Introduction to Cell and

Molecular Biology
 Molecular Biology
• ... is the study of biology at a molecular level.
• The field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly genetics and
biochemistry
• Molecular biology concerns itself with understanding the interactions
between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of
DNA, RNA and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are
regulated.

Biochemistry Function Genetics

Proteins Genes

Molecular Biology
Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology

2
 Molecular Biology

• study of the cellular, biochemical and molecular aspects of cell

structure and function

• includes the study of the techniques used to arrive at the

understanding of cell structure and function and the concepts and
techniques of genetic engineering and their application to
agriculture, medicine, industry and environment

• introduce us to the new tools used by scientists to unravel and

understand mechanisms involved in many pathologies like cancer,
degenerative diseases, diabetes, mental disorders and the like
 Importance of Cell
and Molecular Biology
Cell biology: revolutionized
medicine, agriculture &
pharmaceutical industry.

Molecular biology – provides us

tools to explore the
wonder/mystery of life.

Biotechnology -involves the use of

living organisms and their
products to modify and improve
human health and the human
environment.
 Organisms

Organ systems

Organs

Tissues

Cells

Nuclei, mitochondria, chloroplasts

Supramolecular
assemblies Multienzyme complexes, ribosomes, chromosomes, membranes,
structural elements, contractile system
Macromolecules
Proteins Nucleic acids Polysaccharides
MW: 104-109 D

Monomer units 20 Amino acids Nucleotides Sugars Phospholipids

(MW: 104-109 D)
Small precursor molecules Five aromatic Glucose Palmitate, other
(MW: 100-250 D) bases, ribose Fatty acids,
Glycerol, Choline

Environmental precursors CO2, H2O, N2

(MW: 18-44 D)

HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL
STRUCTURE
 Components Involve in Molecular Biology
All Life depends on 3 critical
molecules
DNA

RNA

Protein
 Inside a Living Cell
Life alphabet
4 letters English
A, T, G, C alphabet
26 letters

Structure
Static

Function Function
Dynamic Dynamic
 What is a Cell?

• A cell is chemical system

that is able to maintain its
structure and reproduce.
• All living things are
composed of cells
• In multicellular organisms,
many are specialized to
perform specific functions
• Cells are always very small
• Cells are the basic units of
living organisms
– Building blocks.
 The Needs of Cell

• Selective isolation from

environment(plasma membrane)
• Energy (ATP)
• Instructions (DNA)
• Machinery to carry out
instructions and
regulate processes (proteins)
• Compartmentalization of
incompatible
or specialized activities (organelles)
 Cell Size Varies

• Human nerve:
up to 1 meter
• n Human red blood cell:
~8 um
• n Bacteria: ~1 um
 Why Must Cells Be Small?

•Smaller cells have more

total surface area which
makes it easier for
gases, nutients, etc to
enter a cell.
•Upper limits on cell
size are set by diffusion
distance. Molecules
must diffuse through the
cell.
 The Discovery of Cells
Because of their small size, cells
can only be observed with the
aid of a microscope, an
instruments that provides a
magnified image of a tiny object.
By the mid-1600s, a handful of
pioneering scientists had used
their handmade microscopes to
uncover a world that would In Micrographia, Robert Hooke had applied the word cell to
biological structures such as this piece of cork, but it was not
never have been revealed to the until the 19th century that scientists considered cells the
universal basis of life.
naked eye.
 Historical origins of cell & molecular
biology
first description of cells in the 17th century
study of cell chemistry and physiology in the
18th & 19th century
biochemistry began to influence cell biology in
the beginning of the 20th century; genetics
became established as a new field of study
 Continuation of the History
 Since the late 1950s and early
1960s, molecular biologists have
learned to
 Characterize, isolate, and
manipulate the molecular
components of cells and
organisms, which are:
1. DNA, the storage of genetic
information
2. RNA
3. Proteins, the major structural and
enzymatic type of molecule in
cells.
 Molecular Biology – A Journey
 Microscopic biology
began in 1665 Robert Hooke
 Robert Hooke (1635-
1703) discovered
organisms are made up of
cells.
 Leeuwenhoek was the first
to examine a drop of pond
water under the microscope
and, to his amazement,
observe the teeming
microscopic “animalcules”
that darted back and forth
before his eyes.
Molecular Biology – A Journey
• Matthias
Schleiden (1804-
1881) and
Theodor Schwann
(1810-1882)
Theodor Schwann
further expanded
the study of cells
in 1830s Matthias Schleiden
 The Cell Theory
• All organisms are constructed of and
by cells.
• All cells arise from preexisting cells.
• Cells are the functional units of life.
All biochemical processes are
carried out by cells.
• Groups of cells can be organized and
function as multicellular organisms
• Cells of multicellular organisms can
become specialized in form and
function to carry out subprocesses
of the multicellular organism.
 Modern cell theory
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
3. Living things come only from other living
cells.
4. The cell contains hereditary information
which is passed on from cell during cell
division

3-18
 Modern cell theory

5. All cells are basically the same in chemical

composition.

6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry)

of life occurs within the cells.

3-19
 Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1800 - 1870

 1865 Gregor Mendel discover

the basic rules of heredity of
garden pea.
 An individual organism has
two alternative heredity units Mendel: The Father
of Genetics
for a given trait (dominant
trait vs. recessive trait)

 1869 Johann Friedrich Miescher

discovered DNA and named it
nuclein. Johann Miescher
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1880 - 1900

• 1881 Edward Zacharias showed chromosomes

are composed of nuclein.

• 1899 Richard Altmann renamed nuclein to

nucleic acid.

• By 1900, chemical structures of all 20 amino

acids had been identified
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1900-1911

 1902 - Emil Hermann Fischer wins

Nobel prize: showed amino acids are
Emil
linked and form proteins Fischer

 1911 – Thomas Hunt Morgan

discovers genes on chromosomes
are the discrete units of heredity
Thomas
 1911 Pheobus Aaron Theodore Morgan
Lerene discovers RNA
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1940 - 1950

 1941 – George Beadle and

Edward Tatum identify
that genes make proteins
George Edward
Beadle Tatum
 1950 – Edwin Chargaff find
Cytosine complements
Guanine and Adenine
complements Thymine Edwin Chargaff
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1950 - 1952

 1950s – Mahlon Bush

Hoagland first to isolate
tRNA

 1952 – Alfred Hershey

and Martha Chase make Mahlon Hoagland
genes from DNA

Experiment
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1952 - 1960

 1952-1953 James D.
Watson and Francis H. C.
Crick deduced the double
helical structure of DNA
James Watson and
Francis Crick
 1956 George Emil Palade
showed the site of enzymes
manufacturing in the
cytoplasm is made on RNA
organelles called ribosomes.

George Emil Palade

 Major events in the history of Molecular
Biology 1970
 1970 Howard Temin and David
Baltimore independently isolate
the first restriction enzyme

• This means that: DNA can be cut

into reproducible pieces at
specific site by restriction enzymes
called endonuclease
• The pieces can be linked to
bacterial vectors and introduced
into bacterial hosts.
• This is called (gene cloning or
recombinant DNA technology)
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1986 - 1995

 1986 Leroy Hood:

Developed automated
sequencing mechanism

 1986 Human Genome

Initiative announced Leroy Hood

 1995 Moderate-resolution
maps of chromosomes 3,
11, 12, and 22 were
published
 These maps provide the
locations of “markers” on
each chromosome to make
locating genes easier
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1995-1996

 1995 John Craig Venter: First

bacterial genomes sequenced

 1995 Automated fluorescent

sequencing instruments and
robotic operations
John Craig Venter
 1996 First eukaryotic genome-
yeast-sequenced
Major events in the history of Molecular
Biology

Molecular Biology 1997-1999

 1999 First human chromosome (number 22)
sequenced

Molecular Biology 2000-2001

• 2001 International Human
Genome Sequencing published
the first draft of the sequence
of the human genome
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
2003- Present

 April 2003 Human Genome

Project Completed
 Mouse genome is sequenced.

 April 2004 Rat genome

sequenced.

 Next-generation sequencing –
genomes being sequenced by
the dozen
BASIC PROPERTIES OF CELLS
• Cells are highly complex and
organized.
• Cell possess a genetic program
and the means to use it.
• Cell are capable of producing
more of themselves.
• Cells acquire and utilize energy.
• Cells carry out a variety of
chemical reactions.
• Cells engage in numerous
mechanical activities.
• Cells are able to respond to
stimuli.
• Cells are capable of self-
regulation.
 Highly Complex and Organized

• Organized at both the

molecular and cellular
levels.

• Take in substances from

the environment and
organize them in
complex ways.

• Specific cell structures

(organelles) carry out
All other characteristics of life emerge from an
particular functions. organism’s complex organization.
 Possess A Genetic Program And The
Means To Use It.

• Organisms are built

according to information
encoded in a collection of
genes.

• Genes are storage of

information.
Cell Are Capable Of Producing More Of
Themselves.

• All species have the

ability to reproduce
– Not essential to
survival of individual
but is essential for
continuation of a
species

Living organisms are able to form new (daughter)

organisms and
new generations
with the help of
the hereditary
molecule DNA
 Acquire and Utilize Energy

• Use energy in a process

called metabolism
– Sum of all chemical
processes
• Require energy to
maintain their molecular
and cellular organization,
grow and reproduce Organisms take in energy and
transform it to do many kinds of
work.
 Carry Out A Variety of Chemical
Reactions
• Cells are capable of hundreds
of different chemical
transformation.

• All chemical changes that

take place in cells require
enzymes.
Engage in Numerous Mechanical Activities

• Mechanical activities were based

on dynamic, and mechanical
changes in cell initiated in the
shape of "motor" proteins
(require constant energy to keep
working):
– Material moved from place to
place
– Structures assembled and
disassembled
– Cells move from place to place
 Respond to Stimuli

• Respond to stimuli in the

external environment
• Detect and respond to
changes in light, heat,
sound and chemical and
mechanical contact
This plant traps the
• Coordinates it’s responses dragonfly when the hair
cell on the modified
leaves is
stimulated.(closure of
the trap)
 Capable of Self-Regulation

Cell’s regulatory mechanisms

becomes evident when they
break down. e.g. failure of a cell
to correct mistake when it
duplicates its DNA may result to
debilitating mutation or
breakdown in a cell’s growth-
control safeguard can transform
the cell into a cancer cell with
the capability of destroying the
entire organism.
Cancer arises when
cells aren't getting the right
signals to stop replicating or die
when they should.
 Categories of Cells

• Prokaryotes
– Bacteria
(archaebacteria
and eubacteria)
• Eukaryotes
– Protist, Fungi,
Plants and
Animals
 Prokaryotic

• Do not have
structures surrounded
by membranes
• Few internal
structures
• One-celled organisms,
Bacteria
 Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-

bound nucleus.
-genetic material is present in the
nucleoid

Two types of prokaryotes:

-archaea
-bacteria
 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells possess
-genetic material in the
nucleoid
-cytoplasm
-plasma membrane
-cell wall
-ribosomes
-no membrane-bound
organelles
 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cell walls
-protect the cell and maintain cell shape

Bacterial cell walls

-may be composed of peptidoglycan
-may be Gram positive or Gram negative

Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

 Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
-possess a membrane-bound
nucleus
-are more complex than
prokaryotic cells
-compartmentalize many
cellular functions within
organelles and the
endomembrane system
-possess a cytoskeleton for
support and to maintain
cellular structure
 CELL STRUCTURE

A generalized cell contains the plasma

membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus
 Structure of Plasma Membrane
Compose of phospholipid
bilayers with embedded
proteins.

The outer plasma

membrane
– isolates cell contents
– controls what gets in
and out of the cell
– receives signals

Plant cells have a cell

wall in addition to
the plasma membrane.
3-48 3-
48
 Structure of Cytoplasm
– Cytoplasm – fluid
area inside outer
plasma membrane
and outside DNA
region
– Membrane bound
organelles (synthesis
of substances)
• Ribosomes make
proteins
 Structure of the Nucleus
Chromatin: DNA and
proteins
Nucleolus: Chromatin
and ribosomal
subunits
Nuclear envelope:
Double membrane
with pores
Nucleoplasm:
semifluid medium
inside the nucleus.
 Plasma Membrane

• Barrier for cell

contents
• Double phospholipid
layer
– Hydrophilic heads
– Hydrophobic tails
• Also contains protein,
cholesterol, and
glycoproteins
 Cellular Projections

• Not found in all cells

• Used for movement
– Cilia moves materials across the cell
surface
– Flagellum propels the cell
 Plasma Membrane
Specializations

• Microvilli
– Finger-like
projections that
increase surface
area for
absorption

Figure 3.3
 Plasma Membrane
Specializations

• Membrane
junctions
– Tight
junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions

Figure 3.3
 Cytoplasm

• Material outside the nucleus and

inside the plasma membrane
– Cytosol
• Fluid that suspends other elements
– Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
– Inclusions
• Non-functioning units
 Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Ribosomes
– Made of protein and
RNA
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Found at two locations
• Free in the cytoplasm
• Attached to rough
endoplasmic reticulum
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Fluid-filled tubules for carrying
substances
– Two types of ER
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Studded with ribosomes
– Site where building
materials of cellular
membrane are formed
• Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum
– Functions in cholesterol
synthesis and breakdown,
fat metabolism, and
detoxification of drugs
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Golgi apparatus
– Modifies and packages
proteins
– Produces different types
of packages
• Secretory vesicles
• Cell membrane
components
• Lysosomes
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Lysosomes
– Contain enzymes that digest
non-usable materials within
the cell
• Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase
enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances
• Break down free radicals
(highly reactive chemicals)
– Replicate by pinching in half
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Mitochondria
– “Powerhouses” of the cell
– Change shape
continuously
– Carry out reactions where
oxygen is used to break
down food
– Provides ATP for cellular
energy
 Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
for storage, digestion,
and waste removal
• Contains water solution
• Help plants maintain
shape
 Chloroplast

• Usually found in plant

cells
• Contains green
chlorophyll
• Where photosynthesis
takes place
 Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton
– Network of protein
structures that
extend throughout
the cytoplasm
– Provides the cell
with an internal
framework

Figure 3.7a
 Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton
– Three different types
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate
filaments
• Microtubules

Figure 3.7b–d
 The Nucleus

• Control center of the

cell
– Contains genetic
material (DNA)
• Three regions
– Nuclear membrane
– Nucleolus
– Chromatin

Figure 3.1b
 Nuclear Membrane
• Barrier of nucleus
• Consists of a double
phospholipid membrane
• Contain nuclear pores
that allow for exchange
of material with the rest
of the cell
 Nucleoli

• Nucleus contains one or more

nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome production
– Ribosomes then migrate to the
cytoplasm through nuclear
pores
 Chromatin

• Composed of DNA and

protein
• Scattered throughout the
nucleus
• Chromatin condenses to
form chromosomes when
the cell divides
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
PROPERTY Procaryotes Eucaryotes
Nucleus • Absent • Present
Cell Diameter • 1 um • 10 - 100 um
Cytoskeleton • Absent • Present
Organelles • Absent • Present
DNA content (bp) • 1x10E6 to 5x10E6 • 1.5x10E7 to
Chromosomes • Single circular 5x10E9
DNA molecule • Multiple linear
DNA molecules
 Cells as Experimental Models

• Several kinds of cells and organisms are

commonly used as experimental models
to study various aspects of cell and
molecular biology. The features of these
cells make them particularly
advantageous as experimental models.
– E.g. E. coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Dictyostelium
discoideum, Drosophila melanogaster, Mice
 E. coli
. The most thoroughly studied species of bacteria
is E. coli, which has long been the favored
organism for investigation of the basic
mechanisms of molecular genetics
. Most of our present concepts of molecular
biology—including our understanding
of DNA replication, the genetic
code, gene expression, and protein synthesis—
derive from studies of this humble bacterium.
• E. coli has been especially useful to molecular
biologists because of both its relative
simplicity and the ease with which it can be
propagated and studied in the laboratory.
• The genome of E. coli, for example, consists of
approximately 4.6 million base pairs and
encodes about 4000 different proteins.
• The small size of the E. coli genome provides
obvious advantages for genetic analysis, and
the sequence of the entire E. coli genome has
been determined.
 Yeast
• Although bacteria have been an invaluable model
for studies of many conserved properties of cells,
they obviously cannot be used to study aspects of
cell structure and function that are unique to
eukaryotes.
• The simplest eukaryotes, have a number of
experimental advantages similar to those
of E. coli. Consequently, yeasts have provided a
crucial model for studies of many fundamental
aspects of eukaryotic cell biology.
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae, consists of 12
million base pairs of DNA and contains about
6000 genes. Although the yeast genome is
approximately three times larger than that
of E. coli, it is far more manageable than the
genomes of more complex eukaryotes, such as
humans.
• The yeast cell exhibits the typical features
of eukaryotic cells eventhough its cell is
simple.
 Fruit Fly
• Drosophila melanogaster has been a crucial
model organism in developmental biology. This
organism can be easily maintained and bred in
the laboratory.
• It has a short reproductive cycle of about 2 weeks
that makes it a very useful organism for genetic
experiments.
• Laid the fundamental concepts of genetics—such
as the relationship between genes
and chromosomes
 Mice
• Recently in molecular biology, it enabled the
production of transgenic mice, in which specific
mutant genes have been introduced into the
mouse germ line.
• The suitability of the mouse as a model for
human development is illustrated by the fact that
mutations in homologous genes result in similar
developmental defects in both species. (e.g.
Piebaldism)
• It serves as a model for human development
 Cell Studies for Science Advancement
• E. Coli Plasmids Can Be Engineered for Use as Cloning Vectors

The plasmids most commonly used in recombinant DNA technology

replicate in E. coli.Generally, these plasmids have been engineered
to optimize their use as vectors in DNA cloning. For instance, to
simplify working with plasmids, their length is reduced; many
plasmid vectors are only ≈3kb in length, which is much shorter than
in naturally occurring E. coli plasmids. (The circumference of
plasmids usually is referred to as their “length,” even though
plasmids are almost always circular DNA molecules.) Most plasmid
vectors contain little more than the essential nucleotide sequences
required for their use in DNA cloning: a replication origin, a drug-
resistance gene, and a region in which exogenous DNA fragments
can be inserted
 Cloning a DNA Fragment in a Plasmid Vector

A DNA fragment of a few base pairs up to ≈20 kb can be inserted into a plasmidvector.
When such a recombinant plasmid transforms an E. coli cell, all the antibiotic-resistant
progeny cells that arise from the initial transformed cell will contain plasmids with the
same inserted sequence of DNA. The inserted DNA is replicated along with the rest of
the plasmid DNA and segregates to daughter cells as the colony grows. In this way, the
initial fragment of DNA is replicated in the colony of cells into a large number of
identical copies. Since all the cells in a colony arise from a single transformed parental
cell, they constitute a clone of cells. The initial fragment of DNA inserted into the
parental plasmid is referred to as cloned DNA, since it can be isolated from the clone of
cells.
 Antibacterial Activity of Medicinal Plants Against
Pathogens causing Complicated Urinary Tract
Infections
Anjana Sharma,* S. Chandraker, V. K. Patel, and Padmini Ramteke
• Abstract
Seventeen Indian folklore medicinal plants were investigated to
evaluate antibacterial activity of aqueous, ethanol and acetone
extracts against 66 multidrug resistant isolates of major urinary
tract pathogens (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis) by disc
diffusion method. Ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale andPunica
granatum showed strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia
coli. Ethanol extracts of Terminalia chebula and Ocimum
sanctum exhibited antibacterial activity against Klebsiella
pneumoniae. Ethanol extract of Cinnamomum cassia showed
maximum antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas
aeruginosa while ethanol extract of Azadirachta
indica and Ocimum sanctum exhibited antibacterial activity
against Enterococcus faecalis. The results support the folkloric use
of these plants in the treatment of urinary tract infections by the
tribals of Mahakoshal region of central India.
 Correlates of Sleep and Waking in Drosophila
melanogaster
BODHISATTWA CHAKRABORTY SUBHANGKAR NANDY

Abstract

Drosophila exhibits a circadian rest-activity cycle, but it is not known

whether fly rest constitutes sleep or is mere inactivity. It is shown here
that, like mammalian sleep, rest in Drosophila is characterized by an
increased arousal threshold and is homeostatically regulated
independently of the circadian clock. As in mammals, rest is abundant in
young flies, is reduced in older flies, and is modulated by stimulants and
hypnotics. Several molecular markers modulated by sleep and waking in
mammals are modulated by rest and activity in Drosophila, including
cytochrome oxidase C, the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone protein BiP,
and enzymes implicated in the catabolism of monoamines. Flies lacking
one such enzyme, arylalkylamineN-acetyltransferase, show increased rest
after rest deprivation. These results implicate the catabolism of
monoamines in the regulation of sleep and waking in the fly and suggest
that Drosophila may serve as a model system for the genetic dissection of
sleep.
 ANXIOLYTIC ACTIVITY OF ALOE VERA (L.)
BURM.F TESTED IN RODENTS
NUZHAT SULTANA AND RAHILA NAJAM

• Abstract
• Aloe vera was evaluated for CNS activities in mice and
different behavioral activities for anxiety and depression
were tested on Exploratory activity, Open field test,
Swimming – induced Depression test, Stationary Rod, Cage
Crossing and Inclined Plane test. Aloe vera was
administered orally in both sexes of mice and was found to
cause significant depression in general as well as
exploratory behavioral profiles. The results revealed that
Aloe vera caused reduction of Exploratory and Locomotor
activities along with the significant decrease in traction in
an inclined plane test. The results suggest that Aloe vera
may have anxiolytic potential with sedative action.
 Micropropagation Studies of a
Medicinal Plant Aristalochia indica
Theriappan, P., Saranya Devi, K. and Dhasarathan, P.

• Abstract:
The development of in vitro propagation of plants holds
tremendous potential for the production of high-quality
plant-based medicines. Aristalochia indica is used in
traditional remedy. In the present study, attempts have
been made to develop a simple, reliable and reproducible
protocol for micropropagation from different explants of
Aristalochia indica. Shoot tip and nodal segments showed
elongation without multiplication when either NAA or KIN
was used in MS medium. Shoot multiplication was obtained
when cytokinins like BAP was used. BAP alone also induced
multiple shoots. The regenerated individual shoots were
rooted in MS medium containing 1 mg dm-3 indole-3-
butyric acid (IBA). Regenerated plants grew well when
transferred to soil.
 Tools for Biology
• In all experimental science, research in cell
biology depends on the laboratory methods that
can be used to study cell structure and function.
Many important advances in understanding cells
have directly followed the development of new
methods that have opened novel avenues of
investigation.
e.g. light microscopy, electron microscope,
Subcellular fractionation, animal cell and plant cell
culture
 Light Microscope
• It is used to
visualized cells and
subcellular
structures that
helps determine the
intracellular
localization of
specific molecules.
 Electron Microscopy
• It has a resolution
that is
approximately a
hundredfold
greater than that
of light
microscopy. This is
used to analyze
details of cell
structure,
 Subcellular Fractionation

• The organelles of
eukaryotic cells can
be isolated for
biochemical analysis
by differential
centrifugation.
 Animal Cells in Culture
• The propagation of
animal cells in
culture has allowed
studies of the
mechanisms that
control cell growth
and differentiation.
 Culture of Plant Cells

• Cultured plant
cells can
differentiate to
form specialized
cell types and,
in some cases
can regenerate
entire plants.
• References:
Cooper,G. (1997). The cell a molecular approach.
p 3-37
Karp, G. (2002).Cell and molecular biology.4th ed.
John Wiley and Sons Inc.