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Introduction to Global Leadership

Practices
Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes and Ina

Aust
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Humanity is facing pressing global challenges that are significantly impacting both society
and business. There is enormous pressure to act. Global leadership is needed to ensure
the changes necessary to address these challenges are made. This chapter starts by intro-
ducing the concept of global leadership and the complexities inherent in its practice. We
then reflect on the normative nature of assuming responsibility for global challenges and
how to navigate the complexities involved. A comparison of leadership research perspec-
tives is presented to enable exploration of how they impact our understanding of global
leadership practices and to inform an in-depth understanding of the meaning, context
and challenges of these practices. The chapter ends with an overview of the subsequent
chapters of the book.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explore the complexities of global leadership challenges.
• Understand the characteristics of global leadership practices.
• Understand the impact of different leadership research perspectives.
• Get an overview of the philosophy and content of this book.
Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

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INTRODUCTION 3
CASE STUDY 1 CEMS – A GLOBAL ALLIANCE TO PREPARE FUTURE GLOBAL

BUSINESS LEADERS
CEMS, the Global Alliance in Management Education, is a cooperation of 34 academic in-
stitutions, 74 multinational companies and eight social enterprises and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) from across the globe. The alliance is dedicated to educating and
preparing future generations of global business leaders to work in a multilingual, multicul-
tural, interconnected business world. CEMS’ purpose is to provide world-class business
education that prepares students to take leadership roles in complex international cor-
porate settings. CEMS’ overall mission is to cultivate global citizenship with a particular
emphasis on three principles:
1. The pursuit of excellence with high standards of performance and ethical conduct.
2. Understanding and drawing upon cultural diversity with respect and empathy.
3. Professional responsibility and accountability in relation to society.
The initiative for CEMS took off in 1988, with four founding European business schools.
1988 was a crucial year in the history of European integration, when European leaders
such as Jacques Delors, Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand decided to relaunch the
game-changing next step of European integration: the ambitious plan to create a pow-
erful common currency. Mirroring the modus operandi of the European Union’s (EU) se-
nior leaders, and driven by the same pro-European spirit, the leaders of these four top
founding European business schools were convinced that the time had come to break new
ground. They informally agreed to develop a joint programme that would educate and
train multilingual business leaders with a truly European understanding and perspective.
The collapse of the communist bloc in Central and Eastern Europe and the dissolution
of the Soviet Union, combined with the IT revolution, opened the door to a period of
extraordinarily rapid economic globalization. The Western political leaders acted on the
expectation that intensified global trade, and in particular the integration of China into
the world economy, would open the door to rising global prosperity and a gradual but
universal move towards Western economic and political norms. The CEMS’ programme
responded to this change in the world order by transforming itself from a purely European
initiative into the pioneering global programme it has become. Today CEMS comprises ac-
ademic institutions from 34 countries on six continents, making it a more diverse alliance
than it was at its inception.
While globalization remains a structuring force in the world economy, the sense of opti-
mism – or as some might say, hubris or naïveté – that prevailed 20 years ago has given way
to a more sober assessment of global economic and political reality. The rise of China and
India, which has been far swifter than anticipated, has opened a new era of great power
competition, rivalry and tension. The failure of Western-led wars and military interven-
tions, combined with self-inflicted, near-catastrophic US and European financial crises,
have diminished the US and Europe’s joint standing in the world. Even more so as China
has proven that Western-style democracy is no prerequisite for decades of extraordinary
economic success.
Integrating all the diverse members of the CEMS alliance at the same pace is becoming
more and more of a challenge for the CEMS’ community. Building unity within the alliance
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4 GLOBAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
is something that has to be worked on every day. The original core values of CEMS are still
valid: ‘prepare future generations of international business leaders contributing to a more
open, sustainable and inclusive world’.
Source: Boonstra and Eguiguren (2023); CEMS (2022).
INTRODUCTION
The values-based, purpose-driven alliance that is CEMS comprises a community of almost

20,000 students and alumni across the globe. The mission of the alliance is to develop students
to become responsible global business leaders ‘contributing to a more open, sustainable and
inclusive world’. This ambitious mission is born out of the complex global challenges facing
humanity. The CEMS’ Master programme in International Management is grounded in
values such as ethical conduct, cultural diversity and professional responsibility. On the day
of their graduation most CEMS’ students formally commit to uphold these values and make
a commitment to practising global citizenship. The concept of global citizenship is based
on the premise that one’s identity transcends geographical or political boundaries, and that
responsibilities and rights derive from a sense of belonging to the global community and
to humanity.1 Throughout the CEMS’ Master programme, the concept of global citizenship
serves as a framework for the learning experience. Students are encouraged to take an active
leadership role in their local communities and to collaborate in global projects that contribute
to societal progress. All these experiences are designed to develop global business leaders who
will contribute to a more open, sustainable and inclusive world.
We are living in a critical time in history in which organizations are facing major global
challenges, including the climate crisis, loss of biodiversity, war, refugees and immigration,
inequality and ethical issues of artificial intelligence (AI) to mention just a few. The acronym
VUCA (Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity and Ambiguity) is used to describe this global
situation. Volatility stands for the accelerated rate of change; Uncertainty represents the lack of
predictability; Complexity is the interconnectedness of cause-and-effect forces; and Ambiguity
is the lack of clarity.2 This VUCA environment requires companies, their leaders and their
stakeholders to be capable of responding to radical changes. With this comes the call for more
and better leadership.
The term leadership is seductive and overused. Critical authors even state that leadership
does not involve any significant change to professional practice, but merely indicates an
interest in relabelling managerial work as ‘leadership’ to make it sound more fashionable and
impressive.3 Historically, leadership has primarily been defined as characteristics or compe-
tencies of an individual. Throughout human history thinkers like Plato, Machiavelli or Sun
Tzu have given advice on leadership. Taking a historical perspective is interesting because
it makes clear how the perception of ‘good leadership’ has evolved over time, and how it has
historically differed across cultures.4

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INTRODUCTION 5
As cross-border business operations started to become more frequent in the late 1960s,
management researchers started to focus on the global aspects of modern leadership. The
field of comparative international management began to analyse differences and congru-
ences between leadership styles in different cultures.5 The popular studies of Hofstede6 and
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner7 established the field of cross-cultural management,
defining cultural dimensions that were intended to be helpful in coping with potential cultural
differences. The progress achieved in this field is founded on fundamental research questions,
such as: which definition of leadership is appropriate in an international context, how do
cultural differences influence followership, and what leadership style should be used to be
an effective leader in another culture? More recently, House8 and his research team worked
on a culturally endorsed leadership theory, drawn from the empirical findings of the GLOBE
study.
In addition to the comparative and cross-cultural management fields, studies on expatriate
adjustment conducted in the 1980s and 1990s accumulated a body of knowledge on leadership
competencies for working internationally.9 Other research constructs like cultural intelli-
gence, global mindset and cosmopolitanism attracted a lot of attention as essential attributes
of global leaders.10
While this vast amount of research has enriched the understanding of the domain of global
leadership, there is still considerable theoretical fragmentation, which makes it difficult to refer
to a coherent body of knowledge.11 Researchers like Mendenhall and colleagues12 or Zander
and colleagues13 are making efforts to advance and build a more robust theory to better under-
stand global leadership.
A century of management research confirms that leadership has been primarily associated
with characteristics or competencies of a charismatic person. Global leadership, however, is
an inherently multi-level construct that needs to be analysed not only at the individual level,
but also at organizational and societal levels. A leader-centric perspective endangers progress
in tackling complex global problems. Practitioners and scholars alike warn against relying on
a wise ‘guru’ leader or ‘hero CEO’ construct.14
Solving complex global problems requires collective responsibility and engaging and
empowering others to make necessary changes. This means global leadership should be under-
stood as a process in which an individual leader is one among many in a leadership system.15
The essence of the leadership process lies in interactive influence, where the leader’s influence
on followers and the reciprocal influence of followers on the leader contribute to the dynamics
of leadership.16
We will demonstrate in this chapter and throughout this book that global leadership is
not defined by a person, but by a process. This doesn’t mean that we are not looking at the
behaviours and skills of individual global leaders; on the individual level, we understand global
leadership as a mindset and a choice, not as a hierarchical position. By reading this book, you
will get a deeper understanding of the experience and practice of leading in a global context
and you will have a chance to reflect on your possible role as a future leader. Our goal is for
you to understand who you are, and to realize what you need to do to operate in an effective,
responsible and sustainable way to contribute to a more open, sustainable and inclusive world,

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as mentioned in the CEMS’ values statement. You will discover that leading is an everyday
activity and practice rather than the heroic myth that is often presented.
In the following paragraphs we will focus on the complex challenges of global leadership,
and how to address them. We present different leadership research perspectives and explore
how these perspectives impact our understanding of global leadership practices. Finally, we
will provide an overview of the other chapters of the book.
PAUSE FOR REFLECTION

The introductory case describes the changes in the economic and political world order
over the last decades. How can you explain that ‘globalization’ was interpreted as
‘Westernization’ in many countries around the world? How can BRICS+6 be seen as
a reaction to this Western view?
GLOBAL LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES
So, what are these pressing global challenges humanity is facing and what do they mean for
global leadership? The following meta-dimensions and their components are acknowledged to
have a relevant impact on society and business:
z The planetary dimension: ecological challenges related to climate change, biosphere

integrity, water scarcity, ocean acidification, atmospheric and stratospheric pollution on
the planet.
z The societal dimension: challenges related to global mobility, pandemics, systemic ine-
quality, diversity and inclusion.
z The ethical dimension: challenges related to human rights, regulation of artificial intelli-
gence, disruptive technologies and the future of work.
z The geopolitical dimension: challenges related to peace, justice, conflicts and war, polit-
ical polarization, spread of ‘alternative facts’ and ‘fake news’.
All these challenges have specific implications for society and business. It has become clear
that it is not sufficient to deal with these problems as separate challenges; they are all inter-
connected. The World Economic Forum warns of a looming ‘polycrisis’ era where multiple
concurrent economic, political and ecological shocks will converge and ‘the whole is worse
than the sum of the parts’.17
To tackle these pressing global problems, the United Nations General Assembly formulated
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. The SDGs provide a comprehensive framework designed to guide collective
thinking and action about how to solve our planet’s problems (Figure 1.1).
A focal point of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is the notion of partnership.18
The urgency, the complexity and the global nature of the situation is forcing a multitude of
diverse actors to interact. In the search for solutions, governments of developing and devel-
oped countries, international organizations, corporations, universities, NGOs and individuals
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INTRODUCTION 7
Figure 1.1 The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
of current and future generations are collaborating like never before. There is enormous pres-
sure to act and global leadership is needed if the SDGs are to be achieved.
Collaboration for Societal Progress
Contributing to societal progress is a central theme in the CEMS’ purpose statement. The
founding partners were convinced that making profit is not the only objective of companies,
but that they must also produce solutions for society and for the common good.19 Therefore, it
is no surprise that the academic curricula of the CEMS’ Master in International Management
aim to foster understanding and dissemination of the SDGs. Another example of the CEMS’
commitment to the SDGs is evidenced by the various activities in which CEMS engages in
collaboration with partners of the global CEMS’ network. For example, CEMS participates
in the Estoril conferences,20 the United Nations (UN)-supported PRME initiative,21 and New
Generation Consulting.22 Global collaboration and partnerships among societal actors are an
essential strategy to solve the global challenges of the SDGs.23

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GLOBAL PARTNERSHIPS TO FOSTER SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Partnerships come in many different shapes and sizes. They can take the shape of
public–private partnerships, business–NGO partnerships, government–NGO partner-
ships or all of them in one. Types of collaboration differ in terms of the level of engage-
ment of the partners, governance arrangements, structural make-up, principles and
goals.24 They operate at local, regional, national and global levels. Micro-partnerships
tend to be project oriented and focus on a specific activity or a particular country, for
example, advancing a specific sustainability-related product, service or initiative on
one country. Meso-partnerships are broader sustainability business ecosystems that
aim to create coherent solutions for sustainability of a certain market or supply chain.
Macro-partnerships have wide issue definitions and broad objectives, covering several
sectors, countries and global activities.25
Large sustainability-focused cross-sector alliances engage not just with businesses and sup-
pliers, but also regulators, policymakers, the social sector, customers, competitors, academics
and researchers. These large alliances can be innovative vehicles for engaging with a broad
spectrum of societal actors and are considered the most effective way to respond to the SDGs.26
The question is how well current and future leaders are equipped to plan, respond to and
navigate such complex collaborations? Most global leadership challenges result from inter-
dependence and interconnection of people, processes and culture.27 In this book, we provide
numerous examples of how effective global leadership builds positive relationships with stake-
holders both inside and outside organizations. These relationships are what allows leaders to
navigate discontinuity, push radical change and empower others to make a positive impact.
Assuming Responsibility for Global Challenges
Today, responding to global challenges and making a positive contribution is considered

a largely discretionary and normative decision. This reflects a change in orientation that has
taken place over the past decades, in which business is seen as a driver of social value creation.28
In any discussion of the implications of leadership responsibility related to sustainable devel-
opment and societal challenges, we should be aware that we are engaging in a moral discourse
that is clearly normative in nature and involves an ethical component.29
Even if not explicitly stated, it is often assumed that leadership responsibility is a personal
virtue based on moral principles.30 The GLOBE study, for example, has shown that integrity,
honesty, trustworthiness and being just are some of the responsibility-related traits associated
with desirable leadership behaviour in many countries of the world.31 However, just naming
these traits doesn’t help us understand how leaders interpret and display responsibility.

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INTRODUCTION 9
THE MEANING OF RESPONSIBILITY ACROSS CULTURES AND LANGUAGES

In Arabic, ‘‫ ’مسؤولية‬well[maswuwlia] may align closely with the English term responsibil-
ity, emphasizing duty and commitment (Abdul).
In Bulgarian, responsibility is called ‘отговорност’ [otgovornost]. You can (under)take
responsibility, you agree to do it, or ‘carry’ responsibility that means be responsible of and
you are the one to be blamed (Elena).
In Greek, ‘ευθυνη’ [efthini] derives from ancient Greek ‘ευ’ [ef] which is a diphthong
expressing positivity, ability etc., and ‘θυνη’ [thini] which means make something go
straight, give the right direction, guide (Giorgos).
The Korean definition of ‘책임’ [chaegim] emphasizes the necessity of performing
a task that has been assigned or entrusted to someone and the idea that the person is in
charge of carrying out the task (Lee).
The Mandarin characters for responsibility are ‘责任’ [zé rèn]. Both characters origi-
nated from pictograms that mean if a man looks for something (beneficial), he needs to
carry the load (Chun).
In Turkish the word responsibility ‘sorumluluk’ also implies that the person responsible
has to answer or account for the outcome of whatever they are responsible for (Yusuf).
Source: private conversations.
In a global context the meaning and understanding of responsible leadership can vary, first,
because of different legal frameworks, and second, because of the plurality of diverse stake-
holder needs involved. In a heterogeneous environment, stakeholders’ identities, claims and
interests are frequently in conflict. Globally responsible leadership is about the ability to meet
these different expectations, and about the willingness to be held accountable for the conse-
quences of one’s actions and behaviours.32
Pless and colleagues33 identify four different responsible leadership orientations that leaders
may use to demonstrate responsibility according to their degree of accountability and focus
on stakeholders:
1. Responsibility as a reaction to compliance constraint.

2. Responsibility as an opportunity to gain competitive advantage.
3. Responsibility as moral commitment and the reason for being a leader.
4. Responsibility to integrate profit-driven with social purpose-driven approach.

What mindsets are behind these different responsibility orientations? Any given mindset
comes with certain ideas, narratives, decisions and outcomes. The first responsibility
orientation, for example, reflects a neo-liberal mindset. How would you describe the
mindset of the other three orientations? How does leadership make other people change
their mindset?
These different responsibility orientations coexist side-by-side, but with today’s pressing soci-
etal challenges business leaders are increasingly prompted to adopt the fourth responsibility

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orientation: assuming an active role as an integrator.34 It is within this integrative approach

that the seemingly conflicting logics of ethics and effectiveness are addressed. According to
Pless,35 the integrator combines a sense for the bottom line with strategic thinking, and human-
itarian drive to reconcile the traditional profit-driven approach with a social purpose-driven
approach. This comprises high accountability towards legitimate stakeholders.
When discussing how to respond to global challenges and how to contribute to societal
progress in a responsible, sustainable way, the members of the CEMS alliance are not value
neutral. Integrating the seemingly contradictory economic logic with social welfare logic
requires purpose and intention. Leading with purpose and intention is relevant because they
influence the kind of solutions we create and for whom.36 But, as Stahl highlights, it is impor-
tant that we make our underlying values explicit and explain why we are assuming responsi-
bility, and for what.37
HOW EXPLICIT ARE THE CEMS’ VALUES?

Go to the CEMS’ website (https://www.cems.org/). What are the CEMS’ values? Are they
explicit? How are they explained? How are they manifested in the Master in International
Management curricula? How are they manifested in the activities of the members of the
CEMS’ community and alliance partners?
NAVIGATING THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL LEADERSHIP

CHALLENGES
Pressing global challenges and the SDGs are the metaphorical ‘elephant in the room’ for global
leadership. These problems seem so daunting that people feel overwhelmed in the face of
them. The complexity involved when dealing with global challenges is widely acknowledged.
The many contingencies of today’s global challenges and the reciprocal relationships between
them make effecting change difficult. Sometimes small actions may have significant effects,
however, they may manifest themselves much later. For example, think of the interrelation-
ships between climate change and the loss of biodiversity. This is not a linear cause-and-effect
relationship. Both problems dynamically interact with each other, making it difficult to predict
what future solutions could be.
Complexity and change have always been core aspects of global leadership.38 To understand
complexity more accurately, management researchers and practitioners have started to look at
complexity systems thinkers in life science, biology, physics, ecology and psychology.39 From
their research we understand that changes in living systems do not develop in a straight line,
but occur turbulently, unpredictably, in loops, circles, spirals or crazy leaps. This knowledge of
complex systems gives clues as to how to catalyse and shape complex systems in management.
The complex systems perspective in management understands leadership as emergent
events or creative adaptive spaces.40 This suggests a conception of leadership as distributed,
collective and shared.41 The difficulty that arises for this conception of leadership is how the
meanings of unknown, sometimes competing ideas and solutions are created, and how new

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INTRODUCTION 11
patterns of behaviour can be identified that allow adaptation to unforeseen dynamics. Leading
complexity is conceived as an interactive dynamic system that allows individuals and systems
to develop and advance new ways of thinking and operating.42
The Difference between Complex and Complicated
When navigating complexity, it is important not to confuse ‘complex’ and ‘complicated’, as

often happens in common speech. Complex and complicated are two very different concepts
that require different management and leadership behaviours. Complicated challenges, for
example, assembling a jumbo jet, can be traced back to the sum of their separate parts.43 The
challenge of assembling might be difficult to solve, but it is predictable and controllable, and
an optimal solution is possible. Complex challenges, on the other hand, involve too many
unknowns and too many interrelated factors to be reduced to rules and processes. It is impos-
sible and even counterproductive to untangle their inextricable fabric of co-causes.44 This
is the reason complex solutions are usually creative in nature and often co-created. Only in
retrospect do we understand if they worked. It’s more about the problem-solving approach
than about the problem to be solved.
As Sargut and colleagues45 point out, many of our most embedded management practices –
such as designing for optimization and efficiency – exacerbate the risk of things going wrong at
a systems level. The desire for simplicity is understandable. It gives us a sense of certainty and
a feeling of confidence. However, the most robust complex systems are often not designed for
optimization. They may in fact embody sub-optimal features, such as redundant operations,
multiple pathways and substitute components.46
Making Sense of Complexity
Systems thinking is considered the most helpful approach to making sense of complexity
because it takes a holistic view of interdependencies at multiple levels.47 A system is defined as
an entity with interrelated and interconnected parts that work together to achieve a common
purpose.48 Systems are regulated by feedback loops that keep the system in balance. When one
part of a living system – be it an amoeba or human society – changes, it can cause a ripple effect
that has an impact on the whole system.
Systems thinking starts from observing events or data, and moves to identifying underlying
patterns of behaviour, with the intention of assessing the (mental) structures that drive those
events. Recognizing interrelationships, feedback loops and emergent and underlying patterns
allows us to articulate problems in new and different ways, though still aware that there are no
perfect solutions. Any choice made has an impact on other parts of the system. By anticipating
these impacts more informed decisions can be made.49
Patagonia, the outdoor apparel company, uses systems thinking to understand how its oper-
ations and supply chains create feedback loops into broader society and the natural ecosystem.
Self-directed teams allow internal and external innovations to emerge by leaving ample room
for positive feedback loops. Activities like regenerative cotton farming, directing money into

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reforestation of wilderness, and sponsoring environmental activists have contributed to the

positive impact Patagonia has been able to make on the global system of the textile industry.50
Systems thinking is an indispensable business tool, but it is also a ‘way of thinking’ that
allows us to address global challenges. The Covid-19 pandemic is a historic event that forced
us to experience systems interconnectedness. The multiple implications and (unintended)
side effects of decisions and (in)actions simultaneously impacted everyone in the world in all
domains of life.51 Systemic structures and mental models are considered the ‘strong-leverage
points’ that leadership should focus on when dealing with complex social problems.52 Applying
a systems perspective to global leadership is about building the capacity, in oneself, in other
people and in the organization to continuously adapt and learn quickly.53
UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
This book focuses on global practices of leadership. However, theories of leadership are also
important because they explain the principles on which the practice is based. The relationship
between practice and theory is reciprocal and symbiotic,54 therefore it’s interesting to inves-
tigate in more detail how leadership theories inform and guide our understanding of global
leadership practices.
We refer to global leadership practices as the application of tools and concepts in an envi-
ronment characterized by complexity and diversity. Table 1.1 provides a general overview
of the global leadership practices addressed in this book. All these practices are grounded in
theory.
Table 1.1 Overview of global leadership practices addressed in this book

Level of analysis Concepts and tools relevant for global leadership
Individual level Cultural intelligence
(Chapter 2) Emotional intelligence (empathy, motivation, self-regulation, social skills)
(Global) identity and self-awareness
Psychological flexibility
Self-care and well-being
Self-development
Stress and resilience
Team level Active listening
(Chapter 3) Employee engagement
Feedback (giving and receiving)
Inclusive language
Language strategy
Mapping, bridging, integrating
Psychological safety and trust
Strategic media use
Virtual communication

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INTRODUCTION 13
Level of analysis Concepts and tools relevant for global leadership

Organizational level Biases, stereotypes, discrimination
(Chapter 4) Diversity management
Diversity, equity and inclusion
Refugees’ workplace placement programme
The ‘canvas ceiling’
The Diversity Wheel
Societal-planetary level Ecosystem service functions
(Chapter 5) Paradox mindset
Planetary boundaries
Sustainability paradoxes
Sustainability transformation
Country-specific and global level Conflict solving (interpersonal, within-country)
(Chapters 6–13) Critical cross-cultural management paradigm
Confucianism
Cultural intelligence (knowledge, motivation, attitudes)
Cross-cultural management analysis
Cultural identity
Diversity, equity and inclusion
Employee engagement
Gender gap
Human resource management
Indigenous leadership
Intercultural communication skills
Intercultural competencies
Interpretive cross-cultural management paradigm
Intersectional diversity
Leadership development
Mandala model of leadership
Organizational change
Positivist cross-cultural management paradigm
Responsible leadership
Ubuntu philosophy
There is no shortage of available leadership theories informing us about relevant leadership

practices. The difficulty of agreeing on a shared theory of leadership is to a large extent related
to the use of different research paradigms within the field of leadership studies. There are three
major research traditions through which leadership can be studied, commonly called positivist
(or functionalist), interpretive and critical. In the following section we will explain how each of
these perspectives influence our thinking and understanding about leadership in general, and
global leadership practices in particular.
Positivist Perspectives on Leadership
Most existing leadership theories build on positivist and essentialist assumptions. Leadership
studies in this research tradition use observable and quantifiable data collection to compare
and make causal connections between dependent and independent variables. This paradigm
aligns with the researchers’ pursuit of identifying characteristics that hold universal validity
for effective leaders and leadership. The effort to capture the important qualities of a leader

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focuses mainly on identification of important leadership competencies, that is, qualities that
can be further developed.
EXPLORING GLOBAL LEADERSHIP COMPETENCIES THROUGH A POSITIVIST

LENS
The Pyramid model created by Mendenhall and colleagues provides a comprehensive
framework that outlines the competencies required for effective global leadership. The
model is divided into five levels, with each level representing a different aspect of a global
leader’s competencies:
1. Global knowledge: This level represents the fundamental information that leaders
need to have, including knowledge of technology, the global business environment
and societal cultural specifics.
2. Threshold traits: This level involves integrity, humility, inquisitiveness and resil-
ience, which are essential traits that leaders must possess to be effective.
3. Attitudes and orientations: These include cognitive complexity, global mindset and
cosmopolitanism.
4. Interpersonal skills: This level includes mindful and intercultural communication,
the ability to build and maintain trust and multicultural teaming.
5. Systems skills: This level represents the top of the pyramid and includes the ability to
lead change, span boundaries, architect and build community, make ethical decisions
and influence stakeholders.
Source: Mendenhall et al. (2018, p. 87).
Leadership scholars who adhere to positivist principles not only examine traits and compe-
tencies but also study the various leadership styles. Values-based approaches to leadership,
such as ethical, authentic and servant leadership, share a commitment to responsibility and
sustainability to prioritize the long-term well-being of individuals, organizations and society.55
Trying to identify individual factors that are typical of a specific leadership style, Bass and
Avolio,56 for example, developed the rigorously validated Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ) scale. This delineates four key elements of transformational leadership: (1) idealized
influence, often referred to as charisma, (2) inspirational motivation, (3) intellectual stimula-
tion, and (4) individualized consideration. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
can be administered not only to individual leaders for self-assessment but also to their supe-
riors, peers, subordinates and even external stakeholders such as clients. This comprehensive
approach forms a part of the 360-degree feedback process. The goal is to measure the strength
of each dimension as accurately as possible to identify to what extent individual leaders fulfil
the characteristics of the specific leadership style. These scales can serve as a means of compar-
ing a leader’s potential effectiveness in different contexts.
In summary, the positivist research perspective aims to establish causal relationships and
generalizable findings, typically using deductive reasoning and standardized data collection
methods. It tends to view leadership as an individual phenomenon and emphasizes observable
and measurable factors.

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INTRODUCTION 15
Interpretive Perspectives on Leadership
The interpretive approach to leadership focuses on understanding how leadership is perceived

and interpreted by individuals and groups. Instead of solely examining the traits or behav-
iours of leaders, this approach emphasizes the influence of cognitive processes, scripts and
schemas on leadership.57 It recognizes that leadership is not a fixed quality of individuals but is
constructed and shaped through social interactions and historical contexts.58 The interpretive
approach to leadership also aligns with the concept of distributed leadership, which empha-
sizes the collective and shared nature of leadership. Leadership can thus emerge from various
individuals and is not solely the responsibility of a single leader.59 This approach challenges the
traditional notion of leadership as a definite quality of leaders.60 Instead of engaging in debates
about who qualifies as a leader, the interpretive perspective suggests that anyone perceived as
a leader by the public, media, politicians or other stakeholders should be considered one.61 In
terms of research methodology, interpretive scholars use, for example, discursive approaches
analysing texts, to get a deeper understanding of the way meanings of leadership and leader
identities are constructed.62
The interpretive approach to leadership highlights the role of dialogue and interpretation in
shaping different approaches to leadership development. Experience and dialogue help leaders
construct their own understanding of leadership and thus further develop their leadership
identity.63 Leadership, in essence, can thus be described as the process of creating and shaping
meaning within an organizational or social context.64

Think about how the word ‘leader’ is translated in your language. What is the exact
meaning of the word? Do you have a different word for ‘manager’? How do leaders in
your culture create and promote their leadership identity? How does this create meaning
for the followers?
In summary, scholars take an interpretive approach to understand leadership as a social con-

struct emerging from the meanings we attach to it, especially through language and culture but
also experience. This approach encourages a more comprehensive and nuanced understand-
ing of leadership that goes beyond simplistic notions of traits or behaviours.
Critical Perspectives on Leadership
Much of the literature on leadership can be considered ‘pro-leadership’, in the sense that
leadership is considered as desirable, significant and good.65 Critical perspectives on leadership
challenge this basic assumption and focus on power relations that reproduce and reinforce the
dichotomies of leaders and followers.
This research tradition draws inspiration from moral philosophy and radical humanism
paradigms.66 Even though critical leadership studies have much internal diversity – just as the
other research perspectives presented above – three common characteristics can be identi-
fied.67 First, challenging certain managerial propositions like ‘someone has to be in charge’ as
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a naturally given (De-naturalization). Second, criticizing performativity that preserves privi-

leges (Anti-performativity). And third, Reflexivity, which refers to the principle of recognizing
and questioning assumptions and routines upon which critical knowledge is produced.68
Critical scholars act on the recognition that systemic oppression exists in all societies.
They analyse processes that perpetuate social inequities and show how these intersect and/or
contradict each other.69 An important aspect of the critical research tradition is to be reflective
about how to empower marginalized groups.
#METOO IS NOT ENOUGH

Following the explosive allegations against Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein in
October 2017, the #MeToo movement brought to light the variety of ways in which
sexual harassment and power intersect. Despite the fact the #MeToo hashtag was initially
sparked by the exposure of the experiences of white and privileged heterosexual women
in the US, it quickly expanded across the globe and also echoed the experiences of more
marginalized groups. There is encouraging evidence of organizational, legal, policy and
cultural changes triggered by #MeToo. Companies tightened their policies to make work-
places safer and powerful men are being held accountable for abuse and harassment.
Notwithstanding the shift from moral panic to political engagement, structural power
imbalances persist. Critical feminist researchers point out the dilemmas and ambiguities
related to #MeToo. Many women do not have access to a public audience or could not
take the risk of speaking out as the ‘sanctions would be too great’. Certain environments,
such as health and social work, administration, food services, manufacturing and hospi-
tality – in which female employment is concentrated – have been visibly absent from most
of the discussion. Also, domestic violence has been notably missing from the discussions.
As feminist Eva Cox puts it: #MeToo is not enough. It has yet to shift the power imbal-
ances that would bring about gender equality.
Source: Cox (2018); Gill and Orgad (2018).
Challenging what is taken for granted is central to critical leadership. In summary, this
research perspective operates from the perspective that investigations should be conducted
with the goal of societal change.70
Multiple Research Perspectives on Global Leadership Practices
We have presented these three different research perspectives on leadership to illustrate that
whenever the term leadership is used, it is referring to a set of implicit theory assumptions.
Our intention has been to highlight these implicit assumptions and to stimulate a discussion
on how these theories influence our thinking about leadership practices.

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INTRODUCTION 17
IMPLICIT THEORY ASSUMPTIONS

Please discuss the following questions about leadership theory with your peers:
• Is the positivist approach really ‘objective’ when defining leadership effectiveness?

• Does the qualitative methodological approach of interpretive theories allow for
generalization?
• How do the different leadership styles like transformational, authentic, ethical or
servant leadership differ from each other, conceptually and empirically?
• Can ‘power’ issues alone, analysed using a critical approach, be blamed for discrimi-
nation and exclusion in society?
• What about the (unconscious) biases of the researchers?
• Most leadership research is published in the US American context. Why are
non-Western, Indigenous leadership approaches underrepresented in management
textbooks?
All three leadership research approaches have their limitations, but combining these per-
spectives helps us to better understand the phenomenon of leadership practices in real life.
Positivist transformational research has always been a good starting point for global leaders
because it provides useful insights into what people across the world have in common.
The positivist approach tells us among other things that leaders should proactively involve
followers to make them more committed.71 But employee engagement in Sweden or in India
might mean two completely different things. What happens when proactively encouraging
employee involvement does not work in a more hierarchical environment like India?
The interpretive research provides the information necessary to understand employees’
needs and sense-making in a specific context. The research on this approach helps us under-
stand what is needed to engage employees in Sweden as opposed to engaging them in India.
Leadership always depends on the specific context, but in global leadership the context is
even more important.
Critical research goes even further by examining the broader social and ideological context
of different realities. When we look at employee engagement in Sweden or India from this
perspective, we might better understand the differences in patterns of power and domination
associated with leadership in each of these environments.
Combining these research perspectives to understand global leadership situations is a pow-
erful and effective analytical tool. Throughout this book we will consciously use this tool to
help us better understand the meaning, context and challenges of global leadership practices.
OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS OF THIS BOOK
This book is divided into two parts. The chapters in Part I address the competencies and skills
required to thrive in complex global settings on one of four different levels of analysis.
We start with the assumption that leadership begins from inside and leading oneself; this
is why Chapter 2 sets out from the individual level. In this chapter we explore the concepts
of global identity, cultural intelligence, commitment to continuous learning and personal
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growth, which are essential tools for adapting to the ever-evolving global landscape. We accen-
tuate the role of well-being and self-care in maintaining a healthy and resilient global identity.
In Chapter 3, we move on to the perspective of leading collaboration by looking at how
global complexity affects team collaboration. We present concrete measures and tools for
leading global teams, including the strategic use of communication media, the creation of
psychological safety and trust between team members and the use of inclusive language.
Chapter 4 looks at the challenges of leading diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) initiatives
in organizations. Diversity management is critically reviewed and the barriers to refugee work-
force inclusion analysed. The IKEA case illustrates how multinational corporations (MNCs)
can contribute to tackling the global challenge of including refugees in local workforces.
In Chapter 5, we take the societal perspective and discuss the complexity involved in leading
sustainability transformation. Global leadership can and should play a critical role in assum-
ing responsibility, mitigating problems and finding solutions. We discuss how to respond to
contradictory yet related requirements over time: the so-called sustainability paradoxes.
In Part II of the book, we explore leadership practices in different cultural contexts. Chapter
6 introduces three different research perspectives based on cross-cultural theories that influ-
ence thinking and understanding about global leadership.
The subsequent seven chapters illustrate what these theoretical considerations mean
in practice. We show how global leaders can bridge gaps and build relationships between
diverse stakeholders by developing understanding of cultural norms, values and communi-
cation styles. To illustrate the complexity involved, each chapter is based on a detailed case
of a real-life leadership challenge taking place in a different part of the world. Each chapter
illustrates global leadership in practice and highlights relevant competencies, virtues and traits,
contexts, situations and conditions that must be considered when assuming responsibility as
a global leader.
We have chosen to present the countries in alphabetical order. In Chapter 7, Weichai, an
emerging market multinational from China, is dealing with the integration of the acquired
German multinational Linde. In Chapter 8, we learn from an Indigenous female leader in
Ecuador how to defend ancestral territory against oil exploitation by the government. Chapter
9 is about the complex, diverse and highly context-dependent faces of the IT sector in India.
Chapter 10 describes the internationalization process of a small IT company in Kazakhstan.
Chapter 11 analyses a sales team that works between their German headquarters and their
subsidiary in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Chapter 12 deals with facil-
itating a Thai-Indonesian banking integration in the culturally diverse region of Southeast
Asia. The case in Chapter 13 is about the organizational culture transformation of a mining
company in Southern Africa and the tension between Indigenous leadership philosophy and
the post-colonial legacy.

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INTRODUCTION 19
DISCUSSION POINTS
1. Please comment on the following statement of John Luiz, a professor of Business
Strategy at the University of Cape Town: ‘Doing business in South Africa requires
a level of resilience and agility unlike anywhere else. There is a saying about New York
that if you can make it there, you can make it anywhere, and, with respect, I would
challenge that and say that if you can make it in South Africa, you can make it any-
where as you will have been exposed to everything that can possibly come your way.’
How can the CEMS’ alliance take into consideration the different environments and
challenges in the 34 different schools?
2. What concrete role do you see for yourself in your local community? How important
would that be and what about your role in global projects that contribute to societal
progress?
3. Do web research on what it means to be a systems thinker. What are the systems
thinking tools research organization are using? Can they be used in corporations?
NOTES
1. Oxley & Morris (2013); UNESCO (2023).
2. Miska et al. (2020).
3. Alvesson & Spicer (2014).
4. Zaccaro (2014).
5. d’Iribarne (1989); Hall (1966).
6. Hofstede (1984).
7. Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars (1993); Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (2011).
8. House et al. (2004).
9. Adler (2002); Bird et al. (2010); Mendenhall (2018); Tung (1987).
10. Earley & Ang (2003); Hannerz (1990); Javidan & Bowen (2013); Osland et al. (2006).
11. Mendenhall et al. (2012); Reiche et al. (2016); Reiche et al. (2020). See also Chapter 2.
12. Mendenhall et al. (2018); Mendenhall et al. (2020).
13. Zander (2020).
14. CEMS (2022, p. 6).
15. Northouse (2018).
16. Haslam et al. (2020); Rosenbach (2015); Silva (2015).
17. WEF (2023).
18. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda. Last accessed 20 December 2023.
19. Boonstra & Eguiguren (2023); De Woot (2005); EFMD (2022).
20. http://www.estorilconferences.org. Last accessed 20 December 2023.
21. http://www.unprme.org. Last accessed 20 December 2023.
22. http://www.ngccems.org. Last accessed 20 December 2023.
23. Mariani et al. (2022); Ordonez-Ponce et al. (2021).
24. Stott & Murphy (2021).
25. Vestergaard et al. (2020).
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26. Stott & Murphy (2021); Young et al. (2022).

27. Pless & Maak (2022).
28. EFMD (2022); Pless (2023).
29. Reiche (2023).
30. Ciulla (2018); Sackmann (2022).
31. Den Hartog et al. (1999); House et al. (2004).
32. Groves & LaRocca (2011); Muff et al. (2020); Pless & Maak (2022); Voegtlin (2011); Voegtlin et al. (2012).
33. Pless et al. (2012).
34. Pless & Maak (2022).
35. Pless (2023).
36. Reiche (2023)..
37. Ibid.
38. Lichtenstein et al. (2006); Maznevski et al. (2007).
39. Meadows (2008); Reeves et al. (2020); Schein (2015).
40. Lichtenstein et al. (2006); Uhl-Bien (2021).
41. Rosenhead et al. (2019); Seijts et al. (2010).
42. Marion & Uhl-Bien (2001).
43. Borgert (2017).
44. Ibid.
45. Sargut & Gunther McGrath (2011).
46. Ibid.
47. Ramage & Shipp (2009).
48. Seijts et al. (2010).
49. Clarke (2013).
50. https://www.patagonia.com/activism/. Last accessed 2 December 2023. See also Chapter 5.
51. Haley et al. (2021); Hassan et al. (2020).
52. Ramage & Shipp (2009); Sargut & Gunther McGrath (2011).
53. Seijts et al. (2010).
54. Priede (2014).
55. Lemoine et al. (2019).
56. Bass & Avolio (1997).
57. Hernandez et al. (2011).
58. Fairhurst & Grant (2010).
59. Harris (2008).
60. Billsberry (2013).
61. Bresnen (1995); DeCesare (2013).
62. Clifton (2019); Hurlow (2008); Mabey (2012).
63. Hibbert et al. (2017).
64. Varney (2009).
66. Alvesson & Willmott (2003).
68. Alvesson & Sandberg (2011).

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INTRODUCTION 21
69. Chandler & Kirsch (2018).

70. Alvesson et al. (2009); Chandler & Kirsch (2018).
71. Chin et al. (2019).
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1

Introduction to Global Leadership

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes and Ina

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

CASE STUDY 1 CEMS – A GLOBAL ALLIANCE TO PREPARE FUTURE GLOBAL

Source: Boonstra and Eguiguren (2023); CEMS (2022).

The values-based, purpose-driven alliance that is CEMS comprises a community of almost

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

PAUSE FOR REFLECTION

GLOBAL LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES

z The planetary dimension: ecological challenges related to climate change, biosphere

Figure 1.1 The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Collaboration for Societal Progress

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

GLOBAL PARTNERSHIPS TO FOSTER SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Assuming Responsibility for Global Challenges

Today, responding to global challenges and making a positive contribution is considered

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

THE MEANING OF RESPONSIBILITY ACROSS CULTURES AND LANGUAGES

Source: private conversations.

1. Responsibility as a reaction to compliance constraint.

PAUSE FOR REFLECTION

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

orientation: assuming an active role as an integrator.34 It is within this integrative approach

HOW EXPLICIT ARE THE CEMS’ VALUES?

NAVIGATING THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL LEADERSHIP

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

The Difference between Complex and Complicated

When navigating complexity, it is important not to confuse ‘complex’ and ‘complicated’, as

Making Sense of Complexity

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

reforestation of wilderness, and sponsoring environmental activists have contributed to the

UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES

Table 1.1 Overview of global leadership practices addressed in this book

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

Level of analysis Concepts and tools relevant for global leadership

There is no shortage of available leadership theories informing us about relevant leadership

Positivist Perspectives on Leadership

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

EXPLORING GLOBAL LEADERSHIP COMPETENCIES THROUGH A POSITIVIST

Source: Mendenhall et al. (2018, p. 87).

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

Interpretive Perspectives on Leadership

The interpretive approach to leadership focuses on understanding how leadership is perceived

PAUSE FOR REFLECTION

In summary, scholars take an interpretive approach to understand leadership as a social con-

Critical Perspectives on Leadership

a naturally given (De-naturalization). Second, criticizing performativity that preserves privi-

#METOO IS NOT ENOUGH

Source: Cox (2018); Gill and Orgad (2018).

Multiple Research Perspectives on Global Leadership Practices

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

IMPLICIT THEORY ASSUMPTIONS

• Is the positivist approach really ‘objective’ when defining leadership effectiveness?

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS OF THIS BOOK

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

26. Stott & Murphy (2021); Young et al. (2022).

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

69. Chandler & Kirsch (2018).

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -

charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed? Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 219–52.

Bettina Gehrke, Daniela Pauknerová, Marie-Thérèse Claes, and Ina Aust -