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CHAPTER 7
The Value, Use, and Restoration of Ecosystems
Chapter Outline:
I. Ecosystem Capital
A. Ecosystems as Natural Resources
1. Valuing
i. Private Versus Public Lands
ii. Domesticated Nature
2. Future Pressures
II. Conservation and Production
A. Conservation Versus Preservation
B. Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems
1. Consumptive Use
2. Productive Use
3. Tenure
4. Maximum Sustainable Yield
i. Optimal Population
ii. Precautionary Principle
5. Using the Commons
i. Tragedy of the Commons
ii. Limiting Freedom
iii. Maine Lobsters
6. Public Policies
III. Biomes and Ecosystems Under Pressure
A. Forest Ecosystems
1. Forest Resources Assessments
2. Forests as Obstacles
3. Consequences
4. Types of Forest Management
i. Clear-Cutting
ii. Other Methods
5. Sustainable Forestry
6. Tropical Forests
i. Reasons for Removal
ii. New Trends
iii. Certification
B. Ocean Ecosystems
1. Marine Fisheries
i. The Catch
ii. Aquaculture
iii. The Limits
iv. Georges Bank
v. Management Councils
vi. Other Cod Fisheries
73
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
vii. Fisheries Law Reauthorized
viii. Marine Reserves
2. International Whaling
i. Whale Stakes
ii. Whale Watching
3. Coral Reefs
4. Mangroves
IV. Protection and Restoration
A. Public and Private Lands in the United States
1. Wilderness
2. National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges
3. National Forests
i. Multiple Use
ii. New Forestry
iii. The Roadless Controversy
iv. Fires
4. Protecting Nonfederal Lands
i. Land Trusts
B. Ecosystem Restoration
1. Everglades Restoration
i. Water Release
ii. Funding
2. Pending Restorations
C. Final Thoughts
Learning Objectives:
1. Ecosystem Capital and Services: List several ways natural ecosystems have great economic value (as they
provide goods and services vital to human well-being).
2. Type of Uses: Describe the differences between the consumptive and productive uses to which ecosystems may
be put.
3. Biomes and Ecosystems Under Pressure: Describe how forests and oceans are examples of ecosystem under
pressure, and describe sustainable ways to fill demands for their products.
4. Protection and Restoration: Explain how the public and private management of lands is key to keeping habitats
both protected and productive, and describe an example of an ecosystem that needed to be restored to a more
healthy state.
Instructional Goals:
1. Natural ecosystems provide a number of goods and services to humans that cannot be replaced.
2. The concept of conservation implies the management and use of goods and resources in a way that the use does
not adversely affect the viability of species or ecosystems to renew themselves. The concept of preservation
implies that a species or ecosystem will not be used, irrespective of its possible utility to humans. When
conservation and preservation either have not happened, or have not been successful, restoration of the
ecosystem is necessary to return it to a natural state.
74
3. Management of ecosystems as sustainable resources requires knowledge that humans do not yet have.
4. Substantial progress has been made toward attaining the information necessary for humans to interact
sustainably with the world’s ecosystems.
Concepts and Connections:
Nearly everything can be connected to the material in this chapter. Our climate is dependent upon the
movement of energy (heat) through the water cycle. Changes in the pattern of heat distribution produce changes in
our weather—El Niño and La Niña. When unplanned flooding occurs, it is frequently due to changes in the ability of
an ecosystem to assist in the cycling of water. Humans are dependent on soil for our food; soil building and erosion
control are services provided by ecosystems. For many years it was common to hear that the solution to pollution is
dilution. This statement came from the observation that nature provided waste treatment services if we did not
overwhelm them. We can learn from nature how to maximize the benefits we can obtain from it. To do this we need
to understand the world around us.
Concepts in Context:
Humans are completely dependent on the goods and services provided by nature. Nature maintains the
nutrient cycles (Chapter 4), water cycle (Chapter 10), and ecosystem balance (Chapter 5). An ecosystem’s carrying
capacity (Chapter 5) for each species determines the quantity of resources we can use. Without biodiversity (Chapter
6) the goods and services would be limited. The variety of niches and habitats (Chapter 3) within an ecosystem
(Chapter 5) provide humans with a wide array of species from which we obtain goods and services. The ability to
grow food (Chapter 12) depends on soil (Chapter 11). The tools (pesticides) we use to protect our food resources
(Chapter 13) primarily come from fossil fuels (Chapter 14). Additionally, fossil fuels have replaced human and
animal energy in food production (Chapter 12). Alternative energy (Chapter 16) and nuclear power (Chapter 15) are
dependent on ecosystem goods and services. Biotic potential and environmental resistance (Chapter 5) are important
for understanding Maximum Sustained Yield. The maintenance of global climate is explained by the hydrologic
cycle (Chapter 10). Air pollution (Chapter 19) and water pollution (Chapter 20) adversely impact the goods and
services provided by nature. How we handle solid (Chapter 20) and hazardous (Chapter 22) waste can adversely
impact the nature’s ability to provide goods and services. Global climate change and ozone depletion (Chapter 18)
can also have adverse impacts on the goods and services.
Key Terms and Vocabulary:
Wetlands, deserts, tundra, provisioning services, regulating and cultural services, supporting services, natural
resources, public goods, conservation, preservation, consumptive use, productive use, maximum sustainable yield
(MSY), carrying capacity, optimal population, total allowable catch (TAC), precautionary principle, commons,
restoration ecology, deforestation, silviculture, clear-cutting, selective cutting, shelter-wood cutting, sustained yield,
sustainable forest management, Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP), silviculture, sustained yield,
sustainable forest management, catch shares, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management
Reauthorization Act, coral bleaching, ocean acidification, wilderness, national parks, national wildlife refuges, new
forestry, Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP).
75
Discussion, Activities, and Labs:
1. Ask the class to list the material goods and services obtained from ecosystems. Ask the class to list one to five
ways we use each of the material goods or services. Are there resources (goods) we use/need that do not come
from nature? Are there ways that we can obtain clean water or air without resources (goods) obtained from
nature?
2. Ask the students if they have gone to a national park, wildlife refuge, national or state forest, state park, and so
on. List where the students have been. Ask them to list what they liked and did not like about the place. Ask the
class to list what benefit those who have never gone to a particular park, refuge, or forest might obtain from the
existence of the park, refuge, or forest (goods and services).
3. Provide groups of five to six students with resources and services obtained from the environment. These can be
pieces of paper indicating enough oil to fuel 10 cars for 50 years with each car having fuel efficiency equal to
one bus, enough food to feed 20 people for 100 years, enough wood to build 30 houses, and so forth. Various
quantities of resources should be given to each group. Have each group determine how many people can be
supported, and for how long based upon the available resources. Ask the students to come up with 10 ideas
about what can be done to increase the number of people or the length of time that the resources will last.
(Fewer people and more efficient use of resources are the main categories for changing the length of resource
availability.) Have each group designate a spokesperson and discuss the conclusions of each group as a class.
4. Pick the five most important items to your daily life, (car, stereo, computer, clothing, and food). For each of
these items list the goods and services necessary for the existence of that item. Use the Internet and library
resources to determine all the components of the item and to discover all the environmental goods and services
necessary for each component of the item.
Suggested Lecture Format:

I. Ecosystem Capital
Natural ecosystems provide a number of goods and services to humans that cannot be replaced.
A. Ecosystems as Natural Resources—“A natural area will receive protection only if the value a
society assigns to services provided in its natural state is higher than the value the society assigns to
converting it to a more direct human use.” See also Discussion Topic #1 and #4.
1. Valuing—Although economics helps us to assign value to services, ecological values are
difficult to assign a monetary value.
i. Private Versus Public Lands—Both privately and publicly owned lands can be used
sustainably; whether or not they are is determined by the current human need for the land.
ii. Domesticated Nature—“What we call natural may only be an illusion because humankind
has so converted and domesticated natural systems that it is difficult to find areas of the
world without human impact.”
2. Future Pressures—Increases in the number of humans will undoubtedly put more pressure on
ecosystems to provide their natural services.
II. Conservation and Production

The concept of conservation implies the management and use of goods and resources in a way that the
use does not adversely affect the viability of species or ecosystems to renew themselves. The concept
of preservation implies that a species or ecosystem will not be used, irrespective of its possible utility
to humans. When conservation and preservation either have not happened, or have not been successful,
restoration of the ecosystem is necessary to return it to a natural state. See Discussion Topic #3.
76
A. Conservation Versus Preservation—“Conservation of natural biotas and ecosystems does not
imply no use by humans whatsoever rather, the aim of conservation is to manage or regulate use
so that it does not exceed the capacity of the species or system to renew itself. The objective of
preservation of species and ecosystems is to ensure their continuity, regardless of their potential
utility.”
B. Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems—Humans use natural ecosystems in two major
ways (consumptive and productive).
1. Consumptive Use—People use natural resources to provide for their needs.
2. Productive Use—“The exploitation of ecosystem resources for economic gain.”
3. Tenure—Tenure refers to the property rights over land or water. Four types of tenure include: 1)
private ownership, 2) communal ownership, 3) state ownership 4) open access.
4. Maximum Sustainable Yield—“The highest possible rate of use that the system can match with
its own rate of replacement and maintenance.” See Figure 7-5.
i. Optimal Population—“Theoretically the optimal population for harvesting MSY is just
halfway to the carrying capacity.”
ii. Precautionary Principle—When there is uncertainty about the maximum sustainable
yield, it is best to err on the side of protection of the natural resource.
5. Using the Commons—A commons refers to a resource that is owned by many people or that
can be owned by none. A commons has open access for all users.
i. Tragedy of the Commons—Common areas are susceptible to the Tragedy of the
Commons. Since the resource is used by many but owned by none it becomes exploited
easily. When users note that the resource is becoming overused no-one wants to withdraw
their use and lose profits because they know that the others will most likely keep
overusing the resource.
ii. Limiting Freedom—Private ownership and/or regulating access to the commons can
possibly prevent the Tragedy of the Commons from occurring. See Table 7-3.
iii. Maine Lobsters—In Maine an informal local set of rules amongst fishers has helped keep
the state’s lobster populations thriving.
6. Public Policies—When MSY, social, and economic factors are taken into account, “public
policies can be established and enforced that protect natural resources effectively.”
II. Biomes and Ecosystems Under Pressure

Management of ecosystems as sustainable resources requires knowledge that humans do not yet
have.
A. Forest Ecosystems—Forests are the most productive ecosystems. “In spite of this value, the major
threat to the world’s forest is not simply their exploitation, but rather their total destruction.”
1. Forest Resources Assessments—The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. See Figure 7-
10.
2. Forests as Obstacles—Forests are being cleared at high rates because despite their productivity,
they are very difficult for humans to use for food.
3. Consequences—Clearing a forest has significant consequences for the land and people.
4. Types of Forest Management—“The practice of forest management, usually with the objective
of producing a specific crop (hardwood, pulp, softwood, wood chips, etc.), is called
silviculture.”
i. Clear-Cutting—The process of “removing and entire stand at a time.”
77
ii. Other Methods—Selective cutting and shelter-wood cutting can be more sustainable
that clear-cutting forests.
5. Sustainable Forestry—“Forests are to be managed as ecosystems, with the objectives of
maintaining the biodiversity and integrity of the ecosystem, but also to meet the social,
economic, cultural, and spiritual needs of present and future generations.”
6. Tropical Forests—These forests are being removed at a very high rate and this is of great
concern.
i. Reasons for Removal—The major reason for tropical forest deforestation is their
replacement with pastures for agriculture.
ii. New Trends—Logging companies are taking advantage of the desperation of
developing nations with rain forests.
iii. Certification—“Certification makes it possible for consumers to choose wood products
that have been harvested sustainably.”
B. Ocean Ecosystems—Oceans cover much of the earth and provide value economic and ecological
services.
1. Marine Fisheries—“Fisheries provide employment for at least 200 million people and account
for more than 15% of the total human consumption of protein.”
i. The Catch—The global fish catch in addition to the production by aquaculture equals
the total world production of fish for consumption each year.
ii. Aquaculture—The farming of organisms who live in the water. This type of farming is
not without its own problems.
iii. The Limits—“The world fish catch may appear stable, but many species and areas are
overfished.” See Figure 7-13.
iv. Georges Bank—When fishing intensity doubled, economically important fish declined
drastically. See Figure 7-14.
v. Management Councils—“The Magnuson Act established eight regional management
councils made up of government officials and industry representatives.”
vi. Other Cod Fisheries—The Grand Banks experienced a similar crash of the cod
population.
vii. Fisheries Law Reauthorized—In new legislation, called the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act, the councils were required to set
catch limits based on scientific evidence of the size and health of marine populations.
viii. Marine Reserves— “Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are areas of the coasts and
sometimes open oceans that have been closed to all commercial fishing and mineral
mining.”
2. International Whaling—Whales being overharvested in the open oceans led to the moratorium
on commercial whaling. See Table 7-4.
i. Whale Stakes—Japan, Iceland, and Norway have persisted in killing whales. See
Figure 7-16.
ii. Whale Watching—“Whale watching has become an important tourist enterprise in
coastal areas.” See Figure 7-17.
3. Coral Reefs—“Coral reefs are among the most diverse and biologically productive ecosystems
in the world.”
4. Mangroves “have the unique ability to take root and grow in shallow marine sediments. There
they protect the coasts from damage due to storms and erosion and form a rich refuge and
nursery for many marine fish.” “Between 1983 and the present, half of the world’s 45 million
acres of mangroves were cut down, with percentages ranging from 40% to nearly 80%.”
78
IV. Protection and Restoration
Substantial progress has been made toward attaining the information necessary for humans to interact
sustainably with the world’s ecosystems.
A. Public and Private Lands in the United States—“The United States is unique among the countries
of the world in having set aside a major proportion of its landmass for public ownership.” See
Figure 7-19. See also Discussion Topic #2.
1. Wilderness—Preserved lands with the greatest amount of protection.
2. National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges—Intended to protect areas of “great scenic or
unique ecological significance, protect the wildlife species, and provide public access for
recreation and other uses.”
3. National Forests—740 million acres in the United States.
i. Multiple Use—“allowed for a combination of extracting resources (grazing, logging, and
mining), using the forest for recreation, and protecting watersheds and wildlife.”
ii. New Forestry—“Involves cutting trees less frequently, leaving wider buffer zones along
streams to reduce erosion and protect fish habitats, leaving dead logs and debris in the
forest to replenish the soil, and protecting broad landscapes.”
iii. The Roadless Controversy—The Clinton administration produced a moratorium on
building new logging roads which the Bush administration tried to replace and the
Obama administration intends to uphold.
iv. Fires—“The years of 2006 and 2007 set new records for forest fires.”
4. Protecting Nonfederal Lands—Voters in local areas decided to pay taxes to keep open spaces
for parks.
i. Land Trusts—Private land trusts are “non-profit organizations that will accept either
outright gifts of land or easements but retain ownership of the parcel.”
B. Ecosystem Restoration—“The intent of ecosystem restoration is to repair the damage to specific

lands and waters so that normal ecosystem integrity, resilience, and productivity return.”
1. Everglades Restoration—“The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) is expected
to take 36 years and almost $11 billion to complete.” See Figure 7-22.
i. Water Release—By removing levees and canals “new water flowage is designed to
restore the river of grass, thereby restoring the 2.4 million acres of Everglades.”
ii. Funding—In some cases federal and state funds are used to purchase private property for
the purpose of restoring ecosystems.
2. Pending Restorations—Examples include: the California Bay Delta, Chesapeake Bay, Platte
River Basin, the Upper Mississippi River System, the Galapagos Islands, the Illinois River, the
Brazilian Atlantic forest, and Tampa Bay.
C. Finals Thoughts—“Other areas that are in trouble include wetlands drained for agriculture and
recreation, overgrazed rangelands, and rivers that are overdrawn for irrigation of water.
Review Questions: Possible Answers

1. How did individuals act to help scientists in the Caribbean Sea?
Citizen scientists (SCUBA divers) were trained to record which types of fish they see during dives.
Scientist were then able to keep track of what is going on in the reef ecosystem.

79
2. What are some goods and services provided by natural ecosystems?
See Table 7-1. Some examples may include: food, water, erosion control, climate regulation, recreation,
aesthetic value, timber, fuel, food and disease regulation, medicine, nutrient cycling, pest regulation, air quality
regulation, education, and waste processing.
3. Compare the concept of ecosystem capital with that of natural resources. What do the two reveal about values?
Ecosystem capital includes the goods and services produced by the species within an ecosystem and the
interactions between the biotic and abiotic portions of ecosystems. Ecosystems, and biota in them, are expected
to produce something of economic value. Within this context, natural resources are only those items in an
ecosystem that have a monetary value and things with a monetary value are not a resource. Ecosystem capital
does not require that a monetary value is known or exists. All that matters with ecosystem capital is that there is
ecological value.
4. Compare and contrast the terms conservation and preservation.

“Conservation of natural biotas and ecosystems does not—or at least should not—imply no use by humans
whatsoever, although this may sometimes be temporarily expedient in a management program to allow a certain
species to recover its numbers. Rather, the aim of conservation is to manage or regulate use so that it does not
exceed the capacity of the species or system to renew itself. The objective of preservation of species and
ecosystems is to ensure their continuity, regardless of their potential utility. Thus, a second-growth forest can be
conserved (trees can be cut, but at a rate that allows the forest to recover), but an old-growth forest must be
preserved (it must not be cut down at all).”
5. Differentiate between consumptive use and productive use. Give examples of each.
“Productive (use) is the exploitation of ecosystem resources for economic gain. Thus products such as
timber and fish (and now, bush meat) are harvested and sold for national or international markets.”
Consumptive use is “when people harvest natural resources in order to provide for their needs for food, shelter,
tools, fuel, and clothing. Thus, people are hunting for game, fishing, or gathering fruits and nuts in order to meet
their food needs, or else they are gathering natural products like firewood, forage for animals, or wood and palm
leaves to construct shelters or to use as traditional medicines.”
6. What does maximum sustained yield mean? What factors complicate its application?
Maximum sustained yield (MSY) is the “highest possible rate of use that the system can match with its own
rate of replacement or maintenance.” The problem with implementing MSY is that we do not know the highest
recruitment rate for a species with a specified ecosystem but we make decisions as if we do know. The optimal
population size to obtain MSY is one half of the size that it would be at the carrying capacity. We do not know
an ecosystem’s carry capacity for various species. Additionally, the carrying capacity will vary from year to
year. When the maximum sustained yield is exceeded, the availability of the resource declines.
7. What is the tragedy of the commons? Give an example of a common pool resource, and describe ways of
protecting such resources.
The tragedy of the commons is “where a resource is owned by many people in common or by no one” and
the resource is used by each individual to maximize his/her benefit. Resource exploitation is expected when
each individual maximizes his/her benefit without regard to the ecosystem’s ability to sustain the level of use.
Examples of a common pool resource are federal grasslands, coast and open-ocean fisheries, groundwater,
nationally owned woodlands and forests, and the atmosphere. “One arrangement that can mitigate the tragedy is
private ownership. Where private ownership is unworkable, the alternative is to regulate access to the commons.
Regulation should allow for (1) protection, so that the benefits derived from the commons can be sustained, (2)
fairness in access rights, and (3) mutual consent of the regulated.”
8. When are restoration efforts needed? Describe efforts underway to restore the Everglades.
Restoration efforts are needed “to repair damage to specific lands and waters so that normal ecosystem
integrity, resilience, and productivity return.” The ecological problems that can be ameliorated by restoration
include those resulting from soil erosion, surface strip mining, draining wetlands, coastal damage, agricultural
use, deforestation, overgrazing, desertification, and the eutrophication of lakes. “The plan calls for removing
80
240 miles of levees and canals and creating a system of reservoirs and underground wells to capture water for
release during the dry season. The new flowage is designed to restore the river of grass, thereby restoring the
2.4 million acres of Everglades not to original state, but at least to a healthy system.”
9. Describe some of the findings of the most recent FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment. What are the key
elements of sustainable forest management?
“Major findings of the new assessment are as follows: 1. In 2005, the world’s forest cover was 3.95 billion
hectares (9.8 billion acre). 2. Deforestation continues to occur, primarily in the developing countries. 3.
Throughout the world, the most important forest product is wood for industrial use; half of the forest lands are
designated for ‘production,’ where the wood is harvested for pulp (paper source), lumber, and fuelwood. FRA
2005 reports that there have not been any drastic changes in forest production over the past 15 years, except for
the steady increase in plantation forests. 4. Worldwide, about 9% of the forests are protected as national parks
or reserves. An additional 65% of the world’s forests have protection as one of their designated functions. 5.
The role of forests in climate change was formally acknowledged in November 2001 at a meeting of the signers
of the Kyoto Protocol in Marrakech, Morocco. The outcome of this accord is a much more thorough inventory
of the role of forests as carbon stores, sources of carbon emissions, and carbon sinks. FRA 2005 estimates that
forest ecosystems in 2005 contained 638 Gt (gigatons) of carbon, more than the amount of carbon as CO2 in the
atmosphere. Half of this carbon is in living and dead wood, and half in forest soils.”
The key elements of sustainable forest management include: 1. Maintain adequate forest cover to support
“the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of forestry,” 2. Conserve biological diversity, 3. Protect
forest health and vitality, 4. Manage productive functions of forest resources, 5. Protect functions of forest
resources, 6. Address socioeconomic function, and 7. Provide the legal framework to support the other six
elements.
10. What is deforestation, and what factors are primarily responsible for deforestation of the tropics?
“Deforestation is the removal of forest and replacement by another land use. Deforestation is caused by a
number of factors, all of which come down to the fact that the countries involved are in need of greater
economic development and have rapid population growth. The FRA 2000 study concluded that the current
major cause of deforestation is conversion to pastures and agriculture.”
11. What is the global pattern of exploitation of fisheries? Compare the yield of capture fisheries with that of
aquaculture.
“The harvest has increased remarkably since 1950, when it was just 20 million metric tons. By 2003 it had
reached 132 million metric tons. Aquaculture accounted for 41.9 million tons, or 32% of the world fish supplies
that year. Based on the trends shown in the figure, the ‘capture’ fisheries leveled off in the 1990s, and the
continued rise in fish production is due to aquaculture.”
12. Compare the objectives of the original Magnuson Act with those of the 2006 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act.
The original Magnuson Act extended the limits of jurisdiction over fisheries from 12 miles offshore to 200
miles offshore. It also “established eight regional management councils made up of government officials and
industry representatives.” In 2006 the reauthorization kept the regional councils but required them to “set catch
limits based on sound scientific advice from the council’s Scientific and Statistical Committee.
13. What is the current status of the large whales? Discuss the controversy over continued whaling by some
countries.
In 1986 the International Whaling Commission instituted a moratorium on the hunting of all whale species
to allow for recovery. “The moratorium has never been lifted; however, some limited whaling by Japan,
Iceland, and Norway continues, as does harvesting by indigenous people in Alaska, the Russian Federation, and
Greenland.” Because these countries continue to kill whales despite the moratorium at levels higher than
necessary for “science” and ignore the commission’s authority, the controversy continues.
81
14. How are coral reefs and mangroves being threatened, and how is this destruction linked to other environmental
problems?
Coral reefs are being threatened by bleaching (caused by increases in ocean temperature) and exploitation
of reefs for fish, shellfish, and other sea life in addition to tropical fish harvesting. Mangroves are being
threatened by logging, coastal land development, and the development of shrimp ponds. The destruction of
coral reefs and mangroves are linked to global climate change and the overexploitation of resources.
15. Compare the different levels of protection versus use for the different categories of federal lands in the United
States.
Wilderness: “Permanent protection of these undeveloped and unexploited areas so that natural ecological
process can operate freely. Permanent structures, roads, motor vehicles, and other mechanized transport are
prohibited. Timber harvesting is excluded. Some livestock grazing and mineral development are allowed where
such use existed previously; hiking and other similar activities are also allowed.”
National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges: “(T)he intent is to protect areas of great scenic or unique
ecological significance, protect important wildlife species, and provide public access for recreation and other
uses.”
National Forests: Multiple activities are attempted, such as recreation, timber harvesting, mining, grazing,
and protection of watersheds and wildlife.
16. Describe the progression of management of our national forests during the last half century. What are two
current issues, and how are they being resolved?
Management of our forests began in the 1950s as a multiple use strategy, “which meant a combination of
extracting resources (grazing, logging, and mining), using the forest for recreation, and protecting watersheds
and wildlife. Although the intent was to achieve a balance among these uses, multiple use actually emphasized
the extractive uses; that is, it was output oriented and served to justify the ongoing exploitation of public lands
by private, often favored, interest groups.”
“A forestry-management strategy was introduced in the late 1980s called New Forestry. This practice of
forestry is directed more toward protecting the ecological health and diversity of forests than toward producing
a maximum harvest of logs. The Forest Service began adopting some of these management principles in the
early 1990s, and they formed the core of what is now the official management paradigm of the Forest Service:
ecosystem management. This paradigm has been adopted by all federal agencies managing public lands.”
17. How do land trusts work, and what roles do they play in preserving natural lands?
A private land trust is “a non-profit organization that will accept either outright gifts of land or easements—
arrangements in which the landowner gives up development rights into the future, but retains ownership of the
parcel. The land trust may also purchase land to protect it from development.”
“Land trusts are proving to be a vital link in the preservation of ecosystem. The land trusts are serving the
common desires of landowners and rural dwellers to preserve the sense of place that links the present to the
past. At the same time, the undeveloped land remains in its natural state, sustaining natural population and
promising to do so into the future.”
82
Thinking Environmentally: Possible Answers
1. It is an accepted fact that both consumptive use and productive use of natural ecosystems are necessary for high-
level human development. To what degree should consumptive use hold priority over productive use? Think
about more than one resource (lumber, bush meat, etc.).
Opinions of students, and therefore their answers, will vary. Although productive use of environmental
resources is necessary to continue the level of economic profit that humans have gained from the environment
in the past, the trend in the future will undoubtedly be towards consumptive use, especially as human population
numbers increase.
2. Consider the problem presented by Hardin of open access to the commons without regulation. To what degree
should the freedom of use of these areas be limited by the authorities? Make use of Table 7-3 when you defend
your position.
Answers will vary. It is well established that common areas will be exploited and authorities need to
regulate such areas.
3. Consider the benefits and problems associated with coastal and open-ocean aquaculture. Is it a useful practice
overall? Justify your answer.
Coastal aquaculture provides food sources for humans without the bycatch that is possible in the open areas
of the ocean. However, in order to make suitable spaces for such aquaculture mangroves are being converted.
Such mangroves actually provide significantly more environmental and economic benefit to the area than the
aquaculture. Also, because pollution levels are highest near the coast, contamination of the populations is
common. In open-ocean aquaculture, on the other hand, pollution is not as much of a problem. The problem
with open-ocean aquaculture is that production levels are very low.
4. Kofi Annan stated that we are in need of a “new ethic of stewardship.” What principles should this new ethic be
built upon?
As in the example of the Billion Tree Campaign, the most important principle for this “new ethic of
stewardship” will be acting out of concern for other world citizens. When we consider not only our needs, but
those of the others around us and those of future generations we will make much more sustainable
environmental decisions.
83
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Environmental Science A Global Concern 13th Edition

Environmental Science 14th Edition Miller Solutions

Environmental Science 15th Edition Miller Solutions

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Environmental Science A Global Concern 13th Edition

Principles of Environmental Science 8th Edition

Concepts and Connections:

Key Terms and Vocabulary:

Suggested Lecture Format:

II. Conservation and Production

II. Biomes and Ecosystems Under Pressure

B. Ecosystem Restoration—“The intent of ecosystem restoration is to repair the damage to specific

Review Questions: Possible Answers

4. Compare and contrast the terms conservation and preservation.

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