11 Compressable and Steerable Slinky Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
11.2 Design Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.2.1 Design Progress & Overall Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.2.2 Square Slinkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.2.3 Deciding the Number of Folds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.2.4 Materials Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11.3 Motion Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11.3.1 Inchworm Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11.3.2 Peristaltic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.3.3 Rolling Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Contents xi
11.3.4 Head Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

11.3.5 Leaping Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.3.6 Slinky Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
11.3.7 Summary of Motion Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.3.8 Reconfigurability Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
11.3.9 Mechanical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
11.4 Improvements and Potential Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
11.4.1 Possible Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
11.4.2 Possible Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
11.4.3 Other Design Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
11.4.4 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
11.5 Safety, Risk & Ethics Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.5.1 Robot Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.5.2 Risk Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.5.3 Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11.6 Patent Review & Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11.6.1 Patent Search & Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11.6.2 Related Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11.6.3 The Design Novelty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.6.4 Motion Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.6.5 Tabulated Needs and Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.6.6 Metric Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11.7 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12 Magnetically Actuated Origami Structures for Untethered
Optical Steering in Remote Set-up: Preliminary Designs
and Characterisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
12.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.3 Design Considerations and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.3.1 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.3.2 Magnetic Actuation Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.3.3 Optic Steering System Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.4 Origami Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.1 Starshade Origami Pattern and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.2 Nejiri-Ori Origami Pattern and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.3 Oricep Origami Pattern and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
12.4.4 Sarrus Origami Pattern and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
12.4.5 Twisted Tower Origami Pattern and Structure . . . . . . . . . 306
12.5 Steering Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.5.1 Magnetic Actuation of Origami Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.5.2 Remote Magnetic Actuation of Nejiri-Ori
Structure with PM and EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
12.5.3 Displacement Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
xii Contents
12.6 Characterisation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

12.6.1 Force Characterisation of Starshade Using
the Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
12.6.2 Load Bearing Capability and Stiffness
of Starshade Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
12.6.3 Starshade Reversibility Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
12.6.4 Nejiri-Ori Reversibility Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
12.7 Optical Component Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
12.7.1 Direct Steering of Light Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
12.7.2 Setups Indirect Beam Steering with Optical
Reflective Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
12.7.3 Indirect Steering (with Permanent Magnet)
of Laser Beam Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
12.7.4 Indirect Steering with Electromagnet Nejiri-Ori
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
12.7.5 Steering Other Origami Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.8.1 Manual and Magnetic Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.8.2 Electromagnet and Permanent Magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.8.3 Optical Beam Steering Demo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.9 Conclusion and Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Appendices: Background Survey on Optical Component Steering
Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
13 Untethered Soft Ferromagnetic Quad-Jaws Cootie Catcher
with Selectively Coupled Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
13.2 Methods and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13.2.1 Model Inspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13.2.2 Materials Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13.2.3 Model Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
13.2.4 Fabrication Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
13.2.5 Model Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
13.3 Methods and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13.3.1 FEA Simulations of Walking and Grasping Motion . . . . 359
13.3.2 Measuring Jaw Motion with Changing Magnetic
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
13.3.3 Measuring Grip Force Generated with Changing
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13.3.4 Walking Motion Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.3.5 Proof-Of-Concept Demonstration
of the Anastomosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Contents xiii
13.4 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

13.4.1 Advantages with the Untethered and Coupled
DOFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
13.4.2 Limitations of Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.4.3 Other Envisioned Applications of the Proposed
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Part IV Wearable DMs

14 Wearable Origami Rendering Mechanism Towards Haptic
Illusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
14.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
14.2.1 Haptics in Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
14.2.2 Pressure-Aided Transdermal Drug Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14.2.3 Haptic Feedback and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14.2.4 Concept of Magnetically Actuated WORM . . . . . . . . . . . 383
14.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
14.3.1 WORM Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
14.3.2 Magnetic Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
14.3.3 Innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
14.3.4 Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
14.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
14.4.1 Dynamic Force Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
14.4.2 Rotational Axis of the EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
14.4.3 Orientation of IMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
14.4.4 Location of EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
14.4.5 Location of Internal Magnets (IMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
14.4.6 Vibration of WORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
14.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
14.5.1 Significance of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
14.5.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
14.5.3 Future Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
14.5.4 Future Potential Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
14.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
15 Deployable Compression Generating and Sensing
for Wearable Compression-Aware Force Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
15.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
15.2.1 Anatomy of the Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
15.2.2 Penetration Pathways for Drug Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . 403
xiv Contents
15.2.3 Transdermal Drug Delivery Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

15.2.4 Wearable Haptic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
15.2.5 Origami Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
15.2.6 Sensing Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
15.3 Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
15.3.1 Origami Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
15.3.2 Pressure Sensor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
15.3.3 System Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
15.3.4 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
15.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
15.4.1 Pneumatic Origami Structure Motion Generation . . . . . . 416
15.4.2 Mechanical Test for Microfiber Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
15.4.3 Onboard Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
15.4.4 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
15.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
15.5.1 Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
15.5.2 Future Potential Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
15.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Part V Deployable Sensing Mechanisms

16 Kinesthesia Sensorization of Foldable Designs Using Soft
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
16.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
16.3 Fabrication of the Soft Hydrogel Silver Nanowire Sensor . . . . . . 433
16.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
17 Flat Foldable Kirigami for Chipless Wireless Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
17.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
17.4 Tag Antenna Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
17.5 Wireless Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
17.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
17.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Appendix 17.1: Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Appendix 17.2: Sample of .s1p File with Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Appendix 17.3: VNA Calibration Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Contents xv
18 Deployable Kirigami for Intra-Abdominal Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
18.1.1 Needs and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
18.1.2 Current Routes of Measuring IAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
18.1.3 Patent Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
18.1.4 Related Sensing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
18.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
18.2.1 Test Kirigami Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
18.2.2 Parameter Characterization to Optimize
the Selected Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
18.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.3.1 RRC Test to Find Out the Geometry with the Best
RRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.3.2 Parameter Characterization to Optimize
the Selected Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
18.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
19 Stretchable Strain Sensors by Kirigami Deployable
on Balloons with Temporary Tattoo Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
19.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
19.2.1 Electronic Catheter Balloons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
19.2.2 Kirigami Technique in Flexible Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . 505
19.2.3 Intrinsically Flexible Conductive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 506
19.3.1 Phase I (Kirigami Design Cuts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
19.3.2 Analyze Kirigami Design Cuts of Phase I . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
19.3.3 Phase II (Adhere Gold Substrate to Balloon) . . . . . . . . . . 509
19.3.4 Finalize Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
19.3.5 Analyze Both Fabrication Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
19.4.1 Measurement of Normalized Resistance ( ΔR R0
)
Against x-longitudinal Strain and y-axial Strain . . . . . . . 514
19.4.2 Measurement of Pressure Against Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
19.4.3 Setup Measurement of Air Volume Against
Balloon Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
19.4.4 Setup to Measure Resistance Against Volume . . . . . . . . . 518
19.4.5 Normalized Resistance ( ΔR R0
) Against Radius
Strain of the Balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
19.4.6 Normalized Resistance ( ΔR R0
) Against Pressure . . . . . . . . 519
ΔR
19.4.7 Normalized Resistance ( R0 ) Against Volume . . . . . . . . . 521
xvi Contents
19.5 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Part VI Intelligent DMs with Multimodal Sensing

20 Multi-DOF Proprioceptive Origami Structures with Fiducial
Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
20.2 Fiducial Tags in ML Estimations Using ArUco Markers . . . . . . . 532
20.3 Crease Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.3.1 Pattern 1—3L1J (3 Legs 1 Joint) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.3.2 Pattern 2—3L2Ja (3 Legs 2 Joints (a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
20.3.3 Pattern 3—3L2Jb (3 Legs 2 Joints (b)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.3.4 Pattern 4—4L2J (4 Legs 2 Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.4 Calibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
20.4.1 Triaxial Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
20.4.2 Motion Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
20.4.3 Triaxial Load Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
20.4.4 Validation Using ATI-Nano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
20.5 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
20.5.1 Motion Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
20.5.2 Force Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
20.5.3 Validation with ATI-Nano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
20.5.4 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
20.5.5 Overview of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
20.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
20.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Appendix 1: Python Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Appendix 2: Motion Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Appendix 3: Force Sensitivity Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Appendix 4: ML Sensor-ATI Overlapped Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Appendix 5: Noise Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
21 Unsupervised Intelligent Pose Estimation of Origami-Inspired
Deployable Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
21.1.1 Various Origami Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
21.1.2 2D Feature Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
21.2 Visual Feature-Based Planar Motion Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
21.2.1 Vision-Based Trackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
21.2.2 Track Inchworm, Omega and Tumbling Motions . . . . . . 574
21.2.3 Future Alternative Spatial 6-DOF Tracking Using
Aruco Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Contents xvii
21.3 Sim2Real 6-DOF Pose Estimation Using Synthetic Data . . . . . . . 578

21.3.1 Image Generation for Deep Learning-Based 3D
Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
21.3.2 Domain Randomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
21.3.3 CDAE Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
21.4 Remarks and Alternative Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Chapter 1
Preface and A Brief Guide
to the Chapters
Hongliang Ren, Bok Seng Yeow, and Catherine Jiayi Cai
Contents
1.1 Steer DMs with Various Actuation Modalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Tethered and Insertable DM/DS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Inflatable DMs: From Tethered to Untethered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Permanent Magnet Actuation for External Field Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Actuation for External Field Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.3 Untethered Magnetoelastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Wearable DMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Deployable Sensing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Intelligent DMs with Multimodal Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Deployable mechanisms (DM) refer to the mechanics of the device actuation that
can bring an object from a point, such as outside the body, to another target area,
such as inside a body. DM can change its geometry to reduce its bulk size and
improve transportability into the confined space. The internal deformation of the
DMs can contribute to the ease of transportability. Upon reaching the target site, the
mechanisms can reconfigure their geometry to accomplish a new purpose, such as
inspections, collecting samples or delivering drugs. This morphing of the structure
can be interpreted in a few ways, and one perspective is from the field of origami, the
art of folding paper. The structure morphing is useful in transportability and could
also be valuable for adapting and personalizing DMs to individual subjects.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5932-5_1.
H. Ren (B) · B. S. Yeow · C. J. Cai

Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: hlren@ieee.org
Department of Electronic Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 1
H. Ren, Deployable Multimodal Machine Intelligence, Lecture Notes in Bioengineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5932-5_1
2 1 Preface and A Brief Guide to the Chapters
Robotic applications in confined spaces demand deployment efficacy in space-

saving, shape-forming, and structure-morphing on the fly. Intelligent interactions
with unstructured environments further require remote actuation and kinesthetic
sensing.
This book initiates studies in a trial-and-error manner for deployable actuators
and sensors to explore and push the boundaries of deployable mechanisms and the
associated multimodal sensing applications. Examples include endoluminal surveil-
lance (such as Chaps. 8, 9, 10 and 11), keyhole processes (e.g., Chap. 4), minimally
invasive delivery of therapeutics, and wearable interfacing DMs for haptics (such
as Chaps. 14 and 15), where deployable actuation and multimodal sensing are vital
components.
This book starts with a review in Chap. 2 and then focuses on 5 sections of
DMs with various actuation modalities: tethered insertable DMs (Chaps. 3 and 4),
tethered/untethered inflatable DMs (Chaps. 5, 6 and 7), magnetic DMs for unteth-
ered motions (Chaps. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13), and wearable DMs (Chaps. 14 and
15). The book then proceeds with 1 section on Deployable Sensing Mechanisms
(Chaps. 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20) and concludes with Chap. 21 for Intelligence for DM
with Multimodal actuation and sensing.
1.1 Steer DMs with Various Actuation Modalities
We look at how to program the morphic structures using DM design. Deployable

structures tend to be developable, and the crease patterns encode the necessary infor-
mation to morph structures. The type of structures should also consider the actua-
tion methods and the transformation/morphing mechanisms, as reviewed in Chap. 2
(Fig. 1.1).
We investigate multiple actuation modes, tendon-driven, motorized foldable
RCM (Remote Center of Motion), pneumatic, electromagnetic/magnetic, and a
combination of multiple actuation modalities.
1.2 Tethered and Insertable DM/DS
Origami and kirigami can also be combined by selectively cutting and folding along
the paths of cuts to create and assemble complex and intricate pop-up structures
that can be integrated with actuation for transoral insertable applications (Chap. 3,
Fig. 1.2).
Chapter 3 builds a tendon-driven foldable tubular manipulator with bistability.
This manipulator is intended for navigation inside the oral/nasal passage for swab
collection. Hollow foldable concentric tubes are telescoped for deployability, bistable
structures, and tendon-driven mechanisms allow for more types of movements. This
design concept can enable an automatic tongue-depressing swab collector to reduce
1.2 Tethered and Insertable DM/DS 3
a b c
Modified fortune-teller grasper
Waterbomb
Miura-fold for a
retractable wing
Straw
f
d e
Tetrahedron Miura-fold Cube
Fig. 1.1 Chapter 2 reviews orimimetic deployable mechanisms with potential functionalities in
biomedical robotics
Fig. 1.2 Tethered insertable DMs. Chapter 3: Deployable and interchangeable telescoping tubes
actuated with multiple tendons. Chapter 4: Deployable and foldable parallelogram mechanism for
generating remote center of motion
reliance on healthcare workers during the pandemic. The key benefits of tethered
tendon actuation are the load-bearing capabilities. The major drawbacks are the
limited number of actuating wires limiting the dexterity and the entanglement of
tendons.
Chapter 4 describes a motorized foldable RCM (Remote Center of Motion) mech-
anism, incorporating 2 belt-type RCMs (Dual-RCM) for keyhole insertable motions
in both horizontal and vertical planes. The single-incision (entry-port) procedures are
minimally invasive but pose design challenges for foldable DM insertions through a
single entry-point.
1.3 Inflatable DMs: From Tethered to Untethered
Pneumatic systems consisting of positive and negative pressure-driven structures

are commonly used with soft robotics. Similar to tendon-driven devices, Pneumatic
systems typically require a driving line from the distal to the proximal site (Tethered
approaches in Chaps. 5 and 6, Fig. 1.3) but are still distinct from tendon systems as
it does not suffer from whiplash issues. Structures using pneumatic require hermetic
sealing, which for soft structures built with casting approaches requires a mold, and
the expansion of the thin-shelled components occurs in all directions. We investigate
a combination of origami and pneumatic techniques to build structures that allow
multi-stable multimodal nonlinear motions and do not require molds for fabrication.
Fig. 1.3 Tethered Pneumatic DMs in Chap. 5 (Origami Bending and Bistability for Transoral
procedures) and Chap. 6 (Force-sensitive origami trihexaflexagon gripper actuated by foldable
pneumatic bellows). Chap. 7: Untethered Inflatable Origami
1.4 Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions 5
Chapter 5 demonstrates a deployable mechanism aiming for transoral procedures

inside the trachea. With a combination of tethered tendon and pneumatic actuations,
the controllable bending enables the mechanism to be safely inserted and maneuvered
smoothly along the tracheal pathway. After reaching the desired position, the origami
tip is deployed by pneumatic actuation of an origami shell to a maximum bending
state perpendicular to the tracheal wall. The inflated shell will provide bistability to
the tip, preventing the mechanism from excessive movements when engaging the
trachea.
Chapter 6 presents a foldable flexagon structure (FlexagonBot) for gripping
objects with an interesting flexing feature in cyclic order. This deployable mech-
anism has a single degree of freedom, allowing it to actuate from any end with air
pressure. The proposed FlexagonBot can grasp objects twelve times its robot weight.
Chapter 7 further develop an untethered approach for Pneumatic DMs. An inflat-
able origami robot mimics the inflationary characteristics and motions of a pufferfish.
The untethered robotic fish, PuffBot, can surge, yaw, and heave in the water. The
inflationary mechanism leveraged a chemical reaction between dilute acetic acid and
sodium bicarbonate, producing carbon dioxide to inflate an in-built balloon beneath
an origami exoskeleton. The inflation is controllable via a solenoid valve and remotely
operated using an app and Arduino board.
There is a concern for durability with failure of the hermetic seals over multiple
actuation cycles. This mode of pneumatic actuation is also practically limited to
certain length scales, as when the wall thickness is too thin, it can break and will not
generate significant strains.
1.4 Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions
This section, including 6 chapters (Chaps. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13, Figs. 1.4 and
1.5), describes preliminary attempts to integrate a cut-and-fold 3D structural engi-
neering technique, origami, with tetherless magnetic actuation to construct swal-
lowable origami robots that can generate diverse untethered motions. Swallowable
and morphable robots are popular in confined in-vivo applications such as gastroin-
testinal (GI) interventions. The pleated origami crease pattern can be actuated by an
external magnetic field (permanent magnetic or electromagnetic actuators).
1.4.1 Permanent Magnet Actuation for External Field

Generation
We positioned and adhered permanent magnets to the origami spring backbone in

the desired polarity orientation. The magnetization pattern can be customized to
create a dampening region that constrains the actuation within a given acceleration
Fig. 1.4 Swallowable untethered magnetic DMs in Chaps. 7, 8, 9 and 10 with the External Perma-
nent Magnet (EPM) as an effector. Chapter 8: Wormigami and Tippysaurus origami structures.
Chapter 9: Multi-leg insect-size soft foldable robots. Chapter 10: Magnetically Actuated Luminal
Origami (MALO). Chapter 11: Compressable and steerable Slinky motions
Fig. 1.5 Chapter 12: Electromagnetically actuated origami structures for untethered optical
steering. Chapter 13: Untethered soft ferromagnetic quad-jaws cootie catcher with selectively
coupled degrees of freedom
and dampening profile. We attach smaller magnets onto the structures and use an
external magnet to utilize the attraction and repulsive forces to make the model move.
The designs involve Internal Permanent Magnets (IPM) placed on the structure, and
an External Permanent Magnet (EPM) used as an effector. The structural motion
is remotely controlled by manipulating the magnetic coupling of the IPM on the
structure and EPM. Magnetic actuation can remotely control motions along regular
and irregular surfaces by inducing varying magnetic moments.
Chapter 8 presents two magnetically actuated origami structures: Wormigami and
Tippysaurus.
1.4 Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions 7
Chapter 9 characterizes a biomimetic, multi-legged, mechanically-soft, and fold-

able structure. The robot can generate a variety of locomotions like wave induction,
compression, flipping over, and lateral hyperextension.
Magnetically Actuated Luminal Origami Robots (MALO in Chap. 10) offer
portability, flexibility, and compactness. MALO can generate distinct motions to
maneuver through tight sections and sharp bends: omega, inchworm, peristaltic,
standing, spiraling and tumbling.
Slinkey origami in Chap. 11 draws inspiration from the primary motion generated
by Slinky motions, which allow energy to be passed from one end to another. It is
possible to create mechanical structures small enough to be used in a human body
with a controlled motion precisely with intricate folding patterns.
Unlike tendons which are tethered designs, magnetic actuation can occur at a
distance which allows for more direct control over the manipulation. However, the
positioning of the internal and external systems is difficult to control precisely without
a feedback system.
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Actuation for External Field

Generation
Chapter 12 further explores electromagnetic actuations of DMs for untethered optical

steering in a remote setup, aiming to improve the foldability, degrees of freedom and
workspace of optic steering. These origami structures are initially compact and can
be deployed into various shapes and sizes. While there are benefits to working with
electromagnetic forces, there are some limitations in the complexity and isolation of
individual components and the fall in the strength of the magnetic field over large
distances. One important benefit is the ease of automation if the system is current
driven as the controller circuit can directly drive the magnetic fields to create control-
lable and fast responding actuation systems. In addition to actuation, other groups
have also explored magnetic strain stiffening capabilities for stiffness modulation,
which could be an additional dimension for actuation control.
1.4.3 Untethered Magnetoelastomer
Chapter 13 introduces four-jaw forceps with two selectively coupled degrees of

freedom, capable of grasping two ends of a broken vessel and joining them together.
In replacement of the IPMs, the origami robot can be embedded with magnetoactive
elastomeric materials. The model is made with a soft ferromagnetic material that
combines magnetic particles and liquid silicone.
In contrast to using IPMs, magnetoelastomers can confer a continuum magneti-

zation profile along with the origami structure, enabling the generation of deforma-
tions with higher spatial resolutions and potentially allowing for a more complex
and diverse range of motions. Using magnetoelastomers in place of IPMs also has
greater potential for miniaturization.
1.5 Wearable DMs
Chapter 14 presents a worm-like Wearable Origami Rendering Mechanism (WORM)

for aspiring haptic feedback. It is an origami-based robot magnetically actuated with
an external magnetic field. The origami design also allows it to deform and create
user haptic illusions. The WORM can perform several movements such as crawling,
rubbing, pinching and vibration. The highlights of this design include the attachment
of various materials to the WORM, which generates additional haptic feedback. It is
also capable of producing different degrees of pressure on surfaces. Therefore, with
our WORM design, we aim to provide a soft robot that can provide haptic feedback
to the user.
Chapter 15 reports wearable origami-structured wrist bands to enhance such skin
mechanical modulations with active pressure generating and monitoring capability,
namely Compression-aware Force Rendering (CAFR), applying vertical and radial
pressure on the wrist consistently. The flexible microfiber sensor embedded in the
origami actuator can measure the skin contact pressure in real-time, offering potential
with a customizable pressure range and duration on the skin for future personalized
force rendering and haptic use.
Fig. 1.6 Chapter 14: Wearable Origami Rendering Mechanism (WORM) for aspiring haptic
illusions. Chapter 15: Wearable Compression-aware Force Rendering (CAFR) with deployable
compression generating and sensing. These multi-DOF deployable robots integrated tactile interface
sensing and multimodal actuation
1.6 Deployable Sensing Mechanisms 9
The type of material and fold significantly impact the softness of the robot as the
type of fold controls the degree of freedom and actuation of the robot. The possible
structural additions can enhance its potential as a haptic or massaging tool.
1.6 Deployable Sensing Mechanisms
There exist unmet needs for kinesthesia sensorization and closed-loop feedback to
ensure the precision and accuracy of fine movements of DMs. Introducing kinesthesia
sensory into the robotic system hopes to improve feedback control precision. DMs
with actuation can benefit from having integrated and deployable kinesthetic sensing
elements. Integrated deployable strain sensors (Such as Chaps. 15 and 16) can provide
position feedback during actuation, which assists the control of such DMs when direct
visual feedback is unavailable.
Current research mainly employs two categories of 3D structural engineering
techniques: cut-and-fold techniques (e.g., Chap. 17) and compressive buckling (e.g.,
Chap. 18). Compressive buckling techniques can create geometric surface patterns
such as wrinkles and crumples.
Kirigami techniques involve cutting patterns in a structure, conferring stretcha-
bility and diverse programmable curved 3D structures. As such, kirigami is often
employed to fabricate stretchable strain sensors (Chaps. 18 and 19) for DMs.
Chapter 16 introduced a hydrogel silver nanowire soft sensor to provide structural
feedback on a kirigami model.
Fig. 1.7 DMs with multimodal sensing (Chaps. 16 and 17) and kirigami patterned electronic skin
(Chaps. 18 and 19). Chapter 16: Kinesthesia sensorization of foldable tubular designs using soft
sensors. Chapter 17: Flat Foldable Kirigami for Chipless Wireless Sensing. Chapter 18: Deploy-
able kirigami for intra-abdominal monitoring. Chapter 19: Stretchable Strain Sensors by Kirigami
Deployable on Balloons with Temporary Tattoo Paper
Chapter 17 further explores foldable chipless and wireless mechanical sensors,

with varying geometric aspects of the foldable kirigami sensor tags. The sensor
tags are produced using (1) kirigami cutting and folding on the sheet of copper
tape/paper or (2) printing with an inkjet printer using a silver nanoparticle ink. The
responses (e.g., magnitude, resonant frequency) of the untethered radiofrequency
tags are affected by the change in the DM’s kinematics and thus the impedance.
The deployable conductive structure can function as a reconfigurable antenna
that sends and receives electromagnetic waves for wireless sensing. As the resonant
frequency of the morphing structure changes under strain, it can also serve to endow
the robot with proprioceptive sensing to detect its self-deformation and movements.
Chapter 18 presents kirigami-based sensors with conductive paints via the
piezoresistive principle in its application for continuous abdominal monitoring.
Chapter 19 attempts to introduce kirigami strain sensing deployable onto conven-
tional catheter balloons with temporary tattoo paper, aiming for safe and efficient
expansion-aware balloon procedures.
1.7 Intelligent DMs with Multimodal Sensing
Towards intelligent and adaptive deployable robots, there is a need to integrate

sensing, actuation, and perception into a single robotic architecture. The deploy-
able mechanisms (DM) in Chaps. 15 and 16 combine various actuators and tactile
sensing elements onto developable and inflatable surfaces. These DMs are primarily
designed for human interactive applications, highlighting the synergistic benefits of
actuator and sensor combinations.
Chapter 20 (Fig. 1.8) further works on intelligent fiducial-based kinesthesia esti-
mations for sensing DM’s movement and actions. The fiducial-based patterns on
Fig. 1.8 Chapter 20 aims

for multi-DOF
proprioceptive origami
structures with fiducial
markers and computer
vision-based optical tracking
1.8 Future Perspectives 11
Simulation Deployable Mechanisms Multimodal Intelligence
Reality Perception
Visual Tactile
sensing
Actuation
Fig. 1.9 Multimodal robotic deployable mechanisms couple visual-tactile sensing, actuation and
intelligent perception capabilities (Chap. 21). Combining deployable mechanisms with built-in
multimodal sensors endows the robots with intelligent perception and adaptive control capabilities.
Multimodal actuation can be integrated to elongate and contract the deployable body for motion
generations
DMs allow low-cost 6 degrees-of-freedom (DOFs) motion/load estimation by opti-

cally tracking the position and orientation of the markers and the range of movements
of the design.
Chapter 21 (Fig. 1.9) deals with unsupervised learning leveraging multi-view
simulation data for multi-DOF pose estimation as an attempt to do general-purpose
DM tracking. The deep learning frameworks perform semantic segmentation and
pose prediction for origami structures by analyzing optical images from both real-
world and simulations.
1.8 Future Perspectives
The synergistic integration of kinesthetic actuation and sensing of DMs is a valuable

area of research for future deployable intelligent machines. With integrated actuator
and sensing capabilities, the DMs can be implemented as devices with integrated
position feedback.
Future deployable mechanisms will be applied to various materials and be inte-
grated or employed as actuation, sensing elements and intelligent perception modali-
ties. Integrating these components can give rise to more flexible reconfigurable robots
with multifunctional architectures that can bring significant advantages in tight space
applications.
The underlying mechanical principles of cut-and-fold techniques like origami,

kirigami, and pop-up structures are theoretically universal, independent of the under-
lying materials, and scale-free. Hence, the fabricated architecture can theoretically
be miniaturized without altering kinematic properties. In addition, the underlying
design crease and cut patterns can be chosen depending on the desired purpose. As
folding techniques such as origami often transform a planar 2D sheet into a more
compact 3D form, they are ideal for minimally invasive biomedical applications.
DMs can be inserted through a small incision and access narrow and complex path-
ways, before being deployed into its functional form at its targeted workspace. In
addition, origami offers the potential for reconfigurability by folding/unfolding but
without altering the designs. These aspects of DM have future potential in different
biomedical applications such as intraluminal interventions.
Depending on the intended biomedical application, the future robot should possess
different characteristics such as miniaturization, deployability, reliability, adapt-
ability, compliance, and biocompatibility. The design constraints, specifications
and considerations that underlie the robotics engineering techniques will have to
reflect the desired characteristics and functionalities. Different robotics and artificial
intelligence (AI) can give rise to 3D smart architectures advantageous to different
biomedical applications.
Foldable and deployable designs have unique potential working in constraint
anatomical procedures in small, confined and constricted spaces. This book only
explored possible directions in preliminary trials in hopes that existing processes can
be improved and new processes can be discovered.
Chapter 2
Orimimetic Folds into Deployable
Mechanisms with Potential
Functionalities in Biomedical Robotics
Hannah Liu, Bok Seng Yeow, Catherine Jiayi Cai, Zion Tsz Ho Tse,
and Hongliang Ren
Contents
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Orimimetic Design and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Origami for Rapid Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Action Origami and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Origami-Inspired Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Miura-Ori-Inspired Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Curved-Crease Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Waterbomb-Inspired Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 Modified Mountain/Valley-Fold Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Other Miscellaneous Origami Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.1 Variably Patterned Graphene Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.2 Variably Patterned Cell-Based Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Other Graspers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1 Two-Jaw Surgical Graspers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.2 Issues with the Traditional Two-Jaw Graspers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Fortune-Teller-Inspired Grasper Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5932-5_2.
H. Liu · B. S. Yeow · C. J. Cai · H. Ren (B)

Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575,
Singapore
e-mail: ren@nus.edu.sg
H. Liu
Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
Z. T. H. Tse
Digital Health & Robotics, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
B. S. Yeow · C. J. Cai · H. Ren
Department of Electronic Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Ma Liu Shui,
Hong Kong
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 13
H. Ren, Deployable Multimodal Machine Intelligence, Lecture Notes in Bioengineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5932-5_2
14 2 Orimimetic Folds into Deployable Mechanisms with Potential …
2.6.1 Modified Fortune Teller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.6.2 Actuation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.3 Grasping Capability of Three Actuation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.4 Range of Motion and Grasp Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.5 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.6 Assembly from a Flat Surface and Flat Foldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1 Introduction
The art of origami shows potential within multiple medical areas, such as surgical
instruments and biomimetic technologies. Origami lends for increasingly miniscule
devices, which have implications for decreased trauma and recovery time. Origami
folds can be implemented on various materials and confer different desired capa-
bilities depending on the intended applications. Engineers can easily manipulate
these folds, opening a large pool of actuation and fabrication possibilities for various
biomedical devices, ranging from stents to surgical meshes. Not only can origami
provide dexterity and movement, but it can also contribute to biomimetic confor-
mations, which are essential in tissue engineering settings. Different known origami
folds on flat materials variably provide these abilities. In this work, we provide a brief
review of origami concepts that have been applied within engineering and show how
different types of folds can lead to various potential biomedical outcomes.
We will delve into a pressing issue within surgical graspers. In particular, tradi-
tional two-jaw graspers have been shown to induce concentrated stress when phys-
ically manipulating tissue, which can cause trauma to patient tissue. We propose
a 4-jaw fortune-teller-inspired grasper. We focus on the structure, dexterity, and
opening/closing ability, which primarily works towards mitigating the issue of
mechanically induced tissue deformation or injury. Origami folding principles are
consulted for conceptualization, while paper and 3D models are fabricated to conduct
a comparative study of actuation methods. We found that an “inverted smaller fortune
teller” method worked best to open the design while a twisting method closed it
most effectively as both methods took advantage of the relationship between the
compliant properties. This concept provides the potential for a novel grasper to
manipulate tissue and still be dexterous without inducing tissue damage through the
advantageous properties of origami.
2.2 Orimimetic Design and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures 15
2.2 Orimimetic Design and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures
2.2.1 Origami for Rapid Design
Origami is the ancient art of paper folding, which is currently making its way into
engineering in applications such as packaging, space telescopes, solar panels, and
architecture (Bowen 2013; Johnson et al. 2017a; Greenberg et al. 2011). There are
two main branches: (1) rigid origami and (2) action origami (Bowen 2013; Greenberg
et al. 2011). Both employ basic folds that can be used in various orientations to yield
completely different products. Many use mountain and valley folds, referring to a
convex or concave crease, respectively, while others take inspiration from kirigami,
the art of folding and cutting paper (Greenberg et al. 2011; Edmondson et al. 2013).
One broad appeal of origami modeling is that rigid origami can be mathematically
modeled and simulated with computer programs, which are time- and cost-efficient
(Bowen 2013; Johnson et al. 2017a; Tachi 2009). Orimimetic design refers explicitly
to applying basic folding concepts to mechanical design, which can become a reality
with the rise of 3D printing and inexpensive fabrication methods, which can use
fewer materials for a simplified construction, especially at a microscale (Johnson
et al. 2017a; Greenberg et al. 2011). Origami lends for rapid prototyping and a vast
pool of design inspiration as a single sheet of flat material can yield infinite numbers
of structures, allowing for applications in medical settings (Bowen 2013; Johnson
et al. 2017a).
2.2.2 Action Origami and Its Role in Keyhole Procedures
Keyhole procedures (KP) have become an increasingly viable alternative to open

surgery. It seeks high dexterity and maximal control while passing through millimeter
to centimeter wide spaces within the body (Fernandes and Gracias 2009). KP reduces
the risk of infection and induces less trauma to the patient using tethered tools inserted
through a small incision, allowing for an externally controlled operation (Fernandes
and Gracias 2009). These procedures include medical devices such as graspers, stents,
and biopsy needles (Johnson et al. 2017a; Arezzo 2014). Currently, tissue or tissue-
like constructs such as muscle, joints, or meshes are difficult to replicate for force
actuation, flexibility, biocompatibility, and scalability (Li et al. 2017; Nelson et al.
2016). For the instruments commonly used to implement innovative surgeries, these
naturally bulky tools over the past decade have turned towards origami, exploring
the need for flexibility, compressibility, dexterity, and biocompatibility.
Traditionally, origami was considered static, treating panels as rigid structures
(Bowen 2013; Greenberg et al. 2011). While this rigid structure may lend to stur-
diness, it impedes any free movement, a crucial characteristic for the field known
as action origami. Action origami refers to a structure that can be animated. They
include origami designs that can be deployed inside the body and maneuver with high
degrees of freedom (DOF) under loading conditions while also shrinking for inser-
tion during keyhole KP—known as flat foldability (Bowen 2013). The flat-foldability
nature of origami-inspired designs opens up possibilities for printable, lightweight
robotics (Zhang et al. 2016).
Additionally, the actuation mechanism of these origami structures is referred to
as compliant mechanisms. Their motions from twisting/bending rather than through
hinges and bearings infer specific force–deflection properties and increase manipula-
tive abilities inside the body. This is the capability of imitating the skeletal movements
of vertebrates (Nelson et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2016; Hollingshead 2016). With this
actuation mechanism, these origami-inspired structures confer increased precision
and reduced “wear and tear” compared to other bulky counterparts (Nelson et al.
2016). Different folds of the origami design open new actuation possibilities that
reduce parts and/or mechanical energy consumption, allowing small-scale fabrica-
tion (Greenberg et al. 2011). One actuation mechanism, a spherical mechanism, is
the “source of motion in the action origami models”. When actuating the device,
“the motion can be traced down the folds to the center of each spherical mech-
anism” (Bowen 2013). Origami-inspired forceps employed two variations of four
spherical mechanisms for ease of use, mechanical advantage, ease of actuation, grip-
ping surface, and range of motion (Edmondson et al. 2013). The more spherical
mechanisms present, the larger the manipulative capacity for this case. Thus, action
origami provides a possible route to maintain or increase dexterity while exhibiting
space efficiency.
While origami techniques can be applied to various thin, flat materials, issues
occur when a project concerns inherently thick materials, making it difficult to
translate every imagined “zero-thickness model” into a foldable product (Bowen
2013; Morgan et al. 2016). There have been developments in thick-origami tech-
niques to preserve a range of motion and kinematics, but origami depends upon
different folds of materials (Greenberg et al. 2011). However, origami refers to the
application of variable folds to a flat sheet. One can explore its effect on a multi-
tude of different materials, both flexible and biocompatible, such as graphene or
perylene-based sheets.
Origami exhibits widespread and far-reaching applicability, from flat-foldability
and biocompatibility to mechanical strength, flexibility, actuation, and dexterity.
In the following sections, each of these factors and a multitude of origami folds
utilized in various biomimetic constructs and surgical/explorative instruments will
be reviewed for various medical applications. Subsequently, an origami-inspired
grasper will be proposed for future research.
2.3 Origami-Inspired Technologies
Human operations are inherently complex and thus difficult to replicate for force
actuation, flexibility, biocompatibility, and scalability. Surgical instruments can be
inspired by origami-based methods to maximize dexterity and force output. A recent
2.3 Origami-Inspired Technologies 17
implementation of origami has shown promise in addressing these noted abilities

and providing low-cost alternatives.
2.3.1 Miura-Ori-Inspired Designs
Miura folding a single plane into a smaller plane provides a solution to fabricate
low-mass yet large space platforms for space missions (Miura 1985). Its series of
alternating parallelograms, whose motion at its vertices, is known as the spherical
mechanisms and allows full expansion from the smaller plane through one simple
and continuous motion (Fig. 2.1) (Miura 1985).
For KP, this type of motion is favorable, as these designs compress and fit within
miniscule constraints and can expand quickly with preferably one motion. This
folding technique is most useful for flat sheets and thus has been used with flat
gauze and meshes, which are widely used surgical materials (Nakase et al. 2016).
These designs provide structural support to organs or tissue for procedures within
the body due to their flat conformations (Nakase et al. 2016), 2D characteristics of
meshes or adhesion barrier membranes. Externally controlled 2D geometries may
not necessarily “fit” when traveling throughout the body (Nakase et al. 2016).
Classic Miura-ori folds translate a one-DOF input motion into two to introduce a
flat surface into the corporeal cavity. This design presented high compressibility and
subsequent expansion, efficiently increasing surface coverage, commonly used in
space solar array storage/deployment (Miura 1985; Nakase et al. 2016). Miura-fold-
techniques with flat foldability can fit within slim, cylindrical trocars and expand
on its own, a function not inherent in the Miura-fold (Nakase et al. 2016). This
chevron pleats procedure (CPP), allow periodic mountain and valley folds arranged
in a zigzag pattern to create V-shaped angles, like those on leaves and insect wings
Fig. 2.1 Miura-ori folds consisting of alternating parallelograms and bi-axially compressing into
the plane (Blue lines: mountains; Red lines: valleys)
Straw
Crease chart
Fig. 2.2 a CPP was applied to Seprafilm and Integran using a dual polypropylene sheet pressing
design to create the V structures with a maximum width of 5 mm. b The Seprafilm material was
pushed into a polypropylene tube like a slim, long syringe with a manually controlled inner tube
and an outer sheath. c The pleated sheet can thus be ejected from the design with the push of a hand
(Nakase et al. 2016)
(Fig. 2.2) (Nakase et al. 2016). This method is useful for expanding surgical mesh and
in hemostasis and application of adhesion barrier membranes (Nakase et al. 2016).
A flat sheet mesh was used in a transabdominal preperitoneal hernia repair (TAPP)
in conjunction with a 5-mm trocar (Nakase et al. 2016). Utilizing an ejecting device
that functions similarly to a syringe, the mesh created through CPP had a duration
of delivery, expansion, and fixation of 261.5 ± 50.1 s, while with only a flat mesh
and grasper, it took a maximum of ~1.90 times longer (Nakase et al. 2016). This
technique serves the direct purpose of KP, which is to decrease operative duration
and complexity, vastly improving patient recovery time. CPP removed the need
for multiple trocars/graspers that would inhibit a clear visual of the surgical area.
Usually, 12-mm trocars apply to mesh during TAPP, but CPP meshes can be used
with as small as 5-mm trocars, leading to noticeably improved clinical outcomes
(Nakase et al. 2016). This particular style of fold successfully decreases the span
of the surgical mesh, allowing it to fit within a small cylindrical apparatus, more
specifically, a trocar. This design can be used with other flat sheet designs in the
future that may need to pass through similar conformations, like a blood vessel,
lending for specificity based on the operational necessity. Additionally, the natural
Fig. 2.3 Illustration of

Parylene origami sheets
seeded with adhering cells in
their folded and deployed
states
(Kuribayashi-Shigetomi and
Takeuchi 2011)
movement and “self-expanding” property of these compliant designs assist in the

rapid and time-efficient application of these meshes to impairments within the body.
Besides “paper origami”, Parylene, a biocompatible material, forms a thin and
flexible film when deposited and thus is a suitable material that can be easily
impressed with different folds on a microscale (Kuribayashi-Shigetomi and Takeuchi
2011). The Parylene film was deposited onto a gelatin-coated layer through chem-
ical vapor deposition (CVD). Photolithography techniques using photoresist and
aluminum were then used to create the micro-origami folds (Kuribayashi-Shigetomi
and Takeuchi 2011). Once seeded, the cell-Parylene sheets were easily folded into
the common Miura-ori configuration, and no cell damage was observed. The fabri-
cation and actuation techniques are shown in Fig. 2.3 (Kuribayashi-Shigetomi and
Takeuchi 2011).
This Miura-ori fold, from which previously discussed CPP sheets take inspiration,
provides a simple way to compress a thin sheet dramatically with one planar motion.
It is flexible, biocompatible, and can be folded and deployed inside the body. These
sheets can be translated into flexible tubular medical devices like stent-grafts as they
can be modified to fit a multitude of conformations (Kuribayashi-Shigetomi and
Takeuchi 2011; Kuribayashi et al. 2006). This design provides a method to open a
blocked organ/lumen or reinforce weakened walls in the body—other applications
include treating esophageal cancer, cardiac failure, and tracheal structural issues
(Kuribayashi-Shigetomi and Takeuchi 2011).
The Miura-ori fold can be applied to robotics, most notably origami
graspers, which utilize its ease-of-expansion capabilities for dexterity within KP.
Programmable origami strings emerge in grasper designs and biomimetic hands
(Kamrava 2018). Crease patterns can be scaled, making them compatible at a
nanoscale, which is becoming increasingly crucial for KP, and these patterns allow for
self-locking, buckling, snapping, and foldability (Kamrava 2018). A programmable
design could be individually controlled to increase the complexity and specificity
of movement (Kamrava 2018). Inspiration drawn from the Miura-ori fold allows
for previously discussed single-DOF movement over multiple hinges to result in
simple expansion/compression (Kamrava 2018). When two Miura-ori folds were
connected in series with an aligned central backbone, they had the same conforma-
tional angles, which meant that a single actuator could coordinate a complex motion
along a polylinkage, opening possibilities for a gripper (Kamrava 2018). The gripper
contained five linkages at 50° and 150° angles, including a motor in the middle
of the grasper and a gearbox to transfer angular displacement and torque from the
motor to two middle plates equally (Fig. 2.4). To further elaborate, the origami string
uses a similar degree-4 vertex as the Miura-ori tessellation. Because of the crease
assignments to ensure Kawasaki’s theorem of flat foldability, this type of vertex has
only one-degree freedom as distances on the paper face are not allowed to stretch or
bend. The main structural modification to the flat folded design is the joint angles
that determine the vertex’s flat folded state. The vertexes used in the origami string
have a central backbone (comprised of two colinear creases) with a joint angle of
180 during the flat folded state. This angle is changed when the vertex is flat folded.
Simultaneous to the folding of the joint in the backbone, the other two creases are
simultaneously folded due to the one-degree freedom of the vertex. When multiple
such vertices are in a serial pattern, the preceding vertex constrains the motion of
the subsequent vertex, and hence the entire serial mechanism only has one degree
of freedom. By actuating the angle between a pair of lateral edges of a vertex (flat
folding the structure), the linear backbone of the entire structure can be bent based
on the joint angle as the entire structure is flat folded. This one degree of freedom
motion can be used as a grasping actuation that can be used to interact with an object
(Fig. 2.4).
This work was further translated into a biomimetic hand, where each of the
five fingers uses one actuator, each finger, tendon-driven or pneumatically driven,
depending heavily on the conformation of the grasped object (Kamrava 2018). The
above design is customizable in that each joint can be individually programmed to
provide high dexterity (Kamrava 2018). While the mesh and Parylene-cell sheets
focused more on compressibility, the gripper and hand design utilized the fold for
ease-of-actuation capabilities, showing the potential to be modified and harnessed
for specific purposes.
2.3.2 Curved-Crease Origami
Origami usually employs straight creases to create variations of mountain and valley
folds. However, origami using curved creases, which dates back to the 1930s, is not as
commonly used but does open possibilities for different design fabrication techniques
and different actuation/motion capabilities than the former (Koschitz et al. 2008).
Curved origami on a sheet of Parylene-C (PA-C) can differentially fold the design
to fit the shape of a retina (Liu et al. 2013). Intraocular epiretinal implants, primarily
used to treat age-related macular degeneration, require curved electrode arrays, which
can be minimally inserted in their 2D form and then folded into a 3D conformation to
match the geometries of the host tissue (Liu et al. 2013). This capability to precisely fit
the size/shape of a retina through actuation of the origami folds represents widespread
Fig. 2.4 Origami robotic gripper at a crease pattern view where the actuation moment can be
produced by a servo motor and received by the gripper through a gearbox. b The degree-4 vertex
presents a network of four spherical mechanisms in series. c Progression of folding and grasper of
a small spherical object at different angles (Kamrava 2018)
applicability in patient-to-patient and thus cost-efficient fabrication. Creating spher-

ical origami has been increasingly difficult as it is challenging to control the intended
3D radius from a flat 2D construct. Thus, choosing a folding material with high
mechanical strength yet flexibility is essential, such as biocompatible PA-C film (Liu
et al. 2013). A type of curved origami is used to fold crease patterns/curved lines—
etched using aluminum—into a spherical structure, a shape regular straight-edged
origami folds cannot provide (Liu et al. 2013). The PA-C implant can form multiple
convex “tents,” which can fold on themselves, modifying the span of the device in
differing geometrical situations (Liu et al. 2013). This new folded form can be stabi-
lized, but only through specific thermal annealing, as fixation of PA-C at too high
temperatures can cause fractures (Liu et al. 2013). While this is currently being used
for a curved retinal electrode, creating a 3D spherical structure from a 2D construct
can have other applications, addressing other curved geometries within the body that
need structural support, such as organs, tissues, or blood vessels.
Fig. 2.5 Configuration of a paper D-CORE in its a planar crease pattern and b deployed states
While the intraocular implant used curved-origami to replicate a spherical shape, a

deployable compliant rolling-contact element (D-CORE) employed curved-origami
to project the device from a planar state to exhibit a large displacement angle (Nelson
et al. 2016) subsequently. This design, which can serve as an artificial joint, is made
through curved-fold origami, like the intraocular implant, which uses curved creases
and cuts on flat surface patches, as seen in Fig. 2.5. Additionally, essential mountain
and valley folds were also utilized (Nelson et al. 2016).
In this design, there are two flat panels with curved creases which form the faces,
or cams, of the structure in its deployed form, joined by three flexible bands, similar to
the well-known Jacob’s Ladder, which allows the two components to roll past each
other, as in a joint (Fig. 2.5) (Nelson et al. 2016). Other fabricated joints provide
linear displacement, but this design allows two parts to roll past each other, as in a
natural revolute joint (Nelson et al. 2016). With this design, joints can be stored in a
compact position, displaying zero-DOF in its static/planar form and one DOF once
deployed (Nelson et al. 2016). These methods can have space applications, as well as
in stowable furniture (Nelson et al. 2016). One disadvantage is that as the structure is
made to be deployable and thus compressible, in comparison to merely the “CORE”
design, the compressive strength of the joint decreases, which can pose issues when
trying to replicate an actual joint that may bear a large proportion of body weight
(Nelson et al. 2016).
Furthermore, the actuation of this joint can be accomplished through springs or
manual hand actuation, bringing the edges of the two cams closer together (Nelson
et al. 2016). Shape memory alloys (SMA) or thermally actuated contractile polymers
could function well in this case, especially regarding in vivo applications that require
biocompatibility and a possibly remotely controlled procedure (Nelson et al. 2016).
The D-CORE is scalable and thus has been used in medical devices in KP and robotics
for a biomimetic finger (Nelson et al. 2016).
Curved-origami was used to confer compressibility to both intraocular implant

and D-CORE designs. Additionally, the curves allowed a spatial relationship between
device components that a regular straight-edged origami may not provide.
2.3.3 Waterbomb-Inspired Designs
The Waterbomb design features a variety of mountain and valley folds which allow
a flat sheet to collapse in on itself (Fig. 2.6).
There is a negative Poisson’s ratio between radial and axial dimensions when
these units are alternated to make a cylindrical tube, which allows the structure to
compress with two-DOFs, a desirable feature in designs used within tight constraints
(Onal et al. 2013). This feature of the Waterbomb design can create a “cup-grasper”
using a fluid-driven actuation method. A fluid-driven approach is simple, efficient in
function and cost, and can create significant stresses and thus deformation (Li et al.
2017). A flexible skin and fluid medium of a compressible skeleton proved useful for
mini medical devices, wearable robotic exoskeletons, and space exploration (Li et al.
2017). A fluid medium causing pressure differences translate into the external skin’s
tension, mimicking muscle properties (Li et al. 2017). With this type of actuation,
as pressure decreases, sheets with the Waterbomb design form a cylindrical shape
from an original spherical one and display a 91% contraction ratio (Li et al. 2017).
Other methods of artificial muscle actuation are usually limited by cost, scalability,
and single-DOF contraction, such as SMAs that produce significant stresses but have
slow cycle times and polymers that require high external stimuli. Secondly, a “magic-
ball” origami was fabricated to act as a gripper—which featured these Waterbomb
folds—in conjunction with a cylindrical compression spring, grasping a water bottle
Fig. 2.6 Basic unit of the Waterbomb design, where red lines indicate mountain folds while blue
lines represent valley folds
fully as internal pressure began to drop (Li et al. 2017). This design made equal force
output throughout the design inferring stability and efficient actuation.
The contractile nature of the folds allows creating robotic worms. Fabricating indi-
vidual patterned sheets and consequently combining them can prove to be laborious.
Thus, differentially patterning a single sheet to introduce hinges, joints, or springs can
act within the body—this allows for low fabrication costs (Onal et al. 2013). Also, as
previously noted, this type of fold allows compression in both axial and radial direc-
tions, allowing for small-scale, lightweight robotics that can be compatible with the
spatial constraints within the human body (Onal et al. 2013). There are three origami
folds created—Yoshimura, Diagonal, and Waterbomb—where the former two are
great for cylindrical axial or rotary motion, and the latter could compress in both
axial and radial directions (Onal et al. 2013). A combination of all three designs
would possibly allow for a functional tube that is both compressible in all directions
and dexterous, with applications in artificial muscle pulling on a tendon and a stent
(Onal et al. 2013).
Remarkable general requirements for an origami-inspired micro-robot include
ease of folding and actuator attachment and a design that can exhibit a sort of stiff-
ness and sturdiness when manipulated (Onal et al. 2013). The Waterbomb was a
simple repetition of folds over a flat sheet, and NiTi actuators that function within
temperature constraints could be attached at both ends. The design included three
Waterbomb base folds placed in 120° increments, creating large deformation and
stiffness (Onal et al. 2013). Once these coils were radially wound around the Water-
bomb base, upon actuation, the design made a worm-like peristaltic motion (Onal
et al. 2013). This design was printed in 17 min, only used one NiTi coil, and could
crawl about 50 mm in 3 min (Onal et al. 2013). This design focused on the actua-
tion capabilities that the Waterbomb fold provides, and its cylindrical conformation
allows for possible applications in explorative KP.
2.3.4 Modified Mountain/Valley-Fold Origami
The most basic folds used variably to create 3D constructs are mountain and valley
folds, where the former makes an upward projecting, convex-like fold, while the latter
makes an opposing concave-like fold. These two patterns are what most designs like
the Miura-ori fold and Waterbomb are based upon and provide a vast pool of design
possibilities.
A 3D cylindrical structure with fold patterns similar to the Waterbomb-type
designs could act as a compressible self-deployable origami stent for KP (Kurib-
ayashi et al. 2006). Stents, which are commonly used to rectify restenosis issues,
pass through the small, almost cylindrical constraints of blood vessels to clear a
blockage. SMAs are used for their “shape memory effect” and biocompatibility and
can respond to temperature, pH, or electric stimuli, making them a great candidate
for origami actuation (Kuribayashi et al. 2006). These grafts are cylindrical tubes
Fig. 2.7 Paper model of the origami stent graft when a folded and b fully deployed and partially
folded. c A repeated folding pattern of the stent-graft
with identical mountain and valley fold patterns (Fig. 2.7), which act as hinges to
fold and deploy longitudinally and radially (Kuribayashi et al. 2006).
These grafts can be packaged inside a sheath to pass through a narrow tube or
space within the body during KP. Once this sheath is removed, the graft is free
to deploy in both radial and axial directions. By using SMA’s, the stents could be
deployed at body temperature. However, these technologies are inherently expensive
actuation techniques (Kuribayashi et al. 2006).
Mountain and valley folding allows for one- or two-DOF compression and is a
simple yet powerful tool. Manipulating mountain and valley folds, displays poten-
tial for safe and powerful actuation for robotics through origami-inspired artificial
muscles (Li et al. 2017). A symmetrical zigzag design featuring alternating moun-
tain and valley folds could achieve 90% linear contraction through fluid actuation
(Li et al. 2017). The force output of the zigzag design was found to be excellent as it
was able to lift loads with actuation stress six times greater than that of a mammalian
skeletal muscle (Li et al. 2017). This design can have powerful implications for arti-
ficial muscle and machinery that need lightweight tools to produce large force output
magnitudes.
2.4 Other Miscellaneous Origami Methods
As previously stated, origami refers to folding a flat sheet into an entirely different
conformation (Fig. 2.8), and thus strict folds like mountains and valleys do not neces-
sarily need to be implemented. In essence, origami reaches as far as the user’s imag-
ination. The following section details various designs that fold into a 3D construct
in functionality and actuation method.
2.4.1 Variably Patterned Graphene Structures
Inspiration from origami allows for complexity and intricacy, but Actuation methods
ranging from manual tendon-driven to fluid-driven exist. However, since origami
can be applied to any flat and flexible sheet, different materials can be used for
their inherent mechanical properties to allow the self-folding of patterns. One such
example is a graphene-based paper, which has become more favorable than other
polymers as it can be programmed to fold and unfold through the conversion of other
forms of energy into mechanical work (Mu et al. 2015). Other polymers usually
Fig. 2.8 a–f Show the versatility of these actuation designs, creating various 3D deployable
structures, either container-like designs or others employing the mountain-valley fold
2.4 Other Miscellaneous Origami Methods 27
respond slowly to pH, temperature, solvent composition, humidity, electricity, and

light (Mu et al. 2015).
The graphene-based papers allow only one folded and unfolded shape to repli-
cate an organ (Mu et al. 2015; Mehner et al. 2015). Graphene is a 2D flexible,
active polymer but much stronger and more stable than others (Mu et al. 2015).
The graphene technology allows vertical and lateral dual gradients of differing water
absorption/desorption capabilities using multiple solutions (Mu et al. 2015). The
graphene paper begins to fold during temperature change, leading to a volume change
and thus conformation change—the paper is highly sensitive to light and irradiation
(Mu et al. 2015). Two essential outcomes were a fabricated artificial hand-like design
and a worm-like micro-robot (Mu et al. 2015). The hand could flex like a wrist,
demonstrating the capability to hold an object post-irradiation. The micro-robot can
go down the pipe after irradiation like a worm, exhibiting potential within confined
spaces.
The use of graphene can create autonomous origami micro-robotics, with applica-
tions in cell-scaled operations (Miskin et al. 2018). Instead of using photolithography
or pre-made flexible joints, this origami is thickness-driven, where graphene sheets
were bound to 2 nm thick layers of glass that respond to small changes in strain
and thus bend into pre-determined 3D shapes. The graphene-glass bimorph with a
sheet of graphene bound to a two nm-thick layer of glass. Additional rigid panels of
photoresist create intended hinges for the folding of the design once exposed to heat.
Patterning rigid panels of photoresist on top of biocompatible graphene-glass
constructs, induced strain and bending over a controllable pH threshold and respond
comparably to that of microscale biological organisms (Miskin et al. 2018). Utilizing
an atomically thin sheet of inorganic, hard material, such as silicon dioxide or glass, in
conjunction with graphene brings about the possibility of reducing origami structures
(Miskin et al. 2018). This possibility stems from the capabilities of these materials
in performing a wide range of functions, from electronic to chemical ones. A 3D
construct is created when the glass-graphene bimorphs are exposed to temperature
and differing electrolyte concentrations, creating a box-like structure (Miskin et al.
2018). In one design of a tetrahedron, it had the dimensions three times larger than
that of a red blood cell, yet three times smaller than a large neuron, and could respond
to electrolyte content similarly to cardiac cells (Miskin et al. 2018).
Additionally, small-scale fabrication can, in many cases, compromise important
factors such as sturdiness and high force output. However, these bimorphs produce
similar shear and bulk stiffness magnitudes to those in cells, which is promising for
cell-related research (Miskin et al. 2018).
2.4.2 Variably Patterned Cell-Based Designs
Not only can differential origami patterning enhance properties such as ease of actu-
ation and dexterity, but it can also provide ways to recreate crucial, functional 3D
conformations that are specifically useful for scaffolds and artificial tissues/organs
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circumference and weight, being often from one and a half to two
yards in diameter and not much less in height, and consisting of
fairly thick branches and twigs, which are neatly stuck together or
mortared with clay. If one does not happen to notice how the umber-
bird slips out and in one would never imagine that these structures
were hollow, but would rather take them for the eyrie of a bird of
prey, especially as eagles and horned owls frequently nest on the
top of them. But when one has seen the real owner enter, and has
inspected the nest closely, one finds that the interior is divided into
three compartments, connected by holes which serve as doors, and
further observation reveals that these three compartments answer
the purpose of hall, reception or dining room, and brooding-chamber.
This last room, the farthest back, is slightly higher than the rest, so
that if any water should get in it can flow away; but the whole
structure is so excellently built that even heavy and long-continuing
showers of rain do very little damage. Within the brooding-chamber,
on a soft cushion of sedge and other materials, lie the three, four, or
five white eggs on which the female sits; in the middle chamber the
male meantime stores up all sorts of provisions, a bountiful supply of
fish, frogs, lizards, and other dainties which he has caught, so that
his mate can choose from these stores, and has only to reach
forward to satisfy her hunger; in the entrance chamber the male
stands or sits, whenever he is not busy hunting for food, to keep
guard and to cheer his mate with his society, until the growing
offspring take up the whole attention of both.[52]
The association of umber-bird and eagle or horned owl is not a
solitary instance of friendly companionship on the part of birds
belonging to different species and totally unlike in their habits. On the
broad, fan-like leaves of the magnificent duleb-palm, which stand out
horizontally from the trunk, the nests of the dwarf peregrine falcon
and the guinea-dove often stand so close together that the falcon
could easily grasp one of his neighbour’s young ones. But he does
not touch them, for he is only accustomed to attack birds on the
wing, and thus the little doves grow up in safety beside the little
falcons, and the parents of both often sit peacefully beside each
other, near their respective nests.[53]
Another palm gave me an opportunity of observing birds whose
brooding surprised and fascinated me greatly. Round a single tom-
palm there flew, with constant cries, small-sized swifts, nearly related
to our own swifts, and my attention was thus directed to the tree
itself. On close observation I saw that the birds frequently repaired
between the leaves, and I then discovered on the grooves of the
leaf-stalks light points which I took to be nests. I climbed the tree,
bent one of the leaves towards me, and saw that each nest, which
was made chiefly of cotton, was plastered firmly in the angle
between the stalk and the midrib of the leaf, cemented by salivary
secretion, after the method usually followed by swifts. But the hollow
of the nest appeared to me so flat that I wondered how the two eggs
could remain lying when the leaf was shaken by the wind. And it
must have shaken with the slightest breath, not to speak of the
storms which often raged here! Carefully I reached out my hand to
take out the eggs; then I saw with astonishment that the mother had
glued them firmly to the nest. And as I examined newly-hatched, tiny,
helpless young birds, I saw, with increasing astonishment, that they,
too, were attached to the nest in the same way, and were thus
secured from falling out.
Fig. 32.—Long-tailed Monkeys.
Apart from the birds, which continually attract the naturalist’s

attention by their omnipresence, beauty, vivacity and nimbleness, as
well as by their songs, or rather cries; apart also from the very
numerous lizards and snakes, or the abundant insects, even a
careful observer can see very little of the other denizens of the
primeval forest, and especially little of its mammals. But one can
hardly fail to see a band of long-tailed monkeys, for the liveliness
and restlessness characteristic of these and of all the African
monkeys is sure to bring them sooner or later before the most
unobservant eye, and their continual gurgling noises must reach the
ear; yet one may pass within a few yards of most of the other
mammals without having any idea that they are near. The great
majority of the mammals inhabiting the primeval forest become
active only after sundown, and return to their lairs before daybreak;
but even those which are active and busy in full sunlight in the
morning and evening are by no means so easily seen as might be
imagined, for the thickness of the forest stands them in good stead.
A European with whom I hunted in the primeval forest said to me:
“Did you see that leopard that bounded from me towards you a few
minutes ago? I could not shoot for I had not my gun in order; but you
must have seen him.” He was wrong; I had not seen the great beast,
so dense was the undergrowth in the forest. Where it is less dense
another fact has its importance: the colour-resemblance between the
mammals and their surroundings. The grayish lemur, which sits or
sleeps huddled up high up on a branch spun over with lichens,
resembles a knob or protuberance so clearly and convincingly that
its form is only made out when the sportsman, taught by former
experience, uses his glass and observes it keenly; the bat, which
hangs high up in the crown of another tree, also looks like an
outgrowth or a withered leaf; even the spotted skin of the leopard
may be a faithful mimicry of the dry leaves and flowering euphorbias,
and I myself once had to advance with cocked rifle to within fifteen
paces of a bush in which a leopard had taken shelter before I could
distinguish the animal from his surroundings. The same holds true of
the forest antelopes, and indeed of all the mammals, and they know
that this is so.[54] Not everywhere, but here and there throughout the
forest, and then always abundantly, there lives a little antelope, the
bush or Salt’s antelope. It is one of the most charming of all
ruminants, most gracefully built, not bigger than a fawn a few days
old, and of a foxy, gray-blue colour. It lives with a mate in the thickest
undergrowth of the forest, choosing for its lair or habitual resting-
place a bush which is branched and leafy to the ground, and thence
treading out narrow paths in all directions through the thicket. I have
often shot the animal; but at first it escaped me as it escapes all the
travellers and sportsmen who make its acquaintance. I could never
see it except when, if startled, it flew past me like an arrow. “Look,
sir, there, in front of you in the nearest bush is a little antelope; it is
down there in the gap between the two thickly-leaved branches,”
whispered my native guide in my ear. I strained every nerve,
penetrated every part of the bush with my gaze, and saw nothing but
branches and leaves, for the graceful legs had become twigs, the
head and body a leafy bough. But the sportsman’s eye becomes
accustomed in time even to the primeval forest. When one has
become familiar with the dainty creature’s habits, one learns to find it
as well as the sharp-sighted natives do. Its acute hearing warns it of
the approach of a man long before he can see any trace of its
presence. Scared by the rustle of heavy human footsteps it starts up
from its lair, takes a few steps forwards, and steps into some gap
from which to see what happens. Like a bronze statue it stands stiff
and motionless, without even moving an ear or turning an eye, but
looking and listening; the leg which was raised to step onwards
remains in that position, not a sign betrays life. Now is the time for
the sportsman to raise his gun quickly, take aim and shoot; a
moment later the cunning antelope has gained the cover of a
neighbouring bush at a single bound, or has bent slowly down and
crept away so quietly that scarcely a leaf stirs, scarcely a blade of
grass moves.
The primeval forest thus presents a succession of varied pictures to
the traveller’s eye. If one has learnt to see, and attempts to
understand, one finds more in every part of the forest at every
season than one can master. But one does not see the same things
at every spot, and at every season. Here, where spring lasts only a
few weeks, and summer and autumn are counted by days, the long
reign of winter sets in directly after the rainy season, just as in the
steppe, and the full, rich, overflowing life of animals and plants is
crowded into a very short time. As soon as the birds have finished
brooding they begin to migrate; as soon as the mammals have
exhausted the food-supply in one part of the forest they betake
themselves to another. Consequently one meets different animals in
the same spot at different times, or at least one sees different
aspects of animal life. The river, for instance, becomes animated in
proportion as the forest becomes depopulated.
While the river is high, one does not see much of the animals which
live in and about the water. All the islands are deeply buried under
the water, the banks are likewise flooded, and the birds which
usually inhabit them are crowded out for the time. And if a crocodile
should raise his head and
part of his scaly back above
the water, he must be close
to the boat if one sees him at
all. Strictly speaking, there
remain only the
hippopotamuses, which are
comparatively abundant in
some parts, the birds flying
about over the water, and
perhaps a few diving-birds to
prove that any higher
vertebrates live in and about
the river. But, when the rain
has ceased, the river falls,
and all the islands, sand-
banks, and the river-banks
themselves stand out once
more. The scene is changed
Fig. 33.—Salt’s Antelope (Antilope Saltiana).
also as far as the animal
world is concerned. The
hippopotamuses retire to the deepest parts of the river, associating
in troops sometimes of considerable strength, and making
themselves very conspicuous as they come to the surface to
breathe, each breath being inhaled with a snort which can be heard
a long way off. During the day they land on islands or sand-banks to
rest or stretch themselves in the sun, and they can then be seen
from a distance of more than half a mile. The crocodiles eagerly
enjoy a pleasure they had to forego while the river was high, that of
sunning themselves for hours in the heat of the day. To this end they
creep out about mid-day on a flat, sandy island, fall heavily with an
audible plump on the sand, open their formidably-toothed jaws wide,
and sleep till evening; there may be ten, twenty, or thirty of them on a
single sand-bank. Now the sand-banks, both river-banks, and the
shores of the larger islands are covered with flocks of birds whose
numerical strength is most impressive. For, by this time of year most
of the native shore-birds and swimming-birds have ended their
brooding labours, and frequent the shores of the river with their
young to enjoy, while they are moulting, the abundant and easily-
procured food. About the same time, too, the migratory birds from
the north arrive to pass the winter here. The last-named are also to
be found in every part of the primeval forest, but are not nearly so
much in evidence there as by the river, whose banks and islands are
covered by the largest and most conspicuous species. It may even
happen that the available space by the river is too small, the rich
supply of food insufficient for the number of claimants. Thus every
space is more than fully occupied, every promising hunting-ground is
visited by thousands, every sleeping-place even is fought over. For
three days I sailed, in an excellent boat and with a very good wind,
up the White Nile, and during the whole long journey both banks
were uninterruptedly covered with a gay and motley throng of littoral
and aquatic birds. In the midst of the forests about the Blue Nile one
can see a similar sight. Extensive sand-banks are completely
covered by gray and demoiselle cranes, but they only serve these
winter visitors as resting, sleeping, and moulting places, from
whence they fly out every morning into the steppe in search of food,
returning about mid-day to drink, bathe, dress their feathers, and to
spend the night, though they are in continual danger from the
crocodiles. Regularly about mid-day they are joined by several
crowned cranes whose visit always causes lively excitement, for they
are, if not better, at least more ardent dancers than the other cranes,
and on their arrival they never fail to exhibit their skill, and thus to
incite the others to rivalry. On the same sand-banks one may often
see tantalus-ibises, magnificent stork-like birds, with rosy-white
plumage and brilliant rose-red wings, which take possession of the
extreme edge of the island or the neighbouring damp places. In a
good light they literally glow, and they are at all times beautiful,
contrasting wonderfully with the light gray cranes, and decorating the
whole neighbourhood. Splendid giant or saddle-billed storks step
proudly along the shores; ugly, but curiously-formed marabous walk
up and down with an air of dignity; glittering, open-bill storks stand in
large companies; giant and great white herons wade about in search
of fish; and everywhere standing and lying, swimming and diving,
grazing and grubbing, cackling and chattering are thousands of
Spur-winged, Egyptian, and other geese, widow and pintail ducks,
African darters, ibises, curlews, sandpipers, dunlins, redshanks, and
many more, a motley throng which decorates the stream even more
than the tantalus ibises. But, in addition to all those mentioned, some
of whom are constantly coming and going, there fly terns and gulls,
sand-martins and bee-eaters, while splendid sea-eagles wheel in
circles high up in the air.
Fig. 34.—Crocodile and Crocodile-birds (Pluxianus ægyptius).

There are some members of this bird-fauna, so rich in every respect,
who have to wait till the water is at its lowest before they can begin
to brood, for, when the river is full, they are quite unable to find such
nesting-places as they desire. Among these is a running bird, prettily
and gaily coloured, clever and vivacious by nature, which was well
known to the ancients as the Crocodile-bird or the Trochilus of
Herodotus. Of it the old historian relates, as Pliny repeats on his
authority, that it lives in true friendship with the crocodile. And this old
story is no fable, as one might be inclined to suppose, but is based
on solid facts, which I have myself been able to verify.[55] The
crocodile-bird, whose image is so often represented on the ancient
Egyptian monuments, and stands for U in the hieroglyphic alphabet,
occurs in Egypt and Nubia, but nowadays it seems to be only in the
Soudan that it discharges, on the crocodile’s behalf, those sentinel
duties for which it was famous among the ancient peoples. But the
service it renders is not to the crocodile alone, but to all other
creatures who are willing to take advantage of its watchfulness.
Observant, inquisitive, excitable, clamorous, and gifted with a far-
reaching voice, it is well fitted to serve as watchman to all less
careful creatures. No approach, whether of beast of prey or of man,
escapes its suspicious observation; every sailing-boat or rowing-boat
on the river attracts its attention; and it never fails to tell of its
discovery in loud cries. Thus it brings under the notice of all the other
creatures who share its home or resting-place the unusual
occurrence, enabling them either to find out for themselves if there is
really any danger, or to make good their escape on the strength of its
warning. Thus it discharges the duties of a sentinel. Its friendly
relations with the crocodile can hardly be called mutual, for to credit
the crocodile with friendship is going rather far. Certainly the reptile
treats the bird as a harmless creature, but this is not out of any
benevolence, but simply because he has a thorough knowledge and
a correct estimate of his partner. And as to the bird, it is at home on
the sand-banks where the crocodile is wont to rest, and has been
from its youth accustomed to the monster; it busies itself about him
and associates itself with him, as if he were the master and itself the
servant. Without hesitation it hops on his back as he rests; without
apprehension it approaches his gaping jaws to see if there be
perchance a leech sucking his lips, or if there be some morsel of
food sticking between his teeth; and without misgiving it darts off with
either. All this the crocodile quietly allows, for doubtless he has
learned by experience that he cannot get at the ever watchful, agile,
and clever little rogue. I once saw a crocodile-bird having a meal
along with a screaming sea-eagle off a fish, which the latter had
caught and borne to a sand-bank. While the eagle, which held its
booty firmly in its talons or stood upon it, was breaking off pieces of
the flesh, the parasite at the lordly bird’s table kept at a respectful
distance; but as soon as the eagle raised its head to swallow, the
crocodile-bird ran forward, seized one of the prepared fragments,
and was off again to his old position, there to enjoy his stolen goods.
Not less astonishing than this self-possessed audacity is the way in
which the crocodile-bird hides its eggs from prying eyes. For long I
searched in vain for the nest. When the brooding period set in was
readily enough discovered by dissecting a specimen which I killed;
and that the bird must nest on the sand-bank I was already
convinced from my observation of its mode of life. But it was in vain
that I searched their favourite spots; not a hint of a nest could I find.
At last I observed a pair, one sitting on the ground, the other busying
itself round about; I brought my field-glass to bear upon the sitting
bird and made straight for it. As I came near it rose, hastily scraped
some sand together, and flew off, uttering its usual cry, but without
any other signs of excitement. I was not diverted from my purpose,
but advanced carefully, keeping the exact spot always in view. But
even when I reached the place I could see no nest, and it was not till
I noticed a slight unevenness in the sand, and dug carefully with my
fingers, that I found what I sought, two eggs most deceptively like the
sand in their colour and markings. Had the mother-bird been allowed
more time than I gave her, it is not likely that I should ever have
noticed the slight unevenness in the sand.
Even richer, if that be possible, than the fauna of the river, and at any
rate more diverse, is that to be found at the proper season on the
shores and surface of all the lakes and larger water-pools which lie
within the forest and are filled either by the spring rains or by the full
floods of the river. Surrounded by the forest, and not unfrequently so
thickly hedged round that one cannot reach them without great
difficulty, and more immediately fringed by a scarcely less rich
vegetation of canes and reed-thickets, where the papyrus and the
lotos still flourish, these rain-lakes, or Fulat as the natives call them,
afford most excellent resting-stations and breeding-places for the
most diverse kinds of beasts and birds.
Their safe seclusion pleases even the hippopotamus so well that it
seeks them out as fit places where to bring forth and suckle, tend
and rear its young, safe from dangerous intruders, and without
trouble as to food, which the water supplies in abundance. Wild hogs
and buffaloes are also attracted to the luxuriant fringe of vegetation
and to the creeks which gradually pass into swamp and bog. To all
the thirsty race of antelopes the quiet pools afford welcome supplies.
On the surface thousands of pelicans gather in the evenings, and
fish greedily before they go to roost on the tall trees near by; all day
long the darters dive; many ducks and geese swim about, both
native species and those which have come from the north to these
comfortable winter-quarters; in the creeks and shallows the giant-
herons and the beautiful little bush-herons secure rich booty at small
cost of exertion; countless hosts of little birds are sheltered among
the green, sappy herbage of the shore, and many other shore-and
water-birds find resting-places and build their nests on the
overtowering trees of the forest.
It is no wonder, then, that these lakes should periodically swarm with
birds; and it is likewise plain that such great wealth of booty must
also attract all sorts of enemies. The smaller birds are followed by
the falcons and owls, the larger birds by the eagle and horned owl,
the mammals by the fox and jackal, the leopard and the lion.
Sometimes, too, an army of voracious locusts coming in from the
steppe falls upon the fresh green girdle around such a lake and
ravages it in a few days, devouring all the leaves. Or one should
rather say threatening to devour, for at such a time the assemblage
of birds becomes even larger than before. From far and near they
come flocking—falcons and owls, ravens and rollers, francolins and
guinea-fowl, storks and ibises, coots and ducks. Every bird that ever
eats insects now confines itself exclusively to the pertinacious
visitors. Hundreds of kestrels and lesser kestrels, which are then in
these winter-quarters, sweep over the invaded forest, and swoop
down upon the locusts, seizing and devouring them, with scarce an
interruption in their flight. Ravens, rollers, hornbills, ibises, and storks
pick them off the branches of the trees and shake down hundreds
which fall victims to the guinea-fowl, ducks, and other birds waiting
underneath. Harriers and chanting hawks circle around the trees on
which the “defoliating” insects soon take the place of the leaves that
were. Even the sedate marabous and saddle-billed storks do not
disdain to avail themselves of booty whose abundance compensates
for the paltry size of the individual victims. All this bustle greatly
enhances the liveliness of a scene which is at no time dull, and
makes the lake more than ever a rendezvous of the most diverse
forms of life.
At one of these rain-lakes—very treasure-house of the forest’s riches
—we spent several days, hunting, observing, and collecting, almost
wild with delight in, and admiration of the splendid flora and fauna.
We amused ourselves with hunting hippopotamus, and executed
justice on the crocodile; we enjoyed to the full the pleasures of
exploration and of the chase, forgetful of everything else, even of the
time we spent. But when the sun went down and tinged with gold the
varied greens of the forest; when the chattering of the parrots was
hushed and only the ecstatic song of a thrush floated down to us;
when, over there on the opposite bank, the sea-eagle, which a
moment ago had seemed like some wonderful blossom on the top of
his green perch, drowsily drew his white head between his
shoulders; when silence fell even on the guttural gossip of a band of
long-tailed monkeys, who had gone to rest on the nearest lofty
mimosa; when the night came on with its clear pleasant twilight, cool
and mild, melodious and fragrant, as it always is at this season: then
would all the wealth of colour, all the splendour and glamour of to-
day’s and yesterday’s pictures fade away. Our thoughts flew
homewards, and irresistible home-sickness filled our hearts, for in
the Fatherland they were celebrating Christmas. We had prepared
our punch and filled our pipes with the most precious of tobaccos;
our Albanian companion sang his soft melancholy song; the beauty
of the night soothed our hearts and senses; but the glasses
remained unemptied, “the clouds of smoke did not bear the clouds of
melancholy with them”; the songs awoke no responsive echo, and
the night brought no solace. But it must bring us a Christmas gift,
and it did!
Night in the primeval forest is always grand: the sky above may be
illumined with flaming lightning, the thunder may roll, and the wind
may rage through the trees; or it may be that the dark starless
heaven is relieved only by the slender rays of far-distant suns, while
no leaf or blade of grass is stirred. A few minutes after sunset, night
descends upon the forest. What was clearly seen by day is now
veiled by darkness, what was seen in its true proportions in the
sunlight now becomes gigantic. Familiar trees become phantasms,
the hedge-like bushes thicken to dark walls. The noise of a thousand
voices is stilled, and for a few minutes a deep silence prevails. Then
life begins to stir again, the river and the forest are again alive.
Hundreds of cicadas raise their chirping, like the jingle of many
badly-tuned little bells heard from a distance; thousands of restless
beetles, some very large, whirr about the flowering trees with a deep
humming, fit accompaniment to the cicadas’ chirping. Frogs add their
single note, surprisingly loud for their size, and their voices ring
through the forest, like the sound of a slowly-beaten Chinese gong.
A great owl greets the night with its dull hooting; a little screech-owl
responds with shrill laughter; a goat-sucker spins off the single
strophe of his rattling song. From the river come the plaintive cries of
a nocturnal member of the gull family, the skimmer or shearwater,
which begins to plough the waves, skimming along the surface of the
water; from the islands and banks sound the somewhat screeching
cries of the thickknee or stone-curlew, and the rich, melodious, song-
like trills of the redshank or the plover; among the reeds and sedges
of a neighbouring pool croaks a night-heron. Hundreds of
glowworms sparkle among the bushes and the tree-tops; a gigantic
crocodile, which had left its sand-bank before sundown to bathe its
heated coat of mail in the tepid water, is swimming half beneath and
half above the surface of the water, and making long streaks of silver
which shine in the moonlight, or at least glitter in the flickering light of
the stars. Above the tallest trees float noiseless companies of horned
and other owls; long-tailed night-jars fly with graceful curves along
the river bank; bats describe their tortuous course among the trees;
fox-bats and fruit-eating bats cross from bank to bank, sometimes in
flocks. This is the time of activity among the other mammals too. A
jackal utters its varied call, now plaintive, now merry, and continues
with equal expressiveness and persistence; a dozen others join in at
once, and strive in eager rivalry for the victor’s crown; some hyænas
who seem just to have been waiting for these unrivalled leaders to
begin, join the chorus. They howl and laugh, moan piteously, and
shout triumphantly; a panther grunts, a lion roars; even a
hippopotamus in the river lifts up his paltry voice and grunts.
Thus does night reveal itself in the primeval forest; thus did it claim
ear and eye on that never-to-be-forgotten day. Beetles and cicadas,
owls and goat-suckers had begun: then a loud, rumbling noise, as of
trumpets blown by unskilful mouths, resounded through the forest. At
once the songs of our Albanian, and the chattering of our servants
and sailors were hushed; all listened as we did. Once more came the
trumpeting and rumbling from the opposite bank. “El fiuhl, el fiuhl!”
called the natives; “Elephants, elephants!” we, too, exclaimed
triumphantly. It was the first time that we had seen and heard the
giant pachyderms, though we had constantly trodden their paths and
followed their traces. From the opposite bank the great forms, which
could be plainly enough seen in the twilight, descended leisurely and
confidently to the water, to drink and bathe. One after another dipped
his supple trunk in the water, to fill it, and discharge it into his wide
mouth, or over his back and shoulders; one after another descended
into the river to refresh himself in the cooling flood. Then the noises
became so great that it seemed as if the elephants’ trumpeting had
acted as an awakening call. Earlier than ever before, the king of the
wilderness raised his thundering voice; a second and a third lion
responded to the kingly greeting. The sleep-drunken monkeys and
the timid antelopes cried out in terror. A hippopotamus reared his
uncouth head quite close to our boat, and growled as if he would
emulate the lion’s roar; a leopard also made himself heard; jackals
gave vent to the most varied song we had ever heard from them, the
striped hyænas howled, the spotted ones uttered their hellish, blood-
curdling laughter, and, careless of the uproar which the heralds and
the king of the forest had conjured up, the frogs continued to utter
their monotonous call, and the cicadas their bell-like chirping.
Thus was the “Hosanna in the Highest” sung in our ears by the
primeval forest.
THE MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS.
The love of travel, as we understand it, is not found among animals,
not even among the birds, whose sublime powers of flight over land
and sea so much excite our envy. For no animals wander, careless
and free, like the travellers who go forth to study the manners and
customs of other lands; they cling to the soil even more closely than
we do, and they are bound to the place of their birth, by habit or
indolence, more closely than we are by our love of home. When it
does happen that they forsake their birthplace, it is in obedience to
stern necessity,—to escape impending starvation. But want and
misery are too often their lot in the joyless lands to which they
migrate, and so they experience little but the pain and toil of travel.
This holds true of wandering fishes and of migrating birds, but more
particularly of those mammals which undertake periodic migrations.
Few of them do this with the same regularity, but all do it for the
same reasons, as fishes and birds. They migrate to escape from
scarcity of food, already felt or at least threatening, and their
journeying is therefore rather a flight from destruction than a striving
to reach happier fields.
By the migrations of mammals I mean neither the excursions which
result in an extension of their range of distribution, nor the ordinary
expeditions in search of food, but those journeys which lead certain
mammals, at regular or irregular intervals, far beyond the boundaries
of their home, into countries where they are compelled to adopt a
mode of life which is foreign to them, and which they will abandon as
soon as it is possible, or seems possible to do so. Such journeys
correspond closely to the regular migrations of fishes and birds, and
a knowledge of the former helps us to an understanding of the latter.
Excursions beyond their actual place of sojourn are made by all
mammals for various reasons. Males, particularly old males, are
more inclined to roam about than the females and the young of their
species, and forsake one district for another without apparent
reason; the younger males among gregarious species are often
driven out and forced to wander by the old leaders of the herd;
mothers with their young are fond of rambling about the
neighbourhood where the latter were born; and the two sexes
wander about in search of one another. During such expeditions the
animal chances to light on what seems to him a promising dwelling-
place, a district rich in food, a sheltering thicket, or a safe hiding-
hole. He stays there for some time, and, finally, it may be, settles
down in this new Canaan. Experienced sportsmen know that a
preserve in which all the game has been shot will sooner or later
receive reinforcements from without, and, under favourable
circumstances, will be peopled anew; and all must have noticed that
a fox or badger burrow is not easily destroyed, for it finds new
occupants again and again, however ruthless the persecution to
which they may be subjected. As it is with game, whose coming and
going, appearing and disappearing are noted by thousands, so is it
with other mammals which are less eagerly watched. A constant
emigration and immigration cannot be denied. In consequence of
this, the range of distribution of any species is constantly being
extended, unless hindered by physical conditions, or by human and
other enemies.
Fig. 35.—A Wild Duck defending her Brood from a Brown Rat.
Till the end of the first half of last century our forefathers shared their
dwellings with the black rat, and knew the brown rat only by hearsay,
if at all. The first was a rat with many, but not all the vices of its race.
It lived in our houses, ate grain, fat, and all kinds of provisions,
gnawed doors, boards, and furniture, racketed at night like a noisy
ghost through old castles and other spook-favouring buildings,
caused much annoyance, many a fright, strengthened superstition
and the fear of ghosts in many a mind; but it was possible to live with
it, one could manage to get along. A capable cat held it in check; a
skilful rat-catcher was more than a match for it. Then its most terrible
enemy appeared, and its star began to wane. In 1727, swarms of
brown rats, which seem to have come from India, either directly or by
way of Persia, were seen to swim the Volga, and we soon learned
what awaited Europe. Following canals and rivers, the brown rats
reached villages and towns, entered, in spite of men and cats, the
lower stories of our dwellings, filled vaults and cellars, ascended
gradually to the garrets, ousted its relative after long and inexorable
warfare, made itself master in our own houses, and showed us in a
thousand ways what a rat could do. It possessed and exercised all
the vices of its family, mocked at all our attempts to drive it away, and
remained in possession of the field, which, up till now, we have tried
to wrest from it with dogs and cats, by traps and snares, poison and
shooting. Almost at the same time as it swam over the Volga, it
reached Europe by another route, coming from the East Indies to
England on board ship. Then began its world-wanderings. In East
Prussia it appeared as early as 1750, in Paris three years later,
Central Germany was conquered in 1780, and here, as everywhere
else, the towns were first colonized, and the flat country round taken
in by degrees. Villages not easily reached, that is to say, not lying on
river-banks, were only invaded in the last decade of this century: in
my boyhood it was still unknown in my native village, and the black
rat, now being crowded out even there, held undisputed possession
of many places where its rival now reigns supreme. Many isolated
farms were only reached later, about the middle of the present
century, but the victorious march still goes on. Not content with
having discovered and conquered Europe, towards the end of last
century the brown rat set out on new journeys. In the sea-ports
already colonized, the rats swam out to the ships, climbed on board
by the anchor chains, cables, or any other available ladders, took
possession of the dark, protecting hold, crossed all seas, landed on
all coasts, and peopled every country and island, where its chosen
protector and compulsory host—civilized man—has founded
homesteads. Against our will we have helped it, or at any rate made
it possible for it, to carry out a greater extension of range than has
been attained by any other mammal not in subjection to man.[56]
Another remarkable illustration of wandering is afforded by the
souslik, a destructive rodent about the size of a hamster, belonging
to the family of squirrels and sub-family of marmots. Eastern Europe
and Western Siberia are its head-quarters. Albertus Magnus
observed it in the neighbourhood of Ratisbon, where it is now no
longer found, though it has recently appeared in Silesia. Forty or fifty
years ago it was unknown here, but, at the end of the forties or
beginning of the fifties, it appeared no one could tell whence, and
from that time it has pressed slowly westward. Its migrations, too,
have been helped by man, for, though it is not confined to cultivated
fields, these afford the habitat most suited to its taste.
The same holds true of many species of mice, which extend their
territories as the soil is cultivated. On the other hand, man narrows
the possible range of many mammals by deforesting, by draining
marshes, and by otherwise changing the character of whole tracts of
country. In this way, far more than by direct persecution, he does
much to influence the migration of the mammals which have
established themselves in these areas. For the fundamental law
holds good for mammals as for other creatures, that suitable
districts, and these only, will be colonized sooner or later,
notwithstanding the arbitrary and usually rough and cruel
interference of man.
Quite different from such wanderings are the expeditions made by
mammals to secure a temporary betterment. These are probably
undertaken, if not by all species, at least by representatives of every
family in the class; they vary in duration and distance, and may even
have the character of true migrations, but they always come to an
end after a certain time, and the wanderer ultimately returns to his
original place of abode. The intention or hope of reaching better
grazing or hunting grounds, the desire to profit by some casual
opportunity for making life more comfortable, may be said to be the
chief motive of such expeditions. They take place all the year round,
in every latitude and longitude, even in districts where the conditions
of life do not vary materially at different times. The mammal begins
and ends them either alone or in bands, companies or herds,
according as it is wont to live with its fellows; it follows the same
routes with more or less regularity, and appears at certain places at
approximately the same time, yet it is always guided by chance
circumstances.
When the fruits of the sacred fig and other trees surrounding the
temples of the Hindoos are beginning to ripen, the Brahmins who
tend temple and trees await with unctuous devotion the arrival of
their four-footed gods. And not in vain, for the two divinities, Hulman
and Bunder, two species of monkey, unfailingly appear to strip the
luscious fruits from the trees piously planted and tended for their
benefit, and also to rob and plunder in the neighbouring fields and
gardens as long as it is worth while. Then they disappear again, to
the sorrow of their worshippers and the joy of the other inhabitants of
India, whose possessions they have ravaged, as they gathered in
their spoils in their usual ruthless fashion. In Central Africa, when the
chief cereal of that country, the dhurra or Kaffir-millet, comes to
maturity, a dignified and inventive baboon, tried and experienced in
all the critical situations of life, leads down the flock of which, as
leader, he is justifiably proud, to see whether Cousin Man has been
good enough to sow the nutritive grain for him this year also. Or,
about the same time, a band of long-tailed monkeys, under not less
excellent leadership, approaches the edge of the forest in order not
to miss the right moment for a profitable, and, as far as possible,
undisturbed ravaging of the fields. When the golden orange glows
among the dark foliage in South American plantations, the capuchin
monkeys make their appearance, often from a great distance, to
share the fruit with the owner. Other plant-eaters too are led by the
hope of gaining an easier livelihood into regions and districts which
they usually avoid; insectivores periodically follow the insects when
they are for the time abundant at this place or that, and large beasts
of prey keep in the wake of herbivorous mammals, especially of the
herds belonging to man. The lion journeys from place to place,
following the wandering herdsmen on the steppes of Africa; Russian
wolves followed close on the retreat of Napoleon’s defeated army,
pursuing the unfortunate fugitives as far as the middle of Germany.
Otters undertake land journeys to get from one river-basin to
another; lynxes and wolves in winter often traverse very wide
stretches of country. Such journeys bring about a change of
residence, but they do not constitute a migration in the true sense of
the word. It is only exceptionally, too, that they are undertaken from
real necessity, which we must look upon as the cause of all true

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Deployable Multimodal Machine

Intelligence: Applications in Biomedical

Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Process

Deep Learning, Machine Learning and IoT in Biomedical

Computational Intelligence and Data Sciences: Paradigms

Machine Learning Applications in Civil Engineering 1st

Applied Biomedical Engineering Using Artificial

Biomedical Engineering 1st Edition

Multiscale Modelling in Biomedical Engineering (IEEE

Swarm Intelligence and Machine Learning: Applications

ISSN 2195-271X ISSN 2195-2728 (electronic)

1 Preface and A Brief Guide to the Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.5 Other Graspers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Part I Tethered Insertable DMs

4.7 Electrical Schematic Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Part II Inflatable DMs: From Tethered to Untethered

7 Biomimetic Untethered Inflatable Origami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Part III Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions

8.4 Tippysaurus Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

9.4.5 Motion Along an Irregular Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

11.3.4 Head Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

12.6 Characterisation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

13.4 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Part IV Wearable DMs

15.2.3 Transdermal Drug Delivery Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Part V Deployable Sensing Mechanisms

18 Deployable Kirigami for Intra-Abdominal Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

19.5 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

Part VI Intelligent DMs with Multimodal Sensing

21.3 Sim2Real 6-DOF Pose Estimation Using Synthetic Data . . . . . . . 578

Hongliang Ren, Bok Seng Yeow, and Catherine Jiayi Cai

1.1 Steer DMs with Various Actuation Modalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at

H. Ren (B) · B. S. Yeow · C. J. Cai

Robotic applications in confined spaces demand deployment efficacy in space-

1.1 Steer DMs with Various Actuation Modalities

We look at how to program the morphic structures using DM design. Deployable

1.2 Tethered and Insertable DM/DS

Modified fortune-teller grasper

Tetrahedron Miura-fold Cube

1.3 Inflatable DMs: From Tethered to Untethered

Pneumatic systems consisting of positive and negative pressure-driven structures

Chapter 5 demonstrates a deployable mechanism aiming for transoral procedures

1.4 Swallowable Magnetic DMs for Untethered Motions

1.4.1 Permanent Magnet Actuation for External Field

We positioned and adhered permanent magnets to the origami spring backbone in

Chapter 9 characterizes a biomimetic, multi-legged, mechanically-soft, and fold-

1.4.2 Electromagnetic Actuation for External Field

Chapter 12 further explores electromagnetic actuations of DMs for untethered optical

1.4.3 Untethered Magnetoelastomer

Chapter 13 introduces four-jaw forceps with two selectively coupled degrees of

In contrast to using IPMs, magnetoelastomers can confer a continuum magneti-

1.5 Wearable DMs

Chapter 14 presents a worm-like Wearable Origami Rendering Mechanism (WORM)

1.6 Deployable Sensing Mechanisms

Chapter 17 further explores foldable chipless and wireless mechanical sensors,

1.7 Intelligent DMs with Multimodal Sensing

Towards intelligent and adaptive deployable robots, there is a need to integrate

Fig. 1.8 Chapter 20 aims

Simulation Deployable Mechanisms Multimodal Intelligence

DMs allow low-cost 6 degrees-of-freedom (DOFs) motion/load estimation by opti-

1.8 Future Perspectives

The synergistic integration of kinesthetic actuation and sensing of DMs is a valuable