Lecture #3.

Dr. Salman Harasis

Fall-2021

1
• 2) Governing system: is a device used to control the turbine by which it can be started, run-up to the operating speed, and
operate on load with the required power output.
•
- Two types of governor:
1- Mechanical –hydraulic: old and uses Watt centrifugal mechanism.
2- Electro-hydraulic: have no deadbands and have high accuracy.

Simplified more and

more

Electro-hydraulic
➢ Turbine Characteristics
• The coefficient KA corresponds to the amplification gain of the servomotor, coefficient R corresponds to the gain of the feedback
loop.

• TG = 1/(KAR) and is the effective governor time constant.

• Pref is the load reference set point expressed as a fraction of the nominal or rated power, Pn. (Pref < Pn)

• Physically droop can be interpreted as the percentage change in speed required to move the valves from fully open to fully closed.

Droop characteristics
▪ A good control system ensures that any load fluctuation ∆𝑃𝑚 would only produce a small
speed change ∆ω (small droop ρ).
❑ The system demand is dominated by loads for which an increment in the power (Pload) is weakly dependent on the change in the
system frequency and therefore on the change in the rotational speed of the synchronous generators.

❑ As a result, the static load characteristic ω(Pload) is almost a vertical line in the (P, ω) plane but with a slight positive slope that
reflects the frequency dependence.

❑ The intersection point of the load characteristic ω(Pload) and the turbine characteristic ω(Pm)
is the equilibrium point where the opposing electromagnetic and mechanical torque acting on the shaft are equal in magnitude
and the rotational speed is constant.

Equilibrium point
 Comments and conclusions
➢ The case when ρ = 0 is the marginal stability case and corresponds to the absence of the negative
feedback loop on valve position.

➢ Such a governor cannot be used if two or more generators are electrically connected to the same system
since each generator would be required to have precisely the same speed setting (which is technically
impossible) or they would ‘fight’ each other, each trying to pull the system frequency to its own setting.

➢ If generators connected to the system have speed–droop characteristics with ρ > 0, then there will always
be a unique frequency at which they will share load.

➢ Typical values of the speed–droop coefficient (per unit) are between 0.04 and 0.09 with the lower
value corresponding to turbogenerators and the higher to hydro generators.
 Substations
❑Substation: a point of electrical connection where the transmission lines, transformers, generating units,
monitoring and control equipment are connected together.
• Substations consist of a number of incoming and outgoing circuits connected to a common busbar.
Busbar: a point of electrical contact for individual lines and transformers.

❑ Each electrical circuit is divided into:

• 1- Primary circuit: includes transmission lines, power transformer, busbars and high-voltage side of voltage
and current transformers.
• 2- Secondary circuit: control circuits for circuit breakers, protection circuits, isolators and low-voltage side of
voltage and current transformers.
 Transmission and Distribution Network

Transmission and Distribution network elements:

1- Overhead lines. 2- Underground cables. 3- Transformers. 4- Substations.

Transmission and Distribution network auxiliary elements:

1- Series capacitors. 2- Shunt reactors and compensators. 3- Switching elements. 4- Metering elements. 5- Protections.

- Transformers: classified according to their function to:

1- Generator step-up and unit transformers( supply the auxiliary service ).
2- Transmission transformers (step up).
3- Distribution transformers (step-down).
- Generators step-up transformers are Δ-Y connected to eliminate third harmonic.
- Distribution step-down transformers are Y-Δ connected to eliminate load asymmetry.

• Control of the transformation ratio without phase shift control is usually achieved by using taps on one of the
windings
Tap-Changing Transformers

• In this way the transformation ratio is changed stepwise, rather than continuously.
• Tap-changing facilities can be made to operate either off load or on load.
• The off-load tap changer requires the transformer to be de-energized while tap changing takes place.
• A typical range of regulation is ±5%. This method is used for low-rating transformers operating in
medium- and low-voltage distribution networks.
• Change of the transformer ratio is usually done manually according to season – typically two times a
year.
• The underload tap-changing transformer (ULTC), also called the on-load tap changer (OLTC) or load
tap changer (LTC), allows the taps to be changed while the transformer is energized. A typical range of
regulation is ±20%.
Phase Shifting Transformers
• Phase shifting transformers control the voltage ratio and the phase angle in order to control real power flows in
transmission networks.
• The degree of regulation can be controlled depending on the connection made between the tertiary winding of the main
transformer MT (or the excitation transformer ET) and the series transformer ST.
Voltage is boosted
VA’>VA
𝜃𝐴 ≠ 𝜃𝐴 ’
 Shunt and Series Elements
❑ Shunt and series elements are used in transmission lines for reactive power compensation and
stability improvement (offset the inductive reactance of the line and improve electromechanical and
voltage stability).

❑Typically, the inductive reactance of a transmission line is compensated between (25 – 70)%; because
a full 100% compensation would make the line flows in series resonance at fundamental frequency.

Assignment #1: Read and Summarize section 2.5.4.1 through 2.5.4.7

2.5.4.1 FACTS Devices--- 2.5.4.7 Unified Power Flow Controller

Note: (1) Due Sunday November 7th 2021.

(2) The assignment should be handwritten including the associated figures for each type.
(3) the weight of the assignment is 4-points
Protection
• Protection: is a system that detects a fault and switch the faulty element out of the circuit.

• Typical protection equipment consists of:

1- Current and/or voltage transformers 2- Relays
3- Secondary circuits supplying relays and controlling circuit-breakers 4- Auxiliary power supplies for relays

Protection operation criteria:

1- Fast response 2- High reliability 3- Selective: only the faulty element is switched off.

• Protection of transmission lines: lighting is the most common cause of faults.

• There are four main faults types:
1- Single-phase to ground (75-90%) 2- Multi-phase to ground (5-15%)
3- Multi-phase with no ground (5-10%) 4- Rare faults caused by: insulator breakage, swinging of wires

• Typical transmission lines protection configurations:

1- Differential current protection.
2- Current-phase comparison.
3- Directional comparison.
4- Distance protection.
• Protection of transformers: they must be protected against external faults (mainly
lighting) and internal faults.

Internal faults classification:

1- Inter-phase faults: by differential current protection.
2- Inter-turn faults: by Buchholz protection
3- Inter-winding faults: by Buchholz protection
4- Earth faults on windings: overcurrent relay and thermal relay.

• Protection of busbars: usually protected by distance protection of zone (1) and zone (2).

➢To avoid time delay in zone (2), important substations busbars are equipped with differential
current protection or current-phase comparison.
 Protection of generating units

Generator Step-up transformer Unit transformer

-Electrical protection:
1. Differential current.
2. Distance protection.
3. Overcurrent relay for Stator and rotor windings.
4. Protection of loss of excitation,
loss of synchronism, failure of prime mover.
5. Earth faults.
1. Distance protection.
-Nonelectrical protection: 1. Standard protections.
2. Standard protections.
1. Lubrication oil failure.
2. Loss of boiler fire.
3. Over speeding.
4. Rotor distortion.
5. Excessive vibration.
6. Difference in expansion between rotating and
stationary parts.