Biodiversity - I

ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

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Biodiversity - Important Points

 Biodiversity is the sum of all the different species of animals, plants, fungi and microbial organisms living
on Earth and the variety of habitats in which they live. Scientists estimate that more than 10 million
different species inhabit Earth.

 The term biodiversity was given by Edward Wilson. Biodiversity is a combination of two words ‘bio’ and
‘diversity’.

“Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region. It refers to
the varieties of plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form”.

 Biodiversity underlies everything from food production to medical research. Humans use at least 40,000
species of plants and animals on a daily basis.

 Many people around the world still depend on wild species for some or all of their food, shelter and
clothing.

 All our domesticated plants and animals came from wildliving ancestral species. In addition, almost 40
percent of the pharmaceuticals used in the developed nations either are based on or are synthesized from
natural compounds found in plants, animals or microorganisms.

 The array of living organisms found in a particular environment combined with the physical and
environmental factors that affect them is an ecosystem.

 Healthy ecosystems are vital to life; they regulate many of the chemical and climatic systems that make
available clean air, clean water and plentiful oxygen.

 Forests, for example, regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, produce oxygen as a byproduct of
photosynthesis and control rainfall and soil erosion.

 Ecosystems, in turn, depend on the continued health and vitality of the individual organisms that
compose them. Removing just one species from an ecosystem can prevent the ecosystem from
operating optimally.

 Perhaps the greatest value of biodiversity is yet unknown. Scientists have discovered and named only 1.75
million species — fewer than 20 percent of those estimated to exist.

 Of those identified, only a fraction has been examined for potential medicinal, agricultural or industrial
value.

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 Much of Earth’s great biodiversity rapidly is disappearing, even before we know what is missing. Most
biologists agree that life on Earth now is faced with the most severe extinction episode since the event
that drove the dinosaurs to extinction 65 million years ago.

 Species of plants, animals, fungi and microscopic organisms such as bacteria are being lost at alarming
rates. Because of this, scientists around the world are focusing their research on cataloging and studying
global biodiversity in an effort to better understand it and slow the rate of loss.

 As a result, the majority of current biodiversity research concentrates on preserving biodiversity and
assessing environmental quality and change.

Benefits Of Biodiversity
Biodiversity plays an important role in the way ecosystems function and in the services they provide. The
following is a list of some of the benefits, or services, of biodiversity:

1. Provisioning services such as food, clean water, timber, fiber and genetic resources

2. Regulating services such as climate, floods, disease, water quality and pollination

3. Cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits

4. Supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling

Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity includes three main types:

1. Diversity within species (genetic diversity)

2. Between species (species diversity)

3. Between ecosystems (ecosystem diversity)

1. Genetic Diversity
 Every species on Earth is related to every other species through genetic connections. The more closely
related any two species are, the more genetic information they will share, and the more similar they will
appear.

 An organism’s closest relatives are members of its own species, or organisms with which it has the
potential to mate and produce offspring.

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 Members of a species share genes, the bits of biochemical information that determine, in part, how the
animals look, behave and live.

 One eastern gray squirrel, for example, shares the vast majority of its genes with other eastern gray
squirrels, whether they live in the same area or are separated by thousands of miles.

 Members of a species also share complex mating behaviors that enable them to recognize each other as
potential mates.

 For virtually every species there is a similar and closely related species in an adjacent habitat.

 Western, instead of eastern, gray squirrels are found west of the Rocky Mountains. Although western gray
squirrels are more similar to than different from their eastern counterparts, these animals do not share a
common mating behavior with eastern gray squirrels. Even when brought into close proximity, eastern and
western gray squirrels do not mate — so they constitute two distinct species.

 Each species also has other, more remotely related species with which it shares a more general set of
characteristics.

 Gray squirrels, chipmunks, marmots and prairie dogs all belong to the squirrel family because they share a
number of features, such as tooth number and shape and details of skull and muscle anatomy.

 All of these animals are rodents, a large group of more distantly related animals who share similar, chisel-
like incisor teeth that grow continuously. All rodents are related to a broader group, mammals.

 Mammals have hair, raise their young on milk and have three bones in the middle ear. All mammals, in
turn, are more distantly related to other animals with backbones, or vertebrates.

 All these organisms are animals but share a common cell structure with plants, fungi and some microbes.
Finally, all living organisms share a common molecule, ribonucleic acid (RNA), and most also have
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

 While all species have descended from a single, common ancestor, species diverge and develop their own
peculiar attributes with time, thus making their own contribution to biodiversity.

2. Species Diversity
 Species diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or a region. Species are the basic units of
biological classification and thus the normal measure of biological diversity.

 Species richness is the term that describes the number of different species in a given area. The world
total is estimated at five to 10 million species, though only 1.75 million have been named scientifically so
far.

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 Some habitats, such as rainforests and coral reefs, have many species. For example, tropical North and
South America has about 85,000 flowering plant species, tropical and subtropical Asia has more than
50,000 and tropical and subtropical Africa has about 35,000.

 By contrast, all of Europe has 11,300 vascular plants. Yet other areas, such as salt flats or a polluted
stream, have fewer species.

 Species are grouped together into families according to shared characteristics.

3. Ecological Diversity
 Ecological diversity is the intricate network of different species present in local ecosystems and the
dynamic interplay between them.

 An ecosystem consists of organisms from many different species living together in a region and their
connections through the flow of energy, nutrients and matter. Those connections occur as the organisms
of different species interact with one another.

 The ultimate source of energy in almost every ecosystem is the sun. The sun’s radiant energy is converted
to chemical energy by plants. That energy flows through the systems when animals eat the plants and then
are eaten, in turn, by other animals.

 Fungi derive energy by decomposing organisms, which releases nutrients back into the soil. Thus, an
ecosystem is a collection of living components (microbes, plants, animals and fungi) and nonliving
components (climate and chemicals) that are connected by energy flow.

 Measuring ecological diversity is difficult because each of Earth’s ecosystems merges into the ecosystems
around it.

Importance of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity plays a significant role in maintaining ecological balance. It also helps in the survival of
humankind and other species present in the ecosystem. In addition, it helps in maintaining high
productivity and human health.

 Biodiversity exhibits a valuable genetic resource for humankind. Genetic material is the end product of
millions of years of evolution, and hence the preservation of biodiversity is essential.

 The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of our relationship with other living species. It also represents
the involvement and the role of each species to make a healthy ecosystem.

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The importance of biodiversity can be classified as:

 Ecological Importance

 Economic Importance

 Social Importance

 Ethical Importance

 Scientific Importance

1. Ecological Importance of Biodiversity

 Controlling Soil Erosion: Soil organisms provide resistance to erosion by improving the entry and storage
of water, which holds soil and roots.

 Improvement of Soil Quality: Healthy biodiversity will increase the resilience of the soil to
environmental challenges. The biological, physical, and chemical aspects of soil must be in balance. Good
soil encourages good agriculture.

 Formation of a Healthy Ecosystem: Biodiversity is important to maintain a healthy ecosystem that

supplies oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment and many
ecosystem services. Plants produce oxygen via the process of photosynthesis. Humans breathe oxygen and
give off carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by trees. This forms a cycle that shows how all species are
connected to each other in this ecosystem.

 Protection of Species in the Ecosystem: Biodiversity helps in improving a healthy ecosystem where all
forms of species can survive and grow. A large and significant number of plant species can provide a
variety of crops. A wide variety of species ensures a smooth implementation of natural processes for a
sustainable ecosystem. It also helps in protecting endangered species and their habitats.

 Pollution Management: Biodiversity plays a very vital role in controlling pollution. As the trees and other
vegetation absorb pollutants such as excessive nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and particulate matter, it thereby
helps to improve air quality.

 Nutrient Recycling: Biodiversity plays a significant role in recycling nutrients. For example, plants take
nutrients from the soil and the air, and these nutrients can then form the basis of food chains, which is
used by a wide range of other life forms.

 Source of Knowledge: Biodiversity is very important as a source of knowledge. Many ecologists and
scientists do their research about ecosystems based on the structure of biodiversity.

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 Reduction of risk from Natural Disasters: Healthy biodiversity is very important in risk reduction from a
natural disaster. By preventing deforestation and controlling soil erosion, we can reduce the risks from
natural disasters and climate shocks.

2. Economic Importance of Biodiversity

 Source of Food: Biodiversity is important to provide food to all living organisms in this ecosystem.
Agriculture is a source that provides food for human beings, trees, and plants to animals. Other small
organisms also get their food from different food sources available in this ecosystem.

 Source of Fuel: Biodiversity helps in getting fossil fuel, petrol, natural gas. It also helps in the sustainable
growth of wood by increasing forests which is a common form of wood fuel used in day-to-day life.

 Protection of natural resources: High biodiversity is rich in biological wealth. It is also an indicator of
high levels of natural resources. It ensures clean air, water, fertile soil, and a healthy ecosystem.

 Development of Medicine: Our scientists have developed many medicines through plants and other
living organisms found in this ecosystem which has helped to make medicine for many incurable diseases.

 Economic growth and poverty reduction: Rich biodiversity is vital for economic growth and poverty
reduction. Biodiversity is a chief source of raw materials for the industries, and food and herbs play an
essential role in the development of the economy. It also provides economic support to farmers, fishers,
and the poor population in rural areas by creating job opportunities that reduce poverty.

 Source of Tourism: Biodiversity plays an essential role in the development of tourism. It creates a
natural tourism attraction – such as wildlife watching, scuba diving, trekking, hiking, bird watching, and
camping.

3. Social Importance of Biodiversity:

 Biodiversity plays a crucial role to provide social benefits, such as improved employment and the social
services provided for vulnerable rural people for their development.

4. Ethical Importance of Biodiversity:

 Healthy biodiversity has the ethical importance of protecting all forms of life. All living beings have the
right to exist on earth. Morality and ethics teach us not to harm any organism unnecessarily, but,
unfortunately, some people take pleasure in hunting animals.

5. Scientific Importance of Biodiversity:

 The scientific importance of biodiversity is to perform experiments and research on plants and genes of
organisms to make new crops and medicines.

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 It also helps scientists to find clues about the evolution of life in certain species. Humans use scientific
research on different species and plants to develop their knowledge. It represents systematic ecological
data that helps us to understand the natural world and its origins.

Biodiversity Of India
 With only 2.4% of the world’s land area, its share of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per
cent.

 This includes 45,500 recorded species of plants and 91,000 recorded species of animals.

 There is diversity of ecological habitats like forests, grassland, wetlands, coastal and marine ecosystems,
and desert ecosystems.

 India is considered one of the world’s 17 “megadiverse” countries in terms of biodiversity.

 India has four global biodiversity hotspots (Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka,
and Sundaland).

Mega diverse Countries:

 The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are
therefore considered extremely biodiverse.

 Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries in 1998. Together, these 17 countries

harbour more than 70% of the earth's species.

 All megadiverse countries are located in, or partially in, tropical or subtropical regions.

 The identified Megadiverse Countries are: United States of America, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
Venezuela, Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Philippines, Papua New Guinea, China and Australia.

 The principle criterion is endemism, first at the species level and then at higher taxonomic levels such as
genus and family.

 To qualify as a Megadiverse Country, a country must:

1. Have at least 5000 of the world’s plants as endemics.

2. Have marine ecosystems within its borders.

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 Despite endemism being the main criterion, thresholds for the criteria are flexible and countries have been
considered individually based on all criteria.

Causes of Biodiversity Loss

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Biodiversity loss is caused by five primary drivers: habitat loss, invasive species, overexploitation (extreme
hunting and fishing pressure), pollution, and climate change associated with global warming. In each case,
human beings and their activities play direct roles.

Even though species loss, whether from a single area or from the planet as a whole, results from natural
causes (such as disease, natural disasters, and competition with other species over resources), the effects of
humans and their activities have come to far outweigh those caused by nature.

In addition, each primary driver (or cause) of biodiversity loss is influenced by three factors: human
exponential population growth, increased consumption as each person strives for a more affluent lifestyle,
and reduced resource efficiency.

Biodiversity Loss Is Caused By Habitat Loss:

Habitat loss is the thinning, fragmenting, or outright destruction of an ecosystem’s plant, soil, hydrologic, and
nutrient resources.

Biodiversity Loss Is Caused By Invasive Species:

An invasive species is any non-native species that significantly modifies or disrupts the ecosystems it colonizes.
Invasive species can disrupt ecosystems because they are better competitors than native species; they may
consume food resources more rapidly or more efficiently or take over habitats faster than native species can
adapt to the new changes. Some invasive species prey on native species, and if the native species have no
natural defenses against the invaders, they may be eliminated rapidly.

Biodiversity Loss Is Caused By Overexploitation:

Overexploitation (overhunting and overfishing) is the process of harvesting too many aquatic or terrestrial
animals, which depletes the stocks of some species while driving others to extinction.

Biodiversity Loss Is Caused By Pollution:

Pollution is the addition of unneeded or harmful nutrients or substances to an ecosystem. In a polluted area
the quality of food, water, or other habitat resources declines, sometimes to the point where some species
must move away or perish if the pressure is too great. For example, a 2014 study that followed the 2010
Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico projected that perhaps 12 percent of the brown pelicans and
more than 30 percent of the laughing gulls in the area hit by the spill had been wiped out. According to
another 2014 study, up to 800,000 birds were thought to have died. Consequently, with such deep population
losses, one could understand how genetic diversity of a species in an area could be lost. As casualties mount in
the aftermath of a large single pollution event or over the combined pressure of several pollution events in an
area, whole species may be lost.

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Biodiversity Loss Is Caused By Climate Change Associated With Global Warming:

Global warming is the long-term increase in Earth’s average air temperature (which has occurred largely from
human activities) over the past one to two centuries. It can refer specifically to such warming that is due to the
influence of rising concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
As the concentration of these gases increases, the ability of Earth’s atmosphere to retain energy from
incoming sunlight (most of which is released as heat energy back to space at night) also increases. With more
heat available, once reliable temperature and rainfall patterns change, upsetting the natural order of breeding
and resource availability. Also, ecosystems that rely on the presence of ice shrink as melting breaks them
down. Global warming itself does not necessarily produce biodiversity loss, but climatic changes (some of
which are sudden and drastic) can modify ecosystems and the expectations of the species within them
significantly.

Ecologists emphasize that habitat loss (typically from the conversion of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and
other natural areas to urban and agricultural uses) and invasive species are the largest causes of biodiversity
loss, but they acknowledge that climate change could rival them as the 21st century progresses.

Impact of the loss of biodiversity

The impact of the loss of biodiversity could be better understood with the following perspectives.

Ecological effects
 The loss of biodiversity has severe ecological effects.

 Since our planet has a natural system and species depend on each other, losing a small number of species
can lead to big effects.

 Predator species that lose their prey will also be in danger of extinction now if they are not able to
substitute their prey species through another one.

 Moreover, the extinct prey which may have consumed plants is now no longer able to do so.

 Thus, these plants will grow excessively and may dominate other plants and eventually displace them.

Spread of diseases
 Due to a loss in biodiversity, diseases are likely to occur more frequently.

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 Since our environmental system is quite sensible and structured, removing species from the food chain can
create serious trouble.

 For example, if a lion kills an antelope, he will eat part of it. The remaining part will be eaten by other
animals.

 However, if these other animals go extinct and are no longer able to consume the rest of the antelope, it
may waste and in this wasting process, several kinds of diseases can be developed.

 If other animals are contaminated with these diseases, it can also spill over to humans due to our
consumption of meat.

Loss of livelihood for locals

 The loss of biodiversity also causes a decline in the livelihood of many locals.

 This can be due to reduced crop yields or other effects. Locals may also raise cattle in order to survive.

 However, if a loss in biodiversity leads to a decrease in biomass of feed, farmers will no longer be able to
raise enough cattle due to the feed shortage.

Loss of our recreational space

 We can also lose our recreational space as an effect of the loss of biodiversity.

 Many people are stressed by their work and sometimes need space to relax.

 A forest or a lake surrounded by plants may be an optimal area for this.

 However, if we further destroy our forests in order to get more settlement space, we will lose many of
these recreational environments.

Social effects
 There are also adverse effects on our society from a loss in biodiversity.

 In nowadays society, we are just so focused on computers, smartphones and other electronic stuff and
lose the connection to nature which our ancestors have built in a natural way.

 This loss of connection to nature may lead people to feel something is missing but they do not exactly
know why since they have never been in touch with nature yet.

 Moreover, nature provides a relaxing environment which if lost can lead people to become too stressed
and mentally ill.

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Effect on food production

 A loss in biodiversity can have vast adverse effects on our food production.

 Since we nowadays exploit many natural living spaces to an unhealthy degree, chances are that we lose
many food sources which we could otherwise use in the future.

 For example, there may be sources of food in the Amazonian rainforests which we have not even explored
yet.

 However, through the deforestation process, these species are likely to be lost even before we can
discover them. Thus, we rob ourselves since we will not be able to use this species in the future.

Economic effects
 Apart from the environmental effects which are bad enough, a loss in biodiversity also causes adverse
economic effects.

 For example, if we lost bees, we would suffer from a serious decline in crop yields which would lead the
GDP to collapse and would also lead to an increase in famine.

Ecologically Sensitive area

 Eco-Sensitive Zones or Ecologically Fragile Areas are areas within 10 kms around Protected Areas, National
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. ESZs are notified by MoEFCC, Government of India under Environment
Protection Act 1986.

 In case of places with sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for
landscape linkage, even areas beyond 10 km width can also be included in the eco-sensitive zone.

 The basic aim is to regulate certain activities around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries so as to
minimise the negative impacts of such activities on the fragile ecosystem encompassing the protected
areas.

Activities Allowed in ESZs

 Prohibited activities: Commercial mining, saw mills, industries causing pollution (air, water, soil, noise
etc), establishment of major hydroelectric projects (HEP), commercial use of wood, tourism activities like
hot-air balloons over the National Park, discharge of effluents or any solid waste or production of
hazardous substances.

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 Regulated activities: Felling of trees, establishment of hotels and resorts, commercial use of natural
water, erection of electrical cables, drastic change of agriculture system, e.g. adoption of heavy
technology, pesticides etc, widening of roads.

 Permitted activities: Ongoing agricultural or horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting, organic

farming, use of renewable energy sources, adoption of green technology for all activities.

Significance of ESZs
 To minimise the impact of urbanisation and other developmental activities, areas adjacent to protected
areas have been declared as Eco-Sensitive Zones.

 The purpose of declaring eco-sensitive zones around protected areas is for creating some kind of a 'Shock
Absorber' for the protected area.

 They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.

 ESZs help in in-situ conservation, which deals with conservation of an endangered species in its natural
habitat, for example the conservation of the One-horned Rhino of Kaziranga National Park, Assam.

 Eco-Sensitive Zones minimise forest depletion and man-animal conflict. The protected areas are based on
the core and buffer model of management, through which local area communities are also protected and
benefitted.

Challenges and Threats to Eco-Sensitive Zones

 Developmental activities:

 Activities such as construction of dams, roads, urban and rural infrastructures in the ESZ, create
interference, negatively impact upon the environment and imbalance the ecological system.

 For example, construction of roads would lead to cutting down of trees which would further impact
soil erosion thereby destroying the habitats of the species preserved under the ESZ.

 Governance and new laws:

 By failing to recognize the rights of forest communities and curbing poaching of animal, legislations
like Environmental Protection Act 1986, and Wildlife Protection Act 1972, undermine the ESZs in
favour of developmental activities.

 For example - the new draft notification for reducing the ESZs of Bannerghatta National Park.

 Tourism:

 As the pressure of tourism is rising, the government is developing new sites and gateways to the
ESZ.

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 To cater to the increasing demand for eco-tourism, land around parks and sanctuaries is being
cleared through deforestation, displacement of local people etc.

 The tourists leave behind garbage such as plastic bags and bottles etc. which lead to environmental
degradation.

 Introduction of exotic species: Exotic species like Eucalyptus and Acacia auriculiformis etc., and
their plantations create a competing demand on naturally occurring forests.

 Climate change:

 Biodiversity and climate change are interconnected, for example, the rise in global temperature has
generated land, water and ecological stress on the ESZs.

 For example, forest fires or the Assam floods which badly affected the Kaziranga National Park and
its wildlife.

 Local communities:

 Slash and burn techniques used in agriculture, pressure of increasing population and the rising
demand for firewood and forest produce, etc. exerts pressure on the protected areas.

Biodiversity Conservation
A wide variety of living organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms with whom we share this
planet earth makes the world a beautiful place to live in. Living organisms exist almost everywhere from
mountain peaks to the ocean depths; from deserts to the rainforests. They vary in their habits and behaviour,
shapes, sizes and colour. The remarkable diversity of living organisms form an inseparable and significant part
of our planet. However, the ever increasing human population is posing serious threats to biodiversity.

Conservation is the planned management of natural resources, to retain the balance in nature and retain
the diversity. It also includes wise use of natural resources in such a way that the needs of the present
generation are met and at the same time leaving enough for the future generations.

The Need to Conserve Biodiversity

Conservation of biodiversity is considered important in view of the following aspects:

 To prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species

 To save a species from becoming extinct

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 To protect ecosystem damage and degradation

In addition to the above, there are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all equally
important, to conserve biodiversity.

They can be grouped into three categories:

1. Narrowly utilitarian

2. Broadly utilitarian

3. Ethical

1. The Narrowly Utilitarian Need:

 The narrowly utilitarian argument for conserving biodiversity is that humans derive countless direct
economic benefits from nature in terms of food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre, construction
material, industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and products of medicinal
importance.

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 More than 25 per cent of the drugs currently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants and
25,000 species of plants contribute to the traditional medicines used by native peoples around the world
with many more waiting to be explored.

 With increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular, genetic and species-level
diversity for products of economic importance), nations endowed with rich biodiversity can be expected to
reap enormous benefits.

 Hence biodiversity needs to be conserved to fulfill man’s immediate needs.

2. The Broadly Utilitarian Need:

 The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a major role in many ecosystem services that
nature provides.

 The fast dwindling Amazon forest is estimated to produce, through photosynthesis, 20 percent of the total
oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.It is impossible to put an economic value on this service by nature.

 Pollination is another service ecosystems provide through a pollinators layer which includes bees,
bumblebees, birds and bats.

 There are other intangible benefits that are derived from nature like the aesthetic pleasures of walking
through thick woods, watching spring flowers in full bloom or waking up to a bulbul’s song in the morning.

 Hence biodiversity needs to be conserved for its broader impact on human life and its surroundings.

3. The Ethical Need:

 The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what humans owe to millions of plant, animal
and microbe species with whom this planet is shared.

 Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realise that every species has an intrinsic value, even if it may
not be of current or any economic value to us.

 We have a moral duty to care for their well-being and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future
generations.

In situ and ex situ conservation

Now that we have understood the need for conservation, let us take a look at the efforts involved in
biodiversity conservation. It can be grouped into the following two important categories:

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1. In-situ (on-site) conservation: This includes the protection of plants and animals within their natural
habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to protect and maintain
biodiversity.

2. Ex-situ (off-site) conservation: This is the conservation of plants and animals outside their natural
habitats. These include botanical gardens, zoo, gene banks, seek bank, tissue culture and cryopreservation.

Let us take a detailed look at the two.

In-situ conservation:
 Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it unrealistic and
economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth.

 Invariably, the number of species waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservation
resources available.

 On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists. They identified for
maximum protection certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of species richness and
high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region and not found anywhere else).

 Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently eleven more have been added to the list,
bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 36.

 These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss.

Three of these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya – cover India's
exceptionally high biodiversity regions.

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 Although all the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2 percent of the earth’s land area, the
number of species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict protection of these hotspots could
reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.

 In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves,
national parks and sanctuaries. India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 96 national parks and around 500
wildlife sanctuaries.

 India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions that emphasised protection of nature. In many
cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and given
total protection.

 Such “sacred groves” are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western
Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh.
In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges for a large number of rare and threatened plants.

In-situ conservation methods:

1. Protection of habitat:

 The main strategy for conservation of species is the protection of habitats in representative ecosystems.

 Currently, India has ninety six National Parks, five hundred Wildlife Sanctuaries, fourteen Biosphere
Reserves, twenty seven Tiger Reserves and eleven Elephant Reserves covering an area of 15.67 million
hectares or 4.7 % of the geographical area of the country.

 Twenty one wetlands, thirty mangrove areas and four coral reef areas have been identified for intensive
conservation and management purposes by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India.

National parks and Sanctuaries:

 Given its geographic extent, India is unique in the richness and diversity of its vegetation and wildlife.

 India’s national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (including bird sanctuaries) are situated all along the
length and breadth of the country from the Ladakh in Himalayas to the southern tip of Tamil Nadu with
its rich biodiversity and heritage.

 Wildlife sanctuaries in India attract people from all over the world as the rarest of rare species are found
here.

 Some of the main sanctuaries in India are:

 Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve in Uttarakhand

 Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh

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 Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh

 Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan

 Gir National Park in Sasan Gir, Gujarat

 The magnificent Bird Sanctuary at Bharatpur in Rajasthan attracts huge nature-lover crowds as it is the
second habitat in the world that is visited by the Siberian Cranes in winter.

 The sanctuary also provides a vast breeding area for the native water birds and Great Indian bustard which
is found in the Indian deserts.

 In the western Himalayas, one can see birds like Himalayan monal pheasant, western tragopan koklass,
white crested kalij pheasant, griffon vultures, lammergeiers, choughs, ravens.

 In the Andaman and Nicobar region, about 250 species and subspecies of birds are found, such as the rare
Narcondam hornbill, Nicobar pigeon and megapode.

 Southern India too hosts several wildlife sanctuaries and national parks like the Mudumalai in Tamil
Nadu and Bandipur Tiger Reserve and Nagahole National Park in Karnataka.

 Many National Parks and Sanctuaries have been established to preserve wildlife in their natural
environment.

Some of them are given below along with important species found there.

National Park Location Important Species Found

Kaziranga sanctuary Assam One-horned rhinoceros

Manas sanctuary Assam Wild buffaloes

Gir forest Gujarat Lions, chital, sambar, wild bears

Kelameru bird sanctuary Andhra Pradesh Pelicans and marine birds

Dachigam sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir Kashmir stags, Himalayan tahr, wild goats, sheep, antelopes

Bandipur sanctuary Karnataka Indian bison, elephants, langurs

Periyar sanctuary Kerala Elephants, barking deer, sambhar deer

Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Tiger, leopards, wild dogs

Simlipal National Park Odisha Mangroves, marine turtles lay eggs

Bharatpur bird sanctuary Rajasthan Ducks, herons

Corbett National Park Uttarakhand Tigers, barking deer, sambar, wild bear, rhesus monkey

Jaldapara sanctuary West Bengal Rhinoceros

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Biosphere Reserves:

 These are representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large areas of terrestrial
or coastal/marine ecosystems which are internationally recognized within UNESCO’s Man and the
Biosphere Programme.

 Thirteen biodiversity-rich representative ecosystems, largely within the forest land (total area of 53,000
sq. km.), have been designated as Biosphere Reserves in India.

The concept of Biosphere Reserves (BR) was launched in 1975 as a part of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere
Programme, dealing with the conservation of ecosystems and the genetic material they contain.

A Biosphere Reserve consists of the following three zones:

1. The core zone is the fully protected and natural area of the Biosphere Reserve least disturbed by
human activities. It is a legally protected ecosystem in which entry is not allowed except with
permission for some special purpose. Destructive sampling for scientific investigations is
prohibited.

2. The buffer zone surrounds the core zone and is managed to accommodate a greater variety of
resource use strategies, and research and educational activities.

3. The transition zone, the outermost part of the Biosphere Reserve, is an area of active
cooperation between the reserve management and the local people, wherein activities like
settlements, cropping, forestry, recreation and other economics are in harmony with the
conservation goals.

 Till date there were 553 biosphere reserves located in 107 countries.

 The main functions of the biosphere reserves are:

 Conservation: Long term conservation of representatives, landscapes and different types of

ecosystems, along with all their species and genetic resources.

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 Development: Encourages traditional resource use and promotes economic development which
is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable.

 Scientific research, monitoring and education: Support conservation research, monitoring,

education and information exchange related to local, national and global environmental and
conservation issues.

2. Species-oriented projects:

Certain species have been identified as needing a concerted and specifically directed protection effort.

Project Tiger, Project Elephant and Project Crocodile are examples of focusing on single species through
conserving their habitats.

Project Tiger

 Tigers which were once abundant in Indian forests have been hunted extensively. As a result the tiger
population within the country declined drastically from an estimate of 40,000 in 1900 to 1,200 by the
1970.

 This led to the initiation of the Project Tiger in 1973 with the objective of conserving and rescuing the
species of big cats from extinction.

 In 2007, there were more than 40 Project Tiger wildlife reserves covering an area of 37,761 km².

 Project Tiger helped to increase the population of these tigers from 1,200 in the 1970s to 3,500 in 1990s.

 However, a 2008 census held by the Government of India revealed that the tiger population had dropped
to 1,411.

 A total ban has been imposed on hunting of tigers and trading in tiger products at the national and
international levels.

 Elaborate management plans are made for each of the tiger reserves for tiger habitat improvement and
anti-poaching measures.

 Project Tiger is considered a success and now has become a model in species conservation.

Project Elephant

 Project Elephant was launched in February, 1992 to assist states having free ranging populations of wild
elephants to ensure long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural
habitats.

 The project is being implemented in sixteen states including Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Tamil Nadu Uttaranchal and West Bengal.

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Crocodile Breeding and Management Project

 This project was started in 1976 with FAO - UNDP assistance to save three endangered crocodilian
species, namely, the freshwater crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the rare gharial.

 The project surveyed the crocodile habitats and facilitated their protection through declaration of
sanctuaries and National Parks.

 Captive breeding and reintroduction or restocking programmes involved careful collection of eggs from
the wild.

 Thousands of crocodiles of three species have been reared at sixteen centres and several of these have
been released in the wild.

 Eleven sanctuaries have been declared specially for crocodile protection including the National Chambal
Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.

3. Sacred forests and sacred lakes:

 A traditional strategy for the protection of biodiversity has been in practice in India and some other Asian
countries in the form of sacred forests.

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 These are small forest patches protected by tribal communities due to religious sanctity. These have been
free from all disturbances.

 Sacred forests are located across the geography of India i.e. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Meghalaya ,

 Similarly, several water bodies, for example, Khecheopalri lake in Sikkim, have been declared sacred by the
people, leading to the protection of aquatic flora and fauna.

Ex-situ Conservation:
 In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in
special settings where they can be protected and given special care.

 Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose.

 There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in zoological
parks.

 In recent years, ex-situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping just the threatened species in
enclosures.

 With modern advancements in healthcare and technology, gametes of threatened species can be
preserved in viable and fertile condition for long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be
fertilised in vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods.

 Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed
banks.

 Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsibility of all
nations.

 The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, called
upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation
of its benefits.

 In a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa,
190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the current rate of
biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.

Ex-situ Conservation Methods:

1. Botanical Gardens, Zoos, etc.:

 To complement in-situ conservation efforts, ex-situ conservation is being undertaken through setting up
botanic gardens, zoos, medicinal plant parks, etc. by various agencies.

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 The Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah (West Bengal) is over 200 years old. Other important botanical
gardens are in Ooty, Bangalore and Lucknow. The most recent one is The Botanical Garden of India
established at Noida, near New Delhi in April, 2002.

 The main objectives of this garden are:

1. ex-situ conservation and propagation of important threatened plant species

2. serve as a centre of excellence for conservation, research and training

3. build public awareness through education on plant diversity and need for conservation.

 A number of zoos have been developed in the country. These zoological parks have been looked upon
essentially as centres of education about animal species and recreation.

 They have also played an important role in the conservation of endangered animal species such as the
Manipur Thamin Deer (Cervus eldi) and the White winged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata).

 Notable successful examples of captive breeding are those of Gangetic gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), turtles
and the white tiger.

2. Gene Banks:

 Ex-situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is done through gene banks and seed banks.

 The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi preserves seeds of wild relatives of
crop plants as well as cultivated varieties.

 The National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources at Karnal, Haryana maintains the genetic material for
domesticated animals, and the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow for fishes.

3. Cryopreservation:

 Cryopreservation (“freeze preservation”) is particularly useful for conserving vegetative propagated crops.

 Cryopreservation is the storage of material at ultra low temperature of liquid nitrogen (-1960C) and
essentially involves suspension of all metabolic processes and activities.

 Cryopreservation has been successfully applied to meristems, zygotic and somatic embryos, pollen,
protoplasts cells and suspension cultures of a number of plant species.

4. Conservation at Molecular Level (DNA Level):

 In addition to above, germplasm conservation at molecular level is now feasible and is garnering attention.
Cloned DNA and material having DNA in its native state can all be used for genetic conservation.
Furthermore, non-viable material representing valuable genotypes stored in gene banks can all be used as
sources of DNA libraries from where a relevant gene or a combination of genes can be recovered.

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New Technologies for Conservation

 Around the globe, conservationists are employing the latest technological advances to make a difference
for people, wildlife, oceans, forests and clean water.

Artificial Intelligence to Detect Deforestation:

 To monitor forest loss across wide swaths of huge forest ecosystems like the Amazon forest for example,
many governments are turning to Terra-i, an artificial intelligence program that uses real-time rainfall
data to predict how green a given habitat should be and then matches that prediction up against images
of the habitat from an Earth-monitoring satellite.

 Differences in greenness between what is predicted and what is observed suggest habitat conversion by
human activity.

 Terra-i “learns” as it analyzes, using a neural network to “learn” what actual levels of greenness
correspond to the amounts of precipitation during the year.

 The result allows conservationists a view of forests and other habitats across an entire continent. With this
view, conservation programs to protect forests could be improved and widened, if necessary.

Drones:
 The list of uses of drones in biodiversity conservation is seemingly endless.

 Drones allow a view of wildlife and habitats that could never have been achieved by simple observation.

 The applications of drones in conservation efforts could be illustrated with the following real-life cases:

 Measuring El Nino impacts

 Monitoring rare vultures in the remote steppe of eastern Mongolia

 Assessing Caribbean coral reefs

Camera Traps:
 Camera traps have emerged as a powerful tool for conservation and ecological research.

 Camera traps are being used for a diversity of purposes, including:

 Monitoring wildlife populations

 Surveilling protected areas and

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 Capturing captivating images and video for public engagement and citizen science.

 Conservationists employ them in remote habitats, allowing them to monitor the presence of rare birds and
better understand the habits of nocturnal critters.

 Camera traps have helped land managers spy on the movements of over-abundant elk and conduct
inventories of wildlife roaming on conservation easements.

Live Camera Feeds:

 Cameras can also allow naturalists to spy on wildlife while sitting at the computer, a live nature
documentary that runs 24/7.

 These live feeds include everything from African waterholes to salmon streams and bird nest cams.

 The most popular among these has been the bird nest cams which educates the public about the lives of
birds, allowing them to see everything from eggs hatching to daily feedings for great-horned owls, bald
eagles, peregrine falcons and many others.

Bioacoustics:
 Acoustic sensors are small, increasingly affordable and non-invasive, and can be deployed in the field for
extended times to monitor wildlife and their acoustic surroundings.

 Acoustic data can be used for:

 Estimation of species occupancy,

 Calculating abundance, population density and community composition,

 Monitoring spatial and temporal trends in animal behaviour and human disturbance, and

 Calculating acoustic proxies for metrics of biodiversity.

 Using the latest acoustic monitoring equipment, scientists record the sounds of the rainforest and then
analyze them.

 “Crudely, the more complex and complete the soundscape, the healthier the ecosystem and the greater
the biodiversity.”

An “Encyclopedia of Ecosystems”:
 There is a need to know what a natural habitat looked like before human disturbance, before invasive
species, development, fire suppression or logging. But the answer has been evasive for a long time now.

 In the USA, computer models have offered the most accurate answer, and few have proven as effective as
the Conservancy-led suite of tools known as LANDFIRE.

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 The Conservancy’s first major role in the LANDFIRE project was to describe how all 1,800+ ecosystems in
the U.S. looked and worked when functioning “naturally.”

 The result was the first national “Encyclopedia of Ecosystems”, and it was initially used to create a dataset
called “Vegetation Departure” that compared current conditions for these ecosystems to the “natural” or
“reference” conditions.

 LANDFIRE has since resulted in a staggering output of maps, and has been utilized for monitoring
conditions along the Appalachian Trail, mapping wildland fire potential across the entire country and
understanding habitat value for pollinators in California, among countless other applications.

 Such applications could either be outsourced or developed indigenously by other nations and put to
effective use in their conservation efforts.

Improved Wildlife Tracking:

 Attaching a radio collar to a wild animal is not new as wildlife biologists have been using them for decades.
But those early tracking devices were bulky and unreliable.

 Today, biologists employ a range of tracking technologies to gather more data and to track a wider range
of creatures.

 Micro-tags are lightweight and allow even tiny critters to be safely tracked. Shad, Atlantic cod, mule
deer, sea turtles: the movements of these and other wide-ranging, migratory species are being tracked
and monitored.

 It allows conservation planners to track migrations that have until now been mysteries.

Mapping Forests with Lasers:

 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is a remote sensing method that uses lasers to estimate the 3D
structure of the target area, be it a forest canopy or cliff face.

 LIDAR has seen numerous applications across multiple disciplines, including geography, geology, ecology,
pedology, hydrology, conservation biology, and forestry.

 New research demonstrates that LIDAR, a way of remotely mapping forests with lasers, is an effective and
accurate tool to measure the effects of reduced-impact logging in different countries.

 It’s still not as cost-effective as traditional ground-based monitoring.

 The process involves a specially equipped airplane flying over a tract of forest, beaming down pulses of
light and measuring the amount of time it takes for those pulses to bounce off the vegetation and return
to the airplane.

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 The costs associated with the airplane and technology make it expensive, but if those costs come down, it
could be an incredibly useful monitoring tool for conservationists.

DNA Analysis:
 The techniques to analyze DNA allow conservationists to better analyze everything from wildlife diets and
population genetics.

 The results have shaken conventional wisdom. For example, Bison, once thought to be exclusively grazers
that focused on grasses, actually eat a much wider range of prairie plants.

 Eastern wolves, once thought to be hybrids of wolves and coyotes, have now been shown to be a separate
species.

 DNA analysis will become increasingly important for conservationists, who use it for everything from
understanding the diverse diets of East African herbivores to identifying the tick species carried by
migratory birds.

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